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04 Alkaline
04 Alkaline
04 Alkaline
Unless specified, the descriptions on the next few pages apply to both fixed and mobile facili-
ties (Figs. 1, 2 and 3).
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Figure 1. A tissue digester in a fixed alkaline hydrolysis facility.
(Photo courtesy of Waste Reduction by Waste Reduction Inc.,
Indiananapolis, IN)
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Alkaline hydrolysis Summary
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Alkaline hydrolysis Summary
General description
The method of the alkaline hydrolysis pro-
cess to treat carcasses depends on the kind of acids). Destroyed during this process are all
contamination: pathogens, including the protein coats of the
• To inactivate microbial pathogens, the viruses, the peptide bonds of the prions, and
carcasses must be heated to 212 °F and vegetative and spore-forming bacteria.
pressurized at 15 pounds per square inch The pH level of the treated material drops
for 3 hours. from 14 at the beginning of the process to
• To destroy TSE, including bovine about 11 at the end. The pH level at the end of
spongiform encephalopathy, the the alkaline hydrolysis process highly de-
carcasses must be heated to 300 °F and pends on the total amount of operation time,
pressurized at 70 pounds per square inch the amount of fat in the carcass (a higher fat
for 6 to 8 hours. content can result in a lower pH) and other
Alkaline hydrolysis processes occur in factors such as the buffering of the alkaline
hot oil or in steam-jacketed, insulated, stain- solution by the carcass.
less-steel pressure vessels with automatic or The vessels used in the process may be
manual control systems. The process breaks equipped with devices to measure the weights
large molecules of organic matter into of the carcasses, water and alkali powder, and
smaller molecules (amino acids, sugars and to measure and control the temperature, pH,
fatty pres- sure and the amount of time needed for
steril-
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ization. The mixed materials are agitated and The biochemical oxygen demand (BOD)
heated consistently either by mechanical of the final effluent is very high because of
mixers or by steam and alkaline circulation the high concentrations of organic matter.
systems. The BOD may reach 0.58 to 0.83 pounds per
Containers are provided for the bone piec- gallon (70,000 to 100,000 milligrams per
es and indigestible materials such as cellulose, liter). It can be diluted by adding water or
latex and metal, which are separated from the a low-BOD solution. It may be disposed of
final effluent. The wetted parts of the digester into the sewer system after local wastewater
are stainless steel or Teflon, which can toler- treatment authorities have been consulted.
ate high temperatures and strong acidic or The pH of the final liquid effluent should
alkaline solutions. be reduced to about 9 by adding carbon di-
Some materials are resistant to alkaline oxide or industrial acid (such as acetic acid)
hydrolysis digestion, including bulk cellulose before land application.
(such as paper, strings, undigested plant fiber Because the mobile alkaline hydrolysis
and wood shavings) and the inorganic con- units do not require that the carcasses be
tent of the fecal matter associated with the transported, the disposal process is consider-
carcasses. However, the process completely ably faster than for fixed facilities. However,
sterilizes these indigestible materials. it may not be possible to deploy these units
The carcass digestion process occurs in into the field quickly for massive amounts of
a completely sealed environment; very little animal carcasses.
gas is emitted into the air. Odors are released
for a short period during carcass loading and
unloading.
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Regulatory Synopsis Alkaline hydrolysis
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Pollution and other property damage considerations
The exercise of police power gives gov-
could trigger nuisance or other kinds of
ernmental entities and agencies wide discre-
lawsuits. Sovereign immunity may not be a
tion in making decisions about carcass dis-
defense to such an action.
posal to protect public health. However, the
The decision to use alkaline hydrolysis
exercise of this power does not shield govern-
must be made by the appropriate technical
mental entities against nuisance actions if the
group within the incident command structure
proper precautions are not taken.
because injury to people or property could
The two main problems with alkaline prompt suits similar to those based on nui-
hydrolysis are waste and odor, both of which sance.
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Planning Alkaline hydrolysis
Planning considerations
To operate successfully, alkaline hydroly-
sis units require more skill and expertise than siderations” chapter of this guide.
do some of the other disposal methods, such Provide the appropriate amounts of so-
as burial. At least two technicians per shift dium or potassium alkaline materials at about
for each alkaline hydrolysis system must be 10 percent of the carcass weight if it is in
trained and equipped for operation, safety and dried form or 20 percent of the carcass weight
biosecurity. if it is in liquid form. If potassium hydroxide
The personnel must be trained in safe han- is used, the fertilizer value of the effluent will
dling of the animal carcasses, prevention of increase for land use.
cross contamination, processing procedures, Make sure that the vessels in the alkaline
and decontamination of the equipment and the hydrolysis units can tolerate pressures of
site during and after processing. up to 100 pounds per square inch as recom-
Issues that must be considered include mended by the American Society of Mechani-
those related to handling, packing and storing cal Engineers. TSE-infected carcasses need a
the carcasses as well as conveying them to vessel pressure of no more than 70 pounds per
the alkaline hydrolysis (mainly fixed alkaline square inch. Failure to comply with this rule
hydrolysis) site. For more information, see the may result in serious injury or death.
Transportation section of the “General Con- Provide diesel fuel for electricity genera-
tion and propane for steam production. Gener-
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ally, 1 pound of steam is needed to sterilize to about 6 by adding acid or carbon dioxide
1 pound of carcass. before drying it.
Sufficient water must be provided for the The dried weight (inorganic and mineral
alkaline hydrolysis process, for steam genera- content) of the final effluent is about 2 percent
tion and for the washing and rinsing processes. of the total carcass weight and can be used for
Although soft water is needed to generate land application. Coordinate in advance and
steam from the boiler, clean water from lakes, plan for the land disposal of the final effluent
ponds and rivers may be used for washing, and solids with county and state regulatory
rinsing and using carcass hydrolysis. Any agencies, USDA Natural Resources Conserva-
surface water may be used to dilute the final tion Service and university Extension agrono-
effluent. Table 2 shows the water consump- mists.
tion and final effluent production for alkaline Plan to use the effluent directly as a sub-
hydrolysis of 1,000 pounds of carcasses. strate in an anaerobic digester and the solids
Additional energy will be required if you (mainly bone and teeth, which can easily be
plan to dehydrate the final effluent which may crushed into a fine powder) as nitrogen and
contain up to 90 percent moisture. To mini- mineral sources in compost, or dispose of the
mize the foaming problem during the dehy- effluent at a public landfill.
dration process, reduce the pH of the effluent
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Procedures Alkaline hydrolysis
Table 2. Capacities and dimensions for fixed alkaline hydrolysis and mobile alkaline
hydrolysis systems.
Alkaline hydrolysis Carcass digestion Minimum Water consumption for Effluent production
options capacitya installation area 1,000 lb of carcassesb for 1,000-lb carcasses
Fixed alkaline 2,000–10,000 lb/8 ha 1,000 ft2 60–240 galb 120–300 gal
hydrolysis
Mobile alkaline 4,000 lbs/8 ha 300 ft2 60–240 galb 120–300 gal
hydrolysis
a
For higher carcass capacities, it is better to use fixed and mobile alkaline hydrolysis units in a modular pattern rather
than using units with higher capacities. This is because they can be operated sequentially; they use less energy and labor;
and they are easier to manage than are larger units.
b
Water consumption will be minimized if the alkaline hydrolysis systems use more alkali and have a longer period of
time for hydrolysis, and if the carcasses are shredded instead of intact and contain a highly agitated mixture of materials.
More water is required for inactivating carcasses infected with TSE than for those infected with bacteria.
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Fixed alkaline hydrolysis procedures
Follow the operator’s manual for fixed al-
2. The carcasses are fed into the vessel.
kaline hydrolysis systems. Assign two trained
3. The feeders of the different
operators per shift, one to control and manage
materials add the required amount of
the carcass feeding, processing and off-load-
alkaline solution and water to the
ing; the other to manage the boiler, generators
vessel.
and the alkaline and water storage systems.
4. The vessels are properly sealed, and
Operate the entire system for at least 1
the heating process occurs in a com-
hour without feeding in any carcass materials
pletely enclosed environment.
to ensure the proper and smooth operation of
5. The final effluent is tested for
the processing equipment, including the steam
tempera- ture, pH and suspended
generator, digester, mixer or circulation pump,
solids before disposal.
and controlling devices.
Follow local and federal guidelines, and
For proper operation of a fixed alkaline
adjust the pH, temperature and biological
hydrolysis system, make sure that the follow-
oxygen demand of the solution.
ing processes occur in this order:
Fixed alkaline hydrolysis units oper-
1. The carcasses are loaded into the hop-
ate at high pressure. The equipment must be
per of the fixed alkaline hydrolysis
designed, maintained and used in strict ac-
system and their weights are measured
cordance with industrial and state guidelines.
by the built-in load cells.
Failure to do so may result in an explosion,
causing serious injury or death.
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Procedures Alkaline hydrolysis
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Procedures Alkaline hydrolysis
Shredder
Lockers
Controls
Steam generator
Electric generator
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Figure 6. A mobile alkaline hydrolysis unit. (Photo
courtesy of Waste Reduction by Waste Reduction Inc.,
Indiananapolis, IN)
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Safety Alkaline hydrolysis
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Diseases of concern
Viruses and non-spore-forming bac- swine fever, classical swine fever, tularemia
teria: Alkaline hydrolysis is an effective and vesicular stomatitis.
method for eliminating viral and non-spore- Spore-forming bacteria: Alkaline hy-
forming bacteria. drolysis is an effective method of disposal to
Precautions must be taken to prevent inha- control the spread of spore-forming bacteria.
lation of airborne pathogens. Personal protec- Diseases of concern include anthrax.
tive equipment is essential for worker safety Prions (TSEs): Alkaline hydrolysis is an
while the carcasses are being transported and effective method of disposal; however, mate-
handled on site. rial suspected of being contaminated with
Diseases for which alkaline hydrolysis TSEs should be digested for no less than 6
processes are appropriate include highly hours.
pathogenic avian influenza, contagious bovine Diseases include bovine spongiform
pleuropneumonia, brucellosis, foot-and-mouth encephalopathy, chronic wasting disease and
disease, glanders, Japanese encephalitis, Q scrapie.
fever, Rift Valley fever, rinderpest, African
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Safety Alkaline hydrolysis
Notes on safety
Heat stress: See guidelines on heat
stress in the Safety section of the “General amounts of water for at least 15 minutes.
Consid- erations” chapter of this guide. Workers exposed to any amount of sodium
First aid: First aid should be available to hydroxide in their eyes should use the eye-
employees at all times. wash station and report to an emergency
Safety observers: It is dangerous to room.
move contaminated plant and animal materi- Ventilation: Although alkaline hydrolysis
als around large volumes of heated sodium reactors use enclosed pressure vessels, the
hydroxide; use a safety observer. area surrounding the vessel should be ad-
Chemical hazards: Provide safety show- equately ventilated.
ers and emergency eyewash stations within 20 Pressure vessels: Alkaline hydrolysis
feet of each alkaline hydrolysis unit; caustic pressure vessels operate under high pressure
chemical burns are exceptionally hazardous and temperature. The risk of injury resulting
and can cause irreparable damage to the eyes from failure of a vessel is significant; follow
within seconds if not removed using copious all manufacturer directions carefully.
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Biosecurity Alkaline hydrolysis
Groundwater pollution
Facilities accepting contaminated material
may be fixed sites on heavily trafficked pub- zoonotic agents or TSEs.
lic or private property (such as a university Vehicles and personnel must be decontam-
campus). Moving non-zoonotic-contaminated inated before the vehicles leave the disposal
plant or animal materials onto these sites site. See additional material in the Safety and
should be planned carefully. Biosecurity section of the “General Consider-
Although the movement of carcasses ations” chapter of this guide.
contaminated with non-zoonotic materials If performed according to this guide,
does not present a human health hazard, a releasing effluent poses no threat to pub-
significant effort must go into public aware- lic health; however, a public relations plan
ness and public relations activities well before should be in place before disposing of any
moving any carcasses to the site. Such facili- effluent in a public sewer system. Disposal
ties should not be used for disposal of large should be performed fully in conjunction with
amounts of carcasses contaminated with state and local health department authorities.
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Environment Alkaline hydrolysis
Soil pollution
Alkaline hydrolysis poses no soil pollu-
and disposed of in landfills as solid waste in
tion concerns unless the effluent disposal is
accordance with state and local solid waste
not controlled.
regulations.
Some tissue, such as bone and teeth, will
All waste will be monitored and tested
remain after the alkaline hydrolysis process
before shipment of potentially dangerous
is complete. This material can be ground
materials.
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Air pollution
There are no notable emissions associ- Air pollution concerns are limited to the
ated with alkaline hydrolysis. Gas release is on-site workers, who will need personal pro-
not significant either as a health hazard to tective equipment to minimize their exposure
the public or as a nuisance gas. to the airborne or aerosolized agents.
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Cost Alkaline hydrolysis
The direct fixed cost and the variable Dehydration and odor $300,000
control system
costs depend on the facility’s capacity (Tables
Total $1,125,000
4–6). For specific indirect cost items, see
the “General Considerations” chapter of this Fixed annual cost
guide. Depreciation (20 years) $56,250
Interest (6%) $67,500
Total $123,750
a
Source: http://www.co.larimer.co.us/boards/minutes/
Aug03Min.htm. There is no initial investment
breakdown for a 10,000-pound digester.
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Table 5. Estimates of direct variable costs by weight and mortality for a 2,000-pound
digester.
2,000-lb equipment
Others
Preweaned
Cost per ton Cattle Calves Weaned hogs (sheep, lambs,
hogs
goats)
Average weight per mortality (lb) 750 266 133 6 77
Alkali $49.50 18.56 6.58 3.29 0.15 1.91
Electricity $1.00 0.38 0.13 0.07 0.00 0.04
Water $1.84 0.69 0.24 0.12 0.01 0.07
Steam $20.40 7.65 2.71 1.36 0.06 0.79
Sewer $1.65 0.62 0.22 0.11 0.00 0.06
Landfill $1.09 0.41 0.14 0.07 0.00 0.04
Repairs and $40.00 15.00 5.32 2.66 0.12 1.54
maintenance
Labor $22.00 8.25 2.93 1.46 0.07 0.85
Transportation n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a
Variable cost $137.48
per ton
Variable cost per carcass $51.56 $18.27 $9.14 $0.41 $5.30
Source: http://www.wr2.net/sales/cost_calculator.html
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Cost Alkaline hydrolysis
Table 6. Estimates of direct variable costs by weight and carcass for a 10,000-pound
digester.
10,000-lb equipment
Others
Preweaned
Cost per ton Cattle Calves Weaned hogs (sheep, lambs,
hogs
goats)
Average weight per carcass (lb) 750 266 133 6 77
Alkali $49.50 18.56 6.58 2.99 0.15 1.91
Electricity $1.00 0.38 0.13 0.07 0.00 0.04
Water $1.84 0.69 0.24 0.12 0.01 0.07
Steam $20.40 7.65 2.71 1.36 0.06 0.79
Sewer $1.65 0.62 0.22 0.11 0.00 0.06
Landfill $1.09 0.41 0.14 0.07 0.00 0.04
Repairs and $40.00 15.00 5.32 2.66 0.12 1.54
maintenance
Labor $0.92 0.34 0.12 0.06 0.00 0.04
Transportation n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a
Variable cost $116.40
per ton
Variable cost per carcass $43.65 $15.46 $7.44 $0.34 $4.49
Source: http://www.wr2.net/sales/cost_calculator.html
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Figure 7. Formulas to estimate the direct variable cost relating to alkaline hydrolysis.
The direct variable cost (DVC) using a tissue digester with a 2,000-pound
capacity:
• By number of carcasses:
DVC = 51.56Qcattle + 18.27Qcalves + 9.14Qweaned hogs + 0.41Qpreweaned hogs +
category i.
• By weight:
DVC = 137.48(Wcattle + Wcalves + Wweaned hogs + Wpreweaned hogs + Wothers )
(Figure continued on next page)
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Cost Alkaline hydrolysis
Figure 7. (Continued)
The direct variable cost (DVC) using a tissue digester with a 2,000-pound
capacity:
• By number of carcasses:
DVC = 43.65Qcattle + 15.46Qcalves + 7.44Qweaned hogs + 0.34Qpreweaned hogs +
category i.
• By weight:
DVC = 116.40(Wcattle + Wcalves + Wweaned hogs + Wpreweaned hogs + Wothers )
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