NATIONAL AND STRATEGIC STUDIES

CONTENTS w

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UNIT 1 NATIONAL AND STRATEGIC STUDIES –ZIMBABWEAN

HISTORY 1-11

UNIT 2 THE EUROPEAN COLONISATION OF ZIMBABWE

UNIT 3 ZIMBABWE HERITAGE

UNIT 4 CIVIC RESPONSIBILITY

UNIT 5 ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL PROBLEMS FACED BY ZIMBABWE

SINCE 1980

UNIT 6 LEGAL AND PARLIAMENTARY AFFAIRS

UNIT 7 DEMOCRACY AND GOVERNANCE

UNIT 8 THE CONSTITUTION OF ZIMBAMBWE

UNIT 9 REGIONAL AND INTRNATIONAL RELATIONS

UNIT 10 DIPLOMACY

UNIT 11 INTERNATIONAL CAPITAL AND IMPERIALISM.

UNIT 12 DEVELOPMENT STRATEGIES

UNIT 13 REGIONALISM

UNIT 14 NON-GOVERNMENTAL ORGANISATIONS(NGOs)

UNIT 15 THE MEDIA

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 NATIONAL AND STRATEGIC STUDIES

UNIT 1

1.1 OBJECTIVES

By the end of this unit the student should be able to:

 Define National and Strategic Studies
 Compare and contrast the democracy in the pre-colonial states and the
democracy in the West.
 Examine the level of civilization of the pre-colonial states in the
following areas:
i) Medicine
ii) Governance
iii) Democracy
iv) Culture
v) Technology

1.2 INTRODUCTION.

1.2.1 NASS- The background

There is no educational system that is silent on the values that are accepted
and cherished by that society. Education is about values in other word
behaviour change in all the domains of education that is the
psychomotor, the cognitive and the affective. A skilled artisan or
accountant with no sense of his position in society at the family level or at
work or society in general is a social misfit and a drain to national wealth
because of the need to either hospitalise him because he has AIDS or
incarcerate him because he is a criminal and a danger to that society. A
strong sense of belonging or identity, responsibility and accountability are
the things that can be defined as patriotism. Economic giants today and in
the past are and were the most patriotic. In Zimbabwe today the sense of
belonging has eluded both young and old and this is due to selfishness, greed
and the collapse of the extended family due to western values. A culture of
greed or a mafia and mercenary attitude pervades all sectors of society in the
banking, retailing, manufacturing and civil service. The need to change
attitudes and the need to inculcate correct values is not only urgent but
imperative now and in the future.

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 1.2.2 NASS -Definition
NASS can be defined as civic education designed to make all
Zimbabweans who go through tertiary institutions
become responsible citizens who are patriotic and can
therefore be mobilised to participate in national development.
Civic education is typical of and in all educational
systems and is not unique to Zimbabwe. Zimbabwe was
the odd case in that it did not have this kind of emphasis in its
education as much as Zimbabwe was the odd case in relation to
National Service.
1.2.3 NASS-Purpose
NASS therefore is about positively changing or enhancing the
attitudes of participants with respect to their national
identity and with respect to translating the political gains of
the Second Chimurenga into economic gains in the Third and
Fourth Chimurenga.
1.3 ZIMBABWEAN HISTORY…
Zimbabwe has a beginning in the distant past as witnessed and testified by
the Zimbabwe ruins as well as in the recent past as embodied in the ethos of
the Second Chimurenga war. The second chimurenga in essence establishes
our ‘enduring political tradition” and ethos. Standing on a hill allows one to
see as far behind as he is able to see as far ahead. Mathematically expressed
this would be, “one is able to see as far ahead proportional to the distance
he/she is able to see as far backward.’ History is therefor relevant not only
for today’s events and policies, but allows us to shape our future and avoid
the pitfalls of yester -year.
1.3.1 PRE COLONIAL HISTORY
1.3.1.2 The GREAT ZIMBABWE STATE
 State was most powerful before the 14th century i.e. 1500.
 It was called a state because it could raise an army and force the
payment of tribute and was involved in international relations.
 The state was built by a group of people and they were basically the
shona people and who had much wealth in the form of livestock.
 The Shona built the stone capital commonly called Great Zimbabwe
which became the centre of social, religious, economic and
political life..
 The king was termed “Mambo”. The name of Great Zimbabwe
means “house of stones” that is “Dzimba Dzemabwe”. Similar

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 “dzimba dzemabwe” were built across the country for chiefs on
rulers who were loyal to the “mambo” at Great Zimbabwe.
1.3.1.2.1 Historical evidence
 Historians have used the oral traditions to try to explain the history of the
Great Zimbabwe state. However, there is little that we normally get from
the oral traditions because the Shonas have no written records.
 Documentary evidence written during the Mutapa state by the Portuguese
and records found in Arab writings have an account on the Changamire
and Mutapa states.
1.3.1.2.2Archaeological Evidence
 Archaeology in the form of clothing found at the Great Zimbabwe and
some of the evidence including bones, copper and iron tools.
 These have been used by historians to show the social economic and
political activities of the people at Great Zimbabwe.
 The structure at the ruins consist of 2 complexes “the Acropolis”or
temple area and the external enclosure which consisted of a large number
of stone buildings.
 Excavations in the external enclosure yielded stone, glass, bead, and
brassware,
 Sea shells, iron ware, iron axes and hoes.
 Local goods included ivory, gold, beads, soapstones, chisels etc.
1.3.1.2.3 Social and Political Organisation
 By 1200 a ruling class had emerged which was strong enough to organize
almost the whole population to build a high surrounding wall made of
granite blocks.
 The Great Zimbabwe rulers exercised power a number of chiefdoms
who paid tribute to the mambo at great Zimbabwe.
 Other chiefdoms may have been independent but connected through
marriage and trade.
 The ruling class controlled trade.
1.3.1.2.4Purpose of the stone structure
1) Security
2) Religion
3) Prestige monument.
4) Occupy slave labour
1.3.1.2.5 Causes for the Decline or Collapse of the State
 The state had become overpopulated leading to a shortage of resources.
 There was increased emigration
 Shortage of resources i.e. salt

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 Civil wars
 Declining soil fertility
 Some dispute that Nyatsimba Mutota left Great Zimbabwe because he
had failed to succeed and left and formed the Mutapa state..
1,3.1.3.THE MUTAPA STATE
 The founder of the Mutapa state was Nyatsimba Mutota who left Great
Zimbabwe in search of salt or after a succession dispute according to oral
history. Mutota went to the Zambezi Valley where he defeated some
weak communities who were already settled there such as the Tavara or
the Dzivaguru people. Mutota As a result earned the title ‘ Munhu-
mutapa’ a praise name which means Lord of Conquering.
 Before the succession dispute, King Chibatamatosi, Mutota’s father had
ordered Mutota to find salt.
 Initially the king had sent his servant Nyakatondo who had returned with
salt and reported on the abundance of elephants in the area.
 Prince Mutota traveled north leading a large army. He built his capital a
“Zimbabwe” on the slope of Chikato hill near the Utete River.
 Part of this Zimbabwe remains to this day at the bottom of the
escapement north of Guruve.
 Mutota formed an alliance with the Tavara High Priest, Dzivaguru.
Upon the death of Mutota, his son, Nyanhenhwe Matope took over and
co-ruled with his half sister Nyamhita who occupied the district of Handa
hence she is often referred to as Nyamhita Nehanda. The two ruled the
Mutapa Empire stretching from the Anngwa and Manyame Rivers, north
to the Zambezi and west to the Musengezi and Mukumbura Rivers.
1.3.1.3.1The Mutapa Language eschatology and customs
 The people hand the same shona language, customs and culture similar to
the peoples of the Great Zimbabwe state. The term “Shona” was not
used until the 19th century. The Ndebele people described the Karanga ie.
Mutapa language and area of control as “entshona langa” which means a
place where the sun sets or a place to the west.
 Nowadays the term Shona is representative of a number of related
dialects (in Zimbabwe) one of which is Karanga.
 They believed in a god whom they called ‘mwari’ who is claimed to have
spoken through the spirits of the ancestors and they listened carefully to
spirit mediums i.e. the Mhondoros.
 Religious ceremonies were held to honour the spirit mediums where
music dancing and feasting occurred (Bira). The senior spirit mediums

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 were Dzivaguru in the north east, Nehanda in the central and Chaminuka
in the west.
 At the cultural level the society was closely knit with the family being the nucleus of
society as well as being the foundation of the nation. The basis of this arrangement
was a high degree of morality with crime, starvation, delinquency, prostitution,
divorce and almost all known present day social ills being unknown. The law was
highly developed to deal with cultural issues and less defined in terms of commerce.
Criminals even murderers were rehabilitated with the law seeking to reconcile the
injured and the culprit and compensate the victim or his relatives in the case of
murder. When a person was murdered life had to be paid with life and invariably a
young woman from the murderers’ family had to be given to the victim’s family.
Inevitably, this created a bond between the two considering that at birth or death there
are things that no one could or can do except the relatives of a woman. This is in
stark contrast to equivalent European law which was and remains punitive and
divisive.
1,3.1.3.2 The Mutapa Economy
The state existed for almost 500 years in one form or the other. During its
peak it was the heart of a powerful empire which controlled the Zambezi
River trade route and received taxes from foreigners. Not only was the
economy based on trade and taxation, tribute was also part of their economy.
The people of the Mutapa provided a variety of goods for trade. Trade made
the Mutapa ruling class wealthy and the state became strong.
 The people paid tribute to the Mutapa tax collectors and elephant hunters
paid tribute in the form of tusks.
 The Mutapa encouraged the gold miners to do the dangerous mine work
in return the miners had to sell the gold to the Mutapa.
 He taxed all imports and exports, every trader paid tribute, every visitor
gifts, people brought disputes and complains to the Mutapa and paid fees
for his judgment.
1. 3.1.3.3 The Mutapa Political Structures
 They had many advisors and ministers to govern the state.
 Some of the emperors’ wives were also officials, greeting visitors and
handling their business and as members of his royal court they became
very powerful.
 Munhumutapa, his wives and officials wore expensive jewellery and
clothes made from cotton and silk. Most people wore skin aprons.
 A large army was maintained which traveled long distances, patrolling
and collecting taxes and cattle and brought new communities into the
empire.
1. 3.1.3.4 The Portuguese Factor In The Mutapa State.

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 When Matope died, succession disputes arose. In 1494 Chikuyo
Chisamarengu became king and was the first to receive a Portuguese
visitor named Fernandes who brought rice, cloth and guns as gifts.
 The acquisition of more guns increased Mutapa’s power such that he was
in a position to assist his ally Makombe of Barwe to take control of
Manyika.
 In 1530 Neshangwe became the new king after Chisamarengu had died.
He took over Mbire province earning the praise name Munembire.
 He introduced the old custom of chiefs sending their ambassador to
rekindle fires at the king’s palace.
 In 1550 Chivero Nyasoro succeeded Neshangwe and after him Nzou or
Ntemba an unmarried youth, took over and ruled with his mother Chiuya.
 Negomo and his mother Chiuya received a Catholic priest Father
Goncalo da’ Silveira who wanted to convert them to Christianity.
Muslim traders at the king’s court (vamwenyi) did not like this and
plotted to kill Da’ Silveira. They subsequently strangled him and
dumped him in a pond.
 Goncalo’s death angered the Portuguese and when they sent an army to
revenge his death, it was defeated.
 In 1607 Gatsi Rusere asked the Portuguese’s for assistance to fight his
rival for the leadership and in return they were given mines.
 The people of Mutapa refused to tell them where the mines were because
of earlier experience with Portuguese Prazeros(land/ prazo holders)(this
is where the name purazi comes from) who took their land.
 More Portuguese arrived and forced them to work in the fields. The
Portuguese formed private armies and became wild and lawless.
1.3.1.3.5 The Decline or Collapse of the Mutapa State
 The decline was precipitated by the Portuguese private armies and this
led the Mutapa Nyambo Kapararidze to try to expel them.
 He was unsuccessful in this and was overpowered and in his place a
puppet Mamvura Mhande was installed.
 After Kapararidze, the Portuguese chose other Munhumutapas who
would obey them.
 An 18th century Munhumutapa moved his people to Mozambique where
new chiefs were appointed to restore order.
 Chioko was the last ruler to use the title Munhumutapa. He led a revolt
against the Portuguese but was however crashed in 1817 and so ended the
legacy of the Mutapa state.

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1.3.1.4 THE ROZVI STATE
 The state arose from plundered wealth by the Rozvi under Changamire
Dombo (1634) believed to having been a powerful ruler. He was very
wealthy and claimed that his father was a mwari and his mother a virgin.
The Rozvi capital was at Thabazikamambo near Bulawayo.
 By 1680 he was at his peak and his state was spread between the
Zambezi and Limpopo rivers and even into areas like Mozambique e.g.
Sena.
 The Rozvi Changamire received tribute from smaller chiefs.
 By 1830 – 1860 the state existed in name only.
1.3.1.4 .1 Decline and Collapse Of the State
Collapse of the Rozvi state was as a result of Mfecane ‘or time of
trouble” caused by Nguni tribes who had fled from Tshaka or broken
away from the Zulu state in present day Natal
Zwangendaba crossed the Limpopo with his group and fought the Rozvi
ruler Chirisamhuru.
 The state was further weakened when Kololo Sebitwane in 1836 fought
and defeated the Rozvi. Mzilikazi turned west into Gaza and then north
with his group and finished the remnants of the Rozvi state between 1837
– 1840.
1.3.1.5 THE NDEBELE STATE
The Founder of the State was Mzilikazi son of, Matshobane and grandson of
Zwide. Mzilikazi joined Tshaka under Zwide. He was a chief of a small
clan called Khumalo. He suspected Zwide of the death of his father
Matshobane.
 Mzilikazi was sent to recover cattle and he did not surrender the cattle to
Tshaka and fled north.
 He left Natal in 1821/ 1822 with 300 men. The name Ndebele was given
as a nickname by Tswanas and means people of long shields. Mzilikazi
increased his size through conquering and incorporating weak tribes such
as the Tswana and Suthuland some people voluntarily joined Mzilikazi.
He was defeated by the Boers at Enthumbane in the Transvaal. The
Ndebele crossed the Limpopo River in 1837 – 1846 and settled at Inyati
near Matopo hills.
 They easily routed the weakened Rozvi and brought adjacent Shona areas
under their control. They conquered Shonas such as the Kalanga and
Venda.

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1.3.1.5.1 Political Structures
 King was pre-eminent in the Ndebele state. Mzilikazi was the supreme
commander of the army, highest judge with power over life and death.
He was a religious leader who presided over important religious
ceremonies such as Incxwala.
 King however didn’t rule alone but with two advisory counsels, the
Mphakati and Izinkulu indicating that king was not a dictator.
 The Mphakati was made up of original Khumalo chiefs i.e. those who
had left Natal and knew Zulu military tactics.
 These made the most important decisions although they could be vetoed
by the king.
 The Izinkulu was made up of other chiefs especially those who were
incorporated in the Ndebele state..
1.3.1.5 .2The Ndebele Economy.
Many European historians misunderstood or deliberately distorted the bases
of Ndebele economy. They argued that the Ndebele were nomads and
therefore had lots of time for raiding the Shona. This was not entirely true.
The following were the basis of Ndebele economy:
 Herding –This was the most important economic activity owing to the
fact that Ndeng initially were not permanently established in
Matebeleland. The Ndeng kept large heads of cattle, sheep and goats.
 They acquired some of the cattle along the way while others were
obtained through the conquered Rozvi and others were received in the
form of tribute from the Shona while others were obtained through
raiding.
 Agriculture- the Ndebele had fields in which they grew crops such as
millet, sorghum, water melons etc.
 Agriculture was however, not very popular with the Ndebele because of
climatic conditions.
 Hunting and gathering - Hunting was very popular in the Ndebele state.
Their kills ranged from large animals e.g. elephants and buffaloes to
small species e.g. buck and rodents. Men usually hunted while women
concentrated on gathering.
 They gathered wild fruits, grass seed and insects. Gathering was
important in the Ndebele state as far as it supplemented organised
agriculture.
 Trade - They traded internally i.e. amongst themselves and externally
with the Shona

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 The Ndebele traded their cattle and gold for grain, corn, cloth, iron,
jewellery, beads etc
 Mining - The Ndebele occasionally carried out some mining activities to
a limited extent. They traded gold with the Portuguese. Mining was done
mostly in winter- after harvest when people didn’t have much work in the
field.
 Tribute - in the form of cattle, grain and to a certain extent women from
those tribes under their control
 Raids/plunder - They raided the unsubdued Shona tribes for cattle,
women, young men and grain.
 However, it should be realized that the Ndebele didn’t always raid the
Shona. Only those who lived near Ndebele settlements were raided
occasionally such as the Shona in the Masvingo, Mberengwa, Gweru
and Kwekwe areas.
1.3.1.5 .3 Ndebele- Shona relations
1.3.1.5 .3.1 The myths and realities.
 Many European historians wrote that the Ndebele always raided the
Shona and that the Shona were on the verge of extinction when settler
colonialists came to Zimbabwe. They used this as an excuse to influence
the British government to colonize this country and the missionaries used
this argument more than the ordinary settlers.
 The reason why missionaries encouraged the British government to
occupy and destroy the Ndebele Kingdom was because they had failed to
convert a single Ndebele man.
 The truth of the matter is that there was co-existence between the Shona
and the Ndebele had the occasional raid as a common feature of this
relationship.
 In the early stages of the Ndebele settlement i.e. between 1840 – 1870 the
Ndebele were pre-occupied with their own security, internal problems
such that they could not always fight the Shona.
 It is also true that some Shona people never experienced Ndebele raids up
to 1890 especially those Shona people living north of Harare and
Manicaland.
 Those Shona chiefs who refused to pay tribute e.g. Chief Chivi or Bere
were major targets for raids. Ndebele raids did`0 not interfere with the
economy of those Shona chiefs who paid tribute and moreover some
Shona chiefs aided the Ndebele and some stole or raided the Ndebele to
recover stolen cattle.

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 The Ndebele actually encouraged good relations and there was some
level of inter-marriage.
 The Ndebele adopted the Shona deity “mwari”/umlimu’ and followed the
Shona traditions of ancestral worship..
 The state was divided into 3 distinct social groups based on history
namely:

a) Abezanzi
These were the superior class which occupied most important positions.
They formed the aristocratic ruling class. These were the original Khumalo
who had left Natal and constituted about 15% of Ndebele population ie. The
Hadebes, Khumalos, Mkwananzi.

b) Enhla

These were 2nd most important groups in the Ndebele state. They were
Sotho and Tswana who joined the Ndebele on their way to Zimbabwe.
They occupied important military positions in the Ndeng state and they
constituted about 25% of Ndebele population.

c) Amahole

These were the least important in the Ndebele state. They were made up
of the Kalanga and other Shona speaking people who were conquered
and absorbed by the Ndebele and made up 60% of Ndebele population.
However, the hole who proved themselves in battle also occupied
important military posts in the Ndebele economy. Due to continued
inter-marriage most of these groups lost their identities ie the Moyos,
Sibandas, Ncubes, Gumbos.

1.3.1.5 .3.2 ACTIVITIES

 Define National and Strategic Studies
 Compare and contrast the democracy in the pre-colonial states and the
democracy in the West.
 Examine the level of civilization of the pre-colonial states in the
following areas:
vi) Medicine
vii) Governance
viii) Democracy
ix) Culture
x) Technology

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 UNIT 2

THE EUROPEAN COLONISATION OF ZIMBABWE

2.0 OBJECTIVES

By the end of the unit the student should be able to:

 Discuss the major causes of slavery and its effects

 Analyse the major deliberations of the Berlin Conference of 1884-5

 Discuss the causes and effects of colonization of Zimbabwe

 Examine the colonisatioin process of Zimbabwe by Europe

 Analyse the causes and effects of Anglo-Ndebele War , the1 st

Chimurenga War and 2nd Chimurenga.

 White settlement in the region was established as early as the 1650s at

the Cape in South Africa. This was a re-supply post for fresh water and
food for the East India trade. The Dutch settlers at the Cape were soon
displaced by the British and pushed north. The discovery of gold on the
Rand and diamonds led to the continued jostling for control between the
British and Dutch settlers for the good part of the two centuries from
1700 through 1800. Hunters and missionaries who were the trail blazzers
for British colonisation spread the rumor that there was a bigger Rand in
the area occupied by the Ndendele across the Limpopo.

 Cecil John Rhodes who came to South Africa because of ill-health

joined his brother at the Kimberly diamond fields and became rich and
directed his attention to the rumors of an “el dorado” or city of gold to
the north.

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 Rhodes was an imperialist at heart. His aim was to bring under British
Control all African territory from South Africa to Egypt.

 Rhodes believed in British superiority and thought that it was a British

responsibility to civilize Africa the so called Dark Continent.

 Other imperialists were also interested in Zimbabwe namely; the Boers

from the short lived Transvaal Republic, Germans from South West
Africa and especially the Portuguese.

2.1 The Grobler Treaty

 In1887 the Transvaal government sent its representative Piet Grobler to

negotiate a friendship treaty with Lobengula assuming he was the ruler of
all the territories north of the Limpopo. The agreement - known as the
Grobler treaty provided for a Boer Representative to be resident at
Bulawayo and Lobengula would assist the Boers ( in the face of British
threats) if required to do so.

 In response to the treaty, Rhodes influenced the British government to

send a representative to Bulawayo to negotiate a counter treaty.

2.2 The Moffat Treaty

 John Smith Moffat representing the British government negotiated and

signed the treaty in February 1888. According to this agreement
Lobengula was to cancel the Grobler Treaty. He would also not enter
into any agreement with any European power without the consent of
Britain.

 The Moffat Treaty was supposed to be a treaty of friendship between

Lobengula and the British government but in fact was the first step in the
collapse and subjugation of the Ndebele state.

2.3 The Rudd Concession

 Agreed and signed in October 1888, it led to the occupation of Zimbabwe

by the white settlers through the British South African company. Rhodes
had formed this commercial company to spear head the occupation of
this country.

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 The Rudd Concession was entered into between Charles Rudd
representing Rhodes and Lobengula. The Rudd delegation consisted of
three people namely;

Charles Rudd

Rhodes’ old friend since their days at Oxford University. He was

therefore an embodiment of Rhodes’ self interest.

Rotchford Maguire

Was a lawyer and his expertise in the legal language was going to
be useful in tricking Lobengula.

1. Francis Thompson

He was nicknamed “Matebele” because he was fluent in Nguni languages

including Ndebele. He had a perfect knowledge of Ndebele custom. His
presence was therefore meant to influence Lobengula to sign the
agreement. Rhodes was careful in the selection of the Rudd team.

Lobengula didn’t want to meet this delegation let alone sign the
agreement, the evidence is that:

1) It took the delegation about 6 weeks to meet Lobengula.

2) The delegation bribed Lobengula’s most trusted senior, Induna

Lotshe, who influenced Lobengula to sign the agreement and for that
role Lotshe was executed together with his family.

3) Lobengula was influenced by several whitemen he trusted such as

Moffat who misled or lied to him that the Rudd delegation represented
the queen.

4) Because of both internal and external influence, Lobengula signed the

Rudd Concession in October 1888, the terms of which were;:

a) Lobengula was to receive:

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 Monthly pension of 100 pounds sterling per month.

 1000 infield riffles and 100 000 rounds of ammunition.

 A gunboat to be placed on the Zambezi valley to guard against

Portuguese invasion.

b) Lobengula was to grant Rhodes;

 -Granted Rhodes and the BSAC exclusive rights over all minerals and
precious metals in Mashonaland and Matebeleland.

 Not more than 10 white men would enter the country.

 They would dig only one hole.

 They would surrender all their weapons to Lobengula and actually

become his people.

2.4 The Royal Charter

 Armed with the Rudd agreement Rhodes had to have the political
protection of the British government. Rhodes therefor sought and got this
protection through The Royal Charter, granted in October 1889. The
document in effect declared that the Rudd concession had effectively
made the territories of Lobengula British territories under the
administration of the British South Africa Company (BSAC) and by that
virtue restricted Boer and Portuguese expansion. Some German hunters
advised Lobengula on what was meant by the document and he tried in
vain to repudiate it.

 He sent two of his Indunas to the queen accompanied by E A Mount and

Charles Helm to inform her that he was no longer interested in the Rudd
Concession. The indunas were deliberately delayed and the repudiation
was too late.

 To reverse the Rudd agreement, Lobengula granted Edward Lippert a

German businessman a concession for a period of 100 years to mine in
Zimbabwe.

 Rhodes bought the Lippert Concession and made his position even more
powerful.

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2.5 The Pioneer Column

 Rhodes’s next step was to organize a group of men who were going to
form the first t settlers in Zimbabwe.

 The group was called The Pioneers made up of 200 settler volunteers and
chosen from thousands of applicants from all over Europe and South
Africa.

 Supported by 500 troops, the group was promised 2 000 acres and five
gold claims each. The Botswana protectorate provided 800 African
labourers.

 Fredrick Selous guided the settler group because of his knowledge of the
country as a hunter. The group crossed Into Zimbabwe in March 1890
and built fort Tuli. The column turned east avoiding the Ndebele state
and established Fort Victoria (Masvingo) On 17 August 1890 the Column
reached Fort Charter (Chivhu). From Charter the column reached Harare
on 12 September 1890, raised the British flag the Union jack and, and
called Harare Salisbury in honour of British Prime Minister at that time.
This marked the completion of the occupation of the land.

 Leander Star Jameson, Rhodes’ personal friend was appointed the first
governor of Mashonaland.

2.6 The Anglo - Ndebele war and the Occupation of Matebeleland.

The members of Pioneer Column were largely disappointed with the amount
of gold they got in Mashonalnad.

 They thought that Matebeleland was a little closer to South Africa so a

second Rand could be found in Matebeleland.

 The white settlers also admired the big cattle found in Matebeleland and
the attractive land (rich grazing lands). They even believed that
Lobengula’s capital was built on top of a gold mountain.

 It should be borne in mind that the occupation of Matebeleland was

inevitable and unavoidable. It was to complete the occupation of
Zimbabwe and, as the BSAC was bankrupt, it needed gold; hence
Matebeleland was their own way out of that big problem.

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 To do so the BSAC had to destroy the powerful and landed Ndebele state
and Leander Star Jameson needed an excuse in order to attack the
Ndebele state. He created conflicts to justify war between whites and
Ndebele.

2.7 Precursors to the war

1. The Boundary Line

 According to Jameson, Mashonaland was not part of Matebeleland.

 Jameson drew up his own boundary line to separate Mashonaland from

Matebeleland. He then restricted Lobengula’s rule to Matebeleland.

 Lobengula never acknowledged the division of Mashonaland and

Matebeleland.

 He claimed the whole country as his and to make matters worse, the
boundary line kept on shifting towards his capital thus reducing his area
of influence.

2.8 The war - 1893

While Rhodes and BSAC were busy establishing themselves in

Mashonaland the Ndebele were trying to avoid any conflicts with the whites.
Since the settlers were interested in Matebeleland, Rhodes and his people
were busy finding ways of attacking the Ndebele. The whites admired the
Ndebele’s rich grazing lands and suspected gold deposits.

Causes of the War of 1893

1. The Victoria Incident

 Whites employed the Shona people but the Ndebele still regarded later as
their subjects.

 In June 1893 some of the Shona people led by headman Gomala stole
500 metres of telegraph wire.

 They were ordered to pay cattle as fine. They paid this fine using cattle
that belonged to Lobengula and which they had had stolen.

 Lobengula claimed the cattle to be his and they were returned to him.

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 Soon after this event another Shona by the name of Bere is alleged to
have to have stolen cattle belonging to Lobengula.

 Lobengula sent an impi to punish the Shona chief and his people. As a
result Shona servants on European farms were killed and some fled to
Fort Victoria for protection.

 The Ndebele Indunas, Manyao and Uumgandani pursued the Shona

people who sought refuge in Victoria.

 The indunas demanded that the Shona be handed over but Lendy, the
magistrate of Fort Victoria refused and the Ndeng were ordered to vacate
Fort Victoria.

 Lendy followed and caught up with Umgandani’s party and killed all of
them and in response Lobengula mobilized 6000 soldiers.

 The Victoria Incident triggered the war but the issue at stake was that
the white farmers believed that there were rich gold deposits in
Matebelaland and had long planned on how to get there

They also saw the grazing land and good cattle herds of the Ndebele as a
recipe for prosperity even if they were to find no gold.

The powerful independent Ndebele state was seen as preventing white

settlers from getting enough labour for their mines and farms.

2.9 Preparation for war

 By September 1893 Jameson had organized a force of over 1000 well

armed white settlers aided by missionaries from South Africa.

 Jameson promised each of them 2400 hectares of land and 20 gold claims
each if the Ndeng were defeated.

2.10 The Battles

 The white armies left Salisbury and Fort Victoria in October 1893 and
moved south west towards Matopo ready for a show down with the
Ndeng.

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 In a battle, that took place along the Shangani and Mbembesi Rivers, the
Ndebele impi was heavily defeated.

 On 3 November after just a month of bloody fighting the invading forces

entered the Ndeng capital, Bulawayo and Lobengula set fire to the city
and fled north where he vanished without trace to date.

 The 1893 war marked the complete conquest of Zimbabwe and an end to
Ndendele Supremacy.

2.11 CRIMES AGAINST HUMANITY.Slavery is the highest level of

degrading another human being. Slavery is as ancient as human existence.
The practice was pronounced under the Roman Empire and at that time it
also assumed its commercial undertones. This practice was perfected by the
former Roman colonies in Europe when they enslaved Africa. Never in the
History of mankind were such atrocities, insensitivity, and cruelty and
inhumanity perpetrated by human beings upon other human beings. Slavery
was the crudest method of exploiting other human beings and in its wake
came colonisation which by definition is slavery with a humane face. The
latter like slavery leads to the exploitation of other man by other man by
other means other than brute force.

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It is not possible under The United Nations Charter for a nation to
unilaterally attack or annex the territory of another state and where this has
happened of late as when Iraq attacked Kuwait the UN unanimously agreed
to reverse the annexture through force of arms. To colonize another state is
therefor the highest form of state irresponsibility. The USA under false
claims of existence of weapons of mass destruction attacked Iraq in 2003
and there was a global outcry against the war. Colonization nevertheless
took place many centuries before the UN came into existence but that does
make colonization any less a crime against humanity. Colonisation was
perpetrated by the very nations that were vociferously opposed to the Iraq
Kuwait invasion and yet many serious human rights violations were
perpetrated by the colonial powers in this process. In Tasmania Australia,
the aborigines on the island were wiped out to the last man by British
settlers. The Spanish conquistadors demolished whole empires and
civilizations in the Americas.

2.12 SLAVERY

1. The discovery of gold and silver and agricultural potential in South

America or in the Americas created the need for disciplined workforce.

2. Inability of the local or native Red-Indian population to withstand

organized disciplined labour.

3. Existence of disciplined agricultural and industrial culture in Africa.

4. Indigenous or Red-Indian inability to withstand European diseases e.g.

small pox, syphilis, gonorrhea etc.

5. The existence of a greedy and guliable or naïve chieftainship in Africa

which captured and sold its own kith and kin for a bottle of fire water that
is gin.

 Commercial activity therefore contributed much to the consolidation of

slavery. The trade in Europe did not provide sufficient profit because of
the problem of exchange values. But the trade with unindustrialized
countries in Africa and America was more profitable because of the use
values.

 This system of trade was a system of robbery based on plunder, piracy

and slavery and colonial conquest.

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 To consolidate accumulation or profit in England, the joint stock
company was devised and several of this new economic tool were
formed, e.g. the Adventurous Russia company and the Africa company.
According to Nassau, a well known academic of the time, the objectives
of the Africa company were, “…to kidnap or purchase and work to death
the natives of Africa without mercy.” The Eastland Company had the
monopoly and right to trade with the European hinterland. The Levan
Company in which Queen Elizabeth 1 was a major shareholder became
the East Indian Company.

 The Fuggers Company in Germany was first a merchant company and

later became a bank and financed all Germany wars of the period.

 The Fuggers Company in return for financing war was paid through the
form of trading concessions, colonial land and through revenue from
colonial mines.

 As contact with Latin America or South America increased, the company

turned to Africa for cheap labour.

 It was the nearest continent with a population used to organize labour

which was also disciplined in many respects. The Uterecht Treaty of
1713 gave English Merchants the right to supply South America with 5
000 slaves every year and a special company was formed to supply these
slaves.

 Most of the gold and products from the plantations from South America
ended up in British towns.

 The continued enslavement of African peoples between 1646 and 1680

resulted in 70 000 slaves being taken to South America. However, only
46 000 survived the translocation. The slave trade was part of the
triangular trade between Europe, Africa and South America .This trade
was very profitable to the European companies and the African Royal
company which was the slave company paid a dividend of 300% despite
loss of half the “goods/cargo” that’s despite the death of more than half
the slaves en route to the Americas.

 There is therefore a co relation between Europe’s expansion/development

and slave labour from Africa. The methods used by the companies

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 especially British firms, was to capture other countries’ export markets
through colonisation, protectionism and unequal exchange.

 Europe therefore did not undertake its industrial Revolution without the
plunder, the enslavement and the destruction of the native people of
Africa.

2.13 COLONIALISM

 Colonialism was a product of European merchants or European

commerce. The former (the merchants) later supported and financed the
political institutions or their governments in their wars of conquest and
colonisation and they also participated in policy making. Colonisation
therefore was therefor an economic necessity. The reasons or causes of
Africa’s colonisation were or are:

a) Facilitated protection of monopoly markets of each European trading

nation.

b) Allowed easy access to tropical markets.

c) Allowed access to natural resources essential for industrial activities.

d) Allowed expansion and creation of new markets which had no balance

of trade problems.

e) Colonization facilitated the unimpeded imposition of the religious super

structure and beliefs of the colonizers on the colonized peoples.

f) For glory and imperial prestige.

 African slavery had existed in Europe from about the 16 th century but the
need to exploit the wealth of South America saw slavery reaching a
climax in the 18th century. Slavery however, came to an end when it
stopped serving the purposes and interests of European commerce.

 The dynamics of European production and exchange changed and no

longer required slave labour. Britain banned slavery in 1807. Slavery
however, continued or even grew after this banning. In 1833 slavery was
internationally banned but it did not die until a 100 years later and to the
shame of Africa still lingers on in places like the Sudan.

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 Slavery was not abolished because Europe had repented of its
weakedness but because commerce could not benefit as much from this
evil practice.

 Once slavery was abolished, it was replaced with colonization.

 The commercial revolution in the 16th century expanded trade beyond

Europe and this created a conservative class of merchants and landlords.
Commercial merchants were a class which could not fully satisfy their
accumulation potential in Europe so they turned to foreign markets.

 Primitive accumulation in Europe, that is, getting rich through violence

and other dishonest means, was extended and practiced in foreign lands
through colonization.

 The merchants and conquerors destroyed several civilizations in Africa

e.g. the Ashanti kingdom and the Aztec Civilization in Central America.

 Earlier, five crusades had been wedged or undertaken in the Middle East
and this almost destroyed the Arab civilization. The crusades were less
about religion and more about plunder and theft and robbery. The amount
of wealth stolen in this manner although substantial could not last long
and the result was to exploit the mines and the agricultural potential in
Africa and in South America.

 In South America where more gold and silver than in Africa existed, the
mines could not be exploited using local labour so they resorted to
stealing people from Africa.

 This form of exploitation eventually gave way to paid labour as a more

profitable way of accumulating wealth.

 Development or industrialization in Europe is therefore directly linked to

both colonialism and slavery.

2.14 THE BERLIN CONFERENCE 1884 – 1885

 Before the Berlin conference in 1884 commercial contact had long

existed between Europe and Africa and in trying to protect their
commercial interest, Europeans had fought many wars and for almost a
100 years between 1700 and 1800 Europe was at war with each other
because of commercial or economic interests. With the growth of

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 England and France as the major military powers, the wars became less
and less However, when German became a powerful nation towards the
end of the 19th Century, the following scenario developed in Europe;.

 The possibilities of renewed conflict became real.

 The British passed The Navigation and Frauds Act, The Navigation and
Staple acts etc. with a view to monopolising trade with the so called ‘new
world’ and ‘the dark continent.’

 Portugal fearing wars between Europe and Britain suggested or requested

Otto Von Bismark, the Germany chancellor, to convene a conference for
all interested parties with trading or commercial interests with Africa.
This led to the infamous Berlin conference. The objectives of the
conference were:

1. To lay down the rules for the partition and exploitation of Africa.

2 .To prevent war by so partitioning Africa.

2.15 Summary of Contents of the agreement at the Berlin Conference;

1. Freedom of navigation on all major rivers in Africa.

2. Colonization or establishment of protectorates to be entered into

voluntarily between European powers and African Chiefs.

3. A colony to be recognized only where there was visible occupation and

evidence of a written protectorate agreement.

2.16 PARTIES TO THE BERLIN CONFERENCE

2. 1. German ,Belgium ,England, France, Italy ,Portugal

2.17 Contents Of Protectorate Agreements between European Powers

and African Chiefs/Kings.

1. Parties to the agreement- a). African chief and, b). a European

commercial company.

2. Subjugation or surrender of title to land.

3. The location of the land, its size and general description.

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4. Surrender of all political, judicial and military power.

5. Creation of a monopoly trade area.

6. Duration of agreement i.e. infinity or for ever and ever.

7. Rewards for the chiefs and the people, alleged or claimed improvement
of their lives through European civilization.

8. Surrender of all rights to minerals and other resources.

2.18 RESULTS OF THE BERLIN CONFERENCE

1. Led to the scramble for Africa by European powers (nations) through

commercial companies or by commercial companies.

2. The establishment of concessions which were unfair and never explained

to the African chiefs.

3. Resistance or rejection of the concessions by African chiefs when they

understood the implications of the agreement.

4. Use of force by European powers to break resistance and to fully colonise

Africa.

2.19 THE EFFECTS OF COLONIZATION

1. Balance of trade dis-equilibra i.e. negative trade relations between Africa

and European countries during and after colonialism through a new form
of relationship called Neo-colonialism.

2. Exploitation and depletion of Africa’s natural resources without benefit

to Africa.

3. Underdevelopment of Africa since there was no technology transfer to

facilitate industrialisation (investment was only in infrastructure to enable
exploitation of resources).

4. Cultural decimation/destruction.

5. Dependency on European economies.

6. Loss of individual and national identity by Africans during and after

colonialism

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7. Super enrichment and development of Europe and their extensions in
America and Australia.

2.20 Reasons for the colonisation of Africa.

1. Abundance of natural resources e.g. minerals, rubber, elephants (ivory).

2. Fertile soils and ideal climate in Southern Africa and Kenya..

3. Africa was the source of many major rivers.

4. Existence of a money economy in Africa.

5. Possibility of establishing colonies and monopoly markets.

6. Little to no meaningful resistance

2.21 CONSOLIDATION OF SETTLER COLONIALISM IN

ZIMBABWE

2.21.1 Early Settler Administration.

 With the Ndebele state in ruins and the Shona state machinery crumbling
in the face of superior settler firepower, the BSAC proceeded apace to
consolidate its grip on the country. The Transvaal Boer state however
posed a great challenge to Rhodes’ plans In 1895, Jameson withdrew
most of the company’s armed personnel into the Transvaal to fight the
Boers but was crushed and the scenario for the Native rebellion in
Zimbabwe developed

2.21.2 THE FIRST CHIMURENGA.

2.21.2.1 Causes of the War
 The land Issue

The reserve system or translocation of native Zimbabweans to infertile dry

inhospitable holding areas was introduced.

In 1894 the first reserves were set up in Shangani and Gwaai.

After the defeat of the Ndebele, the settlers seized their 6 000 acres
displacing many natives and those displaced became fulltime labourers or
squatters.

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The settlers started ill treating the Ndebele like they were doing the Shona.

 . FORCED LABOUR

The British South African company introduced hut tax to force the
Africans to go to work and in order to raise revenue.

Livestock was seized to force men to go to work for the settler.

To solve their labour problems, the company introduced forced labour. The
chiefs were instructed to recruit able bodied men and hand them over to the
BSAC as labourers- “chibharo”. The Shona and Ndebele so enslaved ran
away into the hills to escape.

The presence of white settlements contrary to the agreements entered into.

Again this did not please the Ndeng who wanted to claim their ancestral
land back as in the reserves there was food shortage and starvation at times.

 CATTLE

Soon after the defeat of the Ndeng in the Anglo Ndebele war, the whites
confiscated the Ndeng cattle numbering about 250 000.

This drastically reduced the Ndeng herd and the Ndeng wanted their cattle
back as it was a sign of prestige.

 TAXATION

This was imposed on the Ndeng for a dual purpose

i) It was indirectly made to force the Ndeng to work in order to pay

tax.

ii) It was meant to increase the company income.

 Abuse of Ndebele women by Native Shona policeman.

In order to stop this abuse, the Ndebele had to fight the whitemen and the
employment of their former vassals the Shona as policemen did not please
the Ndebele as they were now told what to do by these Shona policeman.

 NATURAL DISASTERS

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It was at that time that natural disasters occurred. These included drought,
rinderpest a cattle disease and locusts. Africans gave these natural disasters
a religious interpretation; they argued that the presence of the whites had
angered their ancestors hence these natural disasters and they then found it
necessary to drive away the whites in an effort to bring the natural disasters
to an end.

 THE ROLE OF SPIRIT MEDIUM

These were very instrumental in bringing about a concented effort to drive

away the white man and they used a variety of methods. They passed
information on the progress made in the preparations for war. Some
prophesied that the fighters would be protected by their ancestors. They
also provided medicine which they claimed made the fighters’ bullet proof.

 They gave general encouragement to everybody and in some cases they

threatened death to all those who showed no interest.

2.21.2.2 RESULTS

 Africans were defeated because of the inferior weapons that they used
which included spears, shields, bow and arrows against the whitemen’s
machine guns, cannons and 7 pounders.

 Disunity and dis-organization among the Africans also led to this defeat
as some collaborated with the whites.

 Leaders and spirit mediums were captured and killed thereby leaving the
Africans direction less and leaderless.

 Africans lost faith in their spirit mediums in particular and in their

religion in general leading to many Africans being converted to
Christianity. However, although the Africans were defeated, their efforts
need to be recognised. It was the first time that they had fought a
common enemy as a united people.

 It was also important in that it laid the foundation for future wars of
resistance that is the 2nd Chimurenga etc.

 Notable heroes and heroines of the First Chimurenga were people like
Nehanda, Kaguvi, General Magwegwe and Mkwati of the Ndebele army,

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 Chief Chingaira, Mashonganyika, Muzambi, Maremba, Zvidembo,
Mazhindu, Manyongori, Gunduza, Mvenuri and Gutu.

2.21.3 Repressive Settler Legislation which dispossessed and

dehumanized Native Zimbabweans

Almost two hundred whites lost their lives during the first Chimurenga war
and many thousands of Africans died in battle and in the reprisals that
followed up to and during 1898. To secure their position the settlers enacted
many pieces of legislation that effectively proscribed or limited African
economic, cultural and political freedoms.

The Native Reserve Order In Council: 1898.

Effectively removed all native chiefs who were anti- settlers and replaced
them with puppet settler administrators. The act also created reserves or
cantonments in dry inhospitable areas.

The Hut Tax: 1903.

Enacted to raise revenue for settlers and to force black men to go and work
for the white man.

The Dog Tax and Land Bank acts: 1912.

The land bank act provide d new white settler farmers with free tillage for
five years and the same period as grace before commencing to repay loans
from the state owned Land bank.

The European Produce Act: 1917.

Discriminated against natives in so far as agricultural production was

concerned with respect to quantities they could market or the prices they
could fetch.

The Morris Carter Commission:1925.

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Divided the whole country into agro-zones based on rainfall patterns from
the highest rainfall region 1 to the lowest rainfall region 5. Natives were
trans- located to regions 4 and 5.

The Land Apportionment Act: 1930.

In 1930 whites who numbered 50 000 were allocated 49 000 000 acres of
prime land while blacks who numbered 1 000 000 were allocated 28 000 000
acres of the worst land in regions 4 and five. The translocation of blacks was
accompanied with untold violence and starvation and malnutrition became
endemic. More government officials were employed country wide and effect
while rule and these included native commissioners and police man. A
land policy after 1905 was affected which started to impoverish ty blacks
and to keep them politically ineffective. Africans were also excluded from
government through strict qualifications e.g.. The right to vote was given to
males over 21 days with an annual income of 50 000 pounds or with
property worth 75 pounds. The Land Apportionment Act of 1930 confirmed
and legalised the displacement of Africans that had been ongoing earlier.

Up until 1906, ninety percent of Southern Rhodesia’s agricultural produce

came from black farmers and many whites did not like this state of affairs.
As a result, the Rhodesia Native Labour Bureau (RNLB) stopped blacks
from competing with whites and between 1908 and 1915, 1.5 million acres
of the best land was taken from blacks and given to whites. New
boundaries were created to exclude fertile high rainfall areas from newly
created reserves. The latter were located in semi arid areas. Blacks in
regions 1, 2 and 3 were made to pay higher grazing fees and taxes. Since
many could not pay they were removed and settled in reserves which were
situated far away from markets and rail and tarred motor roads. By the
1920s, 65% of the black population had been forced into reserves. This led
to cycle of poverty among Africans which persists up to today -2004.

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The Maize Control Act:1935.

The act protected white farmers from black competition in maize

production. 2 grades of maize were made, A grade for whites and B grade
for blacks. A grade fetched a higher price while B fetched a lower price.
Whites also paid less for maize they bought from blacks.

The Cattle Levy Act:1934.

 Whites paid less on the market for cattle bought from blacks.

 The government paid more to whites for their cattle.

 This system impoverished the blacks who were loosing out through this
fraudulent commercial arrangement. As the blacks became poorer in the
reserves they migrated or translocated to towns.

Industrial Conciliation Act:1934.

 Blacks were denied the right to join trade unions.

 Higher paying jobs were reserved for whites that are skilled and semi-
skilled job.

 The act was latter amended to allow natives to become nurses and
teachers.

Racial Discrimination Act:1934.

 The act barred social inter-action between the races for an example it was
an offence for a white to share a toilet with a black man or to mix in
schools, hospitals, or hotels even cemeteries.

The Land Husbandry Act: 1951.

 The act barred any African family from owning more than five herd of
cattle or eight acres of land in the communal lands.

The Tribal Trust Land Act:1965.

 The act segregated the ownership of land between white areas and black
areas. Natives could only occupy land in communal lands without

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 holding title to it. In Towns natives could only lease property and no
black man could own a house in town until after 1980.

The Land Tenure Act:1969.

 The act divided the land on racial lines and designated the best 45 000
000 acres as European land and shared among the 250 000 whites and the
worst 45 000 000acres was designated as native land to be shared by the
5 000 000 blacks.

 The act also barred the races from encroaching in the other race’s land.

 PASS LAWS

 All black males were required to carry a pass or identity paper which any
white man or police officer of any race could demand at anytime
anywhere. This restricted black freedom of movement from place to
place.

2.21.4 AFRICAN REACTION TO REPRESSIVE AND RACIST

LEGISLATION

After the collapse of traditional resistance in 1898 Zimbabwe was ruled by

the British through the BSAC. Africans were speedily brought under control
and since company rule was increasingly becoming inadequate and
incapable of running the country, the British gave the settlers two options to
either join South Africa or to establish responsible self government. In a
referendum in 1923 the settlers chose the latter. The more the settler regime
became repressive the more the African spirit of resistance blazed. Early
resistance took crude forms such as jamming of factory machines or
refusing to work on farms and in mines. More refined resistance took the
form of strikes and joining trade unions.

 Between the 1st. and 2nd. World wars the vehicle for political agitation
among blacks were the trade unions. The African Railway Workers
Union and the Reformed Commercial and Industrial Workers Union were
the first and most effective and they also were non tribal.

 Bulawayo the industrial city of the nation at the time saw more political
activity originating and directed from that quarter. In 1945 the ARWU
called a strike that paralyzed the whole network from Mutare to Ndola in
Zambia’s copper belt.

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 In 1948 a general strike paralyzed all industrial and commercial activity
in all cities in the country.

 The white settlers connived to create the federation of the Rhodesias and
Nyasaland (Southern and Northern Rhodesia, ie Zimbabwe, Zambia and
Malawi)and by the early 1950s this absorbed the attention of the natives
since there were many false promises associated with the creation of the
federation. The federation was eventually created in 1953 and its major
features were the following;

 Polarization – all major manufacturing activity was concentrated in

Southern Rhodesia..

 The communications infrastructure tended to serve and favour Southern

Rhodesia with the Federation railways and airlines being headquartered
in Southern Rhodesia

 The University and all other institutions of higher learning were in

Southern Rhodesia.

 The settler colonialists embarked on a process of ethnic cleansing

designed to rid Southern Rhodesia of all its native blacks and Trans
locating them in Northern Rhodesia and replacing them with what were
perceived as docile migrant laborers from Zambia and Malawi.

 White settlers established permanent homes in Southern Rhodesia

dashing any hopes of early self determination for all the members of the
federation as long as the federation existed.

 1955 The city National Youth league was formed and it was a purely
workers movement operating in the urban areas.

 Church leaders also sympathized with their black congregations’ political

aspirations. Some churches criticized the settlers in their sermons and
hymns. However there were many racists church leaders who used
religion or Christianity to subdue and indoctrinate their black
congregations to accept a subservient role. These racist apologists were
happy to continue with the policies of segregation in church, politics and
the economy and the result was a proliferation of many independent
African churches.

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 In 1957, September 12, the African National Congress (ANC) was
formed and it was a merger between the old ANC and the City Youth
League led by Joshua Nkomo. It demanded majority rule.

 It co opted the rural peasantry and organized mass resistances against the
Land Husbandry Act (1951) and it urged the peasants not to cooperate
with the government. Garfield Todd, the federation premier (1953-1957)
who was a liberal, argued for accommodation of African demands but the
avowed racists in his cabinet called for repression of all African political
activity. As a result Todd was deposed in an internal coup for giving in to
black demands and David White head became premier and in 1959 e SR-
ANC was banned and hundreds of blacks thrown in jail.

 1959 to 1965 saw a host of new repressive laws come into effect such as;

The Native Affairs Act 1959

The Unlawful Organizations Act 1959

The Preventive Detention Act 159

The Emergency Powers Act 1960

The law and Order Maintenance Act. 1960

 Internal pressure on the settler government produced more and more

repression and the nationalists resorted to pressure Britain to reign in
the settlers and to give independence to blacks but Britain refused.

 January 1960 the National Democratic Party was formed and replaced the
SR-ANC. Joshua Nkomo was elected president and the leardership of the
party consisted of Ndabaningi Sithole, Herbet Chitepo, Robert Mugabe,
Bernard Chidzero, George Silunduka, Jaison Moyo, Leopold Takawira,
Josiah Chinamano, Dumbutshena etc.

 1961 The NDP was banned and the same year ZAPU was formed in
December.

 1962 December the Rhodesia Front was elected premier in Southern

Rhodesia and the party represented the hard core white racists determined
to wipe out all resistance to colonialism and Winston Field was then
premier.

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 1963 September ZAPU was banned.

 1964 August ZANU was formed due to disillusionment with the politics
of tolerance and accommodation and the party was led by Ndabaningi
Sithole.

 1964 ZANU was banned and all prominent nationalists were either in
prison or in exile.

 1964 saw the beginning of violent African resistance to colonialism with

many acts of sabotage. Of note is the action by self styled General Chedu
who led 100 youths calling themselves the Zimbabwe Liberation army.
The same year ZANU recruited and trained the first armed resistance to
colonialism and the Crocodile group drew first blood when they attacked
a police station and killed a white farmer in Chimanimani(Melsetter).

 1964 Ian Smith was elected premier of the settler government.

 1965 November 11th. Ian Smith’s Rhodesia Front made a Unilateral

Declaration of Independence. This made the country an illegal state and
although Britain still claimed to be the legitimate ruler they failed to
bring to justice the settler regime. At about the same time the little island
of Anquilla in the Pacific made a UDI and Britain did not hesitate to
reign in the rebels.

 UDI led the nationalists to adopt armed resistance as the first option to
gain self determination and the Smith regime went on an all out
campaign to stifle African aspirations and institutionalized arpertheid or
racial segregation as the system of governance and social and economic
life. The same year a state of emergency was declared. Such a declaration
has the effect of suspending some or all civil liberties and allows the state
to take extra judicial measures to deal with the crisis. What followed
were many years of state terrorism and murder to which the Africans
responded by intensifying the armed resistance - the second Chimurenga
war.

 By 1963 the nationalist had secured external bases in independent

African countries like Egypt, Tanzania and Zambia to train their armed
wings. Zanu’s armed wing became the ZImbabwe National Liberation
Army (ZANLA) and ZAPU’s armed wing became known as the

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 Zimbabwe People’s Revolutionary Army (ZIPRA). Training also took
place outside Africa in places like Cuba, China, and Russia.

 1966 at Chinhoyi the first externally trained ZANLA combatants clashed

with the security forces and all seven members of the group were killed.

 1967 August ZIPRA in alliance with the South African National

Congress’s armed wing Umkhonto Wesizwe deployed four groups of 20
combatants each group. The majority of combatants were killed in and
around Wankie district. Rhodesia airforce began to violate Zambian
airspace and another larger group was deployed by the alliance and again
was decimated.

 The South African government in response sent troops into Rhodesia and
the Smith government passed the Law and order maintenance
amendment bill – 7 September 1967. The law provided for a death
sentence on any one caught with arms of war

 Late 1969/early 1970 the Front for the liberation of Mozambique fighting
the Portuguese in Mozambique formed an alliance with ZANLA and with
more experience they provided training and logistical support which
proved invaluable and led to the opening of the eastern front. Mass
mobilization became the preferred tool of the armed resistance and met
with great success. Rhodesia and Portugal began joint operations in 1968.

 1972 December ZANLA scored success with the attack at Alterna farm
Centenary.

 1974 April in a coup in Portugal General Sipinoza deposed the premier

Salazaar and brought immediate independence to Mocambique, Angola
and Guinea Bissau.

 1974 John Vorster South Africa’s Boer premier initiated Détente a

policy of accommodation designed to neutralize the armed struggle by
promoting internal reactionary African nationalists in Zimbabwe. This
stalled and almost derailed the armed struggle especially with the death
/assassination of Herbet Chitepo on 18 March 1975 in Zambia.

 Chitepo became the chairman of Dare rechimurenga an organisation

formed after the banning and jailing of the nationalist leaders in 1964 and
his task was to prosecute the war while the leadership was in prison..

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 1972/1973 in response to guerrilla offensive the keeps or cantonments
were introduced in all war fronts to deprive the fighters food and other
support.

 1974 Internal rivalry and dissent rock both ZIPRA and ZANLA and the
OAU force the two to combine their armed efforts.

 1975 December ZANLA AND ZIPRA form the Zimbabwe people’s

army (ZIPA) and armed resistance gathered momentum in early 1976 as
ZANLA intensified operations in Gaza, Tete and Manica provinces or
fronts or regions according to ZIPRA terminology.

 1976 In bombing raids on camps in Mocambique, Rhodesians killed

many refugees and guerillas at Chimoio and Nyadzonya in Mocambique
and Freedom camp Mulungushi, and Chifombo in Zambia.

 March 1978 the so called Internal Settlement was reached between anti
war and reactionary black groups in Rhodesia.

 April 1979 the ANC’s Bishop Muzorewa was elected prime minister in
sham elections and temporarily the Zimbabwe Rhodesia hybrid state
existed and it was not recognized by any state except South Africa. It was
during this period that some of the most gruesome murders were
perpetrated against refugees and the armed resistance with the authority
and concurrence of Bishop Abel Muzorewa’s government.

 South Africa unable to meet the human and economic cost of the war in
Rhodesia pressured Smith for a negotiated solution.

 1979 October the British under international pressure convened the

Lancaster house talks. The parties to the talks were the British
government, the Patriotic Front(ZANU and ZAPU) and the internal
group Muzorewas ANC and Smith’s Rhodesia front. The talks could not
reconcile the demands of the parties especially on land but both groups
hoped against hope that they would win and be able to maintain their
claims and positions from a legialised position.

 1980 March l in internationally supervised elections Muzorewa failed to

win a single seat in parliament , Smith only got his reserved 20
whitemen’s seats, ZANU(PF) swept the board with 79 seats and

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 ZAPU(PF) got 20 seats from all of Matebeleland and ZANU –Ndonga
got one seat..

 Independence saw many unrepentant whites emigrating to New-Zealand

Australia Britain etc. where they continue to reminisce nostalgically
about the war and how Britain sold them out.

 1980 April 18 Zimbabwe became an independent state with Robert

Mugabe as premier. The new prime minister offered Josshua Nkomo the
titular head of state position but he declined to accept although several
ministries were headed by his other fellow ZAPU colleagues.

 1980 massive arms caches belonging to ZIPRA and which were suppose
to have been surrendered to the state are discovered and ZAPUs
properties with caches are confiscated by the state. Disturbances of a
tribal nature erupt in Bulawayo in Entumbanen and some people are
killed and the army is sent in to reign in rogue ZIPRA elements and some
these flee to the bush

 1982 Former ZPRA elements with clear support from the Arpetheid
regime in South Africa begin a campaign of sabotage, murder and
destabilisation in Matebeleland and the Midlands and such names as
Gwesela, Ndevu eziqamula inkomicho became household names for their
notoriety. Hoods, Conjwayo and other South African saboteurs and
agents provocateurs are apprehended in Zimbabwe. South Africa
unleashes a war of destabilization of all frontline states with rebel
movements RENAMO in Mocambique and UNITA in Angola wrecking
havoc to the economies of all Front line states..

 1982 In response to the rebellion by some ex ZIPRA elements the Fifth

brigade is deployed in Matebeleland and the Midlands and development
stalls in the affected areas as hundreds of Shona civilians perish at the
hands of dissidents and thousands of Ndebele civilians loose their lives in
reprisals by the Fifth Brigade.

 1987 December 22 after protracted negotiations spearheaded by

Zimbabwe’s first non executive president Mr. Canaan Banana, a unity
agreement is signed between ZANU PF and ZAPU PF. A new party
ZANU PF is created and Joshua Nkomo became a co vice president with
Simon Muzenda. All dissident to be incorporated into society and no

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 charges to be preferred against them and similarly no charges to be
preferred against any member of the Fifth Brigade.

 1980 saw the end of all formal or legal racial segregation but this evil and
immoral practice continued and exists unabated to date. The new
government made strides to correct the colonial evils in the following
areas;

1. Universal free primary and secondary education.

2. Free medical and health care

3. Policy of reconciliation towards the former settler

colonialists to which they have to date spurned.

4. Land distribution under the willing seller willing

buyer basis.

5. Integrate and demobilize the belligerents

6. Indeginisation- enabling the native Africans to

own and control business.

7. Expanding trade with the region and the world at

large

 1991 A foreign driven Economic structural programme from the IMF and
World Bank was adopted. The programme required Zimbabwe to
liberalize trade, which is allow free movement of goods from outside,
restrict or cut expenditure, and devalue or allow the local currency to
float.

 1998 due to ESAP food rioting took place in the major towns due to the
negative effects of ESAP.

 1998 August the Zimbabwe Defense Forces are deployed to the DRC to
help the beleaguered Kabila regime.

 1998 November Nearing the end of the restrictive 20 year non

compulsory acquisition of land close in the Lancaster agreement, a Land
Donor Conference is organised and many foreign donors pledge to assist
Zimbabwe but not a cent is remitted.

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 1999 The labour Union leadership breaks ranks with government and
threatens to form a political party under the leadership of Morgan
Tsvangirai and in September the same year this actual happens in the
form of the Movement for Democratic change...

 War veterans receive lump and monthly gratuities and in the build up to
the 2000 elections The labour leardership cum opposition party slides
more and more to the right and is seen supporting settler colonial
interests in land commerce and industry and receives massive monetary
and moral support from the same quarter. This alliance also receives
massive external assistance from foreign interests like the USA and UK
governments directly or indirectly through such organisations as the
Westminister Foundation etc.

 February 2000 a new draft constitution is taken to the people in a

referendum and labour, the opposition together with civic organisations
mobilise the electorate to reject it because allegedly it confers too much
power on the president but really because of the ‘no compensation for
land compulsorily acquired for settlement “clause in the constitution.

 2000 February realising the near success of the landed white class in
derailing the land redistribution by using political parties they funded and
helped to found, Veterans of Zimbabwe’s 2nd. Cimurenga and landless
peasants occupied white owned farms and forced government to make
appropriate legislation to fast track land distribution – The Land
Acquisition Act 2000.

 200 June in parliamentary elections the new party almost upset the ruling
ZANU(PF) party and wins 57 seats to 63 for ZANU PF.

 2000/2001 the opposition near success gives impetus to Britain to

ostracize the Mugabe regime and begins to talk about regime and forces
its friends to impose sanctions on Zimbabwe to ruin the economy in order
to make the electorate vote him out of power. Inflation rises steadily and
local white employers on the whole do everything to arm twist the
electorate to vote Mugabe out of power.

 2002 Presidential elections are won by the ZANU PF candidate and the
MDC refuses to concede defeat or to recognize the new government and
goes to court to challenge the election results and alleges intimidation
vote rigging etc.

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 2003 the nation is in a political stalemate with threaten invasion from
Britain and America and court challenges to the presidency continuing
and the opposition top leadership is arrested and taken to court for trying
to assassinate the president.

 2004 The 2003 scenario continues but inflation begins to fall and a
general optimistic expectation pervades the nation as preparation and
campaigning for the 2005 gubernatorial elections get underway.

2.22 The Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland(15 Dec 1953- 31 Dec

1963)

The Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland was the product of the

general election of December 15, 1953 and was the first election to the
legislative assembly of the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland, which
had been formed a few months before. The election saw a landslide victory
for the Federal Party under Godfrey Huggins who had been Prime Minister
of Southern Rhodesia for the past 20 years.
Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland, also called Central African
Federation, political unit created in 1953 and ended on Dec. 31, 1963, that
embraced the British settler-dominated colony of Southern Rhodesia
(Zimbabwe) and the territories of Northern Rhodesia (Zambia) and
Nyasaland (Malawi), which were under the control of the British Colonial
Office.
From the 1920s white European settlers in the Rhodesias had sought some
form of amalgamation to counter the overwhelming numerical superiority of
black Africans, but this had been blocked by a British Colonial Office that
was sensitive to profound African opposition.
2.22.1 The Idea Of Federation 1953 to 1963
The term federation means loose coalition of nations or organizations where
by each nation report to its central leader whilst returning its
otonomy/independence.
The idea of forming a federation of Southern Rhodesia, Northern Rhodesia
and Nyasaland was discussed as early as 1915.
There were two main advantages for the federation, one was economic and
the other one was political.

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 1. economically the federation would give the BSAC control over a large
mineral producing area.
2. the whites in Southern Rhodesia would benefit from cheap labour
extracted from the three nations.
3. politically the whites in the three nations would increase their
armament, both by recruiting fighting men and capitalizing on the
weapons from the three nations.
4. the federation would also improve the settler security against enemies.
5. the principal aim for the establishment of federation was to fight the
Afrikaners in South Africa who had just won the elections and were
very powerful, but their relationship with the whites was not always
good.
6. another reason for federation was social, namely that the whites just
wanted to control the blacks in all the three nations.
2.22.2 Steps Towards The Establishment Of The Federation.
 In 1929 the Hilton Young Commission was appointed to look
into the federation question in East and Central Africa.
 The commission recommended against the union of the three
nations.
 It baesd its argument on the Devonshire Memorandum of 1923,
which has said that African interest were to be put first.
 It also recommended no self-government of the settlers in
Kenya and Tanzania would be recommended.
 This principle was therefore applied by the Hilton Young
Commission to Northern Rhodesia who felt that the whites
population in this country was so small that it could not make a
federation viable.
 In 1938 the Bledisloe Commission was again appointed to look
into the issue.
 Again the Commission objected the idea on the grounds that the
racial policies in the Southern Rhodesia were harmful to blacks.

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  In 1951 the conservative party in Britain won the election.
 This party supported the idea of federation.
 White politicians in Northern and Southern Rhodesia began to
campaign for the idea of federation.
 They openly explained that their nrelationship to the black was
like that of horse and the horserides.
 Inspite of all these objections the federation was imposed on
blacks in 1953
2.22.3 Federation Years 1953 to 1963
 The Federation was created in 1953 comprised of Southern Rhodesia,
Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland.
 There was a total of 310 000 whites in all the three nations, and 8 500
000 Africans. The Federal Parliament had 35 seats but 29 belonged to
the whites and only 6 were for the blacks.
 The Federation however did not benefit Zambia and Malawi, it only
benefited Zimbabwe.
 100 000 pounds generated from the Zambians Copper Mine was spent
in Southern Rhodesia in building institutions like the University of
Rhodesia and Nyasaland, later on called the University of Zimbabwe.
 Furthermore, the powerstations at Kariba was built on the
Zimbabwean side.
 Northern Rhodesia and the Nyasaland provided ready markets for
finished goods.
 In Zambia , Harry Nkumbula and Kenneth Kaunda fought tirelessly
against the federation.
 In Malawi it was the effort of Kamuzu Hastings Banda who also
fought against federation.
 In Southern Rhodesia people like Joshua Nkomo who formed the
ANC in 1957 led the people in the fight against federation.

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2.22.4 The 1961 constitutional proposals
 A new constitution was harmed out in Southern Rhodesia in 1961.
 According to the constitution the electorate was divided into two, the
A and B rolls.
 Roll A would elect 50 of the 65 members of the partiam whilst roll B
would elect only the remaining 15.
 To qualify for roll A one had to have the following:
1. An income of at least 792 pounds per year.
2. fixed property valued at 1650 pounds.
To qualify for roll B one had to have the following:
1. income of 264 pounds per year or ownership of fixed property valued
at 495 pounds
A minister of religion or headmen with 20 or more followers automatically
qualifies into the B roll. However three votes on the B roll were equivalent
to one vote in the A roll.
 Joshua nkomo and Ndabaningi Sithole had attended the
conference in 1961 and they had surprisingly agreed to these
terms.
 The federation broke on December 31, 1963 and Northern
Rhodesia and Nyasaland went on to attend independency the
following year.
 When the federation ended Southern Rhodesia benefited in 3
ways:
i) all the military was taken by Southern Rhodesia
ii) university of Rhodesia and Nyasaland became the
University of Rhodesia now University of Zimbabwe.
iii) The Kariba powerstation was now controlled by Southern
Rhodesia (Zimbabwe) although it also applied to Zambia.

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 2.23 ACTIVITIES
 Discuss the major causes of slavery and its effects
 Analyse the major deliberations of the Berlin Conference
of 1884-
 Discuss the causes and effects of colonization of
Zimbabwe
 Show how the repressive colonial legislation
proletarianised and pauperized the blacks during the
colonial era
 Examine the colonisatioin process of Zimbabwe by
Europe
 Analyse the causes and effects of Anglo-Ndebele War,
the1st Chimurenga War and 2nd Chimurenga

UNIT 3

ZIMBABWE HERITAGE

3.1 OBJECTIVES
By the end of the unit the student should be able to:
 Discuss the following;
i)Political Heritage
ii)Cultural Heritage
iii)Economic Heritage
 Analyse the concept of ubuntu/ unhu in the contemporary society.

The heritage of any nation is based on that nation’s enduring political

tradition. In the USA, the national heritage is a deep rooted political legacy
born out of the war and rebellion against Great Britain and this is embodied
in the term REPUBLICANISM. The French, who are fiercely proud of their
heritage, have the French revolution which climaxed in the storming of the

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Bastille palace and the slaughter of the nobility as their national heritage.
Similarly, the young nation of Zimbabwe has the ethos of the second
Chimurenga as the national and enduring political tradition. The second
chimurenga ethos embodies political, cultural as well as economic principles
which define and continue to sustain us as a nation. To destroy any nation,
all one has to do is undermine that nation’s heritage hence the continuing
psychological war by the enemies of Zimbabwe to distort and demonize not
only the second chimurenga war but those who participated in that war and
especially the heroic leaders of that struggle.

A heritage can be defined as an enduring legacy, a definitive event,

achievement, tradition or theory to which the peoples of a specific nation
rally around, and have emotional attachments and for which they are
prepared to defend and to go to war if threatened or violated.

3.2 SOCIAL and CULTURAL HERITAGE

Culture in Zimbawe reflects the major ethnic and tribal groups in the society
The demographic statistics show that the people of Shona extraction
constitute about ninety percent of the population with the Ndebele at 2.5%,
Tonga, Venda, Kalanga, Cewa Nambia, Shangaan and other smaller groups
constituting about 7%. The white population has dwindled to less than o.1%
of the population. Inspite of their small number the Ndebele influence on
culture is fairly strong not only on the smaller groups but has rubbed on to
the Shona tribes adjacent to them. The reverse is also quite true. Culture is
dynamic. As a result it is a correct generalization that there is such a thing as
African culture in Zimbabwe as opposed to European culture. There are at
most only variations in customs among the various African groups in
Zimbabwean society but the customs are either the same or closely resemble
each other. Zimbabwean African culture has the following major elements;

- Nuclear or extended family

- Recognition and respect for age, parents and authority.

- Respect for hard and honest work.

- Acceptance of good morals in terms of dress, sex, and marriage.

There has however been a strong negative influence due to the mass media
on the African culture in Zimbabwe. Television radio and the print media
have done much harm in undermining the superior African culture by

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encouraging foreign tastes and habits in terms of diet, dress, the family,
marriage, sex and the extended family. The first culprit has been the African
family with divorce (unknown and unthinkable in pure African culture)
wrecking many families. Disease due to sex before marriage and prostitution
has grown to pandemic levels especially AIDS related ailments. The white
mans’ consumption or spending patterns have also spread among young
Zimbabweans and they are finding the extended family unbearable. Greed
and exclusiveness are the hallmarks of the white mans’ culture and this is
spreading fast among urbanized Africans. Unlike the white person in
Zimbabwe, the African does not have sufficient expendable cash and as
a result debt and unfulfilled desires and wants are making the lives of many
Zimbaweans miserable.

African culture remains the superior culture in that it keeps society and the
nation cemented. Moreover such social ills as prostitution, pandemics, street
kids, crime and political opportunism (kutengesa nyika) because of greed
would be non existent. All these ills are a result of lack of self respect and
lack of personal identity due to wanting to be a white person eg. Michael
Jackson who straightens his nose or an African woman who wears false hair
extensions to look like a Caucasian or preferring to speak in a foreign
language and not vernacular..

The legacies we have as Africans in terms of diet are also unchalengable in

that traditional diet consisting of small grains legumes and African fruits,
vegetables and nuts naturally prevent such diseases as obesity/kusimba - a
common feature of most urbanized woman and the major cause of high
blood pressure, hypertension, osteoporosis and infertility.

In medicine, traditional herbs and a good diet remain undoubtedly the

panacea for a long healthy life and the solution to such problems as AIDS
more so than condoms.

Marriage and the family are the economic base of any society and nation.
Premarital sex, divorce and sex for money and perversions such as
lesbianism homosexuality, drug taking including alcohol directly attack and
undermine the family and as such society. A multiplicity of sexual partners
before marriage will always lead one to either multiple sex partners in
marriage or lack of satisfaction with one partner in marriage.

In religion opinions vary but the facts remain. In African culture the
fundamentals of Christianity are firmly embedded. Respect for age, parents

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and authority, good morals that is no fornication or adultery no perversion
that is no homosexuality, taking care of the needy etc. are biblical positions
that remain unchangeable. In short the white mans’ culture is not only
incompatible with Christianity, it is in fact the antithesis and a direct attack
on everything Godly, that is , it is devilish.. The problem between African
religion and Christianity is not lack of morals in African religion, but
methods of accessing God or worship. Indeed this writer is convinced there
is lots of superstition with respect to methods of worship in African
religion in as much as most main line and emerging Christian churches are
thoroughly paginated. It is only right and good therefore to promote and
maintain our morally superior culture while adopting correct Christian
methods of worship.

Our religious inheritance will therefor remain for all time our good cultural
values or morals.

The values of any society therefor serve to define that society’s identity.
History has much been distorted by painting the African culture as
irreligious to the extent that it is almost the accepted value among most
young Zimbaweans to be immoral because a White Christian has an
immoral value or practice for an example walking naked or partial naked in
public despite the fact that this violates Christian principles. The Black
person should there for not use the Whiteman’s values, or morals or
immorals as the case may be as the reference point for good or bad values
but should use traditional practice as the point of departure and compare that
with biblical principles which remain unchanging Our values as Africans
clearly identify and portray us as a people who shun immorality graft
corruption and laziness. We respect family and authority and hard work. We
believe in God and we have no room for atheism in our culture.

The second chimurenga also defines our political and economic values. At
the economic level the legacy of the second chimurenga and our heritage
from that event is that the resources that are God given belong to
Zimbabweans irrespective of race or creed or tribe. Thus the land as resource
number one belongs to all Zimbabweans. White Zimbabweans with very
negligible exceptions believe that land and all ill gotten gains from the
international crime of colonialism and accompanying ethnic cleansing and
segregation are legitimately and exclusively the property of those former
criminals. Whites do not want to share our land with us. We have said we
will equitably share our land with whites and that remains and will always
remain the Zimbabwean African’s morally right and correct position. Any

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so called Zimbabwean therefore of any race who departs from this position
is not only a threat to the interests of the Nation, but is in effect and in
essence declaring that the second chimurenga was not won and lost, that is,
won by the Africans in Zimbabawe through much blood and joy, and lost by
settler colonialists through by much blood and tears. It amounts to a
declaration of war.

Through hard work and self- sustaining economic policies, Zimbabweans

with land firmly in their hands, can engage other nations at the economic
level and benefit from the comparative advantages we have in terms of
skilled disciplined labour, good climate, an abundance of minerals and
varied flora and fauna - domestic and wild. Economic activity therefor
should benefit Zimbabweans first and foremost and this should happen
through an internal driven economic programme and not one that is
externally driven. Political liberation simply relates to universal common
suffrage being available to all citizens. This was gained fully at Lancaster as
manifested in the result of the 1980 elections and subsequent elections
whether presidential or gubernatorial. Such a gain is hollow and empty and
absolutely useless if it is not used to bring about economic emancipation.
Political emancipation there for leads to and of necessity must lead to
economic emancipation. This has eluded not only Africa but most of the
former colonies through the practice of neo colonialism by the former
colonizers and the USA and most of the developed world. The war for
economic emancipation is the last war and it is the most difficult war in that
it is now being fought at the psychological level through global media
houses and the agency of corrupted local comprador/reactionary/collaborator
journalists who raise and imagine and publish false notions of the freedoms
of expression assembly and association. This leads to people as it were
shooting themselves in the foot because they through a corrupted democracy
– one in which the voters’ perceptions have been warped in favour of their
colonisers - vote into power those who perpetrate their economic
subjugation. The battle for perceptions is an unfair war, and it is most cruel
and criminal because of the open aggression through demands made on
former colonies under the guise of human rights.

At the political level the second chimurengas’ heritage is that as a people we

are sovereign and can determine our own destiny without outside
interference and through democratic processes designed to safeguard our
hard won independence. (See governance under legal and parliamentary
affairs.)

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3.3 Ubuntu\Unhu\Moral Values-The African Values Perspective
3.3 .1 CONCEPT OF “UBUNTU”
 Mbigi and Maree (1995:p7), define Ubuntu as the sense of solidarity
or brotherhood which arises among people within marginalized or
disadvantaged groups .
 It is not unique to African people, but can also be found elsewhere.
 It is the foundation of communal African livelihood.
 It expresses our “interconnectedness, our common humanity and
responsibility to each other that deeply flows from our deeply felt
connection” (Nussbaum 2003;2).
 It brings to the fore images of supportiveness, co-operation and
communism (Koster 1996:111).
 Nussbaum (2003:2) views it as the capacity in African culture to
express companion, reciprocity, dignity, harmony and humanity in the
interest of building and maintaining community with justice and
mutual caring. “Personhood is the central theme of Ubuntu.
 It is based on the Zulu proverb”Umuntu ngumuntu ngabantu,”
meaning a person is a person through other people.
 This Ubuntu affirms the humanity of one person being directly related
to next person’s humanity.
 Archbishop Tutu (199:34-35) characterises a person with Ubuntu as “
one who is open and available to others, affirming, does not feel
threatened that others are able and good, for he\ she has a proper self
assurance that he or she belongs in a greater whole is diminished
when others are humiliated, when others are tortured or treated as if
they were less than who they are from the foregoing, it is clear that
ubuntu is characterised by human dignity, respect, interdependence,
compassion, solidarity and taking care of your own.
 Tambalusi and Kayuni(2005:147-161) presuppose that there is no
reason for one to grab other’s property, get forced gifts from fellow
human beings in whatever form. In this view, there is no justification
for extortion, demanding bribes or extortion for service delivery areas
in Zimbabwe.

 In view of the above , prostitution; immoral dress such as miniskirts,

tight fitting clothing; murder; rape; robbery; burglary, drug abuse;
alcoholism; abusive language; lack of respect of senior citizens;
corruption; dishonesty, gay movement(homosexuality and
lesbianism), among others, are all characteristics of lack of ubuntu.

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  The point in this case is that as Zimbabweans we must cherish our
ubuntu principles in our social, political, economic, and professional
settings or lives for the good of our country

 Lack of ubuntu can be observed in most Government departments

such as the police, mining, city councils, immigration, among others,
where corruption, mismanagement or any other form of malpractices
such as demanding bribes and extortion are rampant.

 From another view point, Mandela (1994) captures the essence of

ubuntu in the following quotation; “I am not truly free if I am taking
away someone’s freedom or rights just as truly when my freedom is
taken away .” The point in this case is that as Zimbabweans we must
cherish our ubuntu principles in our social, political, economic, and
professional settings or lives

3.3.2 Ubuntu and Leadership

 As Zimbabwean citizens, we are leaders in various capacities such as

at family, group, community, occupational and national levels and we
are expected to be role models in terms of our moral
values(ubuntu/unhu)
 Leadership is the process of directing and influencing the task related
activities of group members (Stoner et al, 1995: 470).
 Leaders use powers and influence to get the activities effectively
performed by followers.
 Whereas power is defined as the ability to exert influence, that is to
change attitudes or behaviour of individuals or groups; influence
refers to any actions or examples of behaviour that cause a change in
attitude or behaviour of another person or group.

 It must, therefore, be pointed out that leadership is about values.

 According to James McGregor Burns (cited in Stoner et al, 1995:
470), the leader who ignores the moral components of leadership may
well go down in history as a worse.
 Thus, moral leadership concerns values and requires that followers be
given enough knowledge of alternatives to make intelligent choices
when it comes time to respond to a leader’s proposal to lead.

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 As noted by ethicist Michael Josephson (quoted in Stoner et al,
1995:470), followers or employees do not learn ethics from people
who sermonize or moralise or try to preach to them about ethics, but
learn ethics from the people whom they admire and respect, who have
power over them and those are the right people or teachers of ethics.
 It is, therefore, important to reinforce ideals if they are sincere.

 It is also very important for leaders and role models, whether they be
sports figures, politicians / rulers or Senior Government Officials to
make positive statements of ethics, if they say (Stoner et al 1995:
470). If leaders are not hypocritical, they can account for their actions.

 The ideas articulated in this case by Stoner et al (1995), squarely

matches the concept of “Ubuntu in(Zulu/ Ndebele and Unhu in
Shona)” Ubuntu refers to love for God, love for one another, and
bringing to ourselves and the rest of the world music, sport, arts
and other forms of expression which bring out the best of the
human spirit and connects people across the boundaries of
material life (Rukuni,2007:450). Given the poor service delivery and
corruption which characterize various sectors of Zimbabwe, what
ethics/values or Ubuntu/Unhu do some of our fellow citizens portray
to the society?
 Van der Colff (2003) points out that Ubuntu calls for leadership which
espouses the values of leadership legitimacy, communal enterprise
and value sharing. She argues that these values are vital for
establishing an enabling culture and a set of skills and competencies
valued in most leadership situations.
 Historically, African leadership is based on participation,
responsibility and spiritual authority. According to Lessen and
Nussbaum (1996), African leadership calls for transparency,
accountability and legitimacy. On the contrary; Van der Colff (2003)
contends that leadership legitimacy can only be promoted by being
role models for their followers through their actions and sticking to

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 values and goals. Thus leaders must be of integrity before expecting
the same for followers.
 Furthermore, a leader with Ubuntu values must create an enabling
environment for their followers. He / She must be fair, helpful and
considerate and support followers in their legitimate requests..
 Karsten and IIIa( 2005) highlight that Ubuntu decision making is
characterised by consultation, communal participation and open
conversation. Evidently, Ubuntu leadership entails a critical discourse
since voices of all participants in organisations or groups are involved
and emphasis is on consensus building.
 This is strikingly similar to indigenous African political systems
whose story telling, inclusive decision making and participatory
community meetings were key. Coercive powers were generally not
used to achieve a common goal. Rather, consensus was the means.
“Majority of opinion did not count; unanimity was the rule (Ayittey
1991:100). As a result, communal meetings were not largely
characterised by haggling and debate but a search for deeper
comprehension of issues and a spontaneous emergency of solutions.

 The key issue here is the “value system” that guides and controls
behaviour. According to Tambulasi and Kayuni (2005 147 – 160),
some African public officers perceive the concept of Ubuntu to be all
encompassing and its pursuance is viewed as an empowerment to pay
less attention to western derived principles of democracy and good
governance. In view of this, would the mixed-bag of western value
systems and African value systems help Zimbabwean citizen achieve
the desired results or outcomes in social ,economic and political life?
The question is “can African feet divorce Western shoes?” This
follows Richard Tammbulasi and Happy Kayuni (2005)’s quest for
reality about Unbuntu/Unhu,/Butho.

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3.4 Economic Heritage

National resources.

Zimbawe is endowed with many natural resources which in certain instances

places the nation on the strategic resources map of the world.

Land

Zinbabwe’s land mass is about - million square miles and has a very
conducive climate being neither too hot nor too cold and has an average
rainfall of about 1500 ml.

Minerals

Zimbabwe has the following minerals; chrome, iron, coal, gold, copper, tin,
emeralds. Diamonds, platinum nickel.

Our Chrome, platinum, nickel and coal reserves are of global strategic
importance because they are ranked in the top five in terms of quantity and
quality. Unfortunately control of these minerals is still in foreign hands and
as a nation we also are not yet adding value to them.

Wild life

The three major game parks in Zimbabwe are second to the combined
Kenyan and Tanzanian wild life population of the Serengeti game park. The
big five wild game –elephant, buffalo, giraffe, lion and rhino are more
abundant in our game parks than in any other park in the world..

People

With a population of about 14 000 000 people Zimabwe is still sparsely

populated considering that our land mass can sustain seventy million people
with optimal economic utilization. The plus about this population is its
literacy levels –about 87% and its varied skills base from which even the
most advanced nations are tapping into. Through many tricks especially after
the 2000 parliamentary elections, the Western countries have not rested in
trying to spark a civil war in Zimbabwe which they will use as a pretext to
directly interfere in the politics of this nation. Thatchell the infamous
homosexual has been quoted as saying that he is not only organizing but
sponsoring a group consisting of personnel in Zimbabwes’ armed forces and
in the diaspora to militarily bring about an end to the Mugabe regime in

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Zimbabwe. The West Minister Foundation And even much earlier the
Heritage Foundation a USA right wing organization are trying and had tried
to use opposition parties in Zimbabwe to engage the Zimbabwean armed
forces . On the whole the people of this nation have refused to be used in this
very destructive and dangerous way and have democratically expressed their
wishes at the polls. The people of this nation save those who pipe and beat
the drum of this nation’s enemies remain resolutely united in the face of an
unprecedented onslaught from Europe and the USA. .

3.5 NATIONAL SYMBOLS.

The National Anthem

Born and inspired by the war of liberation, the national anthem is as it were
the rallying point of the nation. Authored by Professor Mutsvairo, it
describes and narrates in a few words our origins, history, beliefs and
aspirations.

The National Flag

The national flag represents state wood and together with the court of arms
they are the official and visible tokens of the state and its authority and
existence. The flag is also a product of the war of liberation. The red star
represents our socialist ideals and the Zimbabwe bird proudly points back to
our distant origins and prowess as a people and nation in antiquity among
the great civilizations of the world. The white background on which the
above two are superimposed represents our desire for peace and tranquility
within and without. The red stripes symbolize the blood of the heroes who
died liberating the country, yellow our mineral resources, green our flora and
fauna and black the indigenous African natives of this nation. It is incumbent
upon every Zimbabwean and any foreigner on our soil to acknowledge our
statehood by standing at attention when the flag is lowered where ever and
what ever one is doing. Standing at attention is not a religious act as some
over zealous and misguided so called Christians think. Kneeling or bowing
down in reverence is a religious act reserved for God that is why Shadrech
and his other two friends were thrown in a furnace. Nowhere in Christian
writing is standing erect an act of worship or homage. It would be only right
and fair to refuse to kneel to the flag for every Christian. It is only right and
fair for every Christian to stand erect in recognition not homage of those
who rule them.

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The Great Zimbabwe monument.

Located near Masvingo town , it represents unparalleled architectural design

and construction and stands as a direct insult to those who have ridiculed
Africans of possessing no scientific psychological make up or achievements
or capability. It was used as a palace and a temple by the kings of the great
Zimbabwe period and latter dynasties.

The Victoria Falls.

A natural geological formation from years of erosion, the feature has few
rivals if any and has water plunging a hundred meters forming thunder and
mist from which its more appropriate Tonga names is derived from –mosi a-
tunya the smoke that thunders. It is the nation’s prime tourist resort
attraction.

3.6 Activities
 Discuss the following;
i)Political Heritage
ii)Cultural Heritage
iii)Economic Heritage

 Critically analyse the concept of ubuntu/ unhu in the contemporary

society

UNIT 4

CIVIC RESPONSIBILITIES

4.1OBJECTIVES

By the end of the unit students should be able to:

 Define civic responsibility and patriotism.

 Explain and apply civic responsibility activities in the real world.

4.2Disasters

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As technology has advanced so has disasters or accidents associated
with it and at the same time what appears to be natural disasters have
also increased. Management of these disasters has become a major
science and the role of each citizen in disasters has become an
imperative. Major disasters can be listed as,

-disease pandemics eg. AIDS, SARS and Ebola

-Floods as a result of unusually high rainfall due to industrialization or

broken dam walls

-Drought due to changing weather patterns as a result of

industrialization.

-Accidents at the work place e.g. airplane crashes, gas leaks, nuclear
contamination,etc

-Earthquakes.

 Disease management is first and foremost an individual

responsibility. Correct dietary and sexual habits are the first front
line. Each individual is a national resource and eating junk food or
recklessly imbibing in drugs or alcohol destroys that line as much as
taking irresponsible and immoral sexual behavior like sex before
marriage or infidelity within marriage. With infectious diseases, each
individual should take note and report any suspected infections and
quarantine self or the affected victim.

 Floods, earthquakes and workplace disasters require the nation to

rally behind those affected by donating food and clothes and shelter.
It is also necessary to avoid flood and quake prone areas and to take
heed to quake or flood warning.

 Industrial accidents are a manmade problem which require social

responsibility to minimize the risks. There is no such thing as safe
technology. The issue at stake is risk minimization and management.

 Droughts have always been there before the white man’s agriculture
and especially exotic crops such as maize. Despite droughts, Africa
was not found unpopulated as a result. A banana plant does not grow
in Gokwe as naturally as it does in Rusitu valley in as much as maize
thrives in Peru but is prone to drought in Zimbawe. Maize is a stock

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 feed that grows well in its homeland in South America but is prone to
drought in Zimbabwe. On the other hand small grains thrive in
Zimbabwe and are highly nutritious for humans. The paradigm shift
in our dietary habits will go a long way towards national food self
sufficiency because eventually sooner rather than latter even irrigated
crops will fail when there is no flow in the dams. There is no other
credible long lasting solution to drought at the family or national
level than reverting to the small grains.

 :In defense of the Nation

 All stable nations thrive on patriotism. Patriotism relates to each

citizen’s ability to identify with his nation by being able to
distinguish between party political issues and national issues.
Sovereignty, land and defending the nation are not party political
issues but national issues to which every real Zimbabwean must stand
up in defense.

4.3 Patriotism

 Defending the nation physically and in armed combat when called

upon to do so by the authorities in power or individually when the
situation so demands like in the case of unilateral superpower attack.

 Defending the nation through positive publicity. The nation’s greatest

and most potent enemy today is the one amongst us who agrees to
spread falsehoods about the nation’s politics and economy. Other than
the dissident menace, Zimbabwe has been the most peaceful nation at
par with countries like Botswana and Namibia.

 Supporting the nation through correct tax payments

 Practice environmentally friendly practices e.g. avoiding littering,

pollution etc.

 Preserve the national asset that is oneself by avoiding graft, crime,

corruption, greed and harmful behavior such as premarital sex, drug
abuse etc..

 Respect and tolerate other races, tribes, religions opinions and beliefs.

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  Cherish unity in diversity among the various stake holders in spite of
differences in approaches.

4.4 ACTIVITIES

 Define civic responsibility and patriotism.

 Explain and apply civic responsibility activities in the real world

UNIT 5

ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL PROLEMS FACED BY ZIMBABWE

SINCE 1980

5.1Objectives

By the end of the unit students should be able to:

 Discuss the problems faced by the government at and after

independence

 Explain how the government solved the problems that it faced at

and after independence

5.2 ECONOMIC PROBLEMS

 Need to develop rural areas to stop rural-urban drift and to correct a

hundred years of colonial rule.

 Redirect economic priorities to serve the whole population rather than a

small white section of the population.

 Bring health. Education, and shelter to all Zimbabweans.

 Recurring drought - 1983, 1992, 1997, 2002 as it negatively affects the

national economy and agricultural production.

 Deal with unfavourable terms of trade.

 Stop the shrinking in the economy and reverse growing unemployment.

 Resolve inflation and the Devaluation of the Zimbabwean dollar against

major international currencies

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 Gradual increase in prices of basic commodities due to speculation and
profiteering. s

 Falling commodity prices in the international market.

 Dis investment due to a more vigorous indegenisaion economic

approach.

 Political interference in the nation’s politics through the sponsoring and

creation of opposition parties with a foreign agenda..

 The brain drain

 Corruption

 Decline in moral values leading to AIDS

5.3 HOW THE GOVERNMENT HAS SOLVED THESE PROBLEMS

 Drought in Zimbabwe has been partly alleviated by importing grain from

abroad and construction of dams and also creating grain strategic reserves
seeds packs given to peasants to help them recover from droughts. Of
major importance has been the redistribution of land and reducing
pressure in the congested rural areas and settling people in areas with
fertile soils and high rainfall.

 The Ministry of Employment Creation and indegenisation have gone

some way in creating employment.

 Externally originated and driven economic policies have been

abandoned in favour of home grown solutions

 Profiteering and speculation which fueled inflation have been checked

gradually restoring sanity to the financial sector.

 ESAP has been abandoned by the government and attention has been
redirected to the East Asian economies to encourage investment and
cooperation.

 SADC and COMESA Union trade arrangements have been adopted to

encourage an increase in international trade.

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 However, Zimbabwe has not managed to solve all problems.

 Cost sharing in Education and Health have been instituted to alleviate

spiraling costs..

 Indigenisation, affirmative action, creation of SEDCO, the Land bank

land redistribution etc have all gone a long way towards alleviating the
unemployment problem.

 A new monetary policy together with an anticorruption drive has seen

inflation decreasing slowly but gradually.

 Reawakening of the peoples’ moral values and their culture as a solution

to decreasing and ultimately wiping out STDs and AIDS infection.

5.4 Activities

 Discuss the problems faced by the government at and after

independence

 Explain how the government has solved the problems that it faced
at and after independence

UNIT 6

LEGAL AND PARLIAMENTARY AFFAIRS

6.0 OBJECTIVES

By the end of this unit the student should be able to:

o Define Law and state its origins and purpose
o Discuss pre-colonial legal systems and compare them to
modern law.
o Explain the concept of Law enforcement justice and public
order.
o Discuss the Constitutional provisions of Zimbabwe
o Analyse the rights and freedoms as enshrined in the constitution

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6.1 LAW
6.1.1 Definition
Can be generally defined as;
a) ‘rules of behavior enforced by society’
b) “a body of established norms for the good governance of
society’
Austin defines law as,
c) “ a command set, either directly or circuitously, by a sovereign
individual and /or body, to a member or members of some
independent political society in which his authority is
supreme”.
Salmond defines law as,
d) “ consisting of principles which are recognized and enforced
by the courts in the administration of justice.”
Vinshisky (a one time attorney general in Russia in the ninetieth
century) defines law as;
e) “rules and regulations put in place by those in power in order to
protect their interests.”
The major elements in Austin’s definition are:
1) “ the command of a sovereign’. This suggests use of force and
the right to command.
2) The definition is deficient in that it lacks such ethical elements
as justice, consistence and uniform application. In this present
day and age law is looked at as the balance and union between
might and rightness or justice and legitimacy. The definition
also excludes the law enforcement aspect – the courts.
Salmond, an English judge emphasizes the aspect of “principle” and
“recognition’ and in typical English legal tradition leaves room and
gives a free hand to the judge to determine what is a recognized
principle and what is not. Moreover, this definition does not deal
with the element of legitimacy assuming that English political
authority is right and legitimate always and everywhere and in one
statement legitimating such evils as colonialism or wars of conquest.
A principle can be defined as “ something that can be applied over a
large range of cases resembling one another in their most essential
features” and the result or outcome is invariably the same.

Vinshisky ‘s definition is more behavioral in approach and scope and

explains the origins; purposes and justification of such laws as the Hut
tax the Land apportionment act and the Land Tenure act in pre-

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 independent Zimbabwe. It also explains the current laws being made
to reverse the very same laws e.g. the Land acquisition Act, POSA
and AIPPA. Everywhere even in Britain law is not made in pursuit of
that elusive thing called justice but for the protection of the interests
of those in power. To a large extent this is a Marxist definition and is
precise in so far as it is realistic and not idealistic. No law is just per
se’. All law is premised on maintaining the status quo and the
advantages - political and economic- of those in authority or of the
ruling class.

6.1.2 Purpose of Law;

 Realistically the purpose of law is to protect the interests
of those making the law.

 Idealistically the purpose of law is to bring about law and

order, predictability, stability and peace.

6.1.3 The nature of law

Man is a social animal. The term ‘society’ or community suggests
norms or behavioral patterns in the society. Behavior patterns become
social customs with the passage of time, usage, and acceptance. Social
customs attract social sanctions if and when violated e.g. Labeling
such as uri nzenza or ostracism etc. Social custom evolves into legal
custom once they are enforced and accepted in the law courts e.g.. van
Breda and Others vs. Jacobs.

6.1.4 Natural law or lex Naturalis and the origins of law.

Natural law can be viewed broadly as a product of the biblical
principle ‘ do unto others as you would want them to do unto you’.
Evolutionists suppose that man had to escape from a state of nature
that is lawless society. In such a society each member of society does
as he pleases and is a law to himself and does not value nor does he
respect the welfare of others. Thomas Hobbes views law as an
authoritarian command, which should be legitimated by its
consistence or compliance to natural law that is one gives as much as
he is willing to receive. One enjoys unchallenged enjoyment of

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 staying in his house because he in turn does not threaten the
undisturbed enjoyment of other people’s homes.
Statute law or legislation is just law if only it is an extension of natural
law. Lawmakers are therefore bound by natural law and it flows
naturally from right reason. Natural law is seen as the moral basis
and norm for legislators and governments. The state is thus a product
of men or members of society contracting to appoint a single body or
will to bear or represent all of them. Members of society therefore
enter into a social contract, which is characterized by a mutual
transfer of rights. Lex naturalis proscribes man from doing that
which is destructive of his life or taking away the means of preserving
his life. Man in a state of nature has the right to everything and is
governed by his own reason and can do anything to anyone to further
his interests. Thus man should be willing if and when others are
willing and in so far as his security and peace are assured as he sees it,
waive his right to every thing and be satisfied with as much liberty
against others as s he receives from others. Every member of society
should therefore surrender as much in terms of rights as the other
person is prepared or willing to surrender. This alludes to the entering
of a social contract by people whose desire is to escape from a state of
nature. All modern law is presumed to be based on natural law.

6.1.5 The origins of law /Sources of law

 Persuasive sources of law
These are references, which the law courts resort to in order
to tilt the balance for or against a decision or controversial
point of law. These are; a) social custom, b). Legal literature
by jurists, c) Judicial precedent specifically Obiter Dicta or
that part of a judges decision in a novel case which are side
statements and not the actual principle.

 Binding sources of law

These are references, which are followed in determining what is
legal, or are not. It consists of legal principles in the following
forms;
a) Legal custom; Social custom that can be enforced in the
law courts
b) Judicial precedent/common law; the legal principles
established each time a new case or situation comes

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 before a judge. It is based on ratio decided, that is the
legal basis on which a decision is reached.
c) Legislation; this refers to law made by the legislature or
parliament and is termed statutory law or acts of
parliament. Parliament delegates its authority to make
law to such bodies as municipalities and the law they
make is termed delegated legislation that is, statutory
instruments or by laws. Where there is a conflict between
the various laws, the statutory law position takes
precedence and nullifies any other position.

6.1.6 Principles / characteristics of legislated law

All law, to be valid, should be seen to possess the following
elements;
i) Doctrine of impartiality;
a) Equality -there should be seen to be equality in the
application of law among citizens.
b) Uniformity - there should be spatial uniformity in the
application of law.
c) Just application- law should be seen to be morally right.

ii) Authority;
a) Separation of powers – the legislature, judiciary and the
executive should be separated to ensure counterbalancing
and counterchecking the exercise of the powers of state.
b) Doctrine of ultra and intra virus- all law should be made
within the confines of the law i.e. in consistence
to/with the constitution.
iii) Certainty;
– The law should not be retroactive or ex-post-factor

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6.1.7 Divisions/classification of law

LAW

National Law International

Law
Criminal Law
Private
International
Admin Law Law
Public
International
Constitutional Law Law
Law of
treaties
Civil Private Law
Law of
sea
Commercial Law
Company Law

Family Law
Industrial Law

Labour Law
National law is the body of rules and regulations that govern the behavior of
citizens of and within a specific country and it is further subdivided into
three specializations. These three distinctions are not based on the type of
act/omission but on the legal action that follow.

Criminal law is where criminal proceedings are instituted against a person

for committing a crime that is an act or omission that attracts sanctions –
fines or imprisonment or both. The parties in criminal proceedings are; the
State vs. the defendant or the accused. The outcome is guilty or not guilty.

Civil law is where civil proceedings are instituted or where an individual

sues another individual in a legal suite. The parties in civil proceedings are

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the plaintiff or complainant (the one suing) and the defendant (the one being
sued). The result of or sentence of the proceedings is commission of a wrong
or no commission. The sentence can be damages, compensation, restitution
or performance.

Administrative law is the law that relates to the operations and functions of
formal institutions in so far as their relations with the state and their
employees is concerned.

International law is the law that regulates relations between states and is
based on conventions, custom, treaties and bi-lateral and multilateral
agreements. It differs from national law in that where as national law has a
law-enforcing agency to back it in the form of the army and police and
prisons, international law has none of these law-enforcing agencies and
relies on the goodwill of states, which in many instances is lacking.
International law can be private international law or public international law.
The former deals with disputes between citizens of two different countries
and these are mostly trade disputes. Public international law is the law that
relates to disputes between states and these are normally issues relating to
boundaries, war, or natural resources access. International law is the law
that governs the behavior of states and to a growing extent the behavior of
nationals within states e.g. War crimes, crimes against humanity and
terrorism.

6.1.8 Substantive and adjectival law

This classifications cut across all the above categories.
Adjectival law can be defined as the law that relates to the
enforcement of rights and duties liberties and powers specifically the
law of procedure and evidence for an example civil and criminal
pleadings. In civil procedure the plaintiff’s claim is termed the
declaration and the defendant’s response is termed a traverse
(countercheck quarrelsome according to Dickens).

Substantive law is that law that lays down the peoples’ rights, duties,
liberties and powers e.g. the constitution or an act of parliament.

6.1.9 The Constitution

Most nations have a written constitution as the supreme law of the
country. The United kingdom stands out as the odd case that has no

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 one clear document written and termed a constitution. The UK has
precedent, custom as well as separate pieces of documents that all add
up to what may be interpreted as a constitution. A constitution is the
body of rules and regulations that sets out the authority of those in
power or and the extent and limits of the exercise of executive power.
It also sets out the rights and duties of the citizen. These two aspects
are contained in the doctrine of the separation of powers and the
doctrine of intra-vires and ultra- vires.

6.2.11THE LANCASTER AGREEMENT OF 1979

After fighting a successful protracted war of liberation, The First

Chimurenga war, the settler colonialists and Britain succumbed to the
reality of defeat and had to negotiate for peace and unlike the previous
occasions where peace talks were unsuccessful, it was imperative that
a solution had to be found to the war of liberation in Zimbabwe if the
settler community and British interests were to be safeguarded. The
Frontline states were also a major factor in the search for peace at the
conference in that there were clear signs of war weariness on their
part. This scenario was ideal for the settlers in that there was every
chance of as they saw it of getting into power I they or their stages the
DNC were to get into power. The major problems provisions of the
agreement were as follows:

2.2 The Separation of Powers

The state has three arms whose functions are separate and these are;
Government/Executive
Judiciary
Legislature
The State is that intangible aspect of every nation that can be defined as the authority
and identity conferred by a people within a country to themselves and for which
there is a force in the form of an army to defend that authority. A state does not
change or vanish unless territory is annexed by another state through conquest or
agreement or the population becomes non existent and the territory becomes
uninhabited that is terra nullius. Sovereignty is therefore not conferred on a nation
but it is claimed by each individual nation people and asserted through the exercise
of executive powers and the ability to enter into diplomatic intercourse with other
nations.

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Whereas a nation is the peoples within a geographical entity called a
country whose aspirations, interests shall so decide the shaping of
their destiny, a country is a geographical space marked by natural or
man-made boundaries.

6.1.10 The doctrine of separation of powers.

The three arms of state are supposed to act as checks and balances on
each other so that there is no abuse of power by anyone aspect or arm
of state. This ensures that the judiciary is impartial and does not make
any law. The legislature is the supreme law making body and has no
restricted competency and can change or amend the constitution.
6.1.10.1 Ultra-vires and intra-vires doctrine
Parliament can only make law that does not violate provisions
of the constitution and the executive or government must
exercise its authority as provided for in the constitution. When
the executive or parliament acts within their powers they are
acting intra-vires when they act outside their powers as
provided for by or in the constitution, they are acting ultra vires
and there is therefore no rule of law. When parliament makes
law they act intra-vires the constitution there is therefore the
rule of law. Any influence by foreign or illegitimate forces in
relation to constitutional uses, were national interests are
concerned; the wish of the state thru the national force (people)
shall take precedents in the interests of sovereignty.

6.1.11Public order
Public order refers to a situation in the nation when every
individual is able to exercise his/her constitutional rights
without infringing or interfering with the rights of others or
endangering state security and national sovereignty by
championing blatantly clear foreign interests that seek to
reverse the gains of independence and self rule and by so doing
compromising state national sovereignty. Democracy is
therefore a qualified and subjective term that does not give
license to any individual or group or political party the right to
exploit situational hurdles in the history of Zimbabwe to
compromise national sovereignty and the ethos of the
preservation of freedom. If and when that happens, the
custodian of the nation, the army and every patriotic

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 Zimbabwean, should by all means available, defend the nation
and democratic rights can and should be suspended until such a
time as these are compatible with our historical aspirations.
Public order therefore entails the capability of self-censorship
with respect to the exercise of individual constitutional rights
especially the rights of expression, speech, assembly and
association. In the latter case, the constitution cannot be read to
mean that belonging or associating with a subversive
organization or unpatriotic party or ill association whose
interests are to destabilize peace, order and security is a right
guaranteed by the constitution.
6.1.12 ACTIVITIES
o Define Law and state its origins and purpose
o Discuss pre-colonial legal systems and compare them to
modern law.
o Explain the concept of Law enforcement justice and public
order.
o Analyse the provisions of the Constitution of Zimbabwe

UNIT 7
Democracy and Governance.

7.1 OBJECTIVES

By the end of this unit the student should be able to:

 Compare Western Democracy to pre-colonial governance system
inclusivity, exclusivity
 Trace and discuss major issues at all elections held in Zimbabwe.
 SADC election guidelines
 Discuss - Zimbabwe’s electoral system and authority

INTRODUCTION

Democracy as a system of governance is of Greek origin. Its

main tenet was its attempt to bring about an inclusive rather
than an exclusive form of governance that is typical of the
monarch or king. A monarch has its merits and demerits and so
does democracy.

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 The traditional Zimbabwean system of governance while
having its shortcomings was nevertheless superior to both the
former aristocratic European system of governance and the
present form of democracy as championed by the West
especially The U.S.A. and its lackey the U.K. Demo means
people and cracy means rule. Democracy means people rule.
Democracy as a system of governance is not established
through elections only. In the traditional Shona system of
governance “ushe hwaive madzoro” first and foremost, that is
there was no permanent ruling class or family as in the present
American and European systems where the super rich and well
connected and acceptable few in terms of race and ideology
qualify to rule that is the rich Anglo Saxons. (Jews, Chinese,
Hispanics and especially blacks are excluded from the
presidency on no other grounds other than that that they are
from these minority groups.
Secondly, the community was always represented at large in the
kings “dare” and this system of inclusion permeated the whole
structure from top to bottom and it was reflected in the family
governance where the family was not run by the father
tyrannically but involved and to a large extent today does
involve the mother the children who have come of age and the
check and balance of the extended family “vana tete nana
babamunini”.
7.2 WHAT IS GOVERNANCE?
The term “governance” refers to the process of decision-making and the
ways in which decisions are implemented (or not). In any given system, the
executive ( government) is the major actor, but others like the Judiciary and
the Legislature can influence the process. Non-state actors, such as religious
or tribal leaders, civil society, major landowners, trade unions, financial
institutions, and community based groups can play important roles. The
following characterise a good system of governance:
• Participatory—encouraging wide citizen participation
in decision-making;
• Consensus-orientated—attempting to reach decisions
based on widespread agreement;
• Transparent—being open to scrutiny in decision making
processes;
• Responsive—listening and responding to the needs
of its citizens;

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• effective and efficient—providing basic services; and
• equitable and inclusive—not excluding sectors of
the population, especially those that are more
vulnerable or marginalised.
There are many multi- and bilateral institutions that are concerned with
promoting what they have termed “good governance” in post conflict and
developing countries. Each of these institutions defines good governance
slightly differently and has developed its own indicators by which it
measures and evaluates progress toward good governance. The World Bank,
for instance, has identified six indicators of good governance “to help
countries identify areas of weakness so that capacity building and assistance
strategies are more effective.” The
indicators are:
• voice and accountability;
• political stability and lack of violence;
• government effectiveness;
• regulatory quality;
• rule of law; and
• control of corruption.
Democracy and Governance
Political leaders’ visions they promote and the systems and values they bring
to governing a country play a pivotal role in fostering peace and
development, promoting oppression or the resurgence of conflict. Since so
much is at stake, during peace negotiations there is often great competition
for power and the prospect of controlling a government. For countries that
have little or no experience with democratic governance, the challenges are
immense. But the post conflict environment does provide an opportunity for
countries to create new structures of government and systems of “good
governance.” In situations where the international community has taken on
state-building, its institutions assume some responsibility for issues related
to democracy and governance. It is also a time of opportunity for women. In
particular, Zimbabwe has been effective at using quotas and reserved seats
to “ensure the presence and participation of women in justice, governance,
private sector and civil society .For example; we have a lady Vice President,
Mrs Joice Mujuru. International actors consider “good governance” to be a
key for building sustainable peace and long-term development. Progress
toward good governance is increasingly used as a requisite for the provision
of aid. Despite the variations in definitions and indicators of good
governance, most institutions agree that good governance typically includes
efforts at democratization and decentralisation, the introduction of free and

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fair elections, participatory politics, the creation of an independent civil
society, guarantee of a free and independent press and respect for the
rule of law. Each of these topics, among others, is discussed below.

7.3 WHAT ARE THE KEY COMPONENTS

OF “GOOD GOVERNANCE”?
In countries involved in peace processes, questions relating to governance
often consume a significant portion of the discussions; typically demands for
democratisation, including elections and timeframes for transition, are
addressed. Other related elements include discussions surrounding the nature
of political
participation, electoral systems, issues of transparency and separation of
powers, as discussed below.

7.4 DEMOCRACY
Democracy is a system of government in which power is vested in the
people (the population) and exercised through representatives chosen in free
and
fair elections. But a democracy does not just mean that “the majority rules.”
A democracy also includes and protects the human rights of minorities and
respects multiple or “plural” views and opinions. In a democracy people
have rights as citizens, but they also have responsibilities to participate in
the
governance system. There are many versions of democracies around the
world (e.g. electoral, consultative) and ongoing debates about the extent to
which “one size fits all” with regard to democracy. The process a country
goes through in attempting to become more democratic is referred to as
democratisation. In order for a country to be truly democratic, all of its
citizens—men and women—must be empowered to participate fully in the
governance process (as citizens, voters, advocates, civil servants, judges,
elected officials, etc.).

7.5 FREE AND FAIR ELECTIONS

An election is the procedure by which citizens of a country choose their
representatives and leaders and assign authority. Elections must be held
regularly so that elected officials remain accountable to the
population; if they do not uphold their responsibilities to the electorate, they
can be voted out of office in the next election. Elections must be

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held within a period of time that is prescribed in the constitution, or
fundamental law. For an election to be truly democratic, it must be:
• universal—All citizens of a country must have the right to vote and to be
elected, without discrimination based on sex, race, language, religion or
political affiliation. In Zimbabwe as elsewhere in the world there is no
discrimination in voting processes.
• equal—The value of each vote must be the same.
• secret—The balloting must be private so that citizens can participate
without being afraid; only the voter must know for whom she or he votes.
• direct—The voters must be able to choose their own leaders without an
intermediary.
• wide choice—The voters must have the opportunity to choose from among
several available candidates.

7.6 DECENTRALISATION
An increasingly important component of democratisation in many parts of
the world is decentralisation. Decentralisation is the process of transferring
authority and responsibility from the central government to provincial and
local levels. Countries pursue decentralisation for a variety of reasons,
including a desire to make the government more receptive and accountable
to the needs of its population and/or to respond to pressure from donors to
“downsize” central government budgets. Decentralisation is based upon the
notion that
various levels of the government have different expertise and abilities to
address problems. For example, national defence and monetary policy are
clearly best set at the national level, but policies concerning schools, local
police protection and some public services are often better determined at the
local level with community input. Critics of decentralisation, however,
charge that it weakens parts of the state that, for the sake of peace building
and human security, need to be strengthened. There are three types of
decentralisation: political, administrative and fiscal. Political
decentralization involves the election of local-level leaders. Administrative
decentralisation occurs when some of the government’s decision-making is
managed at the local level. And fiscal decentralisation refers to the national
government sharing budgetary responsibility for collecting revenues and
making expenditures with local government representatives.
Decentralisation processes often include local-level
elections.

7.7 PARTICIPATORY POLITICS AND POLITICAL PARTIES

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The concept of “participatory politics” refers to the involvement of all
citizens in politics and policymaking. This requires a relationship between
the government and society in which the participation of citizens and a
plurality of views are
encouraged. This can be supported by strengthening political parties;
encouraging the participation of marginalised groups, such as women and
youth; and by strengthening civil society (described below). The right to
convene and articulate political views is a key principle of good governance
and democratisation. Political parties are one of the cornerstones of a
democratic political system. Parties are critical because they provide a
structure for
political participation for people with similar beliefs and interests. By
joining together, individuals, who would otherwise not be influential, can
make their
voices heard in the political process through their support of a political party.
Political parties also provide leaders with a space in which to learn the
skills needed for governing a society. A democracy must have more than one
major, viable party so that a single group does not dominate the government
and voters have a choice. This principle is called multipartyism.
Membership in political parties must be voluntary. It can be difficult for
women to achieve leadership positions within political parties and to be
selected as candidates because, in many countries, parties operate or govern
themselves without written party rules or transparent procedures. Such lack
of openness allows patronage systems and “old boys’ networks” to flourish,
effectively excluding women from decision-making positions and candidate
lists. In some countries, political parties have adopted internal quotas for
women’s participation to ensure that they always put forward a certain
number of women’s candidates. In Zimbabwe as in Argentina, Botswana
and France, among others, all political parties encourage participation of
women in politics. For example, the political parties in Zimbabwe have
Women’s Leagues in their structures and both the major political parties in
Zimbabwe have ladies as their Vice Presidents. An important advocacy
strategy for women is to work with political parties to make sure that the
party platform, the formal declaration of the principles and positions that
the party supports, describes its positions on issues important to women.

7.8 ACTIVITIES
 Compare Western Democracy to pre-colonial governance system
inclusivity, exclusivity
 Trace and discuss major issues at all elections held in Zimbabwe.

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  SADC election guidelines
 Discuss - Zimbabwe’s electoral system and authority

UNIT 8

The Constitution of Zimbabwe

8.1 OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit the student should be able to:
 Discuss The Lancaster House Agreement
 State the major provisions of the Lancaster Agreement
 Explain the provisions of the Constitution of Zimbabwe in relation to :
- Republican Destiny and National Political and
Economic Sovereignty
- Citizenship
- Declaration of Rights and Freedoms of Individuals
- Constitutional amendments
- Elections – parliamentary gubernatorial, presidential
and local government

The constitution is the supreme law in Zimbabwe. No law is

above the constitution of the republic of Zimbabwe in
determining what is legal and what is illegal in Zimbabwe. This
law (constitution) is drawn and revised to protect and safeguard
the interests of the citizens of this country. Some countries
especially the European nations and the U.S.A. want to
introduce laws that they term international norms or laws
acceptable in international law.

This is in a way an attempt to change the laws of other

countries in such a way as to have their interests protected. The
majority of these laws are designed to protect subversive or
perverted elements within other societies or nations for an
example perverts (Gays and lesbians) or puppet political and
economic groups within smaller nations for an example
secessionist and tribal minorities.

8.2 The constitutional Provisions

 Republican Destiny

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 The constitution of Zimbabwe begins with the declaration that
Zimbabwe is a sovereign state and so shall decide its destiny.
The republican destiny is outlined in conjunction with national
interests as represented by the public seal which shall be kept
by the president as the head of state and whose authority
protects national interests and aspirations.
 Citizenship

- Can be by birth, except if the parents have diplomatic

immunity, are not citizens, or the parents are enemy aliens or an
illegal residents
- Can be by descent that is he is born outside the country
but his parents are or were Zimbabwean citizens.
- Can be by registration that is by application to the
minister of Home affairs.
Dual citizenship.

No person having other citizenship can be a Zimbabwean

citizen unless he/she renounces that other citizenship. In many
precedents law tends to favour descent than any other
citizenship status on enjoyment of privileges.

 Declaration of rights
Every citizen irrespective of color race religion etc. is entitled
to the basic and fundamental rights of the individual provided
that when enjoying such rights or freedoms he/she does not
infringe on the peaceable enjoyment of the rights of others or
does not endanger the public interest that is state security and
public order. Such freedoms are as follows:
a) The right to life except where the state is duly carrying out a
death sentence, or where there is need to defend property or in
repelling violence, or effecting lawful arrest or preventing
someone from escaping from lawful custody, or in suppressing
a riot, insurrection and unlawful gathering, or in preventing the
commission of a crime or if the cause of death is a lawful act of
war.
b) Right to Personal liberty
Such a right can be exercised by any citizen excerpt where; the
person is sentenced to a prison term by a court of law for a
criminal offence or for contempt of a court of law or in a civil

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 suit or where a parent or guardian so requests the court for the
welfare or education of an individual between 21 and 23 years
old or in order to prevent the spread of a disease or if the person
is of an unsound mind, is a drug addict an alcoholic or is an
illegal immigrant or subject of an extradition process.
Any person so detained is entitled to legal representation and
should be charged within a reasonable period and where a
person is unlawful detained the detainee is entitled to
compensation from that person or authority detaining him/her.

c) Protection from slavery and forced labour

Excerpt where such labour is in compliance with a court
sentence or is necessary for hygiene and the maintenance of the
places of lawful detention or is a requirement by a parent for
purposes of parental discipline or labour required by virtue of
belonging to a uniformed service or required of any citizen
during an emergency.

d) Protection from inhuman treatment;

Such as torture or other degrading punishment. Where as
reasonable force or corporal punishment is acceptable in
effecting an arrest or for a parent or anyone in loco parentis
over a person eighteen years and below and under his custody.

e) Protection From deprivation of property

Every Zimbabwean citizen shall not be compulsorily deprived

of his/her property or right therein excerpt;
When legally required by law in the case of land for the
utilization of such land for purposes of agricultural settlement
or other use or for land reorganization such as forestry and
game parks or for purposes of relocation of persons affected in
the former cases, or for purposes of public defense, public order
and safety, morality, health, town and country planning, or for
any other public good.Where such land is thus acquired it will
be done according to the law in force at that time allowing for
reasonable notice and fair compensation.

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 f) PROTECTION from arbitrary search and entry of the person or
his property Except where the person so searching is parent, or
for purposes of the defense and security of the state, public
health, morality or town and country planning or in the
enforcement of the law where there are reasonable grounds of
suspicion of the existence of a crime.

g) Provision to secure protection of the law

All citizens are entitled to the protection of the law. Where a
person is charged with a criminal offence that person should; be
brought before an independent and impartial court within
reasonable time, is innocent until proved otherwise, is entitled
to legal representation and to defend and cross examine
witnesses and no person is guilty of an offense post facto.

h) Protection of freedom of conscience

Every citizen except for minors or with his/her own consent has
a right to freedom of thought, religion (belonging or changing),
freedom to individually or severally in public or private
to propagate/ manifest his/her religion through worship
teaching practice and observance. No person attending an
educational institution shall be compelled to receive
religious instruction contrary to his/ her religion,
unless in the interest of group discipline.
Any community is entitled to provide religious instruction to its
members at its educational institutions. Provisions on
guardianship powers may limit freedom of conscience.

i) Protection of freedom of expression

Every citizen save for minors or with one’s own consent is
entitled to hold his her own opinions on any issue and receive
and impart such opinions or information without interference
Excerpt where, The law makes provisions for the sake of the
defense of the nation, public safety and order, economic
interests of the state, public morality and public health to;
Protect reputations privacy, and rights of others, Maintain
confidentiality, protect parliament, the courts and tribunals, and
regulate technical aspects of telecommunications and the

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 electronic media and preventing any unlawful communication.
Freedom of expression is exercised within the parameters of
justification, fair comment and qualified or absolute privilege.

J) Protection of freedom of assembly and association

With the excerption of minors or through his own consent every

citizen is entitled to assemble and associate and belong to or
not to be compelled to assemble or associate with any
group, political party, union for purposes of protecting
and propagating his/her interests. Excerpt where the law
makes provisions for the sake of public order,
safety morality, health, security and defense and the
regulation of companies or other business enterprises.
The associations whose interests are known to
comprise security and order shall be diffused under the
prohibition from commitment of crime.

k) Protection from discrimination on the grounds of;

Race, religion, ethnicity, gender, political affiliation, place of
origin tribe, etc. No law or practice shall be deemed lawful if it
violates this provision excerpt in the cases of adoption,
marriage divorce, burial devolution of property or any matter
pertaining to personal law or relating to immigration status,
qualifications for purposes of employment not relating to any of
the above.

l) Enforcement of rights
Where an individual feels that his her rights are violated the
said person shall appeal to the supreme court which alone has
the prerogative to hear and deliberate on all matters relating to
the constitutional provisions on the fundamental freedoms.

 The Executive
Executive Powers and Authority
The Executive Authority of the Inclusive Government shall
vest in, and be shared among the President, the Prime
Minister and the Cabinet, as provided for in the
Constitution and legislation.

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 The President of the Republic shall exercise executive
authority subject to the Constitution and the law.
The Prime Minister of the Republic shall exercise
executive authority subject to the Constitution and
the law.
The Cabinet of the Republic shall exercise executive
authority subject to the Constitution and the law.
In the exercise of executive authority, the President, Vice
Presidents, the Prime Minister, the Deputy Prime
Ministers, Ministers and Deputy Ministers
must have regard to the principles and spirit underlying
the formation of the Inclusive Government and accordingly
act in a manner that seeks to promote cohesion both
inside and outside government.
 The Cabinet
(a) shall have the responsibility to evaluate and adopt all
government policies and the consequential
programmes;
(b) shall, subject to approval by Parliament, allocate the
financial resources for the implementation of such
policies and programmes;
(c) shall have the responsibility to prepare and present to
Parliament, all such legislation and other
instruments as may be necessary to implement the
policies and programmes of the National
Executive;
(d) shall, except where the Constitution requires
ratification by Parliament, or action by the
President, approve all international agreements;
(e) shall ensure that the state organs, including the
Ministries and Departments, have sufficient financial
and other resources and appropriate operational
capacity to carry out their functions effectively; and

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 (f) shall take decisions by consensus, and take collective
responsibility for all Cabinet decisions, including
those originally initiated individually by any member
of Cabinet.
(g) The President and the Prime Minister will agree on the
allocation of Ministries between them for the purpose of
day-to-day supervision.
 The President
(a) chairs Cabinet;
(b) exercises executive authority;
(c) shall exercise his/her powers subject to the provisions
of the Constitution;
(d) can, subject to the Constitution, declare war and make
peace;
(e) can, subject to the Constitution, proclaim and
terminate martial law;
(f) confers honours and precedence, on the advice of
Cabinet;
(g) grants pardons, respites, substitutes less severe
punishment and suspends or remits sentences, on
the advice of Cabinet;
(h) chairs the National Security Council;
(i) formally appoints the Vice Presidents;
(j) shall, pursuant to this Agreement, appoint the Prime
Minister pending the enactment of the
Constitution of Zimbabwe Amendment no.19 as
agreed by the Parties;
(k) formally appoints Deputy Prime Ministers, Ministers
and Deputy Ministers in accordance with this
agreement;

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 (l) after consultation with the Vice Presidents, the Prime
Minister and the Deputy Prime Ministers, allocates
Ministerial portfolios in accordance with this
Agreement;
(m) accredits, receives and recognizes diplomatic agents
and consular officers;
(n) appoints independent Constitutional Commissions in
terms of the Constitution;
(o) appoints service/executive Commissions in terms of
the Constitution and in consultation with the Prime
Minister;
(p) in consultation with the Prime Minister, makes key
appointments the President is required to make
under and in terms of the Constitution or any Act of
Parliament;
(q) may, acting in consultation with the Prime Minister,
dissolve Parliament;
(r) must be kept fully informed by the Prime Minister on
the general conduct of the government business
and;
(s) shall be furnished with such information as he/she
may request in respect of any particular matter
relating to the government, and may advise the Prime
Minister and Cabinet in this regard.
 The Prime Minister
(a) chairs the Council of Ministers and is the Deputy
Chairperson of Cabinet;
(b) exercises executive authority;
(c) shall oversee the formulation of government policies by the
Cabinet;
(d) shall ensure that the policies so formulated ar€ implemented
by the entirety of government;

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 (e)shall ensure that the Ministers develop appropriate
implementation plans to give effect to the policies decided
by Cabinet: in this regard, the Ministers will report to the Prime
Minister on all issues relating to the implementation of such
policies and plans;
(f)shall ensure that the legislation necessary to enable the
government to carry out its functions is in place: in this regard,
he/she shall have the" responsibility to discharge the functions
of the Leader of Government Business in Parliament;
(g) shall be a member of the National Security Council;
(h) may be assigned such additional functions as are necessary
further to enhance the work of the Inclusive Government;
(i) shall, to ensure the effective execution of these tasks, be
assisted by Deputy Prime Ministers; and
(j) shall report regularly to the President and Parliament.
 Council of Ministers
To ensure that the Prime Minister properly discharges his
responsibility to oversee the implementation of the work of
government, there shall be a Council of Ministers consisting
of all the Cabinet Ministers, chaired by the Prime Minister,
whose functions shall be:
(a) to assess the implementation of Cabinet decisions;
(b) to assist the Prime Minister to attend to matters of
coordination in the government;
(c) to enable the Prime Minister to receive briefings from the
CabinetCommittees;
(d) to make progress reports to Cabinet on matters of
implementation of Cabinet decisions;
(e) to receive and consider reports from the Committee
responsible for the periodic review mechanism; and
(f) to make progress reports to Cabinet on matters related to
the periodic review mechanism.

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  Composition of the Executive
(1) There shall be a President, which Office shall continue to be
occupied by President Robert Gabriel Mugabe.
(2) There shall be two (2) Vice Presidents, who will be
nominated by the President and/or Zanu PF.
(3) There shall be a Prime Minister, which Office shall be
occupied by Mr Morgan Tsvangirai.
(4) There shall be two (2) Deputy Prime Ministers, one (1) from
MDC-T and one (1) from the MDC-M.
(5) There shall be thirty-one (31) Ministers, with fifteen (15)
nominated by Zanu PF, thirteen (13) by MDC-T and three (3) by
MDC-M. Of the 31 Ministers, three (3) one each
appointed shall become members of the House of Assembly
and shall have the right to sit, speak and debate in Parliament,
but shall not be entitled to vote.
(6) There shall be fifteen (15) Deputy Ministers, with (eight) 8
nominated by Zanu PF, six (6) by MDC-T and one (1) by MDC-
M.
(7) Ministers and Deputy Ministers may be relieved of their
duties only after consultation among the leaders of all the
political parties participating in the Inclusive Government.
 Senate
(a) The President shall, in his discretion, appoint five (5)
persons to the existing positions of Presidential senatorial
appointments.
(b) There shall be created an additional nine (9) appointed
senatorial posts, which shall be filled by persons appointed by
the President, of whom, 3 will be nominated by Zanu PF,
3 by MDC-T and 3 by MDC-M.
 Filling of vacancies

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a) In the event of any vacancy arising in respect of council and
cabinet posts such vacancies shall be filled by a nominee of
the Party which held that position prior to the vacancy arising.
The executive arm of the state consists of the Head of State ,the
president, the Vice presidents,the Prime Minister, the Deputy
Prime Ministers, the Cabinet, the ministries or/and the civil
service, the Security agencies that is, the Zimbabwe Defense
Forces, the Zimbabwe Republic Police, The Prison Service, and
the Central Intelligence Service.

a) The President
i) Is the head of state, is the executive head of government,
and is the commander in chief of the Defense Forces. Is
the Pre- eminent person in the Nation.
ii) Qualification.
Should be a citizen of Zimbabwe by birth, or descent,
should be forty years and above, is ordinarily resident in
Zimbabwe.
(NB. To be read into the constitution although the
document is silent is that the presidential aspirant should
espouse and uphold the aspirations of the nation, derived
from assertions leading to the war of liberation in the
preservation of freedom, independence and national
interests uphold Zimbabwe’s ENDURING POLITICAL
TRADITION as represented by the values of the War of
liberation.) Should hold no criminal record.
iii) Election.
Is an elected by voter on the common roll and within
ninety days before the expiry of the presidential term and
in the case of death, incapacity or impeachment the Vice
president shall act as president for ninety days during
which period fresh elections should be held.
iv) Tenure (duration in office)
Shall be in office for six years and until the next person
elected take office
v) Removal from office
- Can leave office through resignation by letter to
the speaker of parliament.

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 - Can leave office on parliamentary
recommendation following a request of not less
than a third of members of parliament alleging
willful violation of the constitution, or incapacity
to carry his duties/functions or gross misconduct
and when two thirds or more of members support
the motion to impeach the president.
vi) Functions of the President.
a) Has and exercises all executive authority of the state
that is the
government of the country or the enforcement of law,
the defense of the nation translation of political policy
into government programs and their implementation
by the civil service.
b) To uphold the constitution
c) To exercise the prerogatives of head of state that is: -
 Enter into treaties and international agreements.
 Proclaim and terminate martial law
 To declare war and make peace.
 To confer honors and precedence
 Appoint and accredit diplomats
d) To act on advice of the cabinet excerpt on: -
 Matters relating to dissolution of parliament
 Appointment and removal of governors
 Duties of the Vice presidents or any other
person appointed by the president.
e) To exercise the prerogative of mercy that is: -
 Grant pardon to felons
 Declare a stay of execution of a felon
 Vary/substitute prison terms
 Suspend or remit a sentence
 Declare public emergencies
 Which shall be approved by parliament within
fourteen days failing which the declaration
becomes void.
The declaration lasts for a specified period or for a period
not exceeding six months subject to any extension of
such a period by the president. The effect of such a
declaration is to allow the direction of funds to that

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 emergency and where necessary the suspension of civil
liberties.
 The Public service
The constitution provides that a public service be
established for the administration of the country. This
consists of all the ministries and other institutions
through which government implements its programs.
Members of the Public service are appointed on merit
and have security of tenure, are not political appointees
and at most are not expected to engage in active politics.

The affairs of the Public service are managed by a

commission, which consists of a chairperson and not less
than two and no not more than seven members. The
president appoints the members.
 The Attorney General
Is the principal legal adviser to government, holds a
public office but is not a part of the public service.
The president appoints him after consultations with the
judicial services commission. Only persons suitable for
appointment as judges are qualified to be A.Gs. The A.G.
is an ex-officio member of the cabinet and his main
functions are to institute criminal proceedings, and to
prosecute or defend an appeal from all criminal
proceedings.
 The Police Force
The police force is provided for in the constitution with
the specific task of preserving the internal security in the
country and the maintenance of law and order.

A police commissioner appointed by the president

heads the ZRP.A Police commission headed by
a chairperson who is the Chairperson of the
Public service commission manages the
affairs of the Police force.
 The Zimbabwe Defence forces
To defend the territorial integrity of the nation, the
constitution provides for the establishment of an army
consisting of an Air force, and an Army – ground troops
and any other specializations deemed necessary for the

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 defence of the nation and provided for through an act of
parliament. The commander in chief of the defence
forces shall be the President.
The affairs of the army are managed by the defence
forces commission consisting of a chairperson (the Public
service chairperson) and not less than two and no more
than seven other members.
 The Prison service

Tasked with the responsibility of protecting society from criminals

by incarcerating them and rehabilitating and reintegrating them
into society.The prison service is headed by a Prison service
commissioner and the affairs of the service are managed by a
Prison service commission headed a chairperson
(the head of the public service commission) and
between two and seven other members.

 The Intelligence service

Provided for by the constitution as part of the office the President with
the specific task of providing, through conventional and unconventional
means, information of any type necessary for the protection of the
nation’s economic, political, social or cultural and other interests. A
Director General appointed by the President heads the service.

 The Ombudsman

Holds public office but is not a member of the public service. He

is tasked with the responsibility of receiving any
complaint from members of the public on the
function or lack of it of member of the civil service.
 The Comptroller and Auditor General

Holds a public office but is not a member of the Public service.

His/her main functions are to examine or audit at least once a
year all ministries or persons or institutions entrusted with
the receipt or the use of public funds, that is, monies from the
consolidated revenue fund. (C.R.F). The president appoints
him after consulting the Public service commission.

The C.R.F.

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 All monies collected for and on behalf of government as taxes, fees,
fines, profit etc. are deposited into the CRF and used or
withdrawn from that account as allocated funds under
respective ministerial budgets excerpt where the authority is
allowed to retain the monies so collected and for use to
defray their expenses as provided for through an act of
parliament. The allocation shall be made through the
Budget process in Parliament as votes to Ministries and
government departments.

 THE LEGISLATURE
Parliament has the supreme authority to make law in and for
Zimbabwe. No law made elsewhere is binding or legal unless
Government accedes to or ratifies such law through parliament.
International law or other legal protocols are binding only if and when
parliament ratifies such directly or through an act of parliament.
Parliament can delegate it authority to make law to other bodies such
as local government authorities or parastatals.

The law making process in parliament

The process of making law in parliament is open to any member of
society. Most of the law ,however, comes in the form of bills or
proposals from concerned ministries and not as private members’
bills. The stages in the law making process are as follows;
3.1.1 Proposals- anyone can make law proposals.
3.1.2 Expert/legal input- relevant ministry or and Attorney
general’s office.
3.1.3 Presentation to the Cabinet Legal Committee
3.1.4 Presentation to the Government Gazette for publication to get
public input
3.1.5 First reading – notification in parliament; no responses from
MPs.
3.1.6 Second reading- responses from MPs.
3.1.7 Committee stage
3.1.8 Report stage – responses and inputs from MPs.
3.1.9 Third reading – responses from MPs and voting for or against
the bill.
3.1.10Presentation to the Senate
3.1.11 Presidential assent
3.1.12 Presentation to the Government Gazette(for promulgation).

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 At each stage of the readings, reference is made to the
Parliamentary Legal Committee, which shall consider inputs
from MPs from a legal point of view and produce adverse or
non-adverse reports where necessary.
 Composition consists of: -
- The President
- One hundred fifty members of parliament elected appointed and
nominated as follows;
- 120 elected by voters on the common roll and representing 120
constituencies
- 8 provincial governors appointed by the president
- 10 chiefs elected according to the electoral law
- 12 members appointed by the president.
 Non-voting members of parliament
- The president
- Vice presidents and ministers if not members of parliament and
the AG.
- The Speaker and Deputy Speaker
The speaker is the presiding officer whose function is to
facilitate the process of legislation by ensuring that debate and
voting and al other procedures related to legislation are
conducted in the manner prescribed by the standing rules of the
house. The speaker is elected from persons who have been
members of parliament before and his tenure of office lasts a
full parliamentary term unless he/she resigns or becomes a
minister or vice president while his/her term has not expired
Or becomes an MP.

 Administrative staff of parliament

- Secretary to Parliament
Appointed by the committee on standing rules and orders and is
the pre-eminent administrative officer of parliament. Holds a
public office but is not in the public service.
- Clerk to parliament

He is the chief administrative officer and holds a public office

and supervises all other supporting staff like clerks,
stenographers accountants etc.

- Sergeant at Arms

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 He holds a public office and is a member of the police force and
ensures that order is enforced in the legislative assembly.

 Parliamentary Legal committee

The committee consisting of not less than three and is appointed by
the parliamentary committee on standing rules and orders at the
beginning of each parliamentary term. The members of the committee
shall in the majority be legally qualified.

 The functions of the committee: -

- Examine every bill other than constitutional bills
- Examine every statutory instrument.

 Tenure of Members of Parliament

Shall last the full term of parliament or until parliament is dissolved
Membership shall also laps: -
- If member dies before dissolution of parliament
- On resignation by letter to the speaker
- Is absent for twenty one consecutive sittings/days in one session
of parliament
- Ceases to be a member of his political party
- Becomes speaker or president or provincial governor or
assumes any public office.
- Is placed under a curator bonis
- Is mentally or physically unfit
- Is incarcerated for more than six months

 Parliamentary privilege and immunity

These are fixed through an act of parliament but broadly no member of

parliament is criminally or civilly liable in any act or utterance while
performing his/her parliamentary functions.

 Legislative function of MPs

By/through bills passed by parliament and assented to by the president
within twenty-one days of being passed by parliament
A bill becomes law if MPs present vote with a simple majority
provided that members present a re a quorum that is not less than
twenty-five.

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 Constitutional amendment
Parliament has the power to amend change or repeal the constitution
through an affirmative vote of not less than two thirds of members of
parliament.

 Parliamentary elections
Elections are held not more than four months after a dissolution of
parliament or as by election in the event that a seat becomes vacant.
For elections to be held the following shall be done as provided for in
the constitution.
a) By election: conducted in the event of the death or resignation
of a member of parliament.
b) General election: conducted at prescribed times as laid out in
the supreme law of the country
 Commissions

 Delimitation commission
- Is appointed by the president
- Consists of a chairman – chief justice or other judge of the
supreme or high court and three other members
- Functions for five years.
- Functions shall be to determine the boundaries of the
-constituencies taking cognisance of such features as
geography, ethnicity and communication etc.

 Electoral Supervisory commission

- Appointed by the president
- Consists of a chairman and four other members –two appointed
by the president after consulting the judiciary service
commission and two after consulting the speaker.
- Functions are to supervise voter registration, and conduct/run
elections.
- Consider proposed bill or other law relating to elections.

The constitution also provides for the formation of the Public Service
Commission, the Judiciary Commission, and the Police Commission
etc.Contemporary issues and New dimension in law
a) Rule of law – upholding of the law in a scenario where no one is
above the law

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 b) Prerogative – discretional prerogatives have made law to be
applied based on certain trivial relative issues
c) Political willpower – those in power or those wielding the axe
make the most decisions and tailor-make law to protect their
interests
d) Human rights – the emergence and definition of human rights has
led to commitment of crime and subsequent ignorance of the rule of
law even when certain behaviours become immoral e.g. the gays
and lesbian case
e) Christian balance – as Christian values shape most legal
frameworks, the same have been used in negotiations although in
many cases equality is not achieved in Christian balances. The
‘coveter’ and the converted are two different entities.

8.3 ACTIVITIES
 Discuss The Lancaster House Agreement
 State the major provisions of the Lancaster Agreement
 Explain the provisions of the Constitution of Zimbabwe in relation to :
- Republican Destiny and National Political and
Economic Sovereignty
- Citizenship
- Declaration of Rights and Freedoms of Individuals
- Constitutional amendments
- Elections – parliamentary gubernatorial, presidential
and local government

UNIT 9

Regional and International Relations

9.1 OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit the student should be able to:
o Define International Relations
o Explain the three Cs of International relations – Conflict, Co-
operation and Competition
o Explain the Multi-polar, Bi-polar global power balances

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 o Critique International law, the community of nations and
identify and explain the types and functions of diplomatic
missions.
9.2 Definitions;
- International relations; The interaction of nation -states
- Nation; The people within a country
- Country; Geographical territory in which a specific people live in
- State; the permanent power or authority which is sovereign and
represented by the arms of state, that is, government, judiciary and the
legislature and which is normally embodied in the constitution as the
right of a group of people to self-determination.
- Government; the arm of state which is tasked with ruling or exercising the executive
powers of the state that is, representing the nation at international fora, defending and
keeping law and order in the nation, implementing political, economic, and social policy
of the ruling political party. Government is formed by the winner at general elections and
therefore comes and goes where as the state is permanent except where the country is
annexed, secedes or the people become extinct.
9.3 The practice of International relations
9.3.1 Society
People within a nation are a society or societies of people. To become a
nation therefore the people should have similar political aspirations or
interests. The term “society” supposes the existence of common norms or
behavioural patterns within that society. Such norms determine relations
among the members of the society in terms of political structures or
governance; this determines in turn distribution of resources. Political
structure presupposes a hierarchy and hence classes within society. Classes
in turn infer inequalities among the people. In international relations instead
of people forming the society or community we have nations being the
members of the international society or community and hence the existence
also of norms or political behaviour, international political hierarchy and
classes, distribution of resources by the international ruling class and hence
the existence of international inequalities. This will be dealt with in full
under international capital below.

9.3.2.International Society.
The international society as we know it today is a recent development in the
world’s history. Vast empires, fiefdoms or localized chiefdoms have always
been the general picture of politics at the global level. Sovereign nation –
states appear on the global scene about five hundred years ago and evolve
and only become the norm in the 16 th. century as principles that govern their
conduct take a definitive shape. Before the development of rules that govern

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 relations between areas or regions or states, relations between different
political entities were characterized by internecine warfare. It was more a
state of nature or survival of the fittest. With the advent of Christianity and
its growth, war and its limitation, conduct and justification became
necessary and the notion of the just war was developed. In his work, “The
Summa Theologica,” St. Thomas Aquinas argued the case for a just war as
consisting of;-It had to have the backing of the king
- The reason or cause for going to war had to be just
- Those to be attacked had to be guilty of some grave evil
- The attackers had to have the right intention – to promote
good or the avoidance or prevention of evil
Many unfair wars and untold evil were perpetrated under the guise of the
just war and by about 1490 Honore Bonet stated “ soldiers were the flail of
God who by his permission make wars upon sinners and sin and make havoc
among them in this world as the devils of hell do in the next”. Not
surprising therefore that at about that time the Aztec civilization was
destroyed by Spanish conquistadors and Africa and many parts of the world
seen as containing sinners were subjected to the most cruel and inhuman
plunder and decimation by the European powers. In the same vein Gorge
Bush’s “axis of evil” position hundreds of years latter fits squarely in the
Aquinian doctrine. Bush argues that the war on Iraq - weapons of mass
destruction aside - was a just war because that nation is evil. Who defines
evil and by what standard is evil determined? As a result of this doctrine in
international relations it was not possible to develop or for there to evolve
rules that could govern relations between states. Similarly, because of a
reversion to the same old position by the Bush administration, the whole
fabric of international law is strained to breaking point. “Evil” is a value
laden term which is highly subjective.Being a fundamentalist Moslem is
interpreted as being evil by Bush and his company whether one is a suicide
bomber or not and no law therefore can restrict regime change in any nation
perceived to be evil. Such international behaviour not only drags the world
backwards but also creates a very dangerous environment in which every
nation and individual takes unilateral action to redress grievances and
institutionalise suicidal tendencies and solutions even at state level like in
the case of North Korea. In 1654, in his treatise, “De Jure Belli et pacis”,
Hugo Grotius”, a Dutch jurist wrote principles that were supposed to govern
warfare and this became the basis for our modern international law.

9.3.3 Approaches in the study of international relations

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 The study of relations between nations is a recent and evolving science.
The main approaches are as follows;

A: Traditional Approaches
1.The classical approach
2.The Idealist approach
3.The Realist and or Rational approach
B: Modern approaches
1.The Strategic approach
2.The billiard ball approach
3.The Cobweb approach
C: The Behavioural approach
1.The global approach or model
2.The regional approach or model
9.3.3.1 The Traditional Approaches
 .The Classical approach;
The proponents of this approach are to a large extent social contract
theorists. Thomas Hobbes sees the state, as arising out of the need to escape
from a state of nature where there is anarchy and life is insecure, short, nasty
and brutal. A state of nature presupposes the non-existence of society and
therefore the non-existence of law. In such a lawless state everyone does as
he pleases and those with more clout survive. In other words the law of the
jungle that is “might is right” and “survival of the fittest” rules supreme. In
another sense this approach is also evolutionist or Darwinian. It infers
natural selection that favours the stronger species’ survival and continuity.
To escape from this state of nature at the national or state level people had to
agree to surrender some of their rights to each other and appoint a sovereign
authority as guarantor and arbitrator for and in this social contract. The same
arrangement could be said to hold true within the community of nations or
the global society. However as nation states developed in Europe a state of
nature more or less developed in that these states resorted to war wily nily
on the basis of each state’s prerogative of national sovereignty to wage war.
All wars were therefore justifiable. Jean Jacques Rousseau and others saw
relations among states as possessing potential for peace as long as members
of a society were willing to enter a clear contract. The Machiavellian
argument was closely echoed by Immanuel Kant and Carl von Clausewittz
in his book “On War,” argues that power is at the heart of interstate relations
in that each state seeks to increase its power at the expense of other states.

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Alliances, wars and the arms race were the result of this argument and
Europe was plunged into the First World War.

 The Idealist Approach.

The First World War shocked non-belligerents as well as the belligerents in
so far the toll in human and material loss were concerned. This led people to
treat peace as something they should deliberately seek and sought to
engineer global society in such a way as to not only create peacefully
conditions but also prevent war. This approach was thus normative
prescriptive and pro active. Woodrow Wilson the USA president at the time
and others thus pursued this logic and it resulted in the creation of the
LEAGUE OF NATIONS in 1918. The USA refused to join the league in
spite of championing it. Through covenants or a body of rules collective
security it was thought could thus be assured in the community of nations.
This body of thinking or ideology failed to bring about peaceful coexistence
among states and soon after the formation of the League of Nations after
1927 Italy and Germany went on the warpath and soon after the world was
in another global war. Idealism sought to affect the thinking of global
society but this proved to be a futile exercise.

 The Realist or Rational approach.

Between the two world wars thinking on international relations shifted from
idealism to rationalism or realism. This means people began to look at the
actual practice of relations among states and sought to explain their behavior
rather than to change their behavior. In a way this approach was a throw
back to the classical approach. Hans Morgen Thau a major proponent of this
approach argued that power and self-interest were at the heart of state
behavior. To legitimate pursuit of power and self-interest nations cake iced
and disguised their otherwise questionable and illegitimate behavior moral
hyperbole and legalistic arguments. This fits squarely in the George Bush
Jr.s’ conduct of the war in Iraq. Saddam was said to be evil but that had
never been justification for war in modern society. To legalize action against
Sadam, the latter had to possess weapons of mass destruction and that
became the legal basis for war. Having e failed to provide the evidence of
WMDs Bush back tracked to the moral position, that is, Sadam is evil
anyway. War thus is not only inevitable, but also desirable in certain
instances and the issue at stake is not its prevention or avoidance, but its

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 control to achieve desired outcomes. This approach is thus to a large extent
descriptive.
9.3.3.2 The Modern Approaches
 The billiard ball model.
This model builds on the realist approach in that it recognizes states as
individual entities which when and if one entity or ball picks motion
naturally on contact with others produces motion in other balls or states.
The internal dynamics of each entity or ball are seen having no effect on the
relative position of the entities.
 The Cob web model
John Burton sees international relations as existing within a complex web or
matrix in which each state is linked to the other directly and indirectly and
where motion in or between components impacts on the rest. This approach
is very close to reality in that the operations of global commerce and
industry is such that events in any state immediately impacts on events in all
or in other states. More over cyberspace and efficient transport
communications is threatening to produce a global super culture.
 The Strategic Approach
The proponents of this approach believed and believe in power politics.
They strategize or scheme situations in the global arena that best suit the
pursuit of their self-interests. Former USA secretary of state Henry Kissinger
Herman Khan and others emphasized the use of mathematical models and
games theories policy options ranging from total surrender graduated
severity warfare to total annihilation. Policy options according to the
strategists are rationally made on the basis of comparisons of outcomes. The
probability of a favorable outcome was seen as the deciding factor in the
action of any state. Deterrence through such policies as mutual assured
destruction (MAD) became major policy positions of the USA as a result of
this approach.
9.3.3.3 The Behavioral Approach
This approach makes a methodological departure from previous approaches
and denounces the strategic approach as war mongering immoral and a
threat to world peace and security. Behaviouralists incorporate all social
sciences techniques and conclude that the danger to peaceful co-existence
may result from unintentional war due to misinformation or miscalculation
or both. There is an element of correct prognosis in the approach considering
the furor over the role of intelligence over Iraq in assessing the nature and
extant of threat posed by Saddam Hussein. The war in Viet Nam and Iraq are
classical examples of miscalculation and misinformation.

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  The global approach
Some behaviouralists believe that the best way forward is a centralized one-
world government with the nation state disappearing.
 The Non-global Approach.
In this model it is envisaged that authority should be decentralized and the
state dispensed with and authority devolved to lower tier structures below
the present state level or tier.
9.3.3.4 The Subject matter or issues in International relations
All the above approaches look at relations between nations in one or more of
the following areas;
1. Conflict
2. Cooperation
3. Competition
These are termed the three Cs of international relations. At each moment in
time all nations are relating to each other in so far as one or all of the three
aspects are concerned.

 Conflict
Conflict is the most pronounced element in that the state system is almost
synonymous with war. World history is the story of when and with whom
nations have fought from time immemorial to date.

 Cooperation
When states are not fighting each other they are cooperating in maintaining
peace and in dealing with the challenges and problems that mankind faces
for example diseases such as AIDS or disasters such as earth quakes.
Cooperation is highly visible and pronounced even among nations that
appear to have no love lost between them in that the UN and many other
world fora provide an avenue for all nations to cooperate in one way or
another.
 Competition
Competition among or between nations exists in the form of normal trade or
commerce and can manifest itself in the form of alliances and treaties.

9.3.3.5 The global power Balance.

9.3.3.5.1 Power blocs
International relations are therefore about competition, conflict or
cooperation among states. The three Cs produce a global political picture,
which is either dominated by one super power or a group of states that
become a super power bloc or a scenario where power is evenly distributed

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between two or more blocs or centres. When the Roman empire of the
Caesers came into being by about 160 BC there was no power on earth
strong enough to challenge its hegemony for almost six hundred years up to
about 530 AD. Global Power was concentrated in that one super state and it
was a uni-polar global power arrangement. When pagan Rome collapsed the
world stage was again dominated by Papal power the so called Holy Roman
Empire for almost 1300 years up to 1789. Papal power was however
effectively challenged by Frances’ Napoleon Bonarparte and from that time
to the end of the second world war power concentration was widely
dispersed among European and Asian nations and no one state or group of
states had monopoly over global power. This was a multi polar global
power balance. With the end of the Second World War the world was split
between two power blocs with the Soviet Union leading the eastern or
Warsaw Pact bloc or what is wrongly termed by the west the communist
bloc and the USA leading the NATO or western bloc nations. After
decolonisation of most African and Asian nations from about 1947 the
former colonies formed so-called non- aligned nations. Global politics never
the less remained polarised between the two major blocs and up until the
collapse of the War Saw Pact bloc by about 1985. During that period the
world was in a nuclear stand off between the two major powers where each
bloc had sufficient nuclear weapons to annihilate the whole world. The
periods’ relations are characterised by what is termed the cold war. The cold
war was in fact a very live and hot war in which the two major blocs
sponsored opposing groups in civil wars in countries termed the Non
Aligned nations. The period was marked by bloody wars in Vietnam,
Nicaragua, Angola, Mozambique and many other nations in Africa and
South America. The politics of the period were based on the philosophy and
ideology of the Strategic school of thought who argued that nuclear
deterrence that is; “having so many nuclear bombs and an unstoppable
delivery system which would render an attack by any one of the two
opposing sides simple suicide because the other side would retaliate in an
equally overwhelming response and bring about a mutually assured
destruction (MAD)”. To weaken the other side, the 1970s and early 1980s
were marked by a runaway arms race as the two blocs tried to gain the upper
hand. The arms race proved too expensive for the Soviet Union and
following the introduction of the Glasnost policy by Michael Gorbachev the
Soviet President then, the whole War Saw pact military and economic
system collapsed and the USA emerged as the unchallenged global
superpower from the 1990s onwards. Global power politics has thus
become uni-polar and the USA has assumed the role of global policeman or

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 and corrector of all rogue states so called. Other terminology has also begun
to be used in global politics for an example “rogue state” meaning a nation
that is ultra nationalistic and refuses to kow tow to USA bullying, “regime
change” meaning the forcible removal from power of state leaders who are
not supportive of American policies, “axis of evil” referring to those
countries opposed to American style of governance. The period also saw a
marked increase in unilateral action by the USA outsides the mechanism of
recognised international fora such as the UN.
9.3.3.5.2 International Terrorism
The period of USA unilateralism has seen a marked increase in terrorism.
Terrorism can be defined as indiscriminate acts of violence against soft
targets for an example non-military installations and un armed civilians. The
USA has declared war on global terror but this terror in the first place
appears to have been prompted by USA partiality in dealing with global
problems like in the handling of the Palestinian issue or dealing with
undemocratic as if dealing with democratic states for an example Uganda
under Museveni a non democratically elected government while making lots
of fuss about lack of democracy in Libya and more blatantly parochial the
alleged lack of democracy in Zimbabwe. In any case there is no international
that makes it mandatory for any state to adopt American style democracy.
The latter is not holy writ nor is it fool proof neither fair nor just. Terrorism
is bound to grow as the USA leaves groups and individuals with no other
options in redressing their grievances. Terrorism has become the preferred
tool of many marginalized groups as they desperately seek for justice in the
resolution of their grievances. Global power balances are important in that it
is within the framework of this arrangement that state inter action takes
place. As shown above, the multilateral power structure between 1800 and
1945 produced or created a very unsafe world and led to two catastrophic
wars. The bipolar global power balance between 1945 and 1985 and the
resultant rivalry and arms race of that period saw many developing countries
falling victim to the politics of the day. After 1985 increasing USA
unilateralism has bred a new global scourge called terror. The USA has itself
become a terror to many states small and big if they dare assert their
nationalism hence the growth in terrorism. Terrorism is inherently evil and
un acceptable as much as the bellicose attitudes by stronger states that drive
weaker groups to resort to terror tactics.

9.4 International Law.

All states are members of the global community, which has codes of conduct
or behaviour expectations for its members. These behaviour expectations

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 arise out of custom or agreements. There is there for such a thing as
international law. (NB. See International Law in Module 2. Legal and
Parliamentary affairs.) The major deficiency in international law has been its
lack of a force back up mechanism that is an army or police force. Of late
there has been attempts to make international more meaningful by extending
its jurisdiction to individual and to the actions of states as it relates to its
citizens.

9.4.1 Jurisdiction of international law.

In its current mould international law affects those countries that are
signatories to conventions and agree to be bound by the provisions of such
agreements. The signatories are also left with the option to accept the
conclusions of the International Court Of Justice or simply to ignore them.
The ICJ was formed in 1945 as an organ of the UN and is based at The
Hague in the Netherlands. The disputes that are taken to the courts are
mutually agreed upon and relate to trade or boundary disputes between
states. The action of states against other states is a hardly ever the subject
matter of international Law. Criminal acts by individuals or states have
traditionally fallen outside the scope and jurisdiction of international law.
Increasingly however there is a trend toward making international law more
encompassing by the introduction of crimes that can be defined as acts
against humanity e.g. genocide. This has led to the establishment of many
international Tribunals like the Nuremberg war crimes tribunal set up to try
NAZI Germany war criminal after WW2. Other special international
tribunals have also been set to deal the Balkans crisis and the Rwanda
genocide of 1991. The UN has also set up as of 2003 the International
Criminal Court and many countries have ratified the treaty. The USA
however has refused to ratify the agreement and has gone on a bullying
campaign coercing small nations to agree not to send USA nationals to the
court. In the meantime The USA is making a lot of noise about sending
Charles Taylor to the Special War crimes Tribunal in Sierra Leone.

9.5 Activities
o Define International Relations
o Explain the three Cs of International relations – Conflict, Co-
operation and Competition
o Explain the Multi-polar, Bi-polar global power balances

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 o Critique International law, the community of nations and
identify and explain the types and functions of diplomatic
mission

UNIT 10

DIPLOMACY
10.1 OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit the student should be able to:
 Define democracy
 Discuss the foreign policy of Zimbabwe after independence
 Apply the following in the context of Zimbabwe:
i) Core interests
ii) Objective interests
iii) Subjective interests
 Discuss the types and various functions of the diplomatic
missions and their immunity.
Diplomacy can be defined as “ the application of intelligence and tact to the
conduct of official relations between the governments of independent
states.” Formal contact between nations in the global community takes
place through the medium of diplomacy and the interaction of diplomats.
Diplomats are the emissaries or representatives of their governments in other
countries and are the direct contact between different governments. The
ministries of foreign affairs in all states have the responsibility for the
deployment of diplomats and the carrying out of the foreign policy of each
respective country.
10.2 Foreign policy
Foreign policy is the position of each government on various issues on world
affairs.Foreign policy is determined by each state’s National Interest. The
National interest can be defined as the common interests of all the citizens of
a nation. The national interest arises from the values and aspirations and
history of a nation and these are at variance with the national interests of
other nations because of the competitive nature of inter state relations.
Foreign policy objectives relate to power or sovereignty, profit and prestige.
These objectives can be classified as: a) Core interests, b) Objective
interests, and c) Subjective interests.

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  Core interests

These are goals for which most people are willing to pay the ultimate
sacrifice and relate to self preservation as a nation and revolve round
defending the nation and the perpetuation of a particular social cultural and
economic way of life.

 Objective interests
These are permanent interests of the state irrespective of institutional changes within the
state that is even when governments come and go objective interests remain unchanged. In
Zimbabwe this may be related to our sovereignty or the right to access land by the natives
of this country.
 Subjective interests.
To determine whether an issue is a national interest in this instance will
depend upon the values and subjective assessment of those making a
decision and the issue at stake does not relate to self-preservation or
perpetuation as a state. Example would be the decision on whether
Zimbabwe remains a member of the Commonwealth or not.It is around the
interests of a state that diplomacy is conducted. This suggests or
presupposes therefore that all diplomats are conversant with the interests of
the state that they represent and will be defending and promoting.

10.3 Zimbabwean Foreign Policy

During the hey day of Soviet and American rivalry Zimbabwe’s foreign
policy was unequivocally non-aligned. This does not amount to saying
Zimbabwe was a neutral state. Zimbabwe, guided by its policy of non-
alignment has from independence sought to establish close relations with
states pursuing a socialist ideology. This approach allowed Zimbabwe to
articulate its national interests from a firm ideological base.
 Objective Interests in Zimbabwe’s Foreign Policy
- Preservation of national sovereignty. In pursuit of the same quit the
Common wealth and believes in the democratic right without interference
from outside to self-determination.
- Being an equal and active partner in regional and international fora. Is a
member of SADC, COMESA, AU and the UN.
- A strong Pan Africanism arising from the continent’s history of slavery,
colonialism neo colonialism and the war against these three evil crimes
against humanity. In pursuit of the same fought against banditry and

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 imperial de- stabilization in Mozambique against RENAMO and in the
DRC against imperial sponsored regime change of the Kabila
administration through Uganda, Rwanda and Burundi.

 Core Interests
- That the native Zimbabwean has an inalienable right to land to own it and
to share it equally with other Zimbabweans of all races without
discrimination.
 Subjective Interests
- To determine the most suitable international economic relations.

10.4 The origins of diplomacy

Diplomacy is as old as human society. In Shona culture a wise saying states
that “nhume/mutumwa haana mbonje” This statement also underlies one of
the major elements of diplomacy namely the inviolability of the diplomatic
person and his possessions. Diplomacy was thus well established in early
European states as well as in all the pre-colonial Zimbabwean states. In
Europe diplomacy almost suffered a fatal blow during the so-called Holy
Roman Empire. These were the dark ages of human civilization.
It was only in the fourteenth century that transient diplomacy is replaced
with permanent embassies or missions as city-states take root in Italy. By the
seventeenth century diplomacy is governed by disjointed rules in Europe and
the disputes that arose over diplomatic precedence and protocol were such
that war was always narrowly averted. In 1815 The Congress of Vienna and
the Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1818 formalised diplomatic rules and
procedure. It was only in 1961 that eighty-one states at the Vienna
Conference on Diplomatic Intercourse And Immunities that The Vienna
Convention on Diplomatic Relations was ratified. The document covers all
aspects of diplomatic activity in terms of types of missions’ functions and
immunities and privileges of diplomatic personnel
10.4 Setting up diplomatic relations and missions
Diplomatic relations are established through mutual consent. It is assumed
that all diplomats posted are acceptable to the receiving state and the host
state issues a document called the agre’ment to indicate their acceptance of
the proposed head of mission. The latter document can be withheld without
explanation. The head of mission to be becomes official after the
presentation of credentials at the ceremony where he meets the head of state
of the host county and presents his letter of credence.

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10.5 Types of diplomatic missions and representation
Diplomatic representation is divided into three groups namely:
- Ambassadors and Ministers; these present credentials to the hosting head
of state
- Charge’d’ affaires present credentials to the minister of foreign affairs of
the host state.
- Former British colonies’ heads of mission are termed High commissioners
and heads of mission between non-former British colonies are termed
ambassadors extraordinary and plenipotentiary.
10.6 Privileges and immunities of diplomats
All accredited diplomats are immune from criminal and civil jurisdiction in
the host state and exempt from all taxation. Diplomats are subject to the host
state’s laws where they enter into private business. Action incompatible with
the status of the diplomats may lead the host state to request their removal.
Diplomatic missions are immune from searches and any other intrusive acts
by the host state.
10.7 Functions of diplomatic missions.
The major activities of diplomatic missions can be classified as a) non
substantive and substantive routine work and b) non routine work.
10.7.1 Non-Substantive routine functions
Attending social and ceremonial functions in the host state e.g. receptions or
cocktail parties, luncheons honour giving ceremonies, parades etc.
NB. The following are sometimes treated as consular functions; Registration
of births deaths marriages of citizens from their country residing in the host
state issuing, validating and replacing passports. Dealing with extradition
cases and looking after the interests of citizens from their country in the host
state.
(Consular issues proper are not diplomatic functions although these may be
carried out in the diplomatic premises. These include, the processing and
issuing of visas, certificates e.g. certificate of origin and the facilitation of
any other commercial activities. )
10.7.2 Substantive Routine work
This work relates mostly to reportin g and intelligence gathering.
Intelligence gathering is not an official or declared function of diplomatic
missions but they are never the less used extensively as cover for these
nefarious activities. Where the host state observes abnormally high and
audacious levels of espionage they demand the immediate withdrawal of
such personnel and this normally prompts retaliatory action. Reporting is
normally on economic, political, military and social issues. In certain

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 instances it might be necessary to engage specialized diplomats called
Attaches’ in the areas of information military and economic affairs.
10.7.3 Non-Routine Functions
This function relates to negotiating. This relates to the transmission of
messages and attending to direct talks at various levels with the authorities
of the host state.

10.8 Activities
 Define democracy
 Discuss the foreign policy of Zimbabwe after independence
 Apply the following in the context of Zimbabwe:
i) core interests
ii) objective interests
iii) subjective interests
 Discuss the types and various functions of the diplomatic
missions and their immunity.

UNIT 11

INTERNATIONAL CAPITAL AND IMPERIALISM.

11.0 Objectives
By the end of this unit students should be able to:
 Define international capital and imperialism
 Discuss the elements of imperialism
 Discuss the various stages in the development of international
capital
11.1 Introduction.
The current stage in global politics and relations is characterized by a high
level of dominance relations between the weak and the powerful states. Such
domination has been the major feature in relations between sates and within
states since time immemorial and arises out of the structured nature of
society national or global. The term society suggests classes and classes
suggest inequalities in the distribution of resources in that society.
Inequalities also suggest contradictions and contradictions suggest motion
that is politics. Thus it can be argued from the outset that the major
characteristic of global relations has been the phenomenon of imperialism.
The study of class formation in societies is termed historical materialism.
On the other hand the study of motion that results from class contradictions

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 is termed dialectical materialism. “It is the study of society in their
essentially contradictory movement.”
Class contradictions arise out of the inequalities or unfair sharing of the
resources within society or exploitation. This sharing is what can be termed
political economy. Political economy of any society therefore reveals the
extent and level of exploitation in that society and the level of dynamics or
contradictions in that society. Historical and dialectical materialism and
political economy there for are the tools that can best be used to analyze the
past and present stage in global relations.
Each stage in the evolution of production and exchange has a specific class
structure, which determines relations in the society.
11.2 Stages in the development of Capital
Imperialism can be defined as, “the general tendency of states or groups
within states to exploit other states or groups through relations brought about
by force or other subtle means and to the detriment of the exploited group
and the advantage of the dominant group or state.” Such exploitation
becomes manifestly visible through exchange and production relationships.
Production and exchange have over time evolved through various stages and
at each stage the major feature has been the existence of dominance
relationships that is an exploited class and an exploiting class. At each stage
imperialism can be seen to be mutating or changing until it reaches its
present and highest stage as International or Global Capital. The stages
through which capital has evolved are as follows;
1. the Hunter gatherer or communal stage
2. Feudalism
3. Mercantile capital
4. Competitive capital
5. Monopoly capital
6. Finance capital
Capital can be loosely defined as wealth in the form of land, finance or
technology depending on the stage of development of that society which at
most is either scarce or monopolized by a small group within a particular
society.While Capital and its monopolization can be traced to the Feudal
mode of production or stage, it can be seen that its nonexistence in the first
mode of production namely the hunter-gatherer stage, was due to the class
nature of that society.

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11.2.1 DEVELOPMENT OF CAPITAL IN EUROPE

MODE OF CLASS STRUCTURE CONTRADICTIONS POLITICAL ECONOMY

PRODUCTION DIALECTICS
1. Non-existent Class contradictions Free for all economic
Hunter Gather (4000 BC – Non-existent Survival of specialisation hunting and
1500 BC) the fittest in a state of gathering No ownership
native gave rise to the
need for society
2. 1. Aristocracy Exploitation of slave Aristocracy owned means
Slave Society (1500 BC to 2. Soldier e.t.c labour leading to of production land and
500 AD) 3. Slaves and latter rebellion against the workers-slaves non paid
colonii ruling elite
3. 1. Aristocratic Exploitation of serfs led Barter trade Natural
Feudalism (500 AD to soldiers elite to friction between serfs economy. Extraction of
1700AD) 2. Serfs=half slave and landlords surplus through free labour
half worker and rent in kind=produce
3. Clergy and latter money. Land
owned by landlords
4. 1. Aristocracy Workers=Craftsmen Monopolisation of markets
Mercantile Capital (1700 2. Merchants exploitation by by merchants. Surplus
to 1800) 3. Clergy Merchants and landlords. value extracted through
4. Craftsman Concentration of capital under paid worker and high
5. Labourer/worker and formation of joint profit mark up on goods at
stock company led to home and abroad. Means
globalisation of trade and of production owned by
slavery and colonialism merchants and land
owners=land + money
5. 1. Industrialist David Hume, Adam Free trade based on
Competitive Capital 1800 2. Worker Smith against merchant international division of
to 1900 3. Peasant/leman monopoly of capital and labour. Exploitation of
markets. Industrialists + workers by industry.
bankers exploit workers Monopoly of machines
and bankers=former money and land
merchants exploit
industrialists
6. Monopoly Capital 1900 1. Bankers Worker’s labour under Extraction of surplus value
to 1945 2. Industrialists valued leading to acute through lending is paying

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 3. Workers concentration of capital for workers needs not for
4. Peasants value of labour. Monopoly
ownership of capital-land,
money and machines
7. Finance Capital 1945 to 1. Finance institutions Buyers determine prices Selling of Money Export of
present 2. Borrowers Money Monopoly
ownership
Of Capital by banks

During the hunter-gatherer mode of production there was no society and no

classes. Extraction of surplus value or exploitation of one class by another
class was not possible. The situation was a free for all and this made life
difficult on a state of nature. With the development of Roman slave society
classes developed as well as conflicts as well. The landowners had slaves
who resented being owned and forced to work. The colonii or freed former
slaves and peasants were also exploited by the landowners who made them
pay rent in kind or in cash. These conflicts eventually led to the collapse of
the system and it was replaced by Feudalism. Feudalism as a mode of
production was based on a highly stratified society where extraction of
surplus value by those who owned and monopolised the means of
production was for long sustained through force. The serfs or landless
peasants were made to work and pay part of their produce to the landlords
who owned all the land. The major features of all successive modes of
production develop at this stage except the global element, which exists in
the last stage or mode of production. It is this global aspect namely the
extraction of surplus value or exploitation from other countries through the
exportation or selling of finance capital that imperialism reaches its highest
and most developed stage.

11.3 Major elements of imperialism

The features that exist in all modes of production except the hunter gather
modes are as follows: -
1. Class formation or Societal stratification. This is along the lines of
a) those who own and monopolise the means of production and,
b) those who are exploited or from whom surplus value is
extracted.
2. Class Antagonism or Conflict due to exploitation.
3. Collapse of the previous mode of production due to contradiction and;

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 4. Emergence of another mode of production with different classes
and different contradictions but with exploitation or surplus value
extraction being the ever-unchanging feature.
The current phase or mode of production that is the finance capital mode, is
globalised in that those who own and monopolise the means of production,
have been able to mortgage all economic activity in their home countries and
abroad to money that these financial institutions lend locally in export
abroad. The result in the global economy has been there for marked by:

a) Concentration/monopolisation of capital in global or multilateral

financial institutions.
b) Formation of a class of super rich money owners who extract surplus
value or exploit the world economy through interest on money loaned
through such banks as the IMF the World Bank etc.
c) International division of labour. This has led to other countries being
pushed into being producers of raw materials while others have
become producers of manufactured goods. Producers of raw materials
as a global class have contradictions with those who monopolise
finance capital and those who buy their raw materials at cheap prices
determined by the buyer who then manufactures goods to sell to
producers of raw materials. This is exploitation of man by man at its
highest level and is no different from exploitation by force under
slavery or colonialism hence the term neo-colonialism to describe the
economic and political relations between producers of finished goods
the develop0ed countries and producers of raw materials under
developed countries or the third world.
11.4 International Economic Relations
The Second Word War marks the beginning point of the present global
economic arrangement. The idealism of the immediate post world war two
period led to massive government led initiatives to bring the shattered
economy of the world back to its feet. By 1979 however this role of
government in economic activity was under attack and has to a large extent
been abandoned altogether. The social welfare state has become a thing of
the past and a new ideology emphasising the role of the market in
determining all economic as well as social and political decisions has been
adopted.In the current economic thinking, cooperation’s or business have
total freedom and collective bargaining and trade unionism and the
consumer and citizen in general have found themselves at the receiving end
of the new international economic order. This new international economic

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order had by the middle 1990s assumed a new form and characteristic
namely globalisation.The IMF World Bank and oil Breton Woods financial
institutions were formed for the specific purpose of preventing future
conflicts by dealing or removing those economic and social issues that had
led and that might lead to new war. The mandate of these financial
institutions was to provide lending for reconstruction and for short-term
balance of payment support. These institutions after 1979 have increasingly
taken over individual governments, economic policies and intervene in
national policy will beyond the scope of their mandate. The post 1945
period saw a massive realignment of global economic relations with Europe
being mortgaged to the U.S.A. under the Marshall Plan which saw infusion
of capital into Europe from the U.S.A. and newly created Breton Woods
financial institutions. The U.S.A. insisted on decolonisation as a condition
of giving financial support to Europe and declared the end to empire. Thus
the U.S.A. gained the empires that Europe lost through decolonisation as it
gained unprecedented control of former colonies through new economic
relations specifically the supply of manufactured goods and the provision of
finance capital. Debt becomes the primary form of survival technique for all
former colonies and the supply of new materials from former colonies was
accelerated in order to raise money to pay off the debt. By the end of the
1970s the so called debt crisis had developed with a new economic global
structure which split the world into producers of raw materials and importers
of finance capital and finished goods and producers of finished goods and
exporters of finance capital. This relationship was marked or characterised
by a high level injustice in the form of unequal exchange.The former
colonies in America, Africa and Asia were selling raw materials with little
value added to them at prices set by the buyer that is the developed
countries. The latter sell manufactured goods to the developing countries at
high profit margins and over and above this drain of resources from the
south servicing the loans obtained from the north compounds or increases
the flow of resources to the south.

Debt servicing, cheap raw

materials. Imports of finished NORTH
goods and services
Loans And
SOUTH Good Service

The flow of wealth from the South to the North through debt servicing and
unequal exchange is further increased with the insistence on structural

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 adjustment programmes in the south by the so called donor community that
is western governments and the Breton Woods financial institutions or the
North. The catch word on economic structures adjustment programmes
forced on the South are similar to the free market economic policies
instituted on the domestic economics of the North which resulted in nett
gains for the super rich and nett loss for the average worker. Average
income in the 1980s of the top 10% of American families increased by 16%,
“the top 5% increased by 23%, the top 1% got 50%. The bottom 10% of
Americans lost 15% during the same period.” The same policies during the
same period applied to global policies saw an increase in nett flows of
income to the North and a decrease in income to the South with the result
that IMF policies have led to increased poverty in the South. These policies
are what can be termed globalisation and are hinged upon: -
a) free trade in goods and services between countries through the
removal of trade barriers.
b) free circulation of capital
c) freedom and protection of investments
d) reduction of government expenditure and government interference in the
economy.
e) privatisation of parastatals
These points have become the conditionalities for receiving or disbursement
of aid by the North. The result in all instances was that the forced
privatisation saw corporations in the North buying up all privatised
companies in the South so privatised.
Closely related to these policies has been the creation of the UN – World
Trade Organisation (UN – WTO) in 1995. The liberalisation of world trade
under the current requirements is reducing developing countries to
primitive economies as industries close under pressure from unregulated
competition from the North. The North in the meantime is not removing
trade restrictions, which remain in the form of quarters or strict health
requirements in agricultural products. Moreover subsidies maintained
by both the U.S.A. and Europe on agricultural production is seeing
many countries in the South collapsing economically.
11.5 International Division Of Labour
The global economic arrangement between the South and North has
structural linkages, which perpetuate the inequalities that exist in global
economic relations. The North or developed economies can thus be termed
the centre of global economic activity and the South or developing countries
the periphery of economic activity at the international level. These relations
can be diagrammatically represented as follows: -

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 Centre

Periphery Periphery

Periphery Centre

Centre Centre Disharmony of

interests
Periphery Centre Periphery

Harmony of interests
between periphery centre
and centre is the centre.

11.6 Centre Periphery Relations

The centre has those who own and run the economy and the governments.
They also have a periphery that is the workers and the unemployed. The
same can be said of both. The centre in the centre has to have harmony of
interests with the centre in the periphery because both these groups are the
beneficiaries in the world economic arrangement. The peripheries in both
divisions have disharmony of interests with the centres because they are the
victims of the system. This relationship demonstrates why it is difficult for
the developing countries to get out of their current position because of the
collaboration between their political leadership with the leadership in the
North. It also explains why the North seeks to influence the selection of
leaders in the South and talk about regime change when they fail to control
the electoral processes the South.

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11.7 Activities
 Discuss the elements of imperialism
 Discuss the various stages in the development of international
capital
 Finance capital has done more harm than good how accurate is
this assessment of policies of the WORLD BANK and IMF

UNIT 12
Development Strategies

12.1 Objectives
By the end of this unit students should be able to:
o Discuss the development strategies that can be used by
nations for economic development and growth
o Explain how developing nations can make use of
appropriate technology to tap their resources for economic
development and growth

In a world where there are structural linkages between the North and South
that thrive on the allocation of unequal roles based on historically and
political derived positions development in the South is only a myth.
It is not possible to envisage a situation where the North will allow
economic conditions in the South to develop to such a level or extent or to
undermine the supply of their raw material resources or the continued
existence of markets for their goods. Development has remained elusive in
the South especially as long as the North subverts or influences the political
process in the South. Development refers to a situation where the majority
of the people have sufficient levels of literacy, access to education, food,
shelter and health care. Bustling metropolis are not proof of development.
Highly segmented society where a few people enjoy privileged economic
advantages while the rest of the population languish in squalor and poverty
in illiteracy and in slums with no access to health care are clear examples of
endemic under development. This scenario is true for many of Zimbabwe’s
neighbours and especially when one compares the health education and
infrastructure in the region. Structural dependence linkages, which create,
sustain and perpetuate the existence of dual economics, are short-term gains

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 that will in the long term create catastrophic situations. Development
approaches have to be long term in nature and have to take cognisance of the
realities in which nations exist as members of the global community. It has
already been demonstrated that former colonies are structurally dependent
and linked to the former colonies through new forms of linkages, which
prohibit development in this neo-colonial relationship.The problem countries
like Zimbabwe face is dependence which perpetuates the traditional role and
position of supplier of raw materials with the result of creating a dual
economy – an affluent metropolis and a poor peasantry. Development
therefore can be viewed from the following angles.

12.2 Interdependence
“This is inevitable in this heterogeneous planet: resources, including fertile
land, fresh water, deposits of minerals and sources of energy are dispersed
unevenly over its surface. In simpler times, populations were concentrated
mainly in areas of plentiful resources and especially those propitious for the
growing of food. Such societies could therefore become more or less self-
sufficient and international trade gradually developed mainly to provide
exotic products, which were initially, luxuries but which little by little
improved the general material standard of life. With the impact of
technological development, a vastly greater range of materials was required.
The present industrialized economies, which arose as a consequence of the
industrial revolution, were initially based on local deposits of coal and iron
ore. but, as these economies became more sophisticated, their industries
called for a wide variety of materials, many of which had to be imported
from distant lands and this had many consequences including colonization.
Interdependence,then,became an important reality but was seldom recognize
politically.Little by little, within this system human skills and
knowledge(especially those of science and technology) became the most
important of all national resources and we have now reached a situation in
which successful and innovative economies can be created”
12.3 Self Reliance
“Interdependence appears, therefore, to have become a central feature
of the contemporary world. However, it is inevitable that the most
powerful of the nations are the most capable of exploiting it to their
own advantage; at least as the’re short-term vision seems to indicate.
Such a situation tends to make the rich richer and the poor relatively
poorer, increasing disharmony, which must in the end imperil the rich
as well as the poor. For the establishment of a stable world order,
therefore, interdependence has to be complemented by self-reliance,

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 which means, essentially, the capacity to manage interdependence.
Without such a capacity, interdependence can only mean dependence
on the part of the many, a continuing economic and technological
colonialism, or just plain poverty.There are many ingredients within
the concept of self-reliance. It is necessary for instance to have a
stable and intelligent government, with partners who may be well
trained and able to command skills in negotiation with partners who
may be stronger. Likewise it is necessary to attain a national
competence in science and technology to provide a sound basis for
industrialization and to ensure that imported technologies are well
chosen, intelligently assimilated and assist in providing the skills
which will make possible indigenous innovations and development. It
necessitates also a good level of education and training as well as the
acquisition of management capacities. Self-reliance is thus a very
different concept from that of self-sufficiency; it entails the building
up of a capacity, both institutional and in terms of human skills which
enables a country to manage its resources and affairs effectively so as
to benefit to the maximum from interdependence, rather than to be its
passive victim”.

12.4ACTIVITIES
o Discuss the development strategies that can be used by
nations for economic development and growth
o Explain how developing nations can make use of
appropriate technology to tap their resources for economic
development and growth

UNIT 13
Regionalism

13.1 OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit the student should be able to:
o Outline the logic and development of regionalism.
o Outline the composition purpose, and functions of major
regional organisations (SADC, COMESA, PTA, ECOWAS,
AU, EU, ASEAN, NAFTA).
o Critically analyse the purpose role, structure and functions of
the United Nations and trace its origins successes and failures.
o Assess the functions and structure of the major UN agencies –
UNESCO, UNHCR, WHO, UNDP, UNICEF

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 o Evaluate the role played by governmental aid agencies – Usaid,
Norad, Cida, Sida etc.

13.2 Introduction
Economic and Political integration among Third World countries is
normally on a regional or sub-regional basis. Before taking the merits and
demerits of such integration it is necessary to define first what we mean or
what is meant by “region” and “integration”. The term region will be
defined first and integration will be defined latter. By region is meant:

- “an area of contiguous countries defined usually by geography or by a

common cultural heritage, shared political philosophy or mutual
economic interest”.
- Such integration can be seen as falling under: -
i) “Multifunctional geographically comprehensive organisations
such as the Organisation of American States (O.A.S), the
Organisation of Africa’s Unity (O.AU) and the League of Arab
States (LAS).
ii) Cooperative or integration-oriented and geographically limited
(sub-regional) organisations such as the European Economic
Community (EEC) and the Economic Community for West
African States (ECOWAS).
iii) Technical or otherwise narrowly functional organisations such
as the Colombo plan for economic cooperative development.
iv) Economic Commissioners falling under the United Nations
such as the Economic Commission for Africa (ECA).
Economic Commission for Latin America (ECLA), Economic
Commission for Western Asia (ECWA), and the Economic
Commission for South Asia and the Pacific (ECSAP).
To these can be added in a sub global sense of regional integration regional
bodies such as the British Common Wealth, the Organisation of the
Conference of Islamic States and Africa-Caribbean and Pacific group that
falls under the Lome Conventions 1 and 11. These organisations usually
double as loose association with political as well as economic undertones. It
is possible to make further extensions to include the ideological divide,
which form the End-West confrontation, but a broad assumption will be
made that developing countries do not fall under these groupings. The
North-South dialogue can also be seen as being trans regional.
The logic behind regionalism therefore is economics of scale in production
and trade at the economic level and shared cultural and social values at the

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political level. The formation of regional organisation is therefore a logical
imperative and answer to the common problems facing mankind. When the
UN was formed article 52(1) of the Charter provided that:
“Nothing on the present Charter precludes the existence of regional
arrangements or agencies for dealing with such matters relating to the
maintenance of international peace and security as are appropriate for
regional action provided that such arrangements or agencies and their
activities are consistent with the purposes and principles of the United
Nations”
Student Exercise
Using the following table fill in the necessary information on or about the
following regional organisations, SADC, COMESA, ECOWAS, AU,
SACU, EU.

NAME OF YEAR OF PURPOSE OF MEMBERSHIP

ORGANISATIO FORMATION ORGANISATIO
N N

13.3 Public International Organisation

Public International Organisation refers to multilateral institutions formed by
states for the purposes of facilitating inter stake cooperation in economic
political social and cultural issues. These organisations arise out of the need
to regulate intercourse In relations between states. The consul and
diplomatic mission were the first examples of formal institutions in relations
between states. The existence of problems, which could not be dealt with by
or through the diplomatic mission, gave rise to the development of the
international conference consisting of representatives from various states.
The conference of Vienna (1815), The Paris conference of 1919 etc were ad-
hoc conferences of this nature, which discussed each unique problem as it
arose. Associations and unions had developed by the nineteenth century to
replace the mechanism of the conferences. These unions and associations
were either private or public international organisations such as the
International Law Association and the Universal Postal Union respectively.
After World War 2 the idealism of the period resulted in the formation of the
League of Nations, which became the precursor to the United Nations.
International Organisations can be classified according to function as
follows: -
a) Administrative organisations e.g. international Postal Union.
b) Political Organisation e.g. the UN.

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c) Judicial Organisations e.g. the International court of justice.
Or classified according to extent or geographical space as follows: -
a) Global
b) Regional

13.4 Structure of the UN

General Assembly Secretariat Security Council

U.N.O
Disarmament
Commission
UNWTO
Committees
UNILO Committee of
Expects
ICAO
Committee No. 1
Political & Security IBRD Military Staff
Committee
IFC
Special Political
Committee IDA
Ad Hoc Bodies
IMF
Committee No. 2
Economic & Financial FAO International
Atomic Agency
UNESCO
Committee No. 3
Social Humanitarian WHO

UPU
Committee No. 4

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 Trusteeship Council ITU

WMO
Committee No. 5
Administrative & WIPO
Budgetary
UNIDO

Legal Committee No. 6 IFA

The UNWTO was formed in 1995 as the successor organisation to the
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) the objective to enable
states to agree among themselves to reduce and remove or eliminate
restrictions on trade. Of all UN organs the WTO has been cited as the most
negative in its operations for an example: -
1. Undermines democracy in the developing World.
2. Perpetuates underdevelopment by exposing weak economies to unfair
competition.
3. WTO regulates and promotes World trade through rules that
undermine commerce and industry in the developing nations etc.

13.5 ACTIVITIES

 Write in full the abbreviated names of the UN organs

 Critically analyse the purpose role, structure and functions of the
United Nations and trace its origins successes and failures.
 Assess the functions and structure of the major UN agencies –
UNESCO, UNHCR, WHO, UNDP, UNICEF
 Evaluate the role played by governmental aid agencies – Usaid,
Norad, Cida, Sida etc.

UNIT 14

NON-GOVERNMENTAL ORGANISATIONS(NGOs)
14.1 OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit the student should be able to:
o Identify major NGOs in Zimbabwe and State their functions,
purposes and their relationships with the host Government.
o Critically analyse the role of NGOs as lobby groups in home
countries and as front organisations in host countries.

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 o Assess the effect of NGOs and their contribution in
development; cultural imperialism and the dependency
syndrome.
Non-governmental organisations have become a major feature in
international relations for two reasons: -
a) They are used directly and indirectly by their home states as front
organisations.
b) Impact of their activities can be far reaching.

NGOs are formal organisations formed by private individuals for the

specific purpose of articulating concerns, raising awareness and lobbying
governments for legislative or other political action and soliciting for
resources.NGOs can be classified according to their area of concern or
operations namely: -
a) Developmental NGOs
b) Advocacy NGOs
c) Relief NGOs
Developmental NGOs are involved in raising resources human or material
for use in alleviating poverty or suffering.
Advocacy NGOs raise awareness in an existing problem and lobby
governments to take specific action to deal with that type of problems.
Relief NGOs solicit for financial and material resources for use where
natural disasters and earthquakes occur.

14.2 The Impact of NGOs’ Activity in Zimbabwe

Developmental NGOs have contributed substantially in the construction of
infrastructure in the rural areas in Zimbabwe. Plan International has
together with the ministry of local government been putting up shallow and
deep wells. Other organisations have been involved in the provision of
equipment, construction of clinics and dams. The work of these
organisations while laudable in the short term has produced and fostered a
culture of dependence among Zimbabweans. People who receive these
handouts have no sense of ownership of the items donated and are not only
reckless in the use of donated equipment but abandon such equipment
sooner rather than latter. Most wells have been abandoned in the rural areas
because the pumps have broken and no one has bothered to repair them.
Advocacy NGOs have been the most prolific in Zimbabwe.These
organisations have raised awareness on such issues as women’s rights, the
girl child, human rights democracy and many other areas. These
organisations have produced less positive contribution than the other

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organisations. It is also these organisations that have been used by western
governments to subvert and undermine the democratic process in Zimbabwe.
These organisation have been highly disruptive of African or local culture
assuming western or foreign values to be superior over local culture.

Relief NGOs provide assistance such as food during droughts in Zimbabwe;

such assistance while it averts starvation in the short term has been
extremely detrimental in long-term food security in the country. Instead of
coming up with solutions to recurring drought, people in Zimbabwe look for
external assistance. Adopting wrong grains for food worsens drought effects.
Local small grains like sorghum and millet have been safe food security
reserves in the past but the use of an exotic and foreign grain like maize not
suited to our climate has produced a crisis in food security. The overall
picture or effect is that NGOs have contributed more negatively than
positively to Zimbabwe’s welfare.
Front organisations are organisations that are used as cover for some other
purposes or activity. These front organisations have been used to subvert the
political process in Zimbabwe. The Zimbabwe Democracy Trust is
sponsored by white Rhodesians to create an environment that undermines
black interests and gains. MISA –Media Institute for Southern Africa
promotes, funds and where necessary encourages the creation of media that
is friendly to western interests. One of MISA’s subsidiaries, the Southern
African Media Development Fund has been active in promoting media
hostile to the Zimbabwe government. The U.S. Agency for International
Aid, of a USA, government department, funds more than fifteen NGOs in
Zimbabwe with the specific objective of undermining the Zimbabwe
government. The US Aid subsidiary Office of Transition Initiatives is
funding a hostile and subversive radio station SW radio advocating political
uprising in Zimbabwe. The Communication Assistance Foundation of the
Netherlands reportedly seeks to “influence policy formulation” in Zimbabwe
and supports activities of the “Zimbabwe Civil Society”, that is, groups
seeking to overthrow the Zimbabwean government. The Westminster
Foundation, a United Kingdom organisation has been active in supporting
all activities aimed at undermining the Zimbabwean government.

14.3 ACTIVITIES
o Identify major NGOs in Zimbabwe and State their functions,
purposes and their relationships with the host Government.

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 o Critically analyse the role of NGOs ass lobby groups in home
countries and as front organisations in host countries.
o Assess the effect of NGOs and their contribution in
development; cultural imperialism and the dependency
syndrome.

UNIT 15

THE MEDIA
15.1 OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit the student should be able to:
 Define Media and explain its role and functions
 Critically analyse the following :
 Freedom of Expression
 Freedom of Association within the context of Media Freedom
 Discuss and explain self censorship of the media and compare the
behaviour of Zimbabwe’s media to that of other countries
 Assess the role of the foreign media in shaping perceptions and
influencing political processes in modern politics
 Define the term “perceptions” and critically relate it to the adage “the
battle is not lost on the battlefield but in the mind”.
 Discuss and analyse the role of the media in modern welfare and
trade.
 Media definition, roles and functions
15.2 Definition
Media can be defined as a channel through which one communicates. Mass
media refers to the channel through which one or a group of people
communicates to a large audience. It can be print, electronic or digital.
15.3 Roles
It plays 3 primary roles i.e entertains, educates and informs.
15.4 Functions
The media have become one of the central elements of modern societies
with some theorists calling it the FOURTH ESTATE or fourth arm of the
state, whose primarily function is to be a watchdog.The media is the major

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ideological apparatus of any state. Nation states use the media to maintain
peace, order, national values, heritage as well as the sovereignty and
territorial integrity.

State

Ideological state apparatus Repressive State

Apparatus
Media police
Education army
Religion state security

The Rambai Makashinga jingle for instance successfully entrenched the

spirit of resilience in the hearts and minds of the ordinary Zimbabweans
suffering from the negative effects of successive droughts and sanctions on
the economy.

15.5 The media and Identity

Identity: is simply our understanding of who we are. An individual may
have multiple identities & at times it leads to an identity crisis. By belonging
to various communities one can have multiple identities e.g. (A Dynamos
Supporter, can be a Christian, a Polytechnic Student, a Ndebele.) However,
every nation has to promote its own uniqueness and cultural diversity from
other nationalities and cultures. Nonetheless, the greatest threat to such
cultural preservation is the work of media products (cultural products) that
transcend national and geographic boundaries to cultivate western cultures to
locals in what has come to be known as cultural imperialism.Noteworthy is
the glamorization of homosexuality in the entertainment media with
countries like Zimbabwe against such practices labeled as Abusers of
Human Rights. Hence, in the best interests of the preservation of local
culture & identity, nations should fight against the global media influence
which is increasingly defining the world for us. Radio channels on short-

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wave frequency (which has the widest reach) such as Channel Africa &
Voice of Zimbabwe try to counter that influence and promote an Afro
centric ideology and give the true African view.

15.6 The Media: nation & nationalism

Nation- is a political community sharing cultural background and
aspirations. The era of national galas promoted a national togetherness and
the use of national colors (eg Zimbabwe Independence Silver Jubilee T-
shirts & flags) in supporting national causes even in sports, promotes
nationalism. A more localized programming creates a national ideology
against foreign ones (eg the 75% local content policy in Zimbabwe, with
some Moslem states totally disregarding any foreign media content).

15.7 Freedom of Expression and self sensorship

Journalists the world over clamor for media freedom, as they claim it is one
of the basic requirements in any independent nation-state. The current
Zimbabwean constitution guarantees the freedom of Expression in section
20 (5). However, journalists have more often than not abused their freedom
of expression, leading to jeopardization of state security at times and in other
instances disturbing of peace and creating public despondency through the
writing of alarmist stories.Understanding that media messages have
economic, political, social, and aesthetic purposes (e.g., to make money, to
gain power or authority over others, to present ideas about how people
should think or behave, to experiment with different kinds of symbolic
forms or ideas) help us to understand why all governments provide relative
and never absolute freedom as this will inevitably lead to anarchy. The
Oxford Concise dictionary 10th edition defines anarchy as the state of
disorder due to lack of government control).The media has influence on
society as a whole (e.g., influence in shaping various governmental, social,
and cultural norms; influence on the democratic process; influence on
beliefs, lifestyles, and understanding of relationships and culture; how it
shapes viewer's perceptions of reality; the various consequences in society of
ideas and images in media)The media has the ability to influence social and
cultural issues (e.g., creating or promoting causes: U.N. military action,
election of political parties; use of media to achieve governmental, societal,
and cultural goals)This is the reason why the Zimbabwean government
enacted laws which makes it a criminal offense to publish falsehoods, write
anything that creates public alarm and despondence or anything prejudicial
to the state, president or his office. The government of Zimbabwe also
recently allowed for the self censorship of journalists through their self

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appointed regulatory board known as the Voluntary Media Council. It is
however essential to note that the media framework cannot work in an
unregulated fraternity.

15.8 Freedom of Association within the context of Media Freedom

The right to freedom of assembly and association in Zimbabwe is guaranteed
under Article 21 ofthe Constitution of Zimbabwe. Commenting on this
provision and Article 20 on freedom of expression, in re Munhumeso &Ors,
the Supreme Court of Zimbabwe emphasized that:
"the importance attaching to the exercise of the right to freedom of
expression and assembly must never be underestimated. They lie at the
foundation of a democratic society and are one of the basic conditions for its
progress and for the development of every man.”These two essential
provisions i.e freedom of expression and assembly have to be well
monitored and governed by the state in the best interests of public safety and
public order to an extent which is reasonably justifiable in a democratic
society.In Zimbabwe just like in Britain, any organization that intends to
gather for whatever reason has to seek police clearing for the maintenance of
peace, order and tranquility.
15.9 Comparing the behavior of Zimbabwean media to that of other
countries
United States has the largest number of media organizations in the world
however the media is owned and controlled by a few individuals. This
makes the media environment in the US to be plural (many newspapers & tv
stations) but definitely not diverse(as all the media organizations are singing
from the same hymnbook). Researchers at Sonoma State University in the
US looked up the names of the 155 people who served on the boards of
directors of the eleven media companies that dominated the U.S. media
market.
Who are these 155 media elites-directors of the largest combined media
news systems in the world? They include men like: Frank Carlucci, who sits
on the board of directors of Westinghouse (CBS), and was former deputy
director of the CIA and later Secretary of Defense under President Bush.
This doesn’t come as a surprise that the Bush administration like any other
government in the world desires to effectively control the media so that it
perpetrates its ideologies and policies.The U.S. media has lost its diversity
and its ability to present different points of view. Instead, there is
homogeneity of news stories and the major media tend to look alike.

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The media in the U.S. has created, to use Neil Postman's words, the "best
entertained, least informed society in the world." Americans are ignorant
about international affairs and alienated from their own social issues.

15.10 Assess the role of the foreign media in shaping perceptions and
influencing political processes in modern politics The ever widening
reach of the global media has created a relatively unified international view
of the world. According to the Agenda Setting theory, “the media may not
be successful much of the time in telling people what to think, but it is
stunningly successful in telling its readers what to think about.” Bernard C
Cohen (1963).The seemingly plural global media has formed a cartel that
owns newspapers, magazines, book publishers, motion picture studios, radio
and TV stations globally. Time Warner, Walt Disney, News Corporation,
Viacom and Bertelsmann control almost all global media of influence and
they are also under one controlling hand, hence all the news and
entertainment enjoyed the world over come from one controlling stake.
Realizing the power of the media in controlling the thinking of man,
imperialists have hijacked and manipulated the global media from its
educative, informative and entertaining role to being the major apparatus in
the creation and perpetuation of the Anglo-American hegemony agenda
globally. It therefore doesn’t come as a surprise that a successful land reform
program may be called “chaotic”, an economy under sanctions named
“mismanaged and in meltdown”, a homegrown legislation called
“draconian”, by almost if not all of these media houses who are perpetrating
an ideology of their paymasters (He who pays the piper calls the tune).
Through their ill gotten wealth (slavery & colonialism, and other neo-colonial and
imperialist injustices they continue to commit) the imperialists promote their capitalist
system as the only hope for ailing developing economies so that through their set
financial institutions (IMF, World Bank) they continue to exploit the rich human and
natural resources of African economies. Frantz Fanon noted that “the last battle of the
colonised against the coloniser will often be the fight of the colonised against each
other”. The words are very linked to the Zimbabwean scenario and relates to what other
sections of the Zimbabwean media community are doing to destroy Zimbabwe in the
name of freedom of the media. For example, the private media, which are usually anti-
establishment, refer to the sanctions that have led to the economic downturn and suffering
of the ordinary Zimbabweans as targeted and claim they are not affecting trade in the
country. However, the public media in Zimbabwe has always maintained that sanctions in
Africa in general and Zimbabwe in particular hurt masses not the government in power
because there is no middle class like in countries of Europe who can effect regime
change.
15.11 The role of the media in modern welfare and trade.

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The building and maintenance of public support is essential in modern
warfare due to the increasing politicization of warfare, where losses and
gains are measured in political rather than military terms. And if progress
cannot be demonstrated during a war, then by default one is assumed to be
losing. Thus, the adage “the battle is not lost on the battlefield but in the
mind,” is very true.This explains why the American war against terror is
glamorized in Western media though it has led to the indiscriminate killing
thousands of innocent civilians which include defenseless women and
children in countries like Afghanistan and Iraq. War on Terror has been
interpreted as an assault on democracy and freedom by Islamic
fundamentalists and has been heavily criticized for the death of innocent
souls the world over though it is positively portrayed in the media. The
media onslaught against Zimbabwean policies is part of the Anglo American
warfare strategy that involves the control of the minds of people and the
media support of any of their policies though they may lead to untold
suffering to other people. The third world Pan- African states, like other
developed states also use their indigenous media to counter the global media
positive coverage of Anglo-American policies. With the growth of global
media, the third world countries are creating less of their culture and buying
more of it from the media, hence the continued loss of African culture. Thus,
Africans in general, and Zimbabweans in particular should work together in
the fight against western ideals which are proclaimed in foreign media.

15.12 ACTIVITIES

o Define Media and explain its role and functions

o Critically analyse the following :
o Freedom of Expression
o Freedom of Association within the context of Media Freedom
o Discuss and explain self censorship of the media and compare
the behaviour of Zimbabwe’s media to that of other countries
o Assess the role of the foreign media in shaping perceptions and
influencing political processes in modern politics
o Define the term “perceptions” and critically relate it to the
adage “the battle is not lost on the battlefield but in the mind”.
o Discuss and analyse the role of the media in modern welfare
and trade.

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References
Moyana H (2001) African Heritage .1st Edition. Zimbabwe Publishing House
:Harare
Moyana H & Sibanda M (2001) African Heritage Revised Edition. Zimbabwe
Publishing House :Harare
Moyana T (1989) Education Liberation. 1st Edition Fay Chung : Harare
Mudenge S G (1988) A Political History of Munhumutapa -1400-1902.
Zimbabwe Publishing House: Harare
Zvobgo C J M(1996) A History of Christian Missionaries in Zimbabwe1890-
1939. Mambo Press :Gweru
Prew M et al(2002) People Making History Book 4 Zimbabwe Publishing
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Stiglitz,J.(2002) Globalization and its discontents. Penguin: London
Rodney W (1981) How Europe Underdeveloped
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African Studies 14(2).Can African Feet Divorce
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Democratic Good Governance in Malawi
University of Malawi, Zomba

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Nussbaum,B. (2003) African culture and Ubuntu; Reflections of a South
African in America. World Business Academy
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Stoner J.A.F; Freeman. R.E. and Gilbert.D.R.JR(1995)
Management 6th Edition Prentice Hall
International Englewood Cliffs. New Jersey.
Rukuni.M (2007) Being Afrikan. Rediscovering the Traditional
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Mandala Publishers. Arcadia
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Mbigi,L., Maree,J. (1995),Ubuntu; The Spirit of Johannesburg: Knowledge
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NATIONAL & STRATEGIC STUDIES

MODULE

NATIONAL & STRATEGIC STUDIES

DIVISION

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KWEKWE POLYTECHNIC
PRODUCTION 2011

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