2010 - 2011

CHEMISTRY PROJECT
BY: VIPUL AGGARWAL

XII – A

ROLL NO.= 9147081

___________________

Dr. Ratna De
It is my humble pleasure to acknowledge my deep sense
of gratitude to Chemistry teacher Dr.Ratna De for
her valuable support, constant help and guidance at
each and every stage, without which it wouldn’t have
been possible to complete this project.

I am thankful again to Mr.Anil our Lab Assistant.

I am also thankful to my parents and school for

providing me proper guidance and working conditions.
This is to hereby certify that, original and
genuine investigation work has been carried
out about the subject matter and the
related data collection and investigation has
been computed solely, sincerely and
satisfactorily by Vipul Aggarwal of class XII-
A of Neo Convent Sr. Sec. School regarding
this project.

Teacher’s Signature
________________
TO PERFORM QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS FOR TOTAL
HARDNESS AND QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS FOR
ALKALINITY AND CHLORIDE IN WATER.
HARD WATER

Hard water is water that has high mineral content (in contrast with
soft water). Hard water has high concentrations of Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions.
Hard water is generally not harmful to one's health but can pose
serious problems in industrial settings, where water hardness is
monitored to avoid costly breakdowns in boilers, cooling towers, and
other equipment that handle water. In domestic settings, the hardness
of water is often indicated by the non-formation of froth when soap or
toothpaste is agitated in the water sample.

Calcium ions react with soap anions (e.g. stearate anions) to form
sparingly soluble "calcium soaps" (e.g. calcium stearate)

The reaction of the earth alkali ions with soap produces precipitates
which create an insoluble residue on fabrics and can also discolor
the fabric. White fabrics may become grayed or yellowish and dingy.
Hard water can also leave a film on hair and glass wares. Hardness
of the water is very important in industrial uses, because it forms
scale in heat exchange equipment, boilers, and pipe lines.
Soap is less effective in hard water. The amount of soap needed for
the complete precipitation of Ca 2+ cannot be used in the washing
process. Moreover extra soap is required to disperse the precipitates
in the suds. The harder the water, the more soap it takes to disperse
the precipitates in the washing liquor.

ALKALINITY
Alkalinity of water may be due to the presence of one or more of a
number of ions. These include hydroxides, carbonates and
bicarbonates. Hydroxide ions are always present in water, even if the
concentration is extremely small. However, significant concentrations
of hydroxides are unusual in natural water supplies, but may be present
after certain types of treatment. Small amounts of carbonates are
found in natural water supplies in certain sections of the country

CHLORIDES

Almost all natural waters contain chloride and sulfate ions. Their
concentrations vary considerably according to the mineral content of
the earth in any given area. In small amounts they are not significant.
In large concentrations they present problems. Usually chloride
concentrations are low. Sulfates can be more troublesome because
they generally occur in greater concentrations. Low to moderate
concentrations of both chloride and sulfate ions add palatability to
water. In fact, they are desirable for this reason. Excessive
concentrations of either, of course, can make water unpleasant to
drink.
Titration
Titration is a common laboratory method of quantitative chemical
analysis that is used to determine the unknown concentration of a
known reactant. Because volume measurements play a key role in
titration, it is also known as volumetric analysis. A reagent, called the
titrant or titrator, of a known concentration (a standard solution) and
volume is used to react with a solution of the analyte or titrand, whose
concentration is not known. Using a calibrated burette or chemistry
pipetting syringe to add the titrant, it is possible to determine the
exact amount that has been consumed when the endpoint is reached.
The endpoint is the point at which the titration is complete, as
determined by an indicator (see below). This is ideally the same volume
as the equivalence point—the volume of added titrant at which the
number of moles of titrant is equal to the number of moles of analyte,
or some multiple thereof (as in polyprotic acids). In the classic strong
acid-strong base titration, the endpoint of a titration is the point at
which the pH of the reactant is just about equal to 7, and often when
the solution takes on a persisting solid color as in the pink of
phenolphthalein indicator. There are however many different types of
titrations
 BEAKER
 FORM FORMING SOAP
 CONICAL FLASK
 METHYL ORANGE INDICATOR
 0.1 HCL
 TITRATION FLASK
 BURETTE, IRON STAND, TILE
 POTASSIUM CHROMATE
 SILVER NITRATE
sAMPLE WATER

A DISTILLED WATER

B TAP WATER (DELHI)

C DRINKING WATER

D GROUND WATER
1. Test for Total Hardness ( Hardness due to presence of calcium and
magnesium )

Procedure -

Take 50 ml of water in a beaker.

Agitate soap in it and try to make foam.

Notice the amount of foam.

If the amount of foam in less as compared to that in distilled water

then the water has hardness.

Observation –

SAMPLE FOAM
A HIGH

B LOW

C LOW

D LOW
Conclusion –

SAMPLE hardness
A х
B √
C √
D √
2. Test for Alkalinity

Procedure –

Take 50 ml of sample in a conical flask.

Add 3-4 drops of methyl orange indicator and mix well

Titrate it against 0.1 N HCl.

When colour changes from yellow to orange, stop titration and note
burette reading.

Calculation –

Alkalinity (mg/l) = (Titre value*N of HCl*17*1000)/ml of sample taken

CHEMICAL EUATION:

OH- + H+ H2O
Observation –

SAMPLE TITRE VALUE (milliliter)

A 0

B 11

C 12

D 14

Conclusion –
SAMPLE Alkalinity
(milligram per litre)
A 0
B 187
C 204
D 238
3. Test for Chlorides

Procedure -

Take 50 ml of sample in a conical flask.

Add 1 ml Potassium Chromate indicator and mix well.

Titrate against AgNO3 solution.

When a pinkish yellow colour is reached, stop titration and

note the reading.

Calculation -

NORMALITY OF AgNO3 = 0.5 N

Chlorides (mg/l) =(Titre value*Normality of AgNO3*35.5 )g/L

of sample taken.

CHEMICAL EUATION:

Ag+ + Cl– AgCl

Observation –

SAMPLE TITRE VALUE (milliliter)

A 0

B 14.5

C 14.2

D 15.2

Conclusion –
SAMPLE CHLORIDES
(milligram per litre)
A 0
B 257
C 252
D 270
SAMPLE HARDNESS ALKALINIT CHLORIDES
Y (mg/L)
(mg/L)
A Х 0 0

B √ 187 257

C √ 204 252

D √ 238 270
 en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titration
 google.com
 Wikipedia.org
 en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkalinity
 www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/dwq/chloride.pdf
 en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hardness
 staff.buffalostate.edu/nazareay/che112/chromate.htm
Acid-base titration

Indicator Color on Acidic Side Range of Color Change Color on Basic Side
Methyl Orange Red 3.1 - 4.4 Yellow
Litmus Red 5.0 - 8.0 Blue
Phenolphthalein Colorless 8.3 - 10.0 Pink

These titrations are based on the neutralization reaction that occurs

between an acid and a base, when mixed in solution. The acid (resp.
base) is added to a burette which was rinsed with the same acid prior
to this addition to prevent contamination or diluting of the acid being
measured. The base (resp. acid) is added to a volumetric flask which
had been rinsed with distilled water prior to the addition to prevent
contamination or dilution of the base/alkali being measured. The
solution in the volumetric flask is often a standard solution; one whose
concentration is exactly known. The solution in the burette, however, is
the solution whose concentration is to be determined by titration. The
indicator used for such an acid-base titration often depends on the
nature of the constituents as described in the above section. Common
indicators, their colors, and the pH range in which they change color,
are given in the table above. When more precise results are required,
or when the titration constituents are a weak acid and a weak base, a
pH meter or a conductance meter are used.
Redox titration

These titrations are based on a redox reaction between an oxidizing

agent and a reducing agent. The oxidizing agent (resp. reducing agent)
is added to the burette which was rinsed with the same oxidizing
agent. The reducing agent (resp. oxidizing agent) is added to the
conical flask, which had been rinsed with distilled water. Like in an
acid-base titration, the standard solution is often the one in the
conical flask, and the solution whose concentration is to be determined
is the one in the burette. The procedure for carrying out redox
titrations is similar to that required for carrying out acid-base
titrations

Precipitation Titration

 In precipitation titration, the solute of unknown concentration is

precipitated out of solution by the titrant. The significance of the
precipitation is that there are no longer ions in solution with which the
titrant can react. The endpoint is therefore detected with the rapid
increase in concentration of an ion from the titrant, due to not having
titer ions with which to react.