Lecture 5

Measuring Tools and Methods

5.1 DEVIATE THAT COMES FROM THE MEASUREMENT POSITION
ABBE principle: (Dr. Ernest Abbe)
"The measuring line must coincide with the dimension line". For measurements of ABBE
principle geometric measurement objects as can as possible maybe followed. If the measuring
line is the line on which the measuring scale is made or the sensor movement line, not
coincide with the dimension line of the measuring object but make an angle equal to θ, then
the measurement results will be larger than the actual dimension. The large error of angle θ, it
will enlarge according to the enlargement of the slash on right triangle follow the cosine
formula. Therefore, this error is often named as a cosine error, see Figure 21.

x = sin

= tan
θ
s
M
= cos

s = M cos θ

1. If both surfaces are at the end of the rod desired parallel, then the distance to both stands
must be the same as 0.577 times the rod length (s = 0.577 ℓ). To both support points are
called Airy Points and the measuring rod usually given a sign that stating the location that
point. As a result of the alignment of the measurement surface of several measuring rods,
respectively supported at the Airy point, can be connected without concern there will be
errors due to coincide imperfections (for guarantee the accuracy of the distance between
the both free tip (ujung)).
 Figure 20 Effect of measuring object elasticity at the time measurement

2. If you want a minimum flexure for the ruler rod that is placed on two supports, then try the
distance to the two supports s = 0.554 ℓ. By relying on it like this (Minimum Flexure
Support Point) straightness of ruler rod can be used as surface straightness measurement
reference below it (by using comparator, measured the height gap at some points; it will be
reviewed on the straightness measurement).
3. Rods with X-cross section as standard meter (historical objects stored in Paris) supported
symmetrically distance s = 0.559 ℓ. With a support is like this (Bessel Point) so a neutral
plane (the middle surface of the X rod facing up) will experience the most small
longitudinal deformation. The distance between the two mark lines made in the neutral
plane at that time considered as 1 m (standard meter that has been applied; 1889 - 1927).

The cosine error seems to be aggravated (diperparah) if the sensor sticking to

measuring object surface is not at the point on the measuring line but rather beside it (on the
outer edge of the sensor surface, see Figure 21 b).
 Dimension line

Measuring line
Dimension line

Measuring line
d sinθ

Dimension line

Measuring line
Point contact

Fig 21
The condition is like this can be prevented by techniques that match with the type of
measuring instrument and how to hold it, namely; see Figure 22 (A & B):
A. If the position of the measuring instrument relative to the measuring object cannot be
changed (accordingly with the last setting that is followed by the chucking of the
measuring instrument and/or measuring objects on the stand) then the sensor has a ball
face better than flat-faced sensors.
B. If the measuring instrument position relative to the measuring object can change, so the
effect a measurement force that does not in line it will cause a rotating moment which
react each other to measuring objects and measuring instruments. If the measuring object
is free to move then the moment will turns it and the sensor move to clamp it, so that the
measuring line will coincide with dimension lines. Here is an example of a measurement
condition that capable to self-aligning its position.
"Cosine Error" is result of not be fulfilled ABBE principle (measuring line must coincide with
the dimension line). Measurement results M will be higher than dimensions actually L.
Although it is theoretic that very easy to correct M, so it becomes L, but in practice this is not
possible, because the value of θ is not known for exactly. Therefore, what can be done is
working on the principle this ABBE is fulfilled.
 The measurement position holds important role because of the magnitude which
dimensions are measured. As an example, Figure 22 (C & D) shows effort hole diameter
measurement with using a telescopic micrometer. To ensure that what is measured, it is the
diameter of the hole (line the dimensions cannot be seen, touched, because it is an imaginary
line alias imaginer) then the operator must:
C. Move the sensor left and right to find the highest value. Then, with the final position is
like the gauges as to be side-measurement position best, followed by:
D. Shake (nod) sensor forwards and backwards to search the smallest value. This last value
is what is considered the most representative value of hole diameter.
The practice of the C method followed by D is not easy. The operator must repeatedly train
until the precise (repeatability) pretty good. This is one of many once, an example of
metrology operator skills that we appreciate.

Figure 22 Type of contact sensor adjusted accordingly measurement problems to guarantee correctness of
measurement position.
Figure 22 (E) is an example gauge for hole diameter (inner-diameter) with three sensors.
Sensor tip has a cylindrical surface. With a symmetric-rotate sensor position, it is like the
sensor pressure force on the measuring object will make a measuring instrument able to
adjust its own position (self aligning) so that the measuring line coincides with dimension
lines. In the example case of measurement hole diameter, measuring three sensors contacts
must be chosen than measuring instrument two contact sensors. Three sensors contact is in
this matter too.

5.2 DAVIATE COMES FROM THE ENVIRONMENT

"The environment must provide comfort for the operator".
If this requirement is met, it will generally meet requirements that is requested for
measuring instruments and measuring objects.
 cleanliness; we like it and so the tools are requested measuring and measuring
objects. Dust, growls (geram), flakes (serpihan) that are often seen on the location of
the production machine needs to be avoided from the measurement location.
Depending on your needs, this requires: starting from something separate area/space,
measuring room, up to a metrology laboratory with a conditioned environment. Dust,
splinters (serpihan) of fine metal on the surface of the measuring object will be "felt"
by the sensor precise measuring instrument that can cause errors also damage the
sensor surface or the measuring surface of the standard measurement device like
block-gauge (gauge-block).
 low noise level; all like it. Weak vibration is not making any noise or not being met
with a precise and sensitive measurement because it will lead to floating
(uncertainty, floating).
 Sufficient lighting; so that the operator is able to carry out measurement and read
measurement results. Indeed, measuring tools and measuring objects in this case do
not care about lighting. For a measurement system that takes place automatically
which is incorporated in an automatic production system such as FMS (Flexible
 Manufacturing System) can work day and night without lighting sufficient because it
does not require an operator (unmanned factory). Lighting is needed when the
operator picks up the product, prepares and adjusting work-objects, tool-pieces,
measuring devices, and orrection act (process correction).
 temperature 25-27 oC, humidity 70-75%; all like it. For the measurement tools and
measuring objects in any temperature are actually not importance as long as the value
does not change (fluctuate). So, similarity and determination of temperature for all
components in the measurement system needs to be considered. Actually humidity is
also no role (peran) in geometry measurement. However, humidity is too high in long
time is a good medium for the development of the corrosion process. Most measuring
instrument components and workpieces made of steel (except stainless steel) whose
surface tarnished (ternodai) by acid (including those from human sweat) through dirty
hands will experience a corrosion process. Equity (kesaksamaan) in storing
measuring instruments is very important. If it is not, when the measuring block is
stored, "the corrosion process starts painting fingerprints of hand careless operators "
in the a measurement face that is not cleaned and not protected with a thin layer of oil
(vaseline).
The effect of temperature is a factor that needs to get attention because all solid objects,
especially metals, will change its geometry (size, shape, position) if the temperature
changes. For maintain the similarity of measurement results, it has been approved
internationally that the room temperature for geometric measurements is standardized at
20o C with humidity of 55-60%. This condition must always be fulfilled for each
measuring-object geometry measurement? Pay attention to the analysis the following
simple. Long changing, that occurs in direct measurements it can be calculated through
the theoretical formula:
Note:
The value of a temperature of 20 oC and humidity of 55-60% is actually just the result of an
agreement without associated with technical reasons. Economic reasons are more outstanding
and made to tend with subtropical countries. To raise the outside air temperature from -5 up
to 5 oC to 20 oC is a "luxury thing" for them (generally their room temperature in winter is 16-
18 oC). While in the summer, for a while, it was relatively easy for them meet these standards
from outside air with low humidity. For tropical countries are like Indonesia, International
Standards value are difficult to fulfill, especially to reach the air the space/room has a
humidity of 55-60% of the high humidity outside air (80-90%), which must be done
throughout the year. And who can stand working all day in a room with a temperature of 20
o
C while the outside air temperature is around 27 - 32 oC. In conclusion, forget the standard
(except when calibrating national standards, international cooperation in comparison of
measurement methods), and fulfill the principle: "The environment must provide comfort for
operator"
    t  t s 
where:
∆ℓ = change in length; mm
ℓ = length of the object of measurement; mm
α = coefficient-expansion-length; oC-1
= 23.8 10-6 for aluminum
= 16.5 10-6 for copper
= 12.0 10-6 for steel
= 10.5 10-6 for cast iron
t = temperature measuring object
ts = standard temperature = 20 oC

For example, a steel shaft that has just been grinded to reach nominal diameter of
100 mm can have a temperature of around 40 oC. If the measurement of diameter is done at
this temperature then the shaft diameter will be greater than 0.023 mm compared with its
diameter at standard temperature. This size difference is equal to the large area of quality
tolerance IT 7.
If measurements are carried out in comparison (measurement indirect) so the
difference in length between objects is measured by a measuring block (standard size) can be
calculated from the following formula:
   2   1    2 2   11 t  t s 
where,
∆ = the length difference measured by the comparator; mm
ℓ2 = length of measuring object; mm
ℓ1 = length of the measuring block; mm
α2 = coefficient of expansion-length of the measuring object; oC-1
α1 = coefficient-length of the measuring block; oC-1
∆t = t – ts = temperature difference measurement with temperature standard.

If the coefficient of length-expansion of the measuring object is the same or not

much different with the coefficient of expansion of the measuring block, so the formula above
can written as follows:
   2   1       t
Because ∆ℓ is usually made small (in a few micrometers), while ∆t is usually not more than
10oC (e.g. room temperature in a factory 30oC) and the value α itself is small so the second
part of the formula above can be ignored.
 Thus the comparison measurements will give the value is close to the actual value
even though the measurement is not carried out at standard temperatures. However, if there is
a temperature difference between the measuring object and the measuring block, there may be
an error which is quite meaningful. Thus, a measurement system (measuring object and
measuring instruments) must the temperature always be the same everything and does not
change.
The measuring room is usually realized to provide working comfort with
conditioned air especially to reduce humidity thus preventing or restricting the corrosion
process on measuring instruments and measuring objects. When the temperature of the
measuring room is kept constant, for example amounting to 25 oC, the measuring instrument
and various other equipment that are stored in the measuring room will also be 25 oC. When
measuring objects, especially ones with large dimensions brought in from the factory room
with a temperature of 30 oC, it takes time to adjust the temperature so that it is the same as
temperature measuring room.
Talking about temperature, don't forget that temperature your hands are 36 oC. So,
don't hold a measuring instrument or measuring object for too long (especially small
dimensions) if doing geometry measurements at measuring room at 25 oC. It is a good habit
for be careful, because in essence, equality is prevent the arising of systematic errors and
random errors.

5.3 DEVIATE COMES FROM OPERATOR

Two people take measurements in turn (bergantian) using measuring instruments
and measuring objects and environmental conditions that considered unchanging may
produce different data. Source of this difference can come from the way they measure which
is affected by experience, expertise, abilities, and skills and temperament of each operator.
Measurement is a job need accuracy.
Thus, the person who work measure must:
 have practical experience based on supported theories mastery of knowledge about
the measurement process. This can be achieved through industrial metrology training
and maintained, strengthened, and developed through appropriate work,
 have the basics of knowledge of measuring instruments, how measuring instruments
work, how to measure, how to calibrate and maintain measuring instruments,
 be aware of the possible location of sources of irregularities and know how to
eliminate (reduce to as small as possible so that it is practically negligible) the effect
on results measurement,
 able to analyze a measurement problem that is in reading of quality reference
(technical drawings complete with geometric specifications), determine how to
measure according to the level of accuracy as desired, choose a measuring instrument
and then carry out measurement with accuracy and high discipline, and
 be aware that the measurement results are entirely a responsibility the answer is in the
realization of how the group works with emphasis duties and responsibilities.

ANY QUESTIONS?

Could you…bro?