Name: Shivam Singh

Roll No.: 16110156

Section-A
1. Development of Sanchi Stupa:
Just quick overview of remains of Stupa before diving into how Stupas were built.

According to A. Cunningham, Maisey and Foucher the remains of the Stupa found at
Sanchi can be classified into following categories categories:
1. Religious Stupa (celestial, Adi-Buddha or Buddha.)
2. Funeral Stupa erected over the relics of mortal Buddha or over his disciples.
3. Stupa for commemorative Buddha.

The first Stupa (Stupa-I) at Sanchi is believed to be built during the time of Ashoka in
a form of a brick mound veneered with dressed stone. In the second century BCE the
Stupa was enlarged in a form of a high circular Mehdi with a circumambulation
passage at the ground level surrounded by railing pillars, that consists of a stambha
connected with three suchis.
There were four entrances on the four sides, formed by L-shaped-projections of the
railing. Later, gateway torana was installed in front of all entrances. The Gateways
are five in number.
Some important facts:
i. The Stupas near Christian era in northern and central India are quite
similar to Stupa-I of Sanchi.
ii. Stupa-II did had 4 L-shaped entrances but without torana while,
Stupa-III had only 1 torana.
2. Ashokan pillars:
Ashoka led to the throne in 269BCE inheriting the empire founded by Chandragupta
Maurya. After the unfortunate event in Kalinga, Ashoka converted to Buddhism in
remorse for the loss of life. Ashokan art’s actual productions were relatively few in
number and pillars were among principle contribution in the field of art and
architecture by Asoka School of Architecture. Being aware about other nations using
stone (which are more durable than the rock edicts and brick stupas), he started
constructing stone pillars in the sacred sites related to Buddha’s life.
 Above image locates various Ashokan pillar throughout Indian subcontinent. There
are:
i. 20 pillars which have survived with inscriptions
ii. 7 pillars with animal capitals.
The pillars have four component parts in two pieces:
i. Of which three sections of the capitals (here all the artistic properties were
focused) made in a single piece,
ii. The last part was Pillar shaft.
And, these two parts were joined by accurately fitted copper bolt.
Each pillar is made out to form a circular cross sectional plain and smooth
unornamented shaft, slightly tapering upwards 30-40 feet in height, and arising
straight out of the ground without any suggestion of a base.

3. Comparisons between Gandhara, Mathura and Amaravati School of Art:

Gandhara
The Gandhara school of art
grown around Peshawar
(Presently in Pakistan) in
Northwest India.
This style had strong Greek
influence and it was based on
Greco-Roman Norms.
Mathura
Mathura style was deviated
from Gandhara style (because
of complex form of
symbolism in it). Thus,
establishing the tradition of
transforming Buddhist
symbols into human form.
Amaravati
Inspired by Buddhist themes
(Nagarjunakonda, etc), the
Amaravati school of arts was
developed in lower valleys of
the Krishna and the Godavari.
It was Patronized first by
the Satavahanas and later by
the Ikshvakus and also by
other groups.

Material used: Blue-grey Material used: Spotted Red Material used: White marble
Mica schist / Grey Sandstone Sandstone Religious aspect: Mainly
Religious aspect: Mainly Religious aspect: Buddhist, Buddhist
Buddhist Jainism and Hinduism

Image features: Finer details
and realistic-images. Buddha
carved out in various Mudras.
Curly hair, anatomical
accuracy, spatial depth, and
foreshortening. Buddha is
sometimes thin.
Image features: In early
periods, light body having
fleshy body whereas in later
periods, flashiness reduced
and also, Buddha carved in
various Mudras. Not much
attention to detailed sculpting.
Buddha is stout.
Image features: The themes
of this art were Buddha’s life
and Jatakas tales. Images
were well modelled with long
legs and slender frames.
Physical beauties and sensual
expression were important
aspect of this art.
 Section-B
4. How did the ancient Indians measure precipitation?
Precipitation is main process that constitute the hydrologic cycle. It is produced due
to weather and cloud formation.
The amount of precipitation in form of rain is usually determined by amount of
water collected in Rain Gauge. The use of gauge goes back to fourth century BC.
Kautilya describes the construction of gauge as “In front of the store house, a bowel
(Kunda) with its mouth as wide as an aratni (24 angulas = 18” nearly) shall be set up
as raingague”.

Comparison between modern and ancient raingauge

Marerial of Rain-gauge: Internal sources do not yield any attest to its material.
However, Kautilya refers vessel as ‘Kunda’ which may mean something like bowl-
shaped vessel, pot, pitcher, etc.

Selection of Site: It was common practice that gauge was setup on ground instead of
mounting it on something. So, in this connection, as mentioned in Arthasastra of
Kautilya who specifies that the bowl with its mouth wide to be kept as Rain-gauge in
front of ‘store-house’.
5. What are the different concepts with regard to Ground Water based on
ancient texts in India?
As mentioned in Rig, Sam and Yajur Veda, hydrological cycles and water use through
wells, etc., this implies the use of ground water. Renowned astronomer and
mathematician Varahmihira (AD. 505-587) have major contribution on ground water
exploration and exploitation with various surface features, that are used as
hydrologic indicators to locate sources of ground water, at depths varying from 2.29
m to as much as 171.45 m.
In Vrhat Samhita (treatise on science of underground water), Verse 54.1 which
implies water-table and tells us about its resemblance to veins in human body
(difference in water level). Verse 54.2 implies that water from sky originally has same
colour and taste but later assumes different colour according to ground.

Different zones of Ground water

Verse 54.3, 54.4 and 54.55 gives information about sub-terrainian streams and how
they are rained in all quarters. Verse 54.7 said that on digging we will get yellow frog
at a depth of 3.75 feet, then yellow soil, then rock and then ample amount of water.
Similarly, many other verses gave information about ground water.
Thus, scientific occurrence of ground water was developed during ancient times.
6. What are the different water purification methods used by ancient Indians?
In ancient medicine, water was believed to reflect values about human health and
harmony between physical, social and ecological environment hence, water
purification was of great importance during that time as well.
In the Rig Veda, the verse V,83.4, tells us about role of the tree plantation, forest
conservation and yajna in creating good quality of water. In Yajur Veda (I,12), there’s
discussion about contamination of water and about fire as the prime source of water
purification (breaking the substances into minute particles). 54th chapter “Dakargala”
in Vrhat Samhita, states about purity of ground water should be measured in
relation to its environment.
Verse 54.121 and 54.122 presented a simple method for obtaining potable water
from a contaminated source of water:
a. Mixture of extract of ammonium, Musta tubers, Usira , Powder of
Rajkosataka , and Awala combined with Kataka nuts should be put into a well
to get good quality of water.
Lastly, in many Shlokas, there were suggestions to heat or boiling for drinking water
treatments.
 References:
• Chapter -3, Development of Stupa architecture in India, Shared on Classroom
• Lecture notes-ASH-6 and ASH-7, Shared on Classroom
• Website: selfstudyhistry.com
• Srinivasan, T. M. "(06) Measurement Of Rainfall in Ancient India." (1976).
• Chaper 3: Cloud Formation, Precipitation, and its Measurement - Hydrologic
Knowledge in Ancient India.
• Chaper 6: Ground Water - Hydrologic Knowledge in Ancient India.
• Chaper 7: Water Quality and Wastewater Management - Hydrologic Knowledge in
Ancient India.