INTRODUCTION TO MODERN DATABASE SYSTEMS
several different places (files).
Unit 1: Introduction to Modern Database Systems
1.1 Characteristics of Databases
Data
 A collection of symbols used to represent
numbers, text, pictures, videos, audio, and so
on.
Semantics
 Meaning for the symbols on how data is
represented.
 Provided by the relationships that data has with
other data.
 In programming, provided by program
documentation, as well as the programming
language used to create the program.
 In databases, provided by a data model, which
includes the representation of the data,
relationships among the data, and metadata
(which is data that defines other data).
 Makes data useful.
Information
 Useful data
 All information is data, but not all data is
information.
 The type and amount of semantics determines
the usefulness of some given data.
 Usefulness is also relative to a given user. Data
may not be useful to some users, but very
useful to others.
Adirenne Watt and Nelson Eng's Database Design:
"Chapter 1: Before the Advent of Database
Systems"
File-based System
 One way to keep information on a computer is
to store it in permanent files. A company
system has a number of application programs;
each of them is designed to manipulate data
files. These application programs have been
written at the request of the users in the
organization. New applications are added to the
system as the need arises.
Disadvantages of the file-based approach
1. Data redundancy
 A situation that occurs in a database when a
field needs to be updated in more than one
table.
 Can lead to several problems such as:
o Inconsistency in data format
o The same information being kept in
o Data inconsistency – a situation where
various copies of the same data are
conflicting, wastes storage space and
duplicates effort.
2. Data isolation
 Property that determines when and how
changes made by one operation become
visible to other concurrent users and
systems.
 This issue occurs in a concurrency situation.
 This is a problem because:
o It is difficult for new applications to
retrieve the appropriate data, which
might be stored in various files.
3. Integrity problems
 Data Integrity – maintenance and
assurance that the data in a database are
correct and consistent.
 Factors to consider when addressing this
issue are:
o Data values must satisfy certain
consistency constraints that are
specified in the application programs.
o It is difficult to make changes to the
application programs in order to
enforce new constraints.
4. Security problems
 Security can be a problem with a file-based
approach because:
o There are constraints regarding
accessing privileges.
o Application requirements are added to
the system in an ad-hoc manner so it is
difficult to enforce constraints.
5. Concurrency access
 Concurrency – ability of the database to
allow multiple users access to the same
record without adversely affecting
transaction processing.
 A file-based system must manage, or
prevent, concurrency by the application
programs. Typically, in a file-based system,
when an application opens a file, that file is
locked. This means that no one else has
access to the file at the same time.
 In database systems, concurrency is
managed thus allowing multiple users
access to the same record. This is an
important difference between database and
file-based systems.
Database Approach
 The difficulties that arise from using the file-
based system have prompted the development
of a new approach in managing large amounts
of organizational information called the
database approach.
Database management software
 Powerful software tool that allows you to store,
manipulate and retrieve data in a variety of
different ways.
Data
 Factual information such as measurements or
statistics about objects and concepts.
 A single fact is an element of data, or a data
element.
 Data can be stored in:
o Filing cabinets
o Spreadsheets
o Folders
o Ledgers
o Lists
o Piles of papers on your desk
 Because of the mechanical nature of databases,
they have terrific power to manage and process
the information they hold. This can make the
information they house much more useful for
your work.
Key Terms:
concurrency: the ability of the database to allow
multiple users access to the same record without
adversely affecting transaction processing
data element: a single fact or piece of information
data inconsistency: a situation where various copies
of the same data are conflicting
data isolation: a property that determines when
and how changes made by one operation become
visible to other concurrent users and systems
data integrity: refers to the maintenance and
assurance that the data in a database are correct
and consistent
data redundancy: a situation that occurs in a
database when a field needs to be updated in more
than one table
database approach: allows the management of
large amounts of organizational information
database management software: a powerful
software tool that allows you to store, manipulate
and retrieve data in a variety of ways
file-based system: an application program designed
to manipulate data files
Adirenne Watt and Nelson Eng's Database Design:
"Chapter 2: Fundamental Concepts" and "Chapter
3: Characteristics and Benefits of a Database"
Database
 A shared collection of related data used to
support the activities of a particular
organization.
 Can be viewed as a repository of data that is
defined once and then accessed by various
users.
Database Properties
 It is a representation of some aspect of the real
world or a collection of data elements (facts)
representing real world information.
 A database is logical, coherent and internally
consistent.
 A database is designed, built and populated
with data for a specific purpose.
 Each data item is stored in a field.
 A combination of fields makes up a table. For
example, each field in an employee table
contains data about an individual employee.
Database Management System (DBMS)
 A collection of programs that enables users to
create and maintain databases and control all
access to them.
 The primary goal of a DBMS is to provide an
environment that is both convenient and
efficient for users to retrieve and store
information
Key Terms
database: a shared collection of related data used
to support the activities of a particular organization
database management system (DBMS): a
collection of programs that enables users to create
and maintain databases and control all access to
them
table: a combination of fields
Characteristics and Benefits of a Database
1. Self-describing nature of a database system
 A database system is referred to as self-
describing because it not only contains the
database itself, but also metadata which
defines and describes the data and
relationships between tables in the
database. This information is used by the
DBMS software or database users if
needed.
 This separation of data and information
about the data makes a database system
totally different from the traditional file-
based system in which the data definition is
part of the application programs.
2. Insulation between program and data
 In the file-based system, the structure of
the data files is defined in the application
programs so if a user wants to change the
structure of a file, all the programs that
access that file might need to be changed as
well.
 In the database approach, the data
structure is stored in the system catalogue
and not in the programs. Therefore, one
change is all that is needed to change the
structure of a file. This insulation between
the programs and data is also called
program-data independence.
3. Support for multiple views of data
 A database supports multiple views of data.
 A view is a subset of the database, which is
defined and dedicated for particular users
of the system.
 Multiple users in the system might have
different views of the system. Each view
might contain only the data of interest to a
user or group of users.
4. Sharing of data and multiuser system
 Current database systems are designed for
multiple users. That is, they allow many
users to access the same database at the
same time.
 This access is achieved through features
called concurrency control strategies. These
strategies ensure that the data accessed are
always correct and that data integrity is
maintained.
5. Control of Data Redundancy
 In the database approach, ideally, each data
item is stored in only one place in the
database.
 In some cases, data redundancy still exists
to improve system performance, but such
redundancy is controlled by application
programming and kept to minimum by
introducing as little redundancy as possible
when designing the database.
6. Data Sharing
 The integration of all the data, for an
organization, within a database system has
many advantages:
o Allows for data sharing among
employees and others who have access
to the system.
o Gives users the ability to generate more
information from a given amount of
data than would be possible without
the integration.
7. Enforcement of integrity constraints
 Database constraint – a restriction or rule
that dictates what can be entered or edited
in a table.
 Data uniqueness
o Such as the primary key
o Ensures that no duplicates are entered.
o Constraints can be simple (field based)
or complex (programming).
Advantages
1. Restriction of unauthorized access
 Not all users of a database system will have
the same accessing privileges.
o Read-only
o Read and write
2. Data independence
 The system data descriptions or data
describing data (metadata) are separated
from the application programs.
 This is possible because changes to the data
structure are handled by the database
management system and are not
embedded in the program itself.
3. Transaction Processing
 A database management system must
include concurrency control subsystems.
This feature ensures that data remains
consistent and valid during transaction
processing even if several users update the
same information.
4. Provision for multiple views of data
 A DBMS permits many users to have access
to its database either individually or
simultaneously. It is not important for users
 to be aware of how and where the data
they access is stored.
5. Backup and Recovery facilities
 Methods that allow you to protect your
data from loss.
 The database system provides a separate
process, from that of a network backup, for
backing up and recovering data.
 If a hard drive fails and the database stored
on the hard drive is not accessible, the only
way to recover the database is from a
backup.
 If a computer system fails in the middle of a
complex update process, the recovery
subsystem is responsible for making sure
that the database is restored to its original
state.
Key Terms:
concurrency control strategies: features of a
database that allow several users access to the
same data item at the same time
data type: determines the sort of data permitted in
a field, for example numbers only
data uniqueness: ensures that no duplicates are
entered
database constraint: a restriction that determines
what is allowed to be entered or edited in a table
metadata: defines and describes the data and
relationships between tables in the database
read and write privileges: the ability to both read
and modify a file
read-only access: the ability to read a file but not
make changes
self-describing: a database system is referred to as
self-describing because it not only contains the
database itself, but also metadata which defines
and describes the data and relationships between
tables in the database
view: a subset of the database
James F. Courtney and David B. Paradice's
Database Systems for Management: "Chapter 1:
Introduction to Database Systems"
Data management/information management
 Task of managing organizational data and data
processing functions.
Databases
 Where data resources of an organization are
usually stored.
Database systems
 Integrated collections of databases along with
users who share the databases, personnel who
design and manage databases, techniques for
designing and managing databases, and
computer systems to support them.
 The main goal of database systems is to provide
managers with information so that they can
make effective decisions about how to run the
organization.
Data
 Numbers, words, names, and other symbols
that can be stored in a computer system.
Information
 Useful data
Elements of Database Systems
1. People
 Can be divided into two groups:
o Those who use information provided by
the system
o Those who design, develop, and manage the
system itself
Database administrators
 People responsible for the design,
development, and administration of
database systems.
Information analysts/Database
analysts
 Personnel responsible for developing
database systems.
 Information analysts work closely
with users of information to
carefully define information
requirements and to structure
these requirements into a logical
form.
 Database analysts use database
technology to design systems
satisfying those requirements.
2. Computer Hardware and Software
  Form the technological foundation fo
database systems.
 Can be separated into two groups:
o Applications software
o Database Management Systems
(DBMS) – commercial software
packages designed to provide the basis
for building database systems.
3. Databases
 The integrated database is defined in the
schema, which describes all the data items
and relationships in the entire database.
 Each programmer's individual view of the
database is defined in a subschema.
 A database is an integrated collection of
shared files.
4. Database Planning and Design Techniques
 The first step in converting to a database
approach should be the development of
o A master plan that specifies in general
terms the various applications and
databases to be included in the overall
system
o A schedule for detailed design and
implementation of these applications
and databases.
 Detailed database design consists of three
major phases:
o Information requirements analysis is
work done with users to define
information needs.
o Logical design is the development of
schema and subschema definitions.
o Physical design establishes exactly how
the data will be organized and stored
on the storage devices.
Database Systems and other Organizational
Information systems
 Transaction processing systems form the
bottom of the pyramid and are the lifeblood
systems of the organization because they
support the processing of "production" data--
for example, for inventory maintenance,
accounts receivable and payable, and other
accounting functions.
 Management information systems are in the
middle of the pyramid and are used primarily by
Middle management to control the
organization. These systems derive much of
their information by summarizing and
abstracting data from transaction processing
systems. They tend to be report oriented;
standard reports are produced periodically
(weekly, monthly, or annually) for use by middle
managers to support tasks such as budget
decisions and personnel assignments.
 Decision support systems are designed to
provide information for managerial decision
making in cases where the decision is not
clear-cut (ill-structured or semi-structured
in DSS jargon).
Effective Systems and Efficient Systems
 Effective systems provide correct, current
information that is relevant to the decision at
hand.
 Efficient systems, on the other hand, perform a
task in a cost-effective manner
Objectives of Database Systems
1. Access Flexibility
 Allows for easy retrieval of selected items in
a database and presentation of that data in
a variety of formats.
 Query language – designed to perform
tasks with a few simple commands.
 Structured Query Language (SQL) –
standard query language for relational
database systems.
 Data manipulation language (DML) –
commands that may be embedded in
application programs to add, retrieve, or
change data values.
 Report generators – languages designed to
create printed reports.
 Screen generators – help analysts write
routines to create forms on a terminal
screen.
2. Data Integrity
 Ensures that data values are correct,
consistent, and current.
3. Data security
 Protect data from unauthorized access and
from accidental or intentional damage or
destruction.
 Recovery is the process of using logs and
backup copies to recreate a damaged
database.
 Other security facilities include passwords
for individual users that allow different
types of access to the database (for
example, read only or read and write), and
passwords for databases, data records, and
even individual data items.
4. Data Independence and the ANSI/SPARC
Model
 Has two dimensions:
o Logical data independence
o Physical data independence
 American National Standards
Institute/Standards Planning and
Requirements Committee (ANSI/SPARC) –
three-level architecture of database
systems:
o External level
 Uppermost level in the architecture
 Closest to the users of the system
and refers to the way users view
the data – printed reports, forms,
or other documents.
 User view – data as thought of by
an individual user or group of users
with similar needs
o Conceptual level
 Middle level in the architecture
 Represents the union of all the user
views at the external level.
 An integrated view or schema of
the entire database
 At this level, the representation of
data still reflects human views of
data.
 The database at this level is
described in a logical schema.
o Internal level/physical level
 Actual representation of data
within the computer system and
the methods used to access the
data.
 Specifies how the data are
represented physically in the
storage devices of the machine.
 In a system with physical data
independence, the conceptual level schema
is independent of changes in the internal or
physical level; that is, the way the data are
actually stored or accessed in the system
can be changed without requiring a change
in the logical schema. The database
management system is responsible for
insulating the conceptual level from
changes in the physical level by providing
means of translating physical
representations into conceptual
representations.
 In a system with logical data independence,
the external level is independent of changes
to the conceptual level. One user may wish
to change or add a user view, which
changes the conceptual level, but this
should have no impact on other users and
their views.
5. Reduced Data Redundancy
 Data redundancy is storage of the same
piece of data in more than one place in the
computer system.
 Data redundancy leads to:
o Problems of data integrity – because
the same data are duplicated in several
places, it must be changed in each place
it occurs; otherwise inconsistent data
values will arise.
o Processing inefficiencies – updating the
same data requires extra processing
time.
 Two approaches to reduce data
redundancy:
o Data Structure Diagram/Bachman
Diagram
 Pointers – “point to” associated
records in other files.
o Relational Model – data elements are
shown in tables called relations.
6. Data Shareability
 Allows different users or user groups to use the
same (non-redundant) data.
7. Data Relatability
 Ability to establish logical relationships
between different types of records, usually
in different files.
8. Standardization
 Refers to the need for common definitions
of data items, in terms of both the precise
definition of a data item name and its
storage format in the database.
 Most database management systems
provide a data dictionary facility to define
data item names and to state the internal
storage format of the data items in the
database.
 Synonyms/aliases – when more than one
name is used to refer to the same data
item.
9. Personnel Productivity
 The modification of existing programs to
satisfy changing information requirements
is referred to as program maintenance.

Disadvantages of the Database Approach
 Database approach is expensive at first.
 Multi-user packages are complex and often
have extensive memory requirements.
 Additional costs arise because database
programming may be more complex than file-
oriented programming.
The User’s View
 Database systems exist to support the needs of
information users. The needs of users are thus
paramount in the development of an effective
system. Different users of a database system
have different needs and different perspectives
on the system and the information and data it
provides.
 In an integrated database environment, it is
unusual for any one user to need access to
every item in the database. Thus the
perspective of users is often limited. The
primary concern of each user is to get the
information he or she needs. Information
analysts are concerned with ensuring that the
information requirements of users are satisfied.
Thus the objective of information analysts is to
provide an effective system—one that does the
right thing—by supplying the information
required to make decisions.
 Database analysts are concerned with designing
databases that provide the required
information efficiently. Effective, efficient
organizational information is best provided
through integrated, shared database systems.
In database management, the different
perspectives of users are referred to as user
views.
1.2 Database Environments
The Computer Revolution: "Database Models"
Database Models:
1. Hierarchical Databases
 Oldest database models.
o Developed out of the 1950's and 60's
Information Management Systems.
 Stores data in a series of records.
o These records have a set of field values
attached to them.
o All instances of a specific record are
collected together as a "record type".
oIt uses "Parent Child Relationships" to
create links between record types.
o It does this by using trees.
o However, it is only able to cope with
one tree. As well, there can only be one
parent per child, and no relationships
among the child records are possible.
 Has a very structured form.
o Allows no links between layers in
different branches of the tree.
o It is easy to use for adding, updating
and deleting records.
 Advantages of the database:
o it is easy to design
o it is cheap to maintain
o it is easy to use
o as all data are stored in a common
database, it implies data sharing and
security can be enforced
o a certain degree of data independence
can be maintained
 Shortcomings of the database:
o The hierarchical database is inflexible to
information.
o Relationships are difficult to implement
in a hierarchical model.
o Extensive programming activities
required. Navigation inside the tree is
complicated.
o Difficult to solve the problem of single
child with multiple parents
o Difficult to navigate through: with the
exception of the root record, all records
have to be accessed through the
parent.
o Alteration of data is difficult due to
rules governing the relationship of
records.
o It is simple and cannot perform many-
to-many correspondence.
2. Network Databases
 Types of networks:
o Wide area Network (WAN): a
communication network that covers a
wide geographical area. i.e. long
distance telephone companies
o Metropolitan Area Network (MAN): a
communication network that covers a
city or suburb. i.e. local telephone
companies and many cell phone
companies
 o Local Area Network (LAN): connects
computers and devices in a limited
geographic area. i.e. universities
o Home Area Network (HAN): wired
cable or wireless networks. i.e.
computers, printers, VCR, TV, home
security systems.
o Personal Area Network (PAN): slightly
different from HAN, because it doesn't
use wires, it uses short range wireless
technology. i.e. cell phones, PDA's, MP3
players, bluetooth.
 Charles Bachman invented the network
database model.
 Very similar to the hierarchical model.
o Instead of using a single-parent tree
hierarchy, the network model uses set
theory to provide a tree-like hierarchy
with the exception that the child tables
were allowed to have more than one
parent.
o Allowed the network database model to
support many relationships.
 The look is more like several trees that
share branches.
o Children can have multiple parents and
parents can have multiple children.
 Benefits of Network Database Model:
o General Services
o Research Service
o Technology Services
3. Relational Database Model
 Relational database
o A database system in which any
database file can be a component of
more than one of the database's tables.
o A database system in which the
database is organized and accessed
according to the relationships between
data items without the need for any
consideration of physical orientation
and relationship.
 Relationships between data items
are expressed by means of tables.
 A database that maintains a set of separate,
related files (tables), but combines data
elements from the files for queries and
reports when required.
 Concept was developed in 1970 by Edgar
Codd, whose objective was to
accommodate a user's ad hoc request for
selected data.
 Most every business database management
system (DBMS), including Oracle, DB2, SQL
Server, MySQL, etc., is a relational DBMS
(RDBMS)
 Properties of Relational Databases:
o Values are atomic
 Columns in a relational table are
not repeating groups, this property
ultimately simplifies data
manipulation logic.
o Each column and row has a unique
name
 The columns and rows are not
distinctive by position and
therefore they must have a name
which is distinct from the rest of the
table in order to identify them.
o Each row is unique
 No two rows are identical which
ensures that every row has
significance without duplication.
o The sequence of columns and rows is
insignificant
 This allows the information in the
table to be retrieved with ease and
without and disruption to the data
within the table. A
 Allows many more users of the
table because the data is not
confined to one format and is not
changed when information is added
or removed.
o Column values are of the same kind
 Each value within a specific column
holds the same type of information
and is of the same units as all the
other data in the chart.
 Keys
o The tool to unlock access to tables.
Knowledge of the key enables us to
locate specific records, and cross the
relationships between tables.
o Certain fields may be designated as
keys, which means that searches for
specific values of that field will use
indexing.
o Candidate key
 Any field, or combination of fields,
that uniquely identifies a record.
The field/s of the candidate key
 must contain unique values (if the
values were duplicated, they would
be no longer identify unique
records), and cannot contain a null
value.
o Primary key
 The candidate key that has been
chosen to identify unique records
in a particular table.
o Foreign key
 Reference to a key in another
table. A relationship between two
tables is created by creating a
common field to the two tables.
 Allow us to ensure what is called
"referential integrity". This means a
foreign key that contains a value
must refer to an existing record in
the related table.
4. Object-Oriented Database
 General
o Object-oriented database
 "Uses 'objects,' software written in
small, reusable chunks, as elements
within database files"
 Multimedia Database
o Uses multiple forms of information
content and information processing
(e.g. text, audio, graphics, animation,
video, interactivity).
Can store more types of data than a
relational database.
 Hypertext Database
o Any object, whether it be a piece of
text, a picture, or a film, can be linked
to any other object.
o Useful for organizing large amounts of
disparate information, but they are not
designed for numerical analysis.cc
5. Hypermedia Database
 Allow media files to be queried and used as
a tool to develop an understanding of your
originally searched question.
 The goal of a hypermedia data base is to
minimize error while saving space; obtained
by linking to files via 'tags' or searchable
text, then upon entry into the link (after a
search is completed) the files format
program is ran.
6. Object-relational
 An object-oriented database uses software
where little chunks are written within the
database files.
 An object has two parts:
o data that could be audio, video or
graphics
o instructions on what action to be taken
on the data.
 Object-oriented database has the capability
to handle from small files to very large files
of information. It is easy to read and more
efficient when it comes to managing a lot of
data.
 Virtual object database
7. Multidimensional Database
 View data as multidimensional cubes that
are particularly well suited for data analysis.
 Multidimensional models categorize data
either as facts with associated numerical
measures or as textual dimensions that
characterize the facts.
 Multidimensional data models have three
important application areas within data
analysis:
o Data warehouses are large repositories
that integrate data from several sources
in an enterprise for analysis.
o Online analytical processing (OLAP)
systems provide fast answers for
queries that aggregate large amounts of
detail data to find overall trends.
o Data mining applications seek to
discover knowledge by searching
semiautomatically for previously
unknown patterns and relationships in
multidimensional databases.
 When is a Multidimensional Database used?
o If you have a large volume of data
and/or categories and complex
relationships between them
8. Hybrid Database Model
 A combination of two or more database
types and models.
 An emerging type of hybrid database is the
hybrid XML/relational database, which is a
type of database that can store and receive
both XML and relational data. Both of the
types of data can be accessed via quires and
the databases can work together in a single
application.
Databases and the Web
 How web databases work?
 o First a user visits a site and fills out a query
box, i.e. a search box, and follows through
with an "enter" or click to submit the query.
o Next once the query is submitted the web
server converts the information submitted
by the user into a database query which
gets sent to a database server for
processing.
o Lastly the database server looks up the
query and sends back results to the query
to the web sever or middleware, which is
software that ties a web server and a
database two separate applications, that
gets converted to HTML that can be
displayed back to the user.
Middleware
 Software used to connect two otherwise
separate applications, such as a Web server and
a database management system.
 Web database applications often use
middleware written as scripts or sections of
code written in a programming language; such
as Java, C, or Perl; that are executed by another
program.
 There are different types of scripts such as: CGI
scripts (common gateway interface), ASPs
(active server pages), and PHP scripts (PHP
hypertext preprocessor).
Micro-Targeting
 The use of analytical tools to identify groups of
voters to target during a political campaign.
Adirenne Watt and Nelson Eng's Database Design:
"Chapter 4: Types of Data Models" and "Chapter 5:
Data Modeling"
Types of Data Models:
1. High-Level Conceptual Data Models
 Provide concepts for presenting data in
ways that are close to the way people
perceive data.
 Example:
o Entity relationship model
 Uses main concepts like entities,
attributes and relationships.
 Entity – represents a real-world
object such as an employee or a
project.
 The entity has attributes that
represent properties such as an
employee’s name, address and
birthdate.
 Relationship – represents an
association among entities; for
example, an employee works on
many projects. A relationship exists
between the employee and each
project.
2. Record-based Logical Data Models
 Provide concepts users can understand but
are not too far from the way data is stored
in the computer.
 Types:
o Relational model
 Represents data as relations
o Network model
 Represents data as record types
 Represents a limited type of one to
many relationship called a set type
o Hierarchical model
 Represents data as a hierarchical
tree structure
 Each branch of the hierarchy
represents a number of related
records
Key Terms:
hierarchical model: represents data as a
hierarchical tree structure
instance: a record within a table
network model: represents data as record types
relation: another term for table
relational model: represents data as relations or
tables
set type: a limited type of one to many relationship
Data Modelling
 Steps in the process of database design:
1. Data Modelling
o Considered to be a high-level and
abstract design phase, also referred to
as conceptual design.
o The aim of this phase is to describe:
 The data contained in the database
(e.g., entities: students, lecturers,
courses, subjects)
  The relationships between data
items (e.g., students are supervised
by lecturers; lecturers teach
courses)
 The constraints on data (e.g.,
student number has exactly eight
digits; a subject has four or six units
of credit only)
2. The data items, the relationships and the
constraints are all expressed using the
concepts provided by the high-level data
model.
3. Database Design
o Two sub-steps:
 Database logical design – defines a
database in a data model of a
specific DBMS.
 Database physical design – which
defines the internal database
storage structure, file organization
or indexing techniques.
o These two sub-steps are database
implementation and operations/user
interfaces building steps.
Data Model
 Collection of concepts or notations for
describing data, data relationships, data
semantics and data constraints.
 Most data models also include a set of basic
operations for manipulating data in the
database.
Degrees of Data Abstraction
 Models in order of decreasing level of
abstraction:
o External models
 Represent the user’s view of the
database
 Contain multiple different external
views
 Are closely related to the real world as
perceived by each user
o Conceptual models
 Provide flexible data-structuring
capabilities
 Present a “community view”: the logical
structure of the entire database
 Contain data stored in the database
 Show relationships among data
including:
- Constraints
- Semantic information (e.g., business
rules)
- Security and integrity information
 Consider a database as a collection of
entities (objects) of various kinds
 Are the basis for identification and high-
level description of main data objects;
they avoid details
 Are database independent regardless of
the database you will be using
o Internal models – the three best-known
models of this kind are the relational data
model, the network data model and the
hierarchical data model. These internal
models:
 Consider a database as a collection of
fixed-size records
 Are closer to the physical level or file
structure
 Are a representation of the database as
seen by the DBMS.
 Require the designer to match the
conceptual model’s characteristics and
constraints to those of the selected
implementation model
 Involve mapping the entities in the
conceptual model to the tables in the
relational model
o Physical models
 Are the physical representation of the
database
 Have the lowest level of abstractions
 Are how the data is stored; they deal
with
- Run-time performance
- Storage utilization and compression
- File organization and access methods
- Data encryption
 Are the physical level – managed by the
operating system (OS)
 Provide concepts that describe the
details of how data are stored in the
computer’s memory
Data Abstraction Layer
 External Model
o End user’s view of the data
o Requires that the designer subdivide a set
of requirements and constraints into
functional modules that can be examined
within the framework of their external
models (e.g., human resources versus
sales).
 Conceptual Model
o First model created
o Independent of both software and
hardware
 Internal Model
o Once a DBMS is selected, you can then
implement it.
o Here you create all the tables, constraints,
keys, rules, etc.
o Often referred to as the logical design
 Physical Model
o The way the data is stored on disk
Schemas
 Schema
o An overall description of a database
o Usually represented by the entity
relationship diagram (ERD)
 There are many subschemas that represent
external models and thus display external views
of the data.
 Below is a list of items to consider during the
design process of a database.
o External schemas: there are multiple
o Multiple subschemas: these display multiple
external views of the data
o Conceptual schema: there is only one. This
schema includes data items, relationships
and constraints, all represented in an ERD.
o Physical schema: there is only one
Logical and Physical Data Independence
 Data Independence
o The immunity of user applications to
changes made in the definition and
organization of data.
 Data abstractions expose only those items that
are important or pertinent to the user.
 Complexity is hidden from the database user.
 Data independence and operation
independence together form the feature of
data abstraction.
 There are two types of data independence:
o Logical data independence
 The ability to change the logical
schema, without changing the external
schema or user view
 Changes to the logical schema (e.g.,
alterations to the structureof the
database like adding a column or other
tables) should not affect the function of
the application (external views).
 Logical schema – conceptual design of
the database done on paper or a
whiteboard
o Physical data independence
 The immunity of the internal model to
changes in the physical model
 The logical schema stays unchanged
even though changes are made to file
organization or storage structures,
storage devices or indexing strategy.
 Physical data independence deals with
hiding the details of the storage
structure from user applications.
Key Terms:
conceptual model: the logical structure of the
entire database
conceptual schema: another term for logical
schema
data independence: the immunity of user
applications to changes made in the definition and
organization of data
data model: a collection of concepts or notations
for describing data, data relationships, data
semantics and data constraints
data modelling: the first step in the process of
database design
database logical design: defines a database in a
data model of a specific database management
system
database physical design: defines the internal
database storage structure, file organization or
indexing techniques
entity relationship diagram (ERD): a data model
describing the database showing tables, attributes
and relationships
external model: represents the user’s view of the
database
external schema: user view
internal model: a representation of the database as
seen by the DBMS
logical data independence: the ability to change
the logical schema without changing the external
schema
logical design: where you create all the tables,
constraints, keys, rules, etc.
logical schema: a conceptual design of the database
done on paper or a whiteboard, much like
architectural drawings for a house
operating system (OS): manages the physical level
of the physical model
physical data independence: the immunity of the
internal model to changes in the physical model
physical model: the physical representation of the
database
schema: an overall description of a database
James F. Courtney and David B. Paradice's
Database Systems for Management: "Chapter 2:
Elements of Database Systems"
“Effective” System
 A system that "does the right thing" by
providing the information necessary to run the
organization.
Structure
 Parts of a system and how these parts interact.
Module
 Describe a major element of the overall
database system, not to a piece of
programming code.
Database System Master Plan
 Lays out the ultimate structure and contents of
the database system--and does so before work
begins on the system itself.
Entity
 Any object, tangible or intangible, about which
the organization wishes to store data.
 Have attributes, such as name, color, and price.
Navigation Path
 Arrows pointing left or right to indicate the
route.
Pointers
 Arrows in databases indicating where the
program should look on the system's storage
devices to find certain records.
THE DATABASE SYSTEM MASTER PLAN
 Contents of the database system master plan
should include a statement of organizational
goals and objectives, an organization chart,
entity diagrams showing the major relationships
among entities in the enterprise, modules or
subsystems to be implemented as part of the
database system, the costs and benefits
expected to be associated with the system, and
a schedule for implementing each module.
1. Organizational Goals and Objectives
 Two aspects of the organizational
environment should be considered in the
master plan:
o Organizational goals and objectives
o The manner in which the enterprise is
structured
 Organizational goals and objectives are
important to database system design; many
critical information needs may be derived
from them.
 When possible, goals and objectives should
be stated in numeric terms, so that progress
toward those goals can be measured.
Instead of saying that the goal is to increase
sales, for example, one might say that the
goal is to increase sales by 10 percent.
 The database system should assist
managers of the organization in measuring
the level of goal attainment and in steering
the organization toward its goals.
 Thus the database system master plan
should begin with a brief statement of
organizational goals and objectives and how
the database system will measure progress
toward goals.
2. Organizational Structure
 Second feature of the organizational
environment that should be included in the
master plan.
 It is important to consider the structure of
the organization because the database
system will surely be required to support
the flow of information between various
units or divisions of the enterprise.
 The information flow usually follows
organizational channels between superior
and subordinate units.
 For this reason, the database system is said
to be "superimposed" on the structure of
the organization. It is convenient to include
an organizational chart and a brief
description of the function of each of the
 organizational units in the database system
master plan.
3. Entity Charts
 Entities and their relationships are initially
defined by working with users, who must be
able to specify their information needs.
 Represent the major entities and
relationships among them to give an overall
view of the database structure.
 Relationships in the diagram are of three
types:
o One-to-one (abbreviated 1:1)
relationship
 One instance of an entity of a given
type is associated with only one
member of another type
 Single-headed arrows are used to
represent a "one" relationship in
the direction of the arrow.
o One-to-many (1:M) relationship
 One instance of a given type of
entity is related to many instances
of another type.
 Double-headed arrows are used to
represent "many" relationships.
o Many-to-many (M:M) relationship
 Many entities of one type are
associated with many instances of
another type.
4. Entity Groups, Database System Modules, and
Schedules
 The master plan should describe the major
pieces or modules of the system to be
developed, how these modules will fit
together into an integrated structure, and a
schedule for detailed design and
development of each module.
 It may be possible to define these modules
based on the number and strength of the
relationships in the entity diagram.
5. Cost and Benefits
 Management of the organization should,
and probably will, view the development of
a database system as an investment that
must pay for itself; that is, the benefits
derived from using information provided by
the system must outweigh the cost of
developing it.
 The organization must have a realistic
picture of the anticipated cost to make sure
that funds are available to develop and
operate the system.
 It must also ensure that anticipated benefits
outweigh these costs.
 The value of benefits of database systems is
much more difficult to estimate than costs.
Techniques and Procedures in a Database
Environment
 Database Design Techniques
o The process of database design consists of
three major phases:
 An information-requirements analysis
phase
 A logical design phase
 Physical design phase.
 Information-Requirements Analysis and User
Views
o Information-requirements analysis
 Involves working with users to define
their information needs in detail.
 Concerned with information as users
see it; that is, information is viewed in
terms of the way it appears in
documents, on terminal screens, or
even in images in the user's mind.
 Representations of information and
data at this level are referred to as
"user views."
 Information-requirements analysis is
the first and most important phase of
the database design process. It is the
most important phase because the
ultimate effectiveness of the system
depends on how accurately the
information requirements and user
views are specified initially.
 Specifications of user information
requirements feed the entire design
process and determine the ultimate
form and content of the database
system.
 Poor specifications result in a system
that does not satisfy user needs and
may lead to costly redesign, or even to
cancellation of the project.
 Logical Design
o Once the various views have been defined
and specifications developed, they must be
coordinated and organized into an
integrated, cohesive system. This process is
referred to as logical design.
o Consists of three steps:
 Developing a data model for each user
view
  Integrating the entities, attributes, and
relationships into a composite logical
schema that describes the database for
that module in terms unrelated to the
software package being used
 Transforming the logical schema into a
software schema expressed in the
language of the chosen database
management package.
 Physical Design
o The last step of the database design
process.
o Involves converting the software schema
into a form implementable with the
organization's particular hardware,
operating system, and database
management system.
o Involves designing navigation paths,
deciding which records to place in nearby
portions of the storage devices,
determining the size of physical records on
storage devices and buffer areas in main
memory to hold records, and implementing
integrity and security requirements.
Other Database Techniques and Procedures
 Many other procedures and techniques in
addition to those for database design exist in a
database environment. These include
procedures for analyzing, implementing, and
operating systems, designing and documenting
programs, and training users.
 Among the tasks involving these procedures are
collecting data to be entered into the system,
performing manual edit checks to ensure the
integrity of the data before it is entered,
actually entering data, running programs
necessary to update the database and generate
reports from it, logging changes to the
databases, making backup copies of the
database so that it can be reconstructed if
accidentally damaged or destroyed, and
assuring that security procedures are followed.
Databases
 Integrated, shared collections of files.
 Databases are stored physically on the storage
devices of the organization's computer system.
The way the data is organized and stored on
these devices is referred to as its physical
organization.
 People think of data in terms of its logical
organization.
o Relational approach
 Describes databases using tables with
special characteristics
o Relations
 Tables
Software
 Three different kinds of software involved in
most database systems:
o Database management packages
o Operating systems
o Applications programs
 Applications programs gain access to the
database through the database management
system. Most database management packages
use the basic access methods of the host
operating system to perform the necessary
input-output operations on the data files
themselves (some packages support their own
access methods).
Database Management Systems
 Minimum components:
o Data dictionary for cataloging all the data
items in the system
o Data definition language for further
describing the software schema and user
views
o One or more query languages suitable for
end-users as well as programmers
o Data manipulation language for use by
programmers
o Report generator language for efficient
programming of management reports
o Features to support data integrity, security,
privacy, and recovery
 Data Dictionary
o Used to maintain standard definitions of all
data items within the scope of the database
system.
o The purpose of the data dictionary is to
enforce standard definitions of the data
resources of the organization.
 Definitions include a precise description
of the meaning of a data item name and
a precise description of how values of
each data item are stored in the
computer system.
o Functions of a good data dictionary include:
 Maintaining standard user definitions of
the precise meaning of data items and
standard computer definitions giving
formats and data types
  Maintaining cross-reference lists of data report generators. In many cases, these
items used by applications programs features make the programming much easier
and applications programs using a given than with the conventional file approach.
data item
 Providing standard definitions of data Hardware
items to applications programs when
requested to do so.
o Passive dictionaries simply maintain user
and computer definitions of data items.
o Active dictionaries include an interface to
applications programs to support features
such as generating record and field (data
item) descriptions for application programs.
 Data Definition Languages
o Used to translate the logical schema into a
software schema for the database
management package in use.
o Two languages defined by CODASYL
committees:
 The schema DDL for specifying the
composite schema
 The subschema DDL for specifying user
views or data subsets of the schema
o Structured Query Language (SQL)
 Adopted as the industry standard for
relational languages.
 Many relational packages use SQL,
which has features for describing the
relations of a relational database.
 Query Languages
o Designed to give end-users direct access to
the database.
o One type of fourth-generation language
(4GL).
 First generation is machine (binary)
language
 The second is assembly language
 The third is programming languages
such as C++, SQL, JAVA, or VISUALBASIC

Database Applications Software

 The major difference between database
applications software and conventional
applications software is the use of special
statements for data insertion, removal,
retrieval, and modification in database systems.
These data manipulation commands are usually
embedded in a host language such as JAVA or
C++.
 Other differences in database programming and
conventional programming in high-level
languages include different ways of describing
data and data relationships, and the use of