Oral Communication Module 1

Chapter One
NATURE AND ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION

Communication is essential to human life. Without it we cannot function properly. One

of the primary ways we communicate is through oral communication. This includes language.
We use language for many reasons and in many ways. Understanding communication,
particularly oral communication helps us become more competent in communication. In
addition, oral communicaion has many elements. This chapter helps to explain to you some basic
knowldge about oral communication and its elements.
Lesson 1 helps you learn about what communication is and how the process of oral
communication goes. It discusses elements of process of communication. Another very
important topic it discusses is models of communication. Models of communication help you
visualize and gain insight into how communication happens. This lesson also introduces the
different types of communication.
Lesson 2 helps you learn about different functions of communication, particularly their
characteristics and how different they are from each other. Functions of communication give
insight regarding how humans use language. They show how communication upholds and
develops other aspects of human life.
Lesson 3 helps you understand and apply the concept of speech acts so you can relate
better with your co-communicators. Also, this lesson helps you learn how to behave in different
contexts of communication. Different contexts of communication require different behavior.
Through this lesson, you will discover the difference between communication settings and the
different styles of communication particularly on the basis of several features they each have.

Lesson One: What Communication Is

Focus Question:
 How does understanding communication help us?
Learning Competencies:
 Defines communication
 Identifies the elements of communication
 Explains the nature and process of communication
 Distinguishes the unique features of each communication model
 Identies the types of communication
  Differentiates the various models of communication
 Values communication

Even before we were born, we were already communicating. Interaction is not possible
without communication. We did not have to be taught to communicate nor were we taught the
nature, types, and elements of communication yet we communicate like we breathe. We do not
need to learn about the communication process to be communicative.
So why do we need to learn about communicaton?
By learning about communication – its nature, process, elements, types and more– we are
able to improve our ability to communicate. Developing insight into communication makes us
better communicators. As we become better communicators, we are able to improve our
relationships and achieve our goals in life. Good communication makes us better people, and
better people produce a better world.
Communication Defined
Communication is basically defined in the following way:
Communication is the transmission and reception of information between a human source
(encoder) and receiver (decoder) using a signaling system (Perry Blackburn).
Communication refers to the transmission of information (a ‘message’) between a source
and receiver using a signaling system: in linguistic contexts, source and receiver are interpreted
in human terms, the system involved is a LANGUAGE, and the notion of response to (or
acknowledgement of) the message becomes of crucial importance. In theory, communication is
said to have taken place if the information received is the same as that sent.

The Communication Process

In very simple terms, the communication process happens this way:
1. In a given context, the sender
converts his or her thoughts into {picture of a brain with an arrow pointing to picture of
signals such as words (usually using a mouth}
the mouth).
2. The sender sends the signals
(speaks) through a channel (such as {picture of a person with the words “words, words,
air). words” coming out of the mouth}
3. As the signals are sent through the
channel, there is some noise
(anything that reduces the quality of {picture of a zigzag}
the signals such as when words
cannot be heard clearly).
 4. The receiver hears the signals
using the ears.
5. The receiver converts the signals
into thoughts.
6. The receiver sends feedback by
becoming the sender.
{picture of ear with the words. “words, words, words”
going into it}
{picture of ear with an arrow pointing to a brain}
{the word “feedback” with arrows pointing left and
right of it}

Needless to say, the communication process does not proceed as simply as discussed in
numbers 1 – 6. Rather, the process happens in rapid back-and-forth but still orderly way. The
section on models of communication will give more description about the communication
process.

The Elements of Communication

Communication has elements that work together to produce a system. They are composed of the
following:

1. Senders and Receivers – Senders conveys messages by converting their thoughts into symbols
or observable signals such as words. This is called codification and is usually done through the
use of language. Receivers hear the signals and convert the symbols into their thoughts. This is
called decoding, deciphering or interpretation.
2. Messages – Messages are the ideas or thoughts that are transmitted from sender to receiver.
They are the result of the interpretation of symbols, when meaning is derived from observable
signals.
3. Verbal and nonverbal symbols – Symbols are observable signals transmitted from sender to
receiver. Symbols can come in any observable form. They can be spoken signals that are heard
(such as spoken words), printed symbols that can be read (such as printed words), hand signals
that are seen (such as signals in sign language) or even symbols that are felt (such as Braille
writing for the blind).
Symbols do not have meaning in themselves. They only stir up meaning in the mind of
the receivers. For example, when the sender says the word, “dog,” an image in the mind of the
receiver is formed when the receiver hears the word. However, it is up to the receiver what kind
of image comes to mind – whether the dog is furry or not, what breed it is, what color and size it
is, etc. In fact, sometimes, the meaning stirred up by the word in the mind of the receiver may be
different from the meaning intended by the sender.
In order for the right message to be transmitted, the receiver must be able to do two thngs
– observe and interpret the symbols sent by the sender correctly.
 Symbols may be verbal or non-verbal. When symbols come in the form of utterances
coming from the mouth of a speaker, they are considered verbal. If they come from body
movements other than of the mouth, they are considered non-verbal. Verbal symbols usually
come in the form of spoken words, but they may also be in other forms such as grunts (huh or
ugh), breaths (hmmm or ahh), shrieks (ahh! or ay!) or anything else coming out of the mouth of
the speaker.
4. Channels – Channel refers to the medium through which the message is sent. They connect the
sender and the receiver. The quality of a channel depends on how free it is of noise. Noise is
anything that reduces the quality of the signalsent by the sender through the channel, weakening
the communication between sender and receiver.
5. Feedback – Feedback refers to the message transmitted by the receiver in response to the
message of the speaker. Feedback enables the sender to make adjustments to the signals he or
she sent, such as improving the pronunciation of words speaking louder. Feedback also enables
the sender to make adjustments to how he codifies his thoughts or to correct the ideas
themselves. Feedback is very important in producing understanding between senders and
receivers.

Types of Communication
1. Intrapersonal – Intrapersonal communication involves talking to yourself. It may involve
deliberation, where you think about your decisions or possible courses of action. It may also
involve meditation about yourself, where you think about your life and what is involved in it.
2. Intrapersonal _ Intrapersonal communication involves talking to one or a limited number of
people. This requires you to adjust to speech to suit the character and personality of the person or
people you talk to. Since you are communicating with a limited number of people, the
opportunity for feedback and clarification is much greater.
In interpersonal communication, Jakobson’s six functions of language can be fully
realized. In simple terms, interpersonal communication may be cognitive – relating to facts about
the world, conative – influencing behavior, phatic – emphasizing the interaction, emotive –
relating to emotions particularly that of the speaker, metalingual – focusing on the code or
language used, or poetic – relating to the message itself.
3. Public – public communication involves communicating to a wide group of people with very
varied traits, background, interests, and persuasions. It, therefore, requires a lot of background
explanation in expressing your ideas.
4. Intercultural – Intercultural communication involves communicating with a person or group of
people who may noy share the same assumptions, values, allegiances as that of yours and may
have different asscoiations with the symbols you take for granted as having a particularmeaning.
Intercultural communication may require the groups of people involved to speak in a language of
wider communication, usually called a lingua franca.
Communication Models
The communication process is best described through discussion of different communication
models. In simple terms, model means a systematic description of a phenomenon or abstract
process.

JAKOBSON’S MODEL
Roman Jakobson’s model has six components:
1. addresser – the sender of the message
2. addressee – the receiver of the message
3. context – the situation in which the message was given
4. message – the idea to be expressed
5. contact – the channel through which the message passes
6. code – the form of the message
He said the six components each had to do with six functions of language which he
enumerated as cognitive, emotive, phatic, metalingual, and poetic. The following diagram
illustrates his model.

CONTEXT MESSAGE
ADDRESSER ___________________________________________ ADDRESSEE
CONTACT CODE

SAUSSURE’S MODEL
Ferdinand Saussure, considered the Father of Modern Synchronic Linguistics, describes a model
in which a concept in the brain triggers a sound pattern in the brain. The sound pattern in the
brain triggers an actual pronunciation of a sound which goes out of the mouth of a person and
into the ear of the listener where the process occurs in opposite order. That is, the sound
produces a sound pattern in the brain, and the sound pattern in the brain produces a concept.
Notable in Saussure’s model is the idea that the sound pattern is different from the actual sound
produced by the mouth or heard by the ear. This is notable in light of the fact that for many
people, different sounds are considered the same sound pattern. For example, for the Chinese, [d]
and [t] are the same sound pattern. Saussure’s model has been called the speech of circuit
model.
 Below are two diagrams of Saussure’s model of communication. The first is a picture of
two people showing the flow of communication and the other is a schematic diagram in French
of the model. Note that Saussure considers his model of communication as incomplete.
Below is a drawing showing communication as Saussure describes it.

SHANNON’S MODEL
In 1948, Claude Shannon what came to be known as Information Theory. It was primarily
concerned with the transmission of electronic information. The diagram below illustrates his
model.

Shannon describes the parts of his model as follows:

1. An information source which produces a message or a sequence of messages to be
communicate to the receiving terminal.
2. A transmitter which operates on the message in some way to produce a signal suitable for
transmission over the channel.
3. The channel is merely the medium used to transmit the signal from transmitter to receiver...
During transmission, or at one of the terminals, the signal may be perturbed by noise.
4. The receiver ordinarily performs the inverse operation of that done by the transmitter,
reconstructing the message from the signal.
5. The destination is the person (or thing) for whom the message is intended.

BERLO’S MODEL
In 1960, David K. Berlo published El Proceso de la Communication (The Process of
Communication) in which he described his SMCR model of communication which is illustrated
below.

The sender sends a message based on his knowledge of the subject, ability to
communicate, attitudes particularly toward the sender and everything else, social system and
culture. The message is composed of elements thar are arranged in a particular structrure in a
particular form (musical, poetic, prose, etc.). The entirety (content) of the message is conveyed
in a particular way (treatment). The channel is the sense used to observe the message. The
receiver decodes the message based on similar personality components as the sender. Berlo’s
model includes verbal and non-verbal aspects of communication. It is linear type of model. (from
communicationtheory.org/berlos-smcr-model-of-communication)

NIDA’S MODEL
Eugene Nida’s model includes an element of noise. He also talks about a special message called
feedback. The following diagram illustrates his model.

According to Nida, the S is the source, M is the message, and R is the receptor. Both S and M
have decoder (De) and encoder (En) since S and R can switch roles. The wavy line through M
suggests the acoustic transmission and the printed form of M stands for written communication.
Throughout the communication, there is a factor of noise.

BERG’S DISCUSSION OF FOUR MODELS

In addition to the models above, Kjell Berg discusses four models which may be considered
derivatives of the code model of communication:
1. The Linear, conduit model
2. The circular, dialogic model
3. The feedback, interaction model
4. The Self-regulatory model

The four models discussed by Berg highlight a particular part of the code model of
communication. The linear model focuses on the conduit or channel. The circular or dialogic
model gives a more active role for the receiver. The feedback, interaction model tries to think of
messages beyond what is intentionally given by the sender. That is, all behaviour of the sender
sends a message. The self-regulatory model focuses on what the senders and receiver get from
the environment.
Communication models other than the ones given above exist and are discussed in many
literature on communication. However, the ones given above are what the authors of this book
consider to be more salient.
PROCESSING QUESTIONS
1. Explain what communication is in your own words.
______________________________________________________________________________
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______________________________________________________________________________
.
2. Explain in simple terms the process of communication.
______________________________________________________________________________
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.
3. Describe one type of communication.
______________________________________________________________________________
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.
4. Describe one communication model particularly how different it is from others.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
.
 Lesson 2:
THE FUNCTIONS OF COMMUNICATION
• Communication whether verbal or non-verbal, can be thought of as a tool. This is also
true of the primary means by which human communicate—language. Every tool has a
function. As a tool, communication is used by humans to accomplish a task, goal or
objective.
• Communication functions are not limited to a particular grammatical structure. They can
take different grammatical structures – declarative, interrogative, imperative, or even
exclamatory.
• Communication as a human activity always serves a function. Functions of
coomunication refer to how human use language for different purposes.
• Theoretician such as Roman Jacobson, Michael Halliday, and Branislaw Manilowski
have categorized the different uses or functions of communication.
Five Common Functions of Language
1. Regulation/Control – Communication can be used to control the behaviour of human beings.
It can be used to regulate the nature and amount of activities humans engage in.
Examples: Doctor’s prescriptions, parents’ instructions to their children
Language Forms for Regulation or Control
• Imperatives – Please come in, get a chair, run
• Rhetorical Questions – Why don’t we go to the dining room now? Do you have a pen?
Can you pass the salt?
• Declarative – I want to be alone. It’s hot in here. You need to hurry. That’s not the right
thing to do.

2. Social Interaction – Communication can be used to produce social interaction. In their daily
course of living, human beings develop and maintain bonds, intimacy, relations, and
associations.
Examples: pick-up lines, invitations, greetings, appreciation, encouragement, marriage
proposals, gmae plans etc.
Several examples of expressions that produce social interaction:
• Let’s be friends.
• Will you marry me?
• Be my group partner.
 • I like you.
• I love you.
• You mean so much to me.
• Hello!

3. Motivation – A function of communication which refers to a person using a language to

express desires, needs, wants, likes and dislikes, inclinations, choices, and aspirations.
Examples: expressing one’s ambition, talking about preferences, ordering is a fast food
restaurant, asking for a milk, picketing, communicating desires and aspirations, and many more.
Forms expressing motivation include the following:
• I need...
• I want...
• Give me...
• I dream of...
• I like...
• We pray for...
• Do you have...
• Can I...?

4. Information – Communication can be used for giving and getting information. Giving
information usually comes in the form of statements of facts (grammatically known as
declaratives) and sometimes in terms of rhetorical questions.
Getting information can come in the form of questions intended for getting information
(grammatically known as interrogatives), commands (grammatically known as imperatives) and
even through statements.
Giving Informations
 Using statements – I have three brothers. Philippine Normal University was established
in 1901. For every action, there is a reaction.
 Using a rhetorical question – Did you know that some earphones can be used as
microphones?
Getting Informations
  Using questions – Where is Mt. Halcon?
 Using imperatives – Tell me how much a can of corned beef costs.
 Using declaratives – I don’t know where to find the city hall.

5. Emotional Expression – Humans always need to express their emotions both verbally and
non-verbally. Whether it is love, fear, anger, joy, hope, or any other emotion, humans need to let
them out otherwise they may harm their well-being. Emotional expression through language can
come in the form of interjections or exclamations.
• Yes!
• Oh no!
• Ouch! <expletives>
• Really?
The Special Case of Expressing Opinions
• The function to which expressing an opinion belongs depends on the purpose and setting
in which it is done. For example, when a doctor or lawyer gives an opinion, it is likely to
be about regulation/control. When a teacher gives an opinion about a topic, it is likely to
be about information.
• Expressing an opinion has a broad functions covering every category of communication
functions.
 PROCESSING QUESTIONS
1. What is meant by communication functions?
______________________________________________________________________________
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.
2. What is the significance of comparing language to a tool?
______________________________________________________________________________
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.
3. What is meant by language as regulatory/control?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
.
4. What is meant by language as motivation?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
.
5. What is meant by language as social interaction?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
.
6. Why is language as social interaction considered special?
______________________________________________________________________________
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______________________________________________________________________________
.
7. What is meant by language as information?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
.
8. What is meant by language as emotional expression?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
.
PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT
1. Create your own categories of functions of communication. Give examples for each of the
functions you came up with.
2. Create a visual aid showing your categories.
 Lesson 3:
THE CONTEXTS OF COMMUNICATION
Focus Question:
1. How does context affect our approach to communication?
Learning Competencies:
1. Identifies the various types of speech contexts, speech styles and speech acts.
2. Explains why there is a breakdown in communication.
3. Identifies social situations in which each speech style is appropriate to use.
4. Observes the appropriate language forms in using a paricular speech style.
5. Responds appropriately and effectively to a speech act.
Key terms:
● Speech styles – patterns of speaking characterized by distinctive pronunciation,
vocabulary, intent, participants, and grammatical structures.
● Intimate style – a speech style used between two very close persons.
● Casual style – a speech style used to form and maintain friendships.
● Consultative style – a speech style used to convey information informally.
● Formal style – a speech style used to convey information formally.
● Frozen Style – s speech style used to focus on the text itself.
● Speech act – an act done by saying it.
● Locutionary act – the speaking part of a speech act
● Illocutionary act – the core of speech acts; sometimes synonymous to speech act.
● Perlocutionary act – the response to an illocutionary act.
● Illocutionary force – what the speaker intends by doing a speech art.
● Perlocutionary force – the effect on the listener of the speaker’s speech act.
● Formal setting - a situation requiring formal ways of communication.
● Informal setting – a situation requiring informal elements of communication.
Introduction:
How you communicate with others depends on several elements of communication.
● Speech acts relate to actions done by saying them.
● Another concept is speech context, which can be intrapersonal, interpersonal (dyad or
small group), public, and intercultural.
● There are two kinds of communication settings – informal and formal – each having their
own characteristics and requirements for proper communication.
How you communicate with others depends on several elements of communication.
● Finally, the five kinds of speech styles, descrobed by Martin Joos in his book, The Five
Clocks. Speech style involves the way participants communicate including pronunciation,
word choice, grammar, and other characteristics of speech.
● Speech styles can be intimate, casual, concultative, formal, and frozen.
Speech Acts
1. Locutionary and Illocutionary Acts
 Speech acts are done by saying them. It is a term coined by John Austin in his book How
to Do Things with Words.
 The first level is the locutionary act. This is simply the speaking part of speech act.
 The second aspect is the illocutionary act. This is the acting part of the speech act – the
very action done by saying something.
Two Kinds of Illocutonary Acts
1. Constantive – making something true (or false) by saying it. This is done by someone in
authority or position to do so such as judge, president, etc.
 Examples: I now pronounce you husband and wife.
 I name this boat the Tropical Princess.
2. Performative – is doing something by ust saying it.
 Examples: I nominate Josephine for class president.
 I sentence you to five years in prison.
 I object.
 I promise to cherish you all my life.
Actions that cannot be done by just saying them
 I sleep now.
 I help you clean the house.
 We buy new clothes.
 I love you.
 John Searle’s Categories of Speech Acts
1. Assertives commit the speaker to the truthfulness of a condition or situation such as
when he or she asserts, concludes, deduces, or swears that something is true.
2. Directives are attempts by the speaker to make the listener do something. This includes
when a speaker commands, requests, begs, invites, entreats, pleads, and insists that the
listener do something.
3. Commisives commit the speaker to a future actions such as when a speaker guarantees,
pledges, assures, swears, or promises to do something.
4. Expressives show a speaker attitude toward a situation. This includes apologizing for a
wrong that was committed, congratulating someone for something, thanking someone, or
comforting someone about an unwelcome event.
5. Declaratives make something true by saying it (constantive) or make the speaker do
something by saying it (performative)

2. Perlocutionary Acts
 The third aspect is the perlocutionary acts. This is the response to an illocutionary act.
 Whereas an illocutionary act refers to only one act, perlocutionary acts can be multiple
because there are many ways of responding to an illocutinary act

Illocutionary and Perlocutionary Force

 Illocutionary force refers to the intent of the speaker when he or she says something to a
listener.
 Perlocutionary force refers to the effect of the speaker’s utterance on the listener.
Example:
Employer: Are you doing anything?
Employee: I’m sorry. I will do something now.
Employer: No, what I mean is if you are not doing anything, then you can go home and
take a rest now. You have been working too hard.

Appropriate Verbal and Non-Verbal Behaviour

● Different speech contexts require shifts or changes in verbal and non-verbal behavior.
 I. Intrapersonal
II. Interpersonal
III. Public
IV. Intercultural
Informal and Formal Settings

Formal Informal

Coincides with Matches with

Sneaked Snuck

Posit Guessed

May I Can I

Preferences Likes

Underwrite (expenses) Shoulder (expenses)

 The register used in informal settings is different from that used in formal setting.
 The rules regarding which words may or may not be used in formal or informal settings
may not always be very strict, but speakers still need to be aware of their existence.
 As partof register, formal settings do not normally allow some language forms.
 Formal and informal settings also differ in the use of non-verbal elements of
communication. For instance, they differ in posture.
Speech Styles
 Speech styles are patterns of speaking characterized by distinctive pronunciation,
vocabulary, intent, participants, and grammatical structures.
 Martin Joos claimed the existence of five kinds of styles in the following order –
intimate, casual, consulatatve, formal, and frozen.
 According to Joos, it is common for humans in a communication situation to easily move
from one style to the one next to it, but not to the one not next to it.
 It is also possible, according to him, to make use of two styles at the same time when
engaging in artful speech such as preaching.
 John Borderick – wrote an exposition of Martin joos’ ideas regarding style.
I. Intimate style – is used between two people who have very close relationships such as
family members, best friends, and couples.
II. Casual Style – is a conversational style used among friends.
III. Consultative style– is a conversational style in which the speaker constantly observes
the listener’s verbal and non-verbal cues for feedback as to whether the speaker seems to be
giving too little or too much information.
IV. Formal style– is called upon when speaking in formal settings no matter how the
participants are related to each other.
IV. Formal style– requires attention to producing well-formed sentences and to coherent,
very logically-organized speech. This is also true in the choice of words and pronunciation.
Another characteristics is the use of a lot of Latinisms – sentence structures that are similar to
Latin but not considered natural English.
Examples:

Latinism Natural English

From whom did you get it? Who did you get it from?

It is I. It’s me.

The following is a comparison by Joos of casual, consulatative, and formal style:

Casual Consultative Formal

C’n I help you? Can I help you? Can/May I help you?

I c’n help you. I can help you. I can help you.

V. Frozen style– is a very formal style not really intended to give a particular message but to
allow a reader to find many meanings for oneself. It exists as literature for a given
community.
 PROCESSING QUESTIONS
1. What do you think is the main reason there are different styles?
2. Give the elements that change from one style to another.
3. Give an experience of yours where there was a difference between illocutionary and
perlocutionary force. How did the breakdown occur? How was it repaired?
4. What additional guideline can you give when speaking in a particular context/
5. What additional characteristic of formal setting can you give?
6. Give your own examples of constantive and performative speech acts.

ASSESSMENT

DIRECTION: Show how much you understand speech styles by writing shor comments in the
following table:
Style/Characteristi Intimate Casual Consultative Formal Frozen
c
Planning of what to
say

Form of speech
(pronunciation,
grammar,
organization)
Choice of words

Use of public
information

Participation of
listener

CHAPTER ASSESSMENT
(Self-Assessment)
Direction: Write a one-page essay on the following:
 How do you think will the concepts in Chapter 1 help you in your relations, education,
future career, and daily life?