Technology in Society 59 (2019) 101133

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Technology in Society
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/techsoc

The attitude of managers toward telework, why is it so difficult to adopt it in T

organizations?
Alejandro Silva-Ca,∗, Iván A. Montoya Rb, Jhoany A. Valencia Aa
a
Faculty of Management and Economic Sciences, Instituto Tecnológico Metropolitano, Medellín, 050013, Colombia
b
Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, Universidad Nacional de Colombia Sede Medellín, Medellín, 050034, Colombia

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: The telework adoption by organizations is aimed to offer practical value for all members, in facilitating their
Telework adoption work and life. However, a large number of organizations are not adopting telework practices. This study aimed
Structural equation modelling to contribute in the current understanding of what factors influence the attitude of middle managers toward
Technology acceptance model telework adoption in their companies. A technology acceptance models approach was adopted to identify how
Middle management and attitude
middle managers’ attitudes toward telework impact their adoption; and Structural Equation Modelling was used
for analyzing information. Results show that managerial practices, self-efficacy of employees and information
security tools improvement in organizations affect the attitude of middle manager toward adoption.

1. Introduction adopted by different organizations, based on the attitudes that man-

When new technologies are adopted at the organizational or in-
dividual level, this process does not occur spontaneously, but is the
convergence of a highly complex process [1]. To ensure that an orga-
nization is managed effectively and efficiently when it adopts an in-
novation, it is necessary for managers to lead its introduction and have
resources, as well as extensive knowledge of technical, communicative,
social and management skills.
This creates great expectations about the new management models
that telework brings with it, because, despite the large investments, the
return may not be satisfactory and its implementation would not pro-
vide the expected value for all members of the organization, or it would
be achieved but very slowly. This is why the impact of telework is so
relevant to the organization, implementing it without sufficient re-
search may be counterproductive, as the managers of the organizations
do not want to make bad investment decisions that diminish all the
value generated in the time of the organization [2].
Companies and institutions are investing heavily in facilitating im-
plementation of different technologies, which makes them expect
benefits from these investments [3]. The benefits that are expected
when it is invested in a technology or, in this particular case, when
resources are invested within the organization to implement telework,
would only be reflected when it is fully accepted and used by all the
members of the organization that were planning to use it [4]. To reach
this point successfully, it is necessary to know how telework can be
agers have toward it, what the reasons for using it or not are, and what
strategies, orientations and initiatives to adopt telework should be
proposed for its correct adoption and acceptance. To answer these
questions, user perceptions are assessed in this article, specifically from
managers of the different areas of organizations, in order to examine
and understand the factors involved in the adoption of telework, where
links between different factors in forming attitudes toward telework are
identified.
This study seeks to examine the adoption of telework in organiza-
tions based on the factors involved prior to implementation. To this
effect, the following section presents the constructs of the Technology
Acceptance Model 3 (TAM 3) in the context of telework and the re-
lationships between them by means of the hypotheses presented. Using
the TAM 3 of [1,5]; which unify several technology acceptance models
and other theories and in which the adoption of telework in organiza-
tions is determined by the attitudes of their individuals toward the
adoption of telework, it was conducted an empirical study among
managers of organizations located in the city of Medellin. This is why
TAM 3 was mainly chosen as a recent model that unifies the research
that has had the most influence on the technology acceptance [1].

∗
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: asilvacor@unal.edu.co (A. Silva-C), iamontoyar@unal.edu.co (I.A. Montoya R), jhoanyvalencia@itm.edu.co (J.A. Valencia A).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techsoc.2019.04.009
Received 13 September 2018; Received in revised form 10 April 2019; Accepted 25 April 2019
Available online 26 April 2019
0160-791X/ © 2019 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
A. Silva-C, et al. Technology in Society 59 (2019) 101133

2. Theoretical framework (Daniels et al., 2001; [12]. The third dimension is related to the amount
of time spent in the different locations, which can be part-time or full-
2.1. Technology acceptance model (TAM) time, alternating between the different locative modalities and the
spaces of the organization. The fourth dimension is linked to con-
The Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) is an adaptation of TRA tractual relations between the employer and the employee: there can be
(Theory of reasoned action) proposed by Ref. [6]. The objective of this a direct contractual relationship, in which the employee is hired di-
model is to predict the user acceptance of a technology and explain rectly by the organization and has all the benefits that it can provide to
their behavior in such acceptance. This model hypothesizes that the its employees, and a freelance nature, in which the employee is in-
adoption of a technology by a user has two attributes that influence the dependent and there is a contractual nature between both parties with
end-user adoption: perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use; economic benefit [11–13].bib12
where perceived usefulness is the degree to which an individual be-
lieves that the use of new a system/technology in particular will im-
2.3. Telework and technology acceptance models
prove their work performance, and perceived ease of use is the degree
to which a person believes that the use of a new technology would be
In the context of telework, perceived usefulness is seen as the degree
effortless. These two attributes affect the attitude of an individual to-
to which an individual considers that making use of telework will give
ward the use of technology, whose attitude determines the behavioral
them a series of benefits, which will not be easy to obtain if they were
intention of the use of technology, which in turn determines the end-use
not in telework mode as a way to improve or enhance job performance
that would be given to the technology [6].
[14,15]. The benefits received differ as to whether they are received by
In turn, this model suggests that perceived ease of use influences
individuals or organizations [16]. In general, several studies have
perceived usefulness, —as long as technologies are easy to use, they will
contrasted the perceived usefulness of telework (PUT), which affects
be perceived as useful. In this sense, the total effort applied will be
the attitude toward telework (ATT). [8,9,17]; Daniels et al., 2001;
perceived as the time saving that is generated when the tasks are easier
Mann & Holdsworth, 2003 [12–14,18–22].
to perform with the new technology, time that can be used to perform
According to Ref. [23]; teleworking not only attracts the attention of
other activities [6,7]. Furthermore, perceived usefulness influences not
managers but policy makers as well, because it reduces commuting time
only the attitude toward the use of a technology, but also positively
in urban areas and achieves better family-work-life balance and a
influences the intention to use it [6]. This model was adjusted by Ref.
higher employees productivity and efficiency; current studies have
[1]; who proposed the Technology Acceptance Model 3 (TAM 3).
evidenced a high level of happiness and a reduction of stress in those
In the Technological Acceptance Model 3 (TAM), anchor factors are
who telework. For [24]; the long commuting time and the generated
displayed as the beliefs related to the personality of an individual to-
stress of commuting are important factors to determine the cost of
ward the use of technology. Anchor variables are defined as: self-effi-
commuting and relevant predictors of intention to use smart work as
cacy, the degree to which an individual feels capable of performing a
telework. Perceived usefulness of telework is related to expectation
certain activity with the technology to be adopted; perception of ex-
about productivity, efficiency and cost of commuting. This productivity
ternal control, the degree to which an individual believes that there are
and efficiency is indicated by expectation of work autonomy; expecta-
organizational and technical resources that support the use of tech-
tion of improvement in work productivity and performance, especially
nology; anxiety, the degree to which an individual feels stress or fear
in absenteeism and lower turnover rates and improved organizational
when faced with the possibility of using a technology; and intrinsic
performance; and expectation of increased time spent with family
motivations (IM), such as playfulness, which represent the cognitive
[24,25]. According to the aforementioned, the following hypothesis is
spontaneity associated with the use of the new technology [1].
proposed:
[1] suggest that adjustment variables, those initial judgments about
perceived ease of use, are adjusted by individuals as they gain experi- H1. Perceived usefulness of telework (PUT) has a significant positive
ence (E) with the use of new technology. These adjustment variables effect on the attitude of managers toward telework (ATT)
are: perceived enjoyment, defined as the degree to which an individual
Perceived ease of use (PEUT) is defined as the degree to which an
feels pleasure in performing an activity with the new technology, re-
individual considers that when using a new system, the work performed
gardless of the benefits provided by it; and objective usability, defined
can be effortless, according to Ref. [6]; which is a construct that has a
as that comparison between technologies, where the effort required to
direct relationship with individual assessments of the effort needed in a
perform specific tasks can be measured when using a specific tech-
work-related process when new technology is being used in the parti-
nology [1].
cular case of telework [26]. Furthermore, telework needs to be easy to
implement, or at least that is the perception that managers of the or-
2.2. Telework
ganizations should have, since at the level of the business model it is
probable that certain processes and positions will have to be re-
Teleworking is defined in four important dimensions. The fist di-
structured for such adoption; it also needs to be appropriate from the
mension is workplace, where work can be performed from any location
fiscal point of view (Martinez & Gómez, 2013; [24]. According to the
other than the organization's premises, such as the home of the em-
aforementioned, the following hypotheses are proposed:
ployee (home-based-telework); from mobile locations such as airports
or hotels (mobile or nomadic telework), where customers are the main H2a. Perceived ease of use of telework (PEUT) has a significant positive
reason for these trips; or from specialized centers equipped with in- effect on managers' attitude toward telework (ATT)
formation and communication technologies, used to minimize travel
H2b. Perceived ease of use of telework (PEUT) has a significant positive
between the organization and the homes of employees, such as tele-
effect on perceived usefulness by managers toward telework (PUT)
centres, which are public access spaces (telecottages: specialized com-
munity access centers offering a wide range of office tools and satellite Regarding the normative factor approaches (SN) [13], studied the
offices, which are spaces created and controlled by the organization) impact of telework on the family and how the family influences work.
[8–12].bib10 They found that work autonomy positively moderates the incidence of
The second dimension is the use of information and communication work in the family and family size negatively moderates the family's
technologies (ICTs), since task-specific work activities must be tech- relationship with work. In this regard [27], found that those people
nologically mediated at both operational and communicative levels, in who have children and a solid family nucleus have greater intention of
order to be considered as a telework environment in the organization teleworking, due to the family pressure —they can affect the perception

2
A. Silva-C, et al.
of individuals on teleworking (formation of attitudes). Depending on
the study that is proposed, they should be considered as control vari-
ables and important to the adoption of telework in the organizations at
individual level.
This should be considered, as some studies have investigated how
family influences the decision to adopt telework by individuals in or-
ganizations since this has a high incidence in the process of adoption,
implementation and acceptance of this innovation, especially if the
number of dependent children is large and the age of the children re-
quires more attention from parents [28,29]. However, not only age is a
detonating factor when it comes to exerting a certain pressure on an
individual to telework; some childcare responsibilities, for example,
staying at home with the children when they are sick and everything
related to supporting a family made the difference in positive formation
of attitudes toward telework; also there are some differences depending
on the gender [24,30].
These normative factors that influence the behavior of the in-
dividual come from the pressures of external agents on the individual,
such as those exerted by their family members, as stated above, em-
ployers, clients, co-workers, existing legislation, competition or even
mobility elements in cities and desires of minimizing environmental
impacts, all of which moderate the image or reputation perceived by an
individual when they make use of telework and the importance that it
would have for completing work with this modality
[13,18,24,27,30–32]. According to the aforementioned, the following
hypotheses are proposed:
H3a. Elements relating to the subjective norm (SN) have a significant
positive effect on perceived usefulness by managers toward telework
(PUT)
H3b. Elements relating to the subjective norm (SN) have a significant
positive effect on the importance of work (IW)
Importance of work (IW) is defined by Ref. [1] as the degree to
which an individual considers that telework can be applied to their
work [32]. in their study on environmental variables in the adoption
and diffusion of telework found that for an individual or an organiza-
tion to adopt telework, they have to consider variables such as the
globalization of the market due to the constant individual or organi-
zation interactions with employees, customers, suppliers and the
market in general, in addition to factors associated with communicating
to the communication with external experts due to the need of solving
problems or obtaining sporadic knowledge to provide solutions to in-
ternal requirements such as solving technical problems that, in general,
are related to the shortage of skilled workforce. For these reasons,
telework becomes important for the execution of the activities of in-
dividuals and organizations.
For an individual to consider that a new technology is important to
their work, they must consider if it is compatible with the activities
performed during work (Hernandez, 2012) [1]. in the TAM 3 model
raise the quality of the results to the degree to which an individual
considers that the results on the performance of their tasks would be
excellent when making use of technology, in addition to the de-
monstrability of the results as to how easy it is to communicate these on
the use of certain technology and how easy it is to measure them, in
order to obtain them and to explain why using the new technology has
certain benefits. This compatibility is associated to the relative ad-
vantage of its use, which is associated to the characteristics of the work
and the existing practices, to the characteristics of the new technology
and to the previous experiences and the values of the individual [5,33].
According to the aforementioned, the following hypothesis is proposed:
H4. elements relating to the importance of work (IW) have a significant
positive effect on perceived usefulness by managers toward telework
(PUT)
Job characteristics are related to the compatibility between an
3
Technology in Society 59 (2019) 101133
individual and their job, the individual and their supervisors, and the
individual and their coworkers; these three aspects are crucial for there
to be job satisfaction in any modality that arises [34]. If an individual
has the necessary skills to perform the tasks effectively or if the in-
dividual's needs can be satisfied by the job, then there is a compatibility
between the individual and the job. This is where the organizational
and functional restructuring must be adequate for there to be a good
working environment of telework at the operational level; it is also
necessary that the employee does not require supervision to perform
their work; this depends on the characteristics of the employee and the
characteristics of the supervisor [34,35].
[36] suggests that there are internal factors related to the char-
acteristics of the tasks or activities performed and the communication
quality in the organization, both of which must be well defined and
structured so that there is an adequate perceived compatibility (PC) in
the implementation of telework, which is why those professionals, to
whom tasks are well defined, knowledge-based, and who are willing to
do independent work and feel comfortable using ICTs, are the ones who
will have more compatibility with telework. Furthermore, according to
Ref. [1]; in the TAM 3 model, external control perceptions are defined
as the degree to which an individual considers that current technolo-
gical and organizational resources are enough to support the use of a
certain technology.
H5a. Perceived compatibility (PC) has a significant positive effect on
perceived usefulness by managers toward telework (PUT)
H5b. Perceived compatibility (PC) has a significant positive effect on
the importance of work (telework) (IW)
In this regard, the existence of support or facilitating conditions (FC)
at an organizational level, linked to the quality of communication in the
organization, technological and administrative support, is key to ensure
that there is a correct supervision, crucial for structuring and measuring
the scheme for telework. In addition to the fact that employees have a
certain degree of professionalism and the organization decentralizes its
decision making and has a system of measurement, supervision and
control of less formalized work are key elements for the implementation
of telework; given the resources, information, training, user aids and
other administrative and technological support of the company, it
would be easy to telework. Additionally, changing the administrative
and technological system for teleworking means the necessity of having
positive attitude toward investing a lot of resources (money, time and
effort) in the organization [1,5,33,37,38].
Facilitating conditions are anchor variables such as self-efficacy,
anxiety and intrinsic motivations defined by Ref. [1]; which suggest
that adjustment variables are those initial judgments about the per-
ception of ease of use, which will be adjusted by individuals as they
gain experience with the use of the new technology. These adjustment
variables were not considered in this study, given that these variables
operating as adjustment variables (when the individual has already
implemented their use and can make assessments regarding perceived
enjoyment and the measurements corresponding to objective usability)
have an impact on self-efficacy, anxiety and intrinsic motivations
through the experiences generated over time due to use, having a direct
effect on the perceived ease of use by the individual [1,37]. As a result,
managers are likely to adopt telework when they perceive high facil-
itating conditions.
H6a. Appearance of facilitating conditions (FC) has a significant
positive effect on perceived ease of use by managers toward telework
(PEUT)
H6b. Appearance of facilitating conditions (FC) has a significant
positive effect on the attitude of managers toward telework (ATT)
Self-efficacy (SE) is defined by Ref. [1] as the degree to which an
individual considers that they have the skills or abilities to perform a
given task by making use of a certain technology. These individual
A. Silva-C, et al.
characteristics are crucial in addition to organizational characteristics
for successful telework adoption, such as ICTs management, self-em-
ployment, problem-solving and trust; these are determining factors in
perceived self-efficacy as well as greater ease of use and the mini-
mization of anxiety when using certain technology [39]. suggested that
self-efficacy can be enhanced through employee training interventions
as well as through leadership and their pursuit of organizational de-
velopment, through a behavioral approach to interpersonal expecta-
tions, confidence in the employee work supervision by managers, which
can be a trigger for increasing the number of teleworkers or adopting
organizations.
Similarly [40], define situational factors as the way in which the
idiosyncratic combination of the individual and the situation in which
they operate influences labor productivity; these have been discussed
from the perspectives of behavior intentions [41] and individual self-
efficacy [42]. The available resources and opportunities (facilitating
conditions) are among the most important situational factors affecting
individuals, which can serve as support or interfere with successful
performance. In the same vain, the work environment can be negatively
affected by distractions (noise, interruptions, etc.), which increase an-
xiety and reduce self-efficacy through thoughts of failure and stress
[43], thus, performance can be negatively affected. For teleworkers,
situational factors may include the resources required to perform their
work, where according to the theory of planned behavior, restrictions
on access to resources may inhibit the development of behavioral
achievement [40].
H7a. Self-efficacy (SE) has a significant positive effect on perceived
ease of use by managers toward telework (PEUT)
H7b. Self-efficacy (SE) has a significant negative effect on perceived
anxiety by managers toward telework (A)
Anxiety (A) is defined as the degree to which an individual feels
apprehension or fear of using a technology [1]. This fear has been va-
lidated in models such as Henández (2012) for the adoption of elec-
tronic commerce by non-buying users, where he suggested that anxiety,
an internal control factor of an individual, is the degree of stress that an
individual presents before using a technology, in that case, before
electronic purchases, which has a negative influence on the ease of use
of it.
In addition to this relationship, there is a negative relationship re-
lated to very specific factors of the individual such as perceived risks
and security, which have been strongly studied in the adoption of
technologies [5] The first factor refers to their ability to monitor and
control information about themselves when making an electronic pur-
chase, and the second is perceived security, which refers to the per-
ception of an individual of the degree of protection they feel against
damage or difficulties.
H8a. Anxiety (A) has a significant negative effect on the attitude of the
managers toward telework (ATT)
H8b. Anxiety (A) has a significant negative effect on perceived ease of
use by managers toward telework (PEUT)
According to Ref. [27] and these internal and individual-specific
control factors, in the case of telework at the individual level, tele-
workers express satisfaction with this modality in 63.4% of the total
number of teleworkers surveyed in their study, there are also certain
factors associated with the imbalance between family relationships and
work, as they perceive risk of loss from the barrier that separates time
between work and family. In the case of managers [18], suggest that
they feel that trust toward their employees is fundamental for the ease
of use of telework, and the lack of information security systems for data
generated in the organizations activities and processes performed out-
side of facilities in this modality of work is an important factor. Besides,
the loss of relationships between the members of the organization ne-
gatively influences the perceived ease of use by an adopter and non-
4
Technology in Society 59 (2019) 101133
adopter managers toward telework.
H9. Elements relating to intrinsic motivations (IM) have a significant
positive effect on perceived ease of use by managers toward telework
(PEUT)
[14] suggest that positive previous experiences of telework by
managers are crucial for their perceived usefulness and perceived ease
of use of telework, and if other areas of the company have implemented
it, it is more likely that its use will be perceived as easy and user-
friendly in its implementation. Innovative organizations and in-
dividuals with the most experience in assimilating the change that
implementation of any new technology brings for the company will
assimilate better the cultural and operational change brought about by
the new implementation [14,44,45].
Not only is the innovation capacity of an adopter unit fundamental
in the adoption of telework, but previous knowledge of it is relevant to
its adoption [14,44–46] [18]. suggest that when there is an absence or
negative perception about promotion opportunities, availability of
work resources or facilitating conditions, direct relationship with su-
pervisors, and social and professional interaction, these experiences
have negative impact and do not promote perceived usefulness, ease of
use, nor the formation of positive attitudes toward their adoption.
In this regard [18], found that the previous experiences about
telework of non-adopter managers influence their decision to adopt
telework, as they anticipate the negative consequences of the organi-
zational culture and social isolation of their employees resulting from
its implementation, whereas those managers who have adopted tele-
work do not perceive from their experience that organizational culture
and social isolation are a negative effect of telework. But both studied
groups, adopters and non-adopters, recognized that the factors that
generate a negative image of telework are security, in terms of in-
formation systems, personal contact and teamwork. However, the
group of non-adopter managers had a greater negative perception of
teamwork when entering a telework program, which draws the atten-
tion of human management areas of organizations that should place
greater emphasis on solving this problem to make a proper im-
plementation. According to the aforementioned, the following hy-
pothesis are proposed:
H10a. Experience of managers toward telework (E) has a significant
positive effect on the attitude of the managers toward telework
H10b. Experience of managers toward telework (E) has a significant
positive effect on perceived usefulness of managers toward telework
(PUT)
H10c. Experience of managers toward telework (E) has a significant
negative effect on the perceived anxiety by managers toward telework
(A)
H10d. Experience of managers toward telework (E) has a significant
positive effect on elements relating to intrinsic motivations for using
telework (IM)
H10e. Experience of managers toward telework (E) has a significant
positive effect on perceived compatibility (PC)
H10f. Experience of managers toward telework (E) has a significant
positive effect on elements relating to subjective norm (SN)
Considering the TAM 3 model of [1]; where the relationships es-
tablished by factors influence the intention of adopting telework: per-
ceived usefulness and perceived ease of use, subjective norm and user
experiences are mainly given by the TAM 3 model and other models
such as those proposed by Ref. [33]; Vekatesh et al. (2003) [5] and [4];
in which they unify various technology acceptance models that will
determine the attitude of managers toward telework for its adoption in
organizations. These proposed relationships are validated and shown in
terms of particular hypotheses regarding telework in Fig. 1:
A. Silva-C, et al.
Fig. 1. Proposed model for research.
3. Methodology
For the present article, the articles most relevant to the topic in
literature were classified, compiled and analyzed. Then, relevant factors
in the telework adoption by managers of organizations were char-
acterized, identifying in the models those specific factors that were
applicable. This study seeks to examine the attitude of managers of
organizations located in Medellin toward the adoption of telework by
exploring the model proposed above, which serves as a basis for ex-
ploring attitudes toward the adoption of telework. To accomplish this,
an empirical study was performed among managers with employees
under their direction, with the aim of examining the nature of their
attitudes toward adopting telework in their working areas.
The questionnaire was distributed to 67 companies and applied to
140 managers responsible for employees, for the evaluation of the
proposed model to adopt telework in organizations. For the survey
application, an intentional sampling was done by selecting individuals
and certain companies for the distribution of the questionnaire to their
managers responsible for people. The e-mail included the ques-
tionnaire, which was applied between August and September 2017.
Participation in the survey was entirely voluntary and no incentives
were offered. Google Drive application was used to collect data. For the
survey application, it was considered its legitimacy, its objectivity and
treatment of the information; the second part of the questionnaire is
related to the adoption of telework, which was measured with Likert-
type scale constructed on a 7-point and demographic data.
4. Analysis of results
To validate the proposed adapted model of [1]; an exploratory
factor analysis (EFA) was performed, which is a statistical approach to
determine the correlation between variables in a data set. This type of
analysis provides a factor structure (a group of variables based on
strong correlations). Following the recommendations of Anderson and
Gerbing (1988) for the Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) for data
analysis, a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was performed to develop
the measurement model. To examine the causal relationships between
all constructions, the proposed structural model was tested using SEM.
The software Analysis of a Moment Structure (AMOS) and part of the
software Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) were used to drive
the CFA and SEM. The SEM was used as it can analyze simultaneously
the pathways in the model and test the goodness of fit of the model.
5
Technology in Society 59 (2019) 101133
Seven measures divided into three categories (absolute fit indexes,
incremental fit indexes and parsimonious fit) were used to assess the
goodness of fit of the model. The study reports: relative Chi-square
(CMIN), Root Mean Square Error Approximation (RMSEA),
Standardized Root Mean Residual (SRMR), Comparative Fit Index
(CFI), Incremental Fit Index (IFI), Normalized Fit Index (NFI) and
Akaike Information Criterion (AIC) statistics. Although CMIN is sensi-
tive to large samples, the other fit indexes used in this study are less
sensitive to sample size. (Hair et al., 2010 [4].
4.1. Reliability and validity of the measurement items
4.1.1. Convergent validity
In order to achieve the convergence of the model, it was necessary
to eliminate the ATT4, PUT3, SE5, A5 and SN3 indicators, since their
standardized factor load was lower than 0.5, it was not enough to ex-
plain the total variance (see Table 1). On the other hand, by eliminating
these items, the average obtained from the loads of the indicators on
each factor was greater than 0.7 for all constructs, indicating the pre-
sence of convergent validity (see Table 2), as suggested by Hair et al.
(2010).
Barlett's sphericity test and Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) measure
were also calculated, these statistics help explain the fit of the model to
the samples and the conditioning level of the model for a factorial
analysis. The value of the first Barlett's test shows the correlation be-
tween variables, offering the probability for the correlation matrix to
take significant values; its p-value must be lower than critical levels of
0.05 and 0.01 [47]. Table 3 shows the values of the Barlett's test, which
are equal to 0; it can be suggested that there is a significant correlation
between the variables.
In this regard, the indicator of adequacy of the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin
(KMO) sample compares the magnitudes of observed correlation coef-
ficients with the magnitudes of partial correlation coefficients, and their
value is between 0 and 1 [48]. characterizes these values in terms of
sample adequacy; a KMO measure close to 0.90 is considered as mar-
velous, 0.80 as meritorious, 0.70 as medium, 0.60 as mediocre, and
below 0.50 as unacceptable to apply the analysis [47]. Table 3 shows
the coefficients given by the SPSS software for each of the constructs,
which comply with the abovementioned criteria, indicating that it is
reliable to perform the data reduction technique, i.e. to obtain the
minimum of explanatory elements (factors) to clarify the reliability of
the factors involved in the adoption of telework.
A. Silva-C, et al. Technology in Society 59 (2019) 101133

Table 1 Table 2
Initial convergent validity of standardized factor loads. Refined convergent validity of standardized factor loads.
Construct Item Standardized Average of Construct Item Standardized Average of
factor loads standardized factor factor loads standardized factor
loads loads

Anxiety_A A1 0.482 0.582 Anxiety_A A1 0.482 0.699

A2 0.864 A2 0.864
A3 0.862 A3 0.862
A4 0.586 A4 0.586
A5 0.114 Self-efficacy_SE SE1 0.594 0.724
Self-efficacy_SE SE1 0.594 0.611 SE2 0.682
SE2 0.682 SE3 0.745
SE3 0.745 SE4 0.876
SE4 0.876 Attitude toward ATT1 0.614 0.684
SE5 0.158 telework_ATT ATT2 0.996
Attitude toward ATT1 0.614 0.556 ATT3 0.443
telework_ATT ATT2 0.996 Facilitating Conditions_ FC FC1 0.979 0.777
ATT3 0.443 FC2 0.575
ATT4 0.171 Perceived Compatibility_PC PC1 0.92 0.645
Facilitating Conditions_ FC FC1 0.979 0.777 PC2 0.445
FC2 0.575 PC3 0.569
Perceived Compatibility_PC PC1 0.92 0.645 Experience_E E1 0.892 0.817
PC2 0.445 E2 0.742
PC3 0.569 Perceived ease of use of PEUT1 0.562 0.636
Experience_E E1 0.892 0.817 telework_PEUT PEUT2 0.811
E2 0.742 PEUT3 0.534
Perceived ease of use of PEUT1 0.562 0.636 Importance of work_IW IW1 0.763 0.702
telework_PEUT PEUT2 0.811 IW2 0.641
PEUT3 0.534 Intrinsic motivations_IM IM1 0.762 0.790
Importance of work_IW IW1 0.763 0.702 IM2 0.818
IW2 0.641 Subjective norm_SN SN1 0.949 0.754
Intrinsic motivations_IM IM1 0.762 0.790 SN2 0.559
IM2 0.818 Perceived usefulness of PUT1 0.648 0.700
Subjective norm_SN SN1 0.949 0.633 telework_PUT PUT2 0.815
SN2 0.559 PUT4 0.638
SN3 0.39
Perceived usefulness of PUT1 0.648 0.609
telework_PUT PUT2 0.815
Table 3
PUT3 0.335
PUT4 0.638
Convergent validity of KMO and Bartlett's sphericity test.
Factor KMO Bartlett Meets the
value value criteria
4.1.2. Discriminant validity
Intrinsic motivations_IM 0.5 0 Yes
The reliability of the measurement model was identified and
Perceived ease of use of 0.667 0 Yes
Cronbach's alpha was calculated for the respective scales of each con- telework_PEUT
struct. This procedure is necessary because Cronbach's alpha measures Perceived usefulness of 0.686 0 Yes
the reliability of the internal consistency of a scale, i.e. it evaluates the telework_PUT
magnitude in which the items of a construct are correlated with each Attitude toward telework_ATT 0.609 0 Yes
Facilitating Conditions_ FC 0.5 0 Yes
other. To test the internal consistency, Cronbach's alpha was calculated Perceived Compatibility_PC 0.5 0 Yes
for each of the 11 constructs; some authors suggest an alpha greater Self-efficacy_SE 0.781 0 Yes
than 0.7 for items to have an internal consistency. Reliability statistics Anxiety_A 0.743 0 Yes
in Table 4 show that the alpha coefficient for the 11 constructs is above Importance of work_IW 0.5 0 Yes
Subjective norm_SN 0.585 0 Yes
0.70 (except for IM, PC and SN, where coefficient is 0.688; 0.692 and
Experience_E 0.5 0 Yes
0.697, respectively), suggesting that the items have a relatively high
internal consistency, but it is also recommended that if Cronbach's
alpha is greater than 0.6, it would be enough to be an acceptable value Table 4
for the proposed research, in this regard, the reliability of these data Reliability index – Cronbach's alpha.
would be acceptable [4].
Factor Item Final items Cronbach's alpha
The above results show the existence of a sustainable factorial
model to analyze the adoption of telework by organizations in the city Intrinsic motivations_IM 2 2 0.769
of Medellin. The presence of convergent and discriminant validity with Perceived ease of use of telework_PEUT 3 3 0.755
acceptable reliability within the instrument confirms that it evaluates Perceived usefulness of telework_PUT 4 3 0.836
Attitude toward telework_ATT 4 3 0.744
fundamental variables that have a direct effect on ideas, expectations
Facilitating Conditions_ FC 2 2 0.884
and motivations when implementing telework in organizations. Perceived Compatibility_PC 3 3 0.703
Descriptive analyses of the data and their distribution were per- Self-efficacy_SE 5 4 0.816
formed. No missing data were found, as Google Docs forms allowed Anxiety_A 5 4 0.782
obligatory responses to answer all questions. Both univariate and Importance of work_IW 2 2 0.867
Subjective norm_SN 3 2 0.708
multivariate normality of data were analyzed prior to CFA and SEM. Experience_E 2 2 0.785
Normality was evaluated using the coefficient of [49] or the Critical
Ratio (r. c. value). According to Ref. [50] the data is normally dis-
tributed since the value of c. r > 5.00.

6
A. Silva-C, et al.
Fig. 2. Structural model results of the attitude of managers toward telework.
According to the Mahalanobis index, outliers or multivariate aty-
pical data refer to records that do not fit the standard correlation sets
displayed by other records in the data set; records were also deleted
according to their causal model. Therefore, the Mahalanobis d-squared
was calculated and 8 registers were deleted, as its p-values were lower
than 0.05.
4.2. Contrast of hypotheses
To test the fit between the hypothesis model and the data obtained a
structural equations modelling was performed (see Fig. 2). SEM was
used as it is the most widely and easily applied method to model
multivariate relationships and to simultaneously examine direct and
indirect effects between constructs [51].
All relationship coefficients demonstrated significance, except for
the coefficients of A-PEUT and PUT-E. In particular, the hypothesis that
A has a significant negative effect on PEUT was proposed in the initial
model. However, the SEM results showed a non-significant relationship
between A and PEUT with a positive regression load, which indicates
that if A rises, PEUT rises and vice versa. Since this relationship is
unusual and has no practical sense, the path was removed in the same
way as with PUT and E of the model. Depending on the fit indexes used
(absolute fit indexes, incremental fit indexes and parsimonious fit in-
dexes), the results indicated fit indexes for the research model such as
CMIN = 3.151; SRMR = 0.832; IFC = 0.926; IFI = 0.884;
NFI = 0.913, RMSEA = 0.0819; and AIC = 1376,378. Except for the
IFI, all fit indexes reach the recommended level of acceptable fit.
The SEM results revealed that all three proposed external variables
(SE, E and FC) have a significant positive effect on the attitude of
managers toward telework. Of the 21 hypotheses proposed, 19 were
supported. The results indicated that the first external construction E
has a significant effect on SN, PC, ATT, IM and A. Therefore, hypotheses
H10a, H10c, H10d, H10e and H10f were supported. However, no sig-
nificant effect of E on PUT was found, therefore, the H10b hypothesis
was rejected. As expected, the second external construct SE has a sig-
nificant effect on determining PEUT and A. Therefore, both proposed
7
Technology in Society 59 (2019) 101133
hypotheses, H7a and H7b, were supported in relation to the effect of SE
on PEUT and A. The IW was found to be a significant determinant of
PUT, supporting the H4 hypotheses. In addition, all the proposed hy-
potheses that indicate the relationships with the original TAM 3 con-
structions (H9, H3a and H3b) were significant. Therefore, the study
results revealed that PEUT has a significant positive effect on PUT and
ATT (supporting the H2b and H2a hypotheses respectively). PUT has a
significant positive effect on ATT (supporting hypothesis H1). The re-
gression weights of all these path coefficients are presented in Table 5.
The influences of each of the exogenous variables on endogenous
variables were also evaluated. To acquire this, the standardized direct
and indirect total of effects associated with each of the 11 variables
were tested. Fig. 2 shows the results of hypothesis testing including
regression weights for each of the 11 significant relationships.
The perceived ease of use of telework explained 54% of the varia-
bility in the perceived usefulness of telework, which is consistent with
previous research on TAM done by Ref. [27]. Fig. 2 shows the processes
of Cognitive Influence (perceived ease of use, perceived usefulness,
facilitating conditions, anxiety, and experiences), which represented
58.6% of the variability and explained the behavioral attitude of
managers toward the adoption of telework. The second key piece of
AMOS information generated was the calculation of trajectory coeffi-
cients, which indicates the strength of the relationship between the
different constructs. Of the total proposed hypotheses, this structure
provided positive support for 17 hypotheses (positive load factor), ne-
gative for 2 hypotheses (negative load factor) and 2 were not supported
(spotted lines), as shown in Fig. 2. Perceived ease of use was considered
to have an effect on the behavioral attitude of managers.
5. Discussion
Observing the relationship between exogenous variables and other
constructs, it is noted that the experience of managers with telework
has a high incidence on perceived compatibility, intrinsic motivations
and subjective norm. By having more experience (the managers or
people close to them who have had experience with telework at some
A. Silva-C, et al. Technology in Society 59 (2019) 101133

Table 5
Hypothesis testing results.
Hypothesis Support Regression weight

H1: Perceived usefulness of telework has a significant positive effect on the attitude of managers toward telework. Yes 0.562∗∗
H2a: Perceived ease of use of telework has a significant positive effect on attitude of managers toward telework Yes 0.182∗∗
H2b: Perceived ease of use of telework has a significant positive effect on perceived usefulness by managers toward telework Yes 0.322∗∗
H3a: Elements relating to the subjective norm have a significant positive effect on perceived usefulness by managers toward telework Yes 0.046∗∗
H3b: Elements relating to the subjective norm have a significant positive effect on the importance of work Yes 0.233∗∗
H4: Elements relating to the importance of work have a significant positive effect on perceived usefulness by managers toward telework Yes 0.856∗∗
H5a: Perceived compatibility has a significant positive effect on perceived usefulness by managers toward telework Yes 0.067∗∗
H5b: Perceived compatibility has a significant positive effect on the importance of work (telework) Yes 0.716∗∗
H6a: Appearance of facilitating conditions has a significant positive effect on perceived ease of use by managers toward telework Yes 0.716∗∗
H6b: Appearance of facilitating conditions has a significant positive effect on attitude of managers toward telework Yes 0.085∗∗
H7a: Self-efficacy has a significant positive effect on perceived ease of use by managers toward telework Yes 0.466∗∗
H7b: Self-efficacy has a significant negative effect on perceived anxiety by managers toward telework Yes −0.009∗∗
H8b: Anxiety has a significant negative effect on attitude of managers toward telework No −0.024∗∗
H8a: Anxiety has a significant negative effect on perceived ease of use by managers toward telework Yes 0.013∗∗
H9: Elements relating to intrinsic motivations have a significant positive effect on perceived ease of use by managers toward telework Yes 0.753∗∗
H10a: Experience of managers toward telework has a significant positive effect on attitude of managers toward telework Yes 0.073∗∗
H10b: Experience of managers toward telework has a significant positive effect on perceived usefulness of managers toward telework No −0.911∗∗
H10c: Experience of managers toward telework has a significant negative effect on the perceived anxiety by managers toward telework Yes −0.077∗∗
H10d: Experience of managers toward telework has a significant positive effect on elements relating to intrinsic motivations for using telework Yes 0.964∗∗
H10e: Experience of managers toward telework has a significant positive effect on perceived compatibility Yes 0.911∗∗
H10f: Experience of managers toward telework has a significant positive effect on elements relating to subjective norm Yes 0.818∗∗

**p < 0.001.

point in their lives), they perceive that the work being done in their
area is compatible with telework, whether for various processes, ac-
tivities, positions or specific staff to their area of responsibility, as well
as having experience in and prior knowledge about telework. Managers
feel confident about the support they would receive from the organi-
zation and the people they work with.
When managers perceive that telework in their area is supported by
the organization (subjective norm) – even though the degree of asso-
ciation is not so great between the subjective norm, the importance of
work and the perceived usefulness – this is relevant to them, as they
perceive that telework is important and useful, especially that it is
important, since they perceive it is important for their area of respon-
sibility and employees would consider it useful in their work, given the
significant degree of association between the perceived usefulness of
telework and the importance of it. The subjective standard, importance
of work, perceived compatibility and perceived ease of use of telework
explain 54% of the variability in perceived usefulness of telework.
The experience of managers with telework has a low incidence on
attitude toward telework and anxiety. This shows that not only ex-
periences would have a significant effect on the attitude toward tele-
work and the perception of anxiety or stress, which demonstrates the
causal relationship, the more experience with telework they have, less
stress they would feel, and, in turn, less stress in terms of the use of
telework by their employees under their direction, and they would have
a better attitude toward telework.
Another interesting relationship that exogenous variables show is
the one between the facilitating conditions and the perceived ease of
use of telework, given the resources, information, training, user aids
and other administrative and technological support that the company
has, it would be easy to telework. As it can be seen, between the per-
ceived usefulness of telework and the perceived ease of use of telework
with respect to the attitude toward telework, the first one has a greater
impact on the attitude of the managers compared to the second one.
Similar to previous research findings, researchers found that re-
source availability has a significant positive affect on the attitude of
individuals and perceived ease of use [40]. This indicates that managers
emphasize the availability of resources or facilitating conditions (i.e.,
availability of economic resources, information, training, user aids and
other administrative and technological support available for the com-
pany to telework). If the organization has a high availability of re-
sources for telework, managers will find telework easy to use and de-
velop a positive attitude toward it, which supports the findings of
Neufeld and Fang (2005), who reported that having certain conditions
such as resource facilitating and promoting a distraction-free environ-
ment (in the case of potential teleworkers) facilitates the implementa-
tion of telework.
Perceived self-efficacy as an external construct proved to be a sig-
nificant determinant of PEUT. This indicates that areas of organizations
where there are more self-efficacious members find that telework would
be easy to use compared to less self-efficacious members. In other
words, managers who rely on their employees' skills (i.e., their em-
ployees do not have problems with ICTs management, are able to solve
any situation on their own, manage their time properly and do not
require any supervision to perform of their work) perceive telework as a
useful technology to implement in their areas.
People's abilities and concentration can be negatively affected by
work environment (noise, interruptions, etc.) that increases anxiety and
reduces self-efficacy through thoughts of failure and stress [43]. This
can be seen when managers perceive that the results of their employees
are mediocre, the existing systems and technological platforms are in-
sufficient to control the information generated in the organization (they
perceive less self-efficacy) and the adoption of telework may generate
greater stress on them. The same applies to managers with previous
experiences in implementing new technologies and their knowledge
about telework, the more experience, knowledge and self-perception of
self-efficacy they have, their level of stress will be lower, which has a
negative impact on it.
The results of the presented analyses represent a first step to propose
a new unified theoretical model about the attitude of managers toward
telework. It is suggested that without a comprehensive framework, that
includes a set of basic variables and a set of specific domain areas in
organizations, entrepreneurs, who are responsible for policy formula-
tion in their organizations, should make sure to evaluate the attitude of
members of their organizations toward the adoption of telework, before
taking the decision of adopting it. From this point of view, an increase
in the level of qualification of the workforce of the employees of the
organization, in terms of ICT skills, time management, results-based
performance and other mechanisms that help increase the confidence of
managers toward their employees, would favor the attitude of man-
agers toward telework; and its implementation in their areas could
mean the correct development of this employment opportunity for their
employees.

8
A. Silva-C, et al.
6. Conclusions and implications
6.1. Theoretical implications
This study examined the validity of TAM 3 with some modifications
in determining the attitude of managers toward telework. According to
TAM 3 and the present study, it is proposed that self-efficacy, experi-
ences and facilitating conditions, as three external constructs, are pro-
minent determinants of the attitude of managers toward telework. The
proposed model was empirically tested by collecting data from 140
managers of 67 organizations. The results generally supported the
proposed model with minor revisions and confirmed their significant
effect on managers toward telework in the city of Medellin.
The study results add to the literature on adoption of technologies in
general, by providing important insights into the influences of external
factors on the original TAM 3 constructions. These results revealed that
the personal belief-oriented factors: self-perception of self-efficacy (SE)
and facilitating conditions (FC) have strong influences on the funda-
mental factor in perceived ease of use of telework (PEUT), which to-
gether account for 63% of the total variability of PEUT. In addition, the
results found that FC and experiences (E) had a significant positive
effect on attitude toward teleworking (ATT), indicating that these are
dominant factors that influence the behavior of managers in adopting
telework. Although the influence of FC was not very strong, together
with PEUT, PUT, A and E, it contributed to explain 59% of the total ATT
variability. The three external factors are therefore considered to be
important and significant factors, as they influence the behavior of
managers in the adoption of telework in their organizations.
6.2. Implications for companies
The results of this study have confirmed some of the speculations in
literature related to management issues, which are the main barrier to
executive support for telework programs. The results also indicate that
executives' awareness of telework substantially reduces this barrier,
suggesting that as the concept of telework becomes more familiar to
executives (winning positive experiences) a greater adoption of tele-
work can be expected.
The study found that facilitating conditions are a strong and pro-
minent factor shaping the adoption of telework by managers. Since
attitude has a very strong effect on the intention to use a technology, it
is important to ensure that members of different areas of the organi-
zation have a positive attitude toward telework for its correct im-
plementation and acceptance throughout the organization. Therefore,
organizational managers and corporate policy makers need to focus
more on improving their processes, management and information sys-
tems to make telework a more useable modality for organizational
members. Ease of use, compatibility and reliability are other important
areas to focus on, as the working environment, features, functions,
content, speed of communication channels, ability to interact, etc.,
must be monitored and improved periodically according to the re-
quirements of each area of the organization. To maintain better self-
efficacy, a continuous quality improvement process should be per-
formed to collect feedback from potential telework users, in order to
improve and have better actions plans.
6.3. Future work
For future work, it is suggested to investigate how the facilitating
conditions affect the level of anxiety presented by managers. Having a
greater availability of economic resources, information, training, user
assistance and other administrative and technological support that the
company has for telework, in addition to incorporating constructs as-
sociated with information security, could provide better clarity of the
inhibitions of the development of these behavioral achievements.
Also, it suggested to divulge the objectives of the survey, in order to
9
Technology in Society 59 (2019) 101133
encourage the participation of employers in the survey, since the pre-
sent study had 140 sample from which 8 responses were eliminated,
leaving a total of 132. The indicators associated with the model fit
could have behaved better if there had been more samples, but this was
very difficult since several organizations avoided asking their em-
ployees about telework.
The source this study can also be considered as a reference, in order
to build a model of use of telework in family contexts and to evaluate
quantitatively the different constructs that interfere with the use of
telework in the family context, by determining which variables may
have more weight in their use and which may affect technological
adoption within the areas of the organization in relation to their fa-
milies. This will make it possible to propose strategies aimed at en-
couraging its use, prioritizing the variables that have the greatest in-
cidence and statistical weight in that use.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.techsoc.2019.04.009.
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