• Ease of Crystallization

- Crystallization is inversely related to the ease of solubility.

Thus fructose is the hardest to crystallize while lactose is the
easiest. Fructose containing syrups like high fructose-corn syrup
(HFCS) tend to become sticky, unless wrapped in moisture-vapor
proof material. Some candies are dusted or coated with lactose or
powdered sugar to prevent absorption of moisture in storage.
Powdered sugar contains cornstarch to prevent lumping or caking.

• Hygroscopic Ability • Melting point and decomposition by heat

- or the ability to absorb moisture from the atmosphere is
directly related to the case of solubility of sugars.
• Degree or Intensity of Sweetness
- this is a quality in the kind of sugar and is related to
solubility. The ranking of sweetness follows that of solubility:
fructose, sucrose, glucose, maltose, lactose. Using sucrose or table
sugar is the basis for comparison, the relative sweetness of the
other sugar given in Table 10-4.
Table 10-4. The Relative Sweetness of Sugars
- Dry sugar melts at 186⁰C (367⁰F). At 210⁰C (410⁰F), loss of
water units from the sugar molecules occurs, yielding substances
called fructosans and glucosans. Prolonged heating causes further
degradation resulting in dark brown, highly viscous syrup with
distinctive taste and odor. This is the process of caramelization and
the product is called caramel. Beyond this stage, smoky burnt sugar
is no longer desirable due to complete breakdown of the molecule
yielding carbon in the familiar black form.
• Maillard reaction or non-enzymatic browning
 - is distinguished from enzymatic browning which involves
the action of enzymes. The color change needs two reactive
radicals: free aldehyde from a carbohydrate or sugar molecule and a
free amino radical from a protein or a nitrogenous source.
• Hydrolysis
- Is the splitting of a molecule into its simple components.
Sugar can be hydrolyzed by acids, enzymes or alkalis. The rate of
hydrolysis is affected by pH, temperature, time of exposure at a
given temperature of cooking and catalytic reagents.
- In sugar cooking, fruit, juice, cream of tartar, vinegar, calamansi or
lemon juice acts as a weak acid needed for inversion. The enzyme
invertase also promotes inversion.
- Strong alkalis, decompose sugars, e.g. hard water is
alkaline enough to bring about decomposition. Weak alkalis hasten
caramelization. Baking soda is an example of a weak alkali.
- sucrose combines chemically with water which is not to be
confused with water in solution with the sugar. In the latter, the
sugar dissolves and the process is physical. The chemically
combined water is lost during caramelization.
• Fermentation
- sugars are altered by fermentation. Glucose is highly
fermentable by yeast. Sucrose, invert sugar, corn syrup and
fructose, but not lactose, are also fermented by yeast.
- Lactose is acted upon by lactic acid bacteria to produce
lactic acid. This is what happens in cheese making, yogurt and sour
milk.
Functions of Sugar in Food Preparation
• Sweetening agent
- is the most obvious role since sugar is universally used to
add sweetness. It also has the function of altering other basic tastes.
It is also functions as a flavor-binding agent.
• Main ingredient
- sugar is confections like candies and icings, acts as the
structural foundation of the product.
• Preserving agent
- in highly sugared products such as candied fruits, jellies,
jams and other similar products, it has a dehydrating effect on the
spoilage microorganisms. Sugar also binds with water resulting to a
reduced availability of the water for microbial activity.
• Colorant and flavoring agent
- brown sugar, molasses, maple syrup, caramelized sugar
and honey provide distinct color and subtle flavor to food.
• Texture modifier
- Sugar determines texture in many products. These effects
are due to crystallization, aeration, foaming, and its viscosity and
hygroscopicity.
• Peptizing agent
- in batters and dough, sugar in increasing amounts
prevents gluten development, resulting in a tender moist product.
• Volume and structure improver
 - in jellies, cakes and cookies, sugar is part of the framework • Aspartame
and volume of the product. It precipitates pectins and together they
- is dipeptide synthesized from amino acids phenylalanine
form the network for gel formation.
and aspartic acid. Both amino acids are completely metabolized in
• Humectant the human body.

- because of its hygroscopic ability, products with added • Acesulfame K

sugar especially fructose and invert sugar, keep the product moist
- is a sweetening substance in Swiss Sweet and Swiss One
and soft.
and Sunette. It contain sulfur and nitrogen in its molecule like
• Tenderizing effect saccharin and cyclamate. It has far no adverse side effects unlike
aspartame.
- in protein gels like custards and in starchy sauces or
puddings, adding sugar delays gel formation and results in a more • Sucralose
tender product.
- is a sucrose molecule with the hydroxyl group substituted
• Nutritive quality with chlorine.

- Simple sugars are readily digested and absorbed for quick • Sugar Alcohols or Polyols
energy. In infant feeding and dietetic foods, special sugars like
- reduction of the carbonyl group of reducing sugars
lactose, dextrose, corn syrups and dextrimaltose have specific
produces sugar alcohols, also called polyols. As alternative
functions. Dextrose solutions are used for intravenous feedings to
sweeteners, the most common are sorbitol and xylitol. These two
supply energy requirements as quickly as possible compared to oral
sugars occur naturally in many fruits and vegetables. But consuming
feeding.
excessive amounts might cause diarrhea.
Synthetic or Artificial Sweeteners
VEGETABLES
• Synthetic sweeteners are otherwise known as artificial, high
These are plants or parts of plants such as roots, tubers, bulbs,
potency, non-nutritive, non-caloric, caloric-free, alternative
stems, shoots, leaves, fruits and flowers used as raw or cooked,
or intense sweeteners. These are substances that can be
served generally with entrée or in salads but not as desserts.
used in small quantities to sweeten foor and drink for
individuals who need to cut down their sugar intake. CLASSIFICATION OF
VEGETABLES
• Are useful in dietetics as non-caloric sweeteners, i.e. they
add sweetness without adding energy value, which is Vegetables are classified according to parts of plant used, chemical
desirable in weight reduction and diabetic diets. composition, and nutritive value.
According to Plants Used
Roots are underground parts of plants. Good examples of these
vegetables are apulid tsina or water chestnut, kamote or sweet
potato, kamoteng kahoy or cassava, karot or carrot, gabi or taro,
labanos or radish, remolatsa or beets, singkamas or yam bean, tugi
or spiny yam, ube or purple yam.
Tubers are short, thickened, fleshy parts of an underground stem
such as Jerusalem artichokes, and patatas or potatoes.
Bulbs are underground buds that send down roots and are made up
of a very short stem covered with layers. Included in this group are
chives, garlic, leeks, onions, and shallots.
Seeds are parts from which a new plant will grow. They are referred
to as legumes and include beans such munggo or mung beans,
broad beans, chickpeas, paayap or cowpeas, frijoles, kidney beans,
lentils, pinto beans, mecan peas or soybeans wax beans, and white
beans.
Stems and shoots are stalks supporting leaves, flowers, or fruits.
These include kintsay or celery, tangkay ng gabi or taro petioles,
labong or bamboo shoots, malunggay or horseradish, rhubarb,
ubod or coconut pith, palm heart and asparagus.
Leaves include talbos ng kamote or sweet potato tops, kangkong or
swamp cabbage, ispinaka or spinach, repolyo or cabbage, mustasa
or mustard, petsay or Chinese cabbage, dahong sili or pepper
leaves, sibuyas na mura or spring onion or shallots, leeks and
scallions, all members of the onion family, which differ only in size
and stem.
Fruits include ampalaya or bitter melon, upo or bottle gourd, sayote
or chayote, pipino or cucumber, talong or eggplant, langkang hilaw
or unripe jackfruit, okra, patola or sponge gourd, kalabasa or
squash, kamatis or tomatoes, siling hindi maanghang or sweet
pepper, siling labuyo or cayenne pepper, siling maanghang or chili
pepper.
Flowers are exemplified by koliplower or cauliflower, bulaklak ng
kalabasa or squash flower, and katuray or Sesban flower.
According to Chemical Composition
• Carbohydrate-rich – such as seeds, roots, and tubers.
• Protein-rich – include seeds such as legumes and pulses. To
name a few: the mungbeans and the soybeans.
• Fat-rich – such as nuts, olives, avocado.
• Fiber-rich – such as green leafy vegetables, celery stalk,
broccoli.
• High moisture content – such as kabuti or mushrooms,
kamatis or tomatoes, kintsay or celery, koliplower or
cauliflower, labanos or radish, letsugas or lettuce, repolyo
or cabbage. The term “succulent” refers to the juiciness of
vegetables because of its high moisture content.
• Gas-forming vegetables – when digested, they form
gaseous compounds like hydrogen sulfide.
• NUTRITIVE VALUES
• Vegetables are high in water content; hence they are
considerably lower in calories and proteins than most of the
grains and legumes.
 • Vegetables are also excellent sources of fiber, various
essential macrominerals and microminerals, vitamins and
phytonutrients.
• They should constitute the bulk of our diet.
• Vegetables vary widely in composition and nutritive value,
depending on the part of the plant used. Leaves such as
cabbage and lettuce are expected to differ in value from
potatoes or carrots which are are roots or beans and peas
which are seeds.
VITAMIN CONTENT
SOURCES OF VITAMIN A
Green leafy vegetables are recommended sources
of vit. A.
Common carotene-rich leafy green and yellow
vegetables include alugbati, ampalaya leaves, kalabasa leaves,
kamoteng kahoy leaves, kangkong, karot, gabi leaves, letsugas,
malunggay, mustasa, petsay, saluyot, sili leaves, yellow camote and
yellow corn.
SOURCES OF VITAMIN C
Vegetables that are good sources of vit. C include
cabbage-type vegetables, bell peppers, lettuce, potatoes and dark
green and yellow vegetables.
SOURCES OF VITAMIN E AND K
 Vit. E, found in nuts and spinach, is a potent
antioxidant and helps to keep the body cells
healthy.
 Vit. K, which is found in nightshade vegetables like
broccoli and dark green, leafy vegetables,
participates in the clotting process.
 SOURCES OF VITAMIN B-COMPLEX
 Beans and leafy greens are rich sources of vitamin
B-complex.
 Green leafy vegetables like ampalaya tops, kulitis,
pepper leaves, kangkong, saluyot, and dried beans
are rich in riboflavin.
 Dark leafy green vegetables are good sources of
niacin.
CARBOHYDRATES
• Complex carbohydrates are polysaccharide with more than
20-sugar residue.
• Polysaccharides are natural constituents of both plant and
animal tissue.
• Dietary fiber includes polysaccharides, oligosaccharides,
lignin and associated plant substances.
FIBERS
Food sources of dietary fiber are often divided according to whether
they provide predominantly soluble or insoluble fiber.
 Soluble fiber dissolves in water. It is readily
fermented in the colon into gases and
physiologically active byproducts, and can be
prebiotic and/or viscous. It tends to slow the
movement of food through the system.
  Insoluble fiber does not dissolve in water.
Fermentable insoluble fibers mildly promote stool
regularity. They tend to accelerate the movement
of food through the system.
PHYTOCHEMICALS
• Phytochemicals literally translates to chemicals in plant. It I
the basis of many herbal food supplements that are so
popular today.
• Pytochemicals may be simple substances like selenium or
complex chemicals such as phenols, athocyanins, terpenes,
flavonoids, and others.
• All plant pigments are phytochemicals.
ANTIOXIDANTS
• These are substances that prevent oxidation of other
molecules, but in phytochemicals, this refers to substances
that protect cells from the effects of free radicals that are
produced in the body as a consequence of normal
metabolic processes.
• Some phytochemicals can reduce inflammation and
eliminate carcinogens, while others regulate the rate at
which cells reproduce, get rd of old cells and maintain DNA.
QUALITY OF VEGETABLES
• Quality is a term which denotes a degree of excellence, a
high standard or value. Kramer (1965) stated that: Quality
of foods may be defined as the composite of those
characteristics that differentiate individual units of a
product, and have significance in determining the degree of
acceptability of that unit to the user
• Attributes of Vegetable Quality
• 4 Signs of quality in vegetables
• Color and Appearance
• Flavor (taste and aroma)
• Texture
• Nutritional value.
TEXTURE OF VEGETABLES
• Textural parameters of fruits and vegetables are perceived
with the sense of touch, either when the product is picked
up by hand or placed in the mouth and chewed.
• In contrast to flavor attributes, these characteristics are
fairly easily measured using instrumental methods.
• Most plant materials contain a significant amount of water
and other liquid-soluble materials surrounded by a semi-
permeable membrane and cell wall.
• The texture of fruits and vegetables is derived from their
turgor pressure, and the composition of individual plant cell
walls and the middle lamella “glue” that holds individual
cells together.
• In practice the term texture is used primarily with reference
to solid or semi-solid foods; however, most fruits and
vegetables are viscoelastic, implying that they exhibit
combined properties of ideal liquids, which demonstrate
 only viscosity (flow), and ideal solids, which exhibit only
elasticity (deformation).
• Cell walls are composed of cellulose, hemicellulose, pectic
substances, proteins, and in the case of vegetables, lignin.
• Tomatoes are an example of a fruit vegetable that is
approximately 93–95% water and 5–7% total solids, the
latter comprised of roughly 80–90% soluble and 10–20%
insoluble solids.
DEFINITION OF FLAVOR
• Flavor has been defined (Anon, 1959) as: A mingled but
unitary experience which includes sensations of taste, smell,
and pressure, and often cutaneous sensations such as
warmth, color, or mild pain.
• Flavor is typically described by aroma (odor) and taste.
• Taste has been divided into five primary tastes—sweet,
sour, salty, bitter, and umami. Umami can be described as
a taste associated with salts of amino acids and nucleotides
(Yamaguchi and Ninomiya, 2000). Odors are much more
diverse and difficult to classify, but an attempt by Henning
(Gould, 1983) includes the following— spicy, flowery,
fruity, resinous or balsamic, burnt, and foul.
• Stevens (1985) stated that it is possible to classify
vegetables into two major groups, depending on their flavor
characteristics. The first group of vegetables has a strong
flavor that can be attributed to a single compound or
group of related compounds. Onions with characteristic
sulfide compounds,and celery, with distinctive phthalides
are examples of this group.
• The second group of vegetables includes those whose flavor
is determined by a number of volatiles, none of which
conveys the specific characteristic aroma. Examples in this
group include snap beans and tomatoes.
• In the evaluation of fruit and vegetable flavor, it is
important to consider “off-flavors” as well as desirable
ones.
• These off-flavors may be produced through the action of
enzymes such as lipoxygenase or peroxidase, which form
reactive free radicals and hydroperoxides that may catalyze
the oxidation of lipid compounds.
• When these reactions occur, the result may be the
development of undesirable flavors described as rancid,
cardboard, oxidized, or wet dog. However, there are
instances of enzyme-catalyzed reactions that result in
desirable flavors. For example, hydroperoxide lyase
catalyzes the production of typical tomato flavors (Anthon
and Barrett, 2003).
PIGMENTS AND COLOR COMPONENTS IN VEGETABLES
CHLOROPHYLL
 It is similar to the heme of the hemoglobin.
 It contains 2.7% of magnesium.
 Formed from chloroplasts of plants.
 There are two green forms: Chlorophyll A and B and
two yellow forms: carotene and xanthophyll in the
chloroplasts.
  Not soluble in water but is dispersed with pulpy bits  Widely distributed that vegetables without
of fruits and vegetable tissues. anthoxanthins are more the exception rather than
the rule.
 Pure chlorophyll is soluble in fat solvents.
NAME
CAROTENOIDS OF
PIGMEN
T
 Group of fat-soluble yellow to red pigments mainly
found in plants especially in dark leafy vegetables.

 Two general types of carotenoids: carotene and

xanthophyll. 1.

 Lycopene, a derivative isomer of carotene is the red

pigment in tomatoes, and canthaxanthin in red
pepper.

FLAVONOIDS

 All phenolic compounds.

 They are pigments widely distributed in plants and

include two groups of pigments: the anthocyanins
and the anthoxantins as well as tannins.

ANTHOCYANINS

 Give the red, purple, and blue color to many fruits,

vegetables, flowers and leaves like red cabbage and
beets.

ANTHOXANTHINS

 Almost colorless or pale yellow pigments, which are

found in light colored vegetables like potatoes and
yellow skinned onions.

ENZYMATIC BROWNING
• It is a reaction which requires the action of enzymes and
oxidation in order to occur. 
• It takes place in some foods, mostly fruit and vegetables,
causing the food to turn brown.  from the many ovaries of a single flower.
• It is a process wherein the oxygen in the air can cause sliced
fruit to brown.
• Oxidation results in decreased shelf period, progress
rancidity and these fresh produces lose the color, texture
and the flavour.
“The longer you keep them exposed to air, the lesser will be the
vitamins.”
NON ENZYMATIC BROWNING
May be a result of any of the three general types of reactions:
1. Nitrogenous compounds and sugars
2. Organic acids and sugars.
3. Nitrogenous compounds and organic acids.
2. The distinct mechanisms are now known to be involved in
the non-enzymatic browning of food and food products:
3. 1. The Maillard reaction or the Melanoidin
condensation
4. 2. Ascorbic acid mechanism
5. 3. The active aldehyde theory
FRUITS
Classification of Fruits
Descriptions of Each Type of Fruit
• 1. Aggregate fruit- This type consists of many tiny seed-
bearing fruits combined in a single mass which develops
• Examples: raspberry, blackberry, cherimoya
• 2. Berry - Each of these fruits is derived from a single ovary
and may contain one or more seeds.
• Examples: grapes and banana (a berry that has lost its
ability to develop seeds because growers have long
propagated it vegetatively with the aim of getting rid of the
seeds)
• 3. Drupe – The single-seeded stone fruit develops entirely
from a single ovary.
• Examples: cherry, plum, peach, nectarine, apricot, prune,
siniguelas, avocado, and mango
• 4. False berry - These many seeded fruits result from the
fusion of an ovary and a receptacle
• 5. Hesperidium-The citrus fruits are the most common
examples of this type of fruit which develops from a
compound ovary into a many seeded, multi-sectioned fruit
enclosed in a tough, oily skin.
 • 6. Multiple fruit - The ovaries and receptacles from multiple • Many fruits are advantageous for the simple reason that
flowers on a common base develop into these fruits. they are relatively low in calories yet high in vitamins and
minerals that regulates body processes.
• Examples: pineapple and fig.
• Fruits are also an excellent source of fiber needed for a
Classification According to their production of ethylene (ripening
healthy digestive system.
hormone)
• Fruits are essential in the diet to prevent certain diseases.
1. Climacteric fruits produce ethylene which causes high respiration
rate during ripening • Lack of Vitamin C: cause of swollen joints, inflammed gums,
and weakness.
Examples: mangoes, bananas, papayas, and avocados
• Lack of Vitamin A: cause of beriberi (potentially fatal disease
2. Non-climacteric fruits produce little or no ethylene.
of the nervous system)
Examples: pineapples, grapes, citrus, pomelo, strawberries and
Vitamin Content of Fruits
watermelon
• Vit. A - yellow fruits rich in carotene
* ripen only while still attached to the parent plant and so cannot be
picked early and stored for later ripening Sources: Ripe mango, papaya, banana, melon, cantaloupe, yellow
corn, sweet potato/yellow camote
Composition and Nutritive Value of Fruits
• Vit. C - Citrus fruits
PROXIMATE ANALYSIS
Sources: Guava, oranges, calamansi, tomatoes, dalanghita,
• Fruits are generally higher in moisture content than most
guyabano
other foods.
• Vit. E -Antioxidants
• Fruits usually have moisture content as low as 71% for
jackfruit to as much as 94% for native melons. Sources: nuts, avocado,kiwi, blackberries, cranberries, apricots

Nutritive Values • Vit. K -helps in blood clotting process

• Most fruits are fair to excellent sources of calories (due to Sources: grapes, tomatoes, prunes, pomegranate, blueberries,
their sugars), fiber, various essential macromolecules and blackberries, prunes, avocado 
macrominerals, vitamins and vitamin-like factors.
• Vit. B complex

Sources: watemelon, plum, tomato, strawberry, apple, banana

Divided into two:
1. Soluble Fiber- dissolves in water and is viscous.
Sources: Ripe bananas, apple, pear, citrus fruits, sweet potatoes
2. Insoluble fiber- does not absorb or dissolve in water.
Sources: cereals, whole grains
Phytochemicals
• only found in plant foods
• different kinds of phytochemicals gives fruits and veggies
their bright colors (pigments).
• helps boost immune system and reduces risk of heart
disease
Sources: Blueberries, citrus fruits, tomatoes
Antioxidants
• substance that retards oxidative rancidity in fats by
becoming oxidized itself and stopping a chain reaction.
• Sources: Strawberries, grapes, oranges, plum, wild berries,
mangoes, cherries
Texture components
• Texture associated with the structural make-up of fruits
including qualities such as toughness, stringiness, slicing
quality and crispness.
Some plant cells that is responsible for the texture of fruits:
1. Parenchyma cells - its function helps the plant in photosynthesis,
storage and transport. Has intercellular spaces which explains the
release of air when you boil a fruit.
2. Conducting cells - composed of long tubes through which water
and salts/nutrients are distributed throughout the plant. Its fibers
are primarily responsible for the stringiness and toughness of a fruit.
3. Protective cells - are specialized parenchyma cells and secretes
cutin and suberin.
Flavor compounds of fruits
• Sugar - as a fruit ripens, its sugar content increases
• Acids - as the fruit ripens, acidity generally decreases. E.g.
citric acids in citrus fruits, malic acids in apples, tartaric acid
in tamarind.
• Tannins or phenolic compounds - "mapakla" flavor of some
fruits like santol and underripe banana. Tannins do not
disappear in ripe fruits but merely become insoluble.
Pigments and color components in Fruits
• Chlorophyll
- formed from chloroplasts of plants. There are 2 green forms :
Chlorophyll A and B and 2 yellow forms : carotene and xanthophyll.
- is responsible for the green pigments of both vegetable and fruits.
• Cartenoids - group of fat soluble yellow to redpigments
found mainly in plants especially in dark leafy vegetables.
There are about 80 cartenoids in nature. They give orange and
yellow color to fruits e.g. papaya, tomatoes, red watermelon, etc
 • Flavonoids - are phenolic compounds. has 2 groups of 5.Effect of metals Copper and zinc brighten Little effect
pigments namely anthocyanins and anthoxanthins.

• Anthocyanins - give the red, purple and blue color to many

fruits like beets and grapes.

• Anthoxanthins - are almost colorless or pale yellow

pigments. 6. Effect of prolonged Olive green Little effect unless
heating excessive; may darken
Effect of Various Factors in Plant Pigments

Name of Pigment
Factor
Chlorophyll Carotenoids
Enzymatic Browning
1. Color Green Yellow and orange
• Enzymatic browning is one of the most important reactions
that occur in fruits and vegetables, usually resulting in
2. Water solubility Slightly soluble Slightly soluble negative effects on color, taste, flavor, and nutritional value.
It is a reaction which requires the action of enzymes and
oxidation in order to occur.
3.Effect of acid Changes to olive green Little effect
Non Enzymatic Browning

• Non‐enzymatic browning involves a set of chemical

reactions that take place during the preparation or storage
4. Effect of alkali Intensifies green color Little effect of foods. It is responsible for the formation of brown
compounds, which are volatile flavor molecules that affect
the sensory quality of foods

• Distinct mechanisms known to be involved in the non-

enzymatic browning of food and food products:

• Maiilard reaction or Melanoidin condensation

• Ascorbic acid mechanism

 • Active aldehyde theory

– This type of browning reaction is not easily manifested in fruits

unless enough time is provided

 It may be a result of any of the three general types of

reactions:

1. Nitrogenous compounds and sugars

2. Organic acid and sugars

3. Nitrogenous compounds and organic acids

PECTIN

◦ Pectin is a natural gelling agent that occurs in fruit.  It helps

your jams, marmalades and jellies set.

◦ Some fruits have enough natural pectin to gel firmly; others

require added pectin. The best type of pectin is found in
just-ripe fruit. Pectin from under-ripe or overripe fruit will
not gel. 

◦ Unlike gelatin, which is made from animal parts, pectin

comes from fruit.

◦ Commercial pectins are made from apples or citrus fruit

and are available in both powdered and liquid forms.

Jellies are usually made by cooking fruit juice with sugar.

Jellies have the smoothest consistency and are made by crushing a
fruit and discarding the solid chunky leftovers. This leaves only the
fruit juice, which is then mixed with a substance called pectin and
heated to form the gelatinous spread. 

STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION