European aviation 1 SAFETY PRECAUTIONS Aircraft, by their very nature and design, make for a dangerous working environment. The danger is further increased by the wide variety of machines, tools and materials required to support and maintain aircraft. Personal safety starts with being appropriately dressed for the work being undertaken, combined with the correct use of eye and ear protection whenever necessary. Technicians should only operate equipment with which they are familiar and which they can operate safely, Hand tools should be kept in good working order. Good ‘housekeeping’ in workshops, hangars, and on fight line ramps is essential to ‘safe and efficient maintenance. Pedestrian and fire lanes should be clearly marked and NEVER obstructed. They should always be used to keep non-technical personnel clear from the work area, Any spillage of oils, greases and fuels should be immediately covered with absorbent material and cleaned up, to prevent fire or injury. Spillage should be prevented, from running into floor drains. 44 FIRE 4.4.4 The ‘Fire Triangle! Fire results from the chemical reaction that occurs when oxygen combines rapidly with fuel to produce heat, (and light). Three essentials of this process form the ‘Fire Triangle" (refer to Fig. 1). Figure 1.6: The fire triangle As can be seen, a fire requires three components to bum, and the removal of any one of these components will extinguish the fire. The requirements of the three components, forming the ‘Fire Triangle’, are: * Fuel a combustible material, which may be a solid, liquid or gas Oxygen: in sufficient volume to support the process of combustion «Heat: of sufficient intensity to raise the temperature of the fuel to its ignition (or kindling) point. Page 4European aviation 1.4.2Classes of Fire There are, generally, four ciasses of fires, each determined by the type of material that is being burned. In alphabetical, order the classes of fire are: * Class A: often known as solid fires, which occur in materials such as paper, wood, textiles and general rubbish. * Class B: often described as liquid fires, and include fires in materials such as internal combustion engine fuels, alcohol, oils, greases and oil-based paints * Class C: include fires involving flammable gases and electrical fires (which can occur in fuse boxes, switches, appliances, motors and generators). © Class D: refer to fires of high intensity, which may occur in such metals as magnesium, potassium, sodium, titanium and zirconium. The greatest hazard in these materials, is when they are either in liquid (molten) form, or in finely divided forms such as dust, chippings, turnings or shavings. Class E — involved electrical apparatus Class F ~cooking oil and fat, etc 1.1.3 Fire Extinguishants and their Uses The methods of extinguishing fires have led to the development of several types of ‘extinguishants to cater for different types of fire. These methods include: * Cooling the fuel «Excluding the oxygen * Separating the fuel from the oxygen The materials, used as general ‘domestic and commercial extinguishants, differ from those used in aircraft Fire Protection systems and, while the aircraft systems are discussed in other Modules of this course, consideration is given here only to the extinguishants and extinguishers which conform to the EN3 Standard fire extinguisher code. The materials used in these extinguishers are: + Water (Water/Gas) Aqueous Film-Forming Foam (AFFF) Carbon Dioxide (CO;) Halon /BCF Dry Powder Applying the incorrect extinguishant to a fire can do more harm than good and may, actually, be dangerous. It is, therefore, important that extinguishers are well marked for quick identification in an emergency. It is also vital that all personnel are aware of the markings, which appear on extinguishers, so that the correct one is chosen to deal with a specific fire Table 1 shows how the EN3 Standard fire extinguisher code has replaced the older Standard, whereby the extinguisher containers were colour-coded all over to signify their contents, The EN3 Standard has the bodies of every fire extinguisher coloured red all over, with an identifying band of colour, separated by white lines, identifying the extinguishant contained in the extinguisher. Page 2European aviation Table 1 FIRE EXTINGUISHER IDENTIFICATION AND USES EN3 Standard Extinguishers (All-red Container) Extinguishant Band Colour ‘Types of Fire Water Red Solids only, but NOT Electrical NOR (Water/Gas) Flammable Liquids ‘Aqueous Film-Forming Foam | Cream Oil, Fats, Paint, Petrol, and Solids, (AFFF) but NOT safe on Electrical fires Carbon Dioxide Black | Gases, Electrical, Flammable Liquids (COs) and Solids but NOT Burning Metals Dry Powder Blue Burning Metals, Flammable Liquids, and Electrical (< 1000 V, »1 m) fires From Table 1 it can be seen that Water or Water/Gas extinguishers are ONLY to be used on fires involving burning solids (Class A fires). Water could also cause liquid fires to spread and, obviously, using water on electrical equipment could have lethal results, so these extinguishers must NOT be used on Class B NOR on Class C fires. Water should, also, NOT be used on burning metal (Class D) fires, as the oxygen, in the water, will cause the fires to bun more fiercely and its use could lead to violent explosions. Aqueous Film-Forming Foam (AFFF) is best suited for Class B fires, due to its smothering and cooling action and to the fact that ts finer particles will not cause the fire to spread, AFFF extinguishers can also be used on Class A fires (though its cooling action is not as effective as the water extinguishers), but, because Foam does contain water, AFFF extinguishers are considered to be NOT safe on electrical fires where high voltages are encountered. Carbon Dioxide (CO.) is the ‘universal’ fire extinguisher and, being non-corrosive, non- conductive, and leaving no residue, it is suitable for almost ail types of fire. CO2 extinguishers must NOT, however, be used on Class D fires, as the extinguishant reduces the temperature very quickly, which (in a similar way to the use of water extinguishers) could cause serious explosions. Due to the fact that CO; gas tends to dissipate quickly, the extinguisher is provided with a horn device, which helps to concentrate the CO: at the site of the fire. This horn must NOT be held with bare hands, as the intense cold of the released CO) will freeze the skin to the horn, resulting in severe injury to the hands. A rubber, insulated coating is provided on the discharge tube and the CO; must be directed towards the fire by grasping and manipulating the insulated tube. Halon/BCF - for all fires. It discharges as a semi-toxic gas. It is not corrosive, although corrosive acids are formed if the gas comes into contact with water. It is a halogenated hydrocarbon commonly called halon 1211, BCF (Bromochiorodifluoromethane) and BTM (Bromotrifluoromethane). BCF is used in aircraft engine fixed and portable systems, whilst BTM is used in fixed systems in cargo holds. Dry Powder is another extinguishant which is suitable for most classes of fire, and, in particular, those involving burning metals (aircraft wheel brake fires). It is, however, limited in its use on electrical fires, as the powder particles are capable of conducting high voltages (in excess of 1000 V) and, possibly, lesser voltages if they are used at distances of less than 1 metre from electrical fies. Dry Powder (in a similar way to Foam), leaves a messy residue after its use, which could present a problem to electrical contacts and circuitry. Page 3European aviation Note: It is possible that the older Standard ‘Halon’ fire extinguishants (in green-coloured containers) may be found at many indoor locations. Unfortunately, while Halons (Halogenated Hydrocarbons) are extremely effective as extinguishants of virtually every Class of fire, itis felt that they contribute to the depletion of the ozone layer surrounding Earth and, So, they are being phased out of use. Buckets of dry sand may also be placed at the FIRE POINT in workshops (and especially in hangars) as an additional aid to fire fighting. 4.2. FIRSTAID Ithas been previously discussed that, when working indoors, whether itis in an office, a workshop or a hangar, there will be fixed points where firefighting equipment is available. Similarly, there will be First Aid points where emergency kits, eye washing ‘equipment and call bells are installed and there will be trained First Aid personnel to assist in the treatment of injuries. It is the responsibility of every person at work to know: +The location of the First Aid Points + The methods of calling for help + The locations of alarm bells, and the sitting of appropriate telephones which may be used to summon help in an emergency + The identty of the trained First Aid personnel in their vicinity In the eventof an injury (however slight), itis important that the injured person, or the attending First Alder, should complete an entry in the Accident Book, which is usually kept near the First Aid Point. 1.3 WORKSHOP AND HANGAR SAFETY ‘When working in @ workshop or in any hangar, there are a number of safety precautions that must be followed, if injury (or death) is to be avoided 4.3.1 Machinery ‘A machine can be defined as an ‘apparatus for applying power, having fixed and moving patts, each having a definite function’. In particular, machines embrace: + Operational Parts - performing the principal output function (Chucks or Bits) + Non-Operational Parts - conveying power or motion (Motor Drives). The wide range of machinery, available in workshops and hangars, precludes giving specific rules and regulations for each machine. The basic driling, grinding and milling types of machine, all require the use of eye protection, attachment of guards, secure holding of work and, most importantly, correct training before being operated Possible accidents from machinery, in general, include personnel * Coming into contact with the machinery Being trapped between machinery and material Being struck by machinery or being entangled in its motion Being struck by ejected parts or material Receiving electric shocks from the machinery Page 4European aviation 1.3.2Electricity ‘The human body conducts electricity. Furthermore, electrical current, passing through the body, disrupts the nervous system and causes bums at the entry and exit points. The current, used in domestic 220-240 volt, SOHz ac electricity, is particularly dangerous because it affects nerves in such a way that a person, holding @ current- carrying conductor, is unable to release it Table 2 shows some typical harmful values and effects of both ac and dc electricity supplies Table 2 HARMFUL VALUES OF ELECTRICITY Voltage/Current Possible Outcome ‘60V ac or 100V de_[ May give rise to dangerous shocks: mA Harmless tingle 1-12 mA Painful, but can be teleased 72 —20 mA Very painful, cannot be released. 20-50 mA. Paralysis of respiration > 50 mA Heart stoppage Since water also conducts electricity, great care must be taken to avoid handling electrical equipment of all kinds when standing on a wet surface or when wearing wet shoes. The water provides a path to earth and heightens the possibility of electric shock. To ensure that equipment is safe, the minimum requirement is through the use of three-core cable (which includes an earth lead) and, possibly, a safety cut-out device In conjunction, more often than not, with ignorance or carelessness, electrical hazards generally arise due to one or more of the following factors: Inadequate or non-existent earthing Worn or damaged wiring, insulation, plugs, sockets and other installations Bad wiring systems and the misuse of good systems. Incorrect use of fuses Inadequate inspection and maintenance of power tools and equipment All electrical equipment must be regularly checked and tested for correct operation and. electrical safety. To show that this has been done, a dated label should be attached, showing when the equipment was last tested and when the next inspection is due. Any new item of equipment must have a test label attached. The presence of a test, label does not, however, absolve the user from checking the equipment for any external signs of damage, such as a frayed power cord (or missing safety devices) before use. In the event of a person witnessing another person receiving an electric shock, the basic actions, to be followed by the witness, are’ ‘© Shout for help and ensure there is no danger of also becoming a victim Switch off the electrical current or remove the victim from the supply by means of insulated material « Ifthe victim has ceased breathing, initiate resuscitation + Call for professional medical help « Ifthe victim is suffering from burns, exclude air from wounds « Treat for shock by keeping the victim warm Page §European aviation 1.3.3Noise Workshops, hangars and flight lines can be very noisy places of work, so itis essential that ear defenders, or some other protection such as ear plugs, are used at all times that noise is perceived to be a risk. Loss of hearing, leading to deafness, can be the result of operating in a noisy environment without adequate ear protection. Ear protection is optional where noise levels are less than 85 dB, but is mandatory when greater than 90 dB. 1.3.4 High-Pressure Gases Compressed gases are frequently used in the maintenance and servicing of aircraft. The use of compressed gases requires a special set of safety measures. The following rules apply for the use of compressed gases * Cylinders of compressed gas must be handled in the same way as any high-energy (and therefore potentially explosive) sources * Eye protection must always be worn when handling compressed gases Never use a cylinder that cannot be positively identified When storing or moving a cylinder, have the cap securely in place to protect the valve stem © When large cylinders are moved, ensure that they are securely attached to the correct trolley or vehicle Use the appropriate regulator on each gas cylinder Never direct high-pressure gases at a person Do not use compressed gas or compressed air to blow away dust and dirt, as the resulting flying particles are dangerous * Release compressed gas slowly, The rapid release of a compressed gas will cause an unsecured gas hose to whip about and even build up a static charge, which could ignite a combustible gas © Keep gas cylinders clean. Oil or grease on an oxygen cylinder can cause spontaneous combustion and explosions 1.3.5 Gas Bottle Identification High-pressure gas cylinders contain various types of gas, the most common used on commercial aircraft being nitrogen and oxygen. To ensure cortect identification of these containers, they are colour coded and the name of the gas is stencilled on the side Standard cours for gase bottles: CO - grey, acetylene — maroon, oxigen — white, hydrogen- red, nytrogen — black NOTE: The oxigen bottle installed on the aircraft are grey coloured. 1.3.6 High-Pressure Gas Replenishing When replenishing aircraft services such as tyres and hydraulic accumulators with high- pressure gas, care must be taken to ensure that only the required pressure enters the container. When full, gas storage bottle can hold as much as 200 bar (3000 psi) whilst an aircraft tyre pressure may only require 7 bar (100 psi). Page 6European aviation To safely control the gas, two pressure regulating valves are used, one at the storage bottle end and one at the delivery end of the system. If one valve fails the other will prevent the receiving vessel from taking the full bottle pressure with the consequence of an explosion. For added safety the gas bottle valve opening key should be [eft in the valve whilst decanting operations are completed. If problems occur then the high-pressure bottle can be quickly isolated before the situation becomes dangerous The transfer of high-pressure gases from a large storage bottle to the aircraft component is often called decanting and must be done at a very slow rate. If the gas is decanted rapidly the temperature of the receiving component will increase in accordance with the gas laws. Again using the same gas laws the temperature of the gas in the container will drop to ambient, and the pressure in that vessel will reduce. The component pressure Will now be incorrect and require the decanting process to be repeated In workshops, compressed air is, sometimes, produced by a compressor (which is housed in a remote building), and fed, via galleries, to work stations. Care must be taken to ensure that no damage occurs to the piping whilst in use. If @ concentrated stream of compressed air is blown across a cut in a person's skin, then air can enter the blood stream and cause injury or death, For this reason, air- dusting guns are restricted to about 2000 kPa (30 psi). Alrerafttyres can require very high pressures and must be inflated inside a strong cage. This cage would protect the personnel working on the wheels in the event of a tyre or wheel bursting, 1.3.7 Oxygen Systems Modern aircraft fly at altitudes where life support systems are needed. Even though most of these aircraft are pressurised, emergency oxygen must be carried in the event that the pressurisation system fails. Smaller aircraft can carry oxygen in cylinders whilst the larger, civil aircraft have individual oxygen generator units. These units are stowed in the overhead cargo bins, above the passenger seats, and are known as the passenger service units or PSUs. A PSU produces oxygen, by means of a chemical reaction, and is activated when its mask (which drops from the overhead bin in an emergency) is pulled by a passenger. Note: When PSUs reach their life expiry and have to be returned to their manufacturer, it is vital that all precautions are followed to make the units ‘safe’ for transit. PSUs get very hot when working and have caused the destruction, due to fire, of an aircraft, which was carrying these units as cargo. The main oxygen systems are serviced from trolleys or vehicles that carry a number of high-pressure bottles of oxygen, which can be at 140 bar (2000 psi) or more. Some trolleys may also have a bottle of nitrogen, to allow the replenishment of hydraulic accumulators and landing gears. The two types of bottles must be separated, in order to prevent the accidental mixing of the gases. Page 7European aviation It is extremely important that oxygen cylinders be treated with special care, because, in addition to having all the dangers inherent with all other high-pressure gases, oxygen always possesses the risk of combustion and explosion. AS previously stated, oxygen must never be allowed to come into contact with petroleum products such as oil and grease, since oxygen causes these materials to ignite spontaneously and to burn, Furthermore, an ollsoaked rag, or tools that are olly of greasy (or badly oil-stained overalls), must never be used when installing an adapter of a regulator on an oxygen cylinder. Due to the risk of fire and explosion, replenishing trolleys must never be parked close to hydraulic oil replenishing rigs, or in any area where petroleum products are likely to come into contact with the oxygen servicing equipment Similarly only specially approved thread lubricants can be used when assembling oxygen components 1.3.8 Aviation Oils and Fuels Aviation oils, generally, are a fairly loverisk material when compared with the more volatile, higher distilates of petroleum such as the aviation fuels - petrol (gasoline) and paraffin (kerosene). Most lubricating oils are flammable, if enough heat is generated but, when the materials are kept away from excessive heat sources, they are (comparatively) quite benign. Synthetic lubricating oils, methanol and some hydraulic oils may be harmful or even toxic if their vapours are inhaled. Also, if they come into contact with the skin or eyes, they can cause injury of blindness. Particular note should be taken of any warnings of dangers to health that may be contained in the relevant maintenance manuals and the recommended procedures for the handling of these liquids should always be observed. Oils and fuels also have an adverse effect on paintwork, adhesives and sealants and, thus, may inhibit corrosion-prevention schemes. Care should, therefore, be taken not to spill any of these liquids but, if a spillage should occur, it must be cleaned up immediately. Note: Sweeping up gasoline spillage with a dry broom can cause a build up of static electricity, with the accompanying risk of explosion. With gasoline and kerosene there is a much greater chance of fire, so more thorough precautions are required. These start with the basic rules, such as not wearing footwear with nails or studs (to prevent sparks), not carrying matches or cigarette lighters and ensuring that ALL replenishing equipment is fully serviceable. 4.3.9 Chemical and Physiological Hazards The range of adhesives used for repair and sealing during the maintenance of aircraft is vast. A large number of these produce vapours which, generally, can be dangerous in any enclosed space, both from the results of inhalation of narcotic fumes and from the fire risk associated with those which give off volatile, flammable, vapours. Page 8European aviation Surface finishes present another area where the various types of material used (etchants, celluloses, acrylics, enamels, polyurethanes etc.), dictate specific precautions, The solvents used, before the actual painting and afterwards, need safety precautions with regards to ventilation, reaction with other materials and, most importantly, their possible corrosive, toxic, irritant and addictive effects on personnel. Some materials have a mildly radioactive property, although they emit little ionising radiation in normel circumstances. These materials are sometimes referred to as ‘heavy metals’ and can be found in balance-weights as well as in smoke detectors, luminescent ‘EXIT’ signs and instruments, This radiation differs from that used for non-destructive testing (NDT) procedures, where high levels of radiation are employed, by specially trained personnel, and which, therefore, require many safety precautions to avoid personal injury. The safety precautions for NDT procedures will be found within the manuals applicable to their employment. 4.3.10 Lifting and Shoring Aircraft must often be raised from the hanger floor for weighing, maintenance or repair. There are several methods of doing this, however, and the maintenance manuals must be followed, during whichever method is used. When jacking an aircraft asymmetrically, there is usually some movement by the other legs. Care must be shown, when jacking a single leg, that the aircraft is raised strictly in accordance with the maintenance manual. Other places where a larger jack may be connected to the airframe might be: * Under the wings, at the main spar position + Under the nose + Under the tail assembly + On the side of the front fuselage (in place of the nose jack) The location and operation of ALL jacks must be carried out both with great care and with the correct number of personnel, who must be well briefed. Most of the larger jacks have a screw-type, safety locking collar, to prevent the jack collapsing in the event of a sudden leak. The jack operator must ensure that these safety collars are gradually screwed down, as the aircraft is being raised, so that they are very close to the jack body at all times. ‘As an additional precaution, especially if the aircraft is to be worked on for an extended period, trestles or ‘steadies’ can be installed under the wings and fuselage to augment the jacks and also to provide an additional means of shoring (supporting) the aircraft 4.3.11 Slinging It can be necessary, on occasions, to lift either the major components of an aircraft, such as wing or tail assemblies or the complete aircraft (refer to Fig. 2). For example, when recovering an aircraft from an ‘overrun’, it may be easier, and safer, to lift the entire aircraft and place it onto a hard standing, than to try and pull it out of soft ground, using a tug or similar vehicle Page 9European aviation ‘When lifting either major components or an entire aircraft, the slings must be produced or approved by the manufacturer of the aircraft. The manufacturers slings ensure that the centre of gravity of the component, is aways directly beneath the lifting hook of the sling. Lifting an Aircraftwith Slings Fig. 2 4.4. FLIGHT-LINE SAFETY Many sources of accidents on the flight line are involved with propellers and rotor blades. They are difficult to see when they are tuming, and personnel (despite being familiar with the hazards of propellers and rotors), sometimes become distracted and forget about the danger. The main difference between these, and other flightline accidents, is that they are almost always fatal Most blades have high-visibility markings, to ensure that they can be seen when they afe turning. These markings vary from a yellow blade tip marking, to black and white alternate stripes along the full blade length To reduce the risk of propeller and rotor blade strikes, itis best to follow strict rules as to the correct way to approach and leave the vicinity of an aircraft or helicopter whilst it is under power. For example (and allowing for the fact that there are specific rules laid down for each aircraft), installing and removing chocks should normally be done from the wing-tip direction. Boarding and leaving a helicopter should always be done from the side. When dealing with running jet engines there are similar dangers. These come not only from the noise risk, which can result in deafness, but also from the risk of intake suction, which has resulted in ramp personnel being sucked into the engine and being killed. At ‘the rear of the aircraft, there is the risk of jet blast, which, at maximum thrust is quite capable of overturning a vehicle if it passes too close behind the aircraft. (refer to Fig. 3), Piston-powered aircraft (depending on their size) will have similar danger areas, Page 10European aviation Distance 0 10 20 30 40 50 (metres) Typical Aircraft Danger Areas Fig. 3 4.4.1 Towing and Taxying If an aircraft requires moving and no pilot is available, then a tug and towing arm must be used. This task will require a qualified tug driver, a supervisor, a ‘brake man’ and other personnel to keep a lookout. A qualified pilot always does the taxiing of larger aircraft, although engineers sometimes taxi light aircraft. Each aircraft and its operator will have laid down rules regarding the way in which each aircraft will be towed. These rules will include the number of people needed, the type of tug, the radio calls if the aircraft is on the manoeuvring atea, the maximum towing speed and many other details. These must always be followed if accidents are to be avoided Aircraft, when moving, either under power or whilst being towed, are sources of humerous risk areas. An airliner can be over 60 metres long and have a wing span greater than 60 metres. This means that when manoeuvring in restricted spaces, there is always the risk of part of the aircraft striking another object, due to a phenomenon known as ‘Swept Wing Growth’ (refer to Fig. 4). It must be borne in mind that, when turning, the wing tips and tail of a large aircraft can move considerable distances in the opposite direction to that of the nose. This is why, whenever an aircraft is approaching its parking spot, there must be personnel available to watch out for any potential conflicts. Driving in the vicinity of a parked aircraft must always be done with care, especially if the driver is alone or visibility from the cab of the vehicle is limited. Page 14Part 147 Approved Or Tail Sweep Area Path of Tail Swept Wing Growth Fig. 4 1.4.2 Parking When an aircraft has to be parked for a period of time, especially overnight and in inclement weather conditions, there are a number of precautions that must be observed: * A-chock must be placed at the front and rear of a number of wheels, depending on the aircratt type The engine intakes and exhausts may need to be covered with special blanks The control surfaces may have to be locked in place with integral control or gust locks or, if these are not installed, external locks may be attached to all of the surfaces that could be damaged in high winds © Other devices required could include bianks for the pitot tubes and static vents. 1.4.3 Felling While the topic of fuelling is covered more fully in Module 11 and in the relevant Chapter (28) of the Maintenance Manual, brief consideration of some of the general safety precautions is given here, The first, obvious precaution, is the identification of the type of fuel in the fuel tanker (or bowser), ensuring it is of the type and grade required for the aircraft. There have been many times when petrol-powered aircraft have been filled with turbine fuel and, on occasions, the reverse has occurred. The type and grade of fuel should always be stencilled or painted, adjacent to the fuelling point, but it is wise if a tesponsible person is consulted before starting fuelling, This is because there may be a requirement for some special fuel, or simply that the aircraft is only to be partfilled, due to a weight limitation Page 12European aviation The fuel tanker must be parked as far as possible from the aircraft, limited by the hose length, and parallel or facing away from it This reduces the risk of fire passing from the aircraft to the tanker or vice versa, and also allows a clear path for the tanker to vacate the area quickly, should the need arise. The fuel tanker, the fuelling hose, the aircraft and the ground must all be electrically bonded together, to allow the static electricity (generated during the fuel flow) to run to earth. A safety zone of 6m (20 ft) should be established from the filing and venting points of the aircraft and attendant fuelling equipment. This area should be free from naked lights, smoking and the operation of electrical switches of any kind. There can also be a risk from the operation of radio and radar equipment, so these should also be switched off before fuelling commences, ‘Also, during the fuelling of aircraft, Auxiliary Power Units (APU) and Ground Power Units, (GPU), must be made safe, by checking that their exhausts and intakes are clear of any fuel vapours, and that GPU's, are located as far as practical from the fuelling point(s), NO switching of power from APU's or GPU's will be made during fuelling procedures. 1.4.4 Weather Radar The heating and radiation effects of weather radar can be hazardous to life. Personnel should remain a safe distance from the rader if it is in operation. There are published figures and charts in the maintenance manual of each aircraft, showing the safe distances for personnel, depending on the power of the radar in use. As an example, the aerial in the nose of the aircraft should have an unobstructed ‘view’ of something like 30 metres, with the aerial tited upwards, There should also be a barrier erected about 3 metres or so from the nose of the aircraft, to prevent personnel getting too close. Finally, there should be no fuelling operations in progress during the testing of weather radar Page 13European aviation 2 WORKSHOP PRACTICES While the majority of aerospace components are manufactured under stringent standards, in factory (and laboratory) conditions, it is necessary to remove many items of equipment for cleaning, inspection, overhaul and, if needed, repair before they are, subsequently, re-installed in their appointed locations. ‘These actions may entail the use of many specialist tools and materials, which are used while following written procedures, while it is quite possible that some, comparatively simple, repairs may call upon such basic hand skills as the cutting, filing, drilling, riveting and painting of metals or other materials. 24 CAREOF TooLs Engineers are responsible for the maintenance of their personal tools, whilst other personnel, in designated Tool Stores, must care for all the different, specialist tools for which they have the responsibility. It is also the responsibility of engineers to ensure that any tools, or other items of equipment they use, are not left in an aircraft or associated components The care required for different tools can vary. Ordinary hand tools may merely require racking or locating within sturdy tool boxes, with careful, daily, maintenance restricted to little more than a visual check. Precision instruments however, require great care both in storage and in use. They may need to be kept in special, softlined, boxes within other storage facilities. Prior to use they should have a ‘zero’ check or calibration. Some tools require that they have a light coating of machine oil, to prevent the onset of corrosion, Each tool (whether it be a hammer or a micrometer), will require some special care, to ensure its optimum performance for, without this care, even the most expensive tools very quickly become second rate and useless. 2.2 CONTROL OF TooLs Control of tools is important to good engineering practices and is also vital to flight safety. A variety of systems can be used to control tools but, whichever system is used, it must allow a 100% check of the tools in use before it can be considered as acceptable. One form of control is the ‘shadow board’ and ‘tool tag’ system, (refer to Fig. 6). Each tool is positioned over its silhouette, on the tool board. Technicians are issued with identification tokens (numbered ‘tags}) which are exchanged for the tool and, usually, a tag is hung above the silhouette, to be reclaimed, in exchange for the tool, when it is retumed to the board. The shadow boardtool tag system works equally well when the tools are held within a designated Tool Store arrangement Page 14Shadow Board and Too! Taq 2.3 CALIBRATION OF TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT The key factor is the need to establish confidence in the accuracy of the equipment when it is required for use. The required calibration frequency for any particular piece of test equipment is that which will ensure it is in compliance with the standards applicable to its intended use. in all cases, standards used are attributed upon the need for ultimate traceability to one of the following + The standard specified by the equipment manufacturer/design organisation + The appropriate National/International Standards. 2.3.1 General Notes on Calibration The appropriate standards are used to achieve consistency between measurements made in different locations, possibly using alternate measuring techniques. The calibration of test equipment is best achieved by the operation of a methodical system of control. 2.3.2 Procedures Procedures, controlling regular inspection, servicing and, where appropriate, calibration of such items, are to indicate to the users that the item is within any inspection time limit. These ‘Next Inspection’ labels must clearly state when, and, if necessary, where the next calibration is due. The intervals at which calibration is required, can vary with the nature of the equipment, the conditions under which it is used and the consequences of incorrect results. The frequency will be in accordance with the manufacturer or supplier's instructions, unless the organisation can show that a different interval is warranted in a particular case. Any appliance, the serviceability of which is in doubt, should be removed from service and clearly labelled accordingly. The appliance must not be returned to service unless the reason for its unsetviceability has been eliminated and its continued calibration re- validated. Action must be taken, if an item of equipment is found, during re-calibration, to have a significant error. This must include re-checking of measurements made prior to finding the fault Page 15European aviation 3° TOOLS 3.1 COMMON HAND TooLs The best results are always obtained by using the correct tool for the task. Care and maintenance of all tools is very important, since damaged or inefficient tools can lead to. injury of the user or damage to the components. A range of common hand tools is. considered in this part of the course. 3.1.1 Engineer's Rule An engineer's rule (refer to Fig. 1) is made from high-carbon steel and is graduated in Imperial and Metric units, Rules are classified by the length and width of their graduated portion, must be kept free from rust and should not be subjected to rough usage. The most common engineer's rule has a length of 300mm (‘ft) but rules can be obtained in lengths of up to 1,800mm (6tt) Metric Scale TTT TTT TTT TTTTTT] 67891011 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 3 4 1 4 4 Huh HNP Pr Imperial Scale Edge View Grooves 3.1.2Fitter’s Square The fitter's square is used for setting out lines at right angles to an edge or surface, and for checking right angular work for ‘truth’. Squares are made, to very fine limits, of high- carbon steel and are classified by the length of the blade The blade and the stock have their opposing edges ground truly parallel with the two limbs set at exactly 90° to each other. When testing a square for accuracy, it may be checked for truth against an accurately machined right angular test piece such as a ‘V' block or master square. If this is not possible, a test may be carried out (refer to Fig. 3) as follows: * Place the stock against the true edge of a flat surface and scribing a line on the surface, using the outside edge of the blade * Turn the square over and check the outside edge of the blade against the previously scribed line. Page 16European aviation If the square is accurate, the blade edge and the scribed line will be in line. In a similar manner, the inside edge of the blade can be tested. True Edge Testing a Square Fig. 3 3.1.3 Surface Plates and Tables Surface plates (and surface tables which are larger), while not actually being classed as marking out or measuring tools, are simply blocks of grey cast iron with finely machined faces which can be used asa standard of flatness. They may also be used to provide a true surface, from which marking out, measuring and testing can be done. Surface plates and tables can be used to test for flatness, providing the standards required are not too high. The surface of the plate is lightly smeared with a mixture of engineer's blue and a few drops of oil. The piece to be tested has to be rubbed lightly on to the surface plate and any high spots will show up as blue spots on the test piece. These spots will be filed or scraped until the whole surface shows blue. 3.1.4 *V" Blocks \V Blocks are accurately machined, six-sided, rectangular blocks (generally made of cast iron), which may be used, on surface plates and tables, to hold a round bar, which can then be marked in a variety of ways, to glve centres and lines parallel to its side. V blocks are classified by the maximum diameter of the work, which they can hold All opposite sides of the blocks are parallel and all adjacent faces are square to each other. A 90° groove (in the shape of a V) is machined in two (longer) opposite faces, but the grooves are cut at different depths, to cater for bars of different diameters. The V-cut grooves have a small, square-cut, clearance groove in the bottom of the V. This ensures that any oil, or dirt runs off the sides of the V and does not clog the bottom of the V, causing an imperfect seating of any bar which were to be placed in the blocks. \V blocks are made in (identified) matching pairs, which must always be used together, so that a block of one pair should not be used with one of another pair. Some V blocks also have grooves machined along the other two longer, parallel, sides, to locate specially designed clamps, which may be used to securely hold work while it is being accurately marked out or drilled Page 17European aviation 3.1.5 Dividers - used for dividing a line into equal increments for tanfer distances from a steel rule to a piece of sheet metal and to scribe arcs and circles. ot 3.1.6 Callipers Calipers (refer to Fig. 6) are a type of measuring device, typically used to measure diameters and distances or for comparing sizes. The three basic types of calliper are: * Outside Callipers: Used to measure the outside diameter of an object and have legs that point inwards * Inside Callipers: Used to measure the inside of @ hole and have legs that point outwards * Odd-Leg Callipers (Hermaphrodite or ‘Jenny’ Callipers): This tool is really half callipers and haif dividers. It may be used for scribing arcs on metal surfaces from an edge, for scribing lines parallel to an edge or surface, (provided accuracy is not of great importance), and for finding the centre of a round bar. IS S Outside Inside Oddeg Callipers Fig. 6 3.1.7 Hammers Hammers (refer to Fig. 7) are classified by their weight and type of head. Steel heads are forged and manufactured from high-carbon steel. Most shafts are made from straight-grained Ash or Hickory and are secured to the head by wedging ‘The main types of engineering hammers are the: «Ball Pein: The flat surface is used for most general-purpose work whilst the ball pein is used primarily for riveting-type operations Page 18European Aviation Part 147 Approved © © Straight Pein: Used for general work, the narrow, straight pein being particularly suitable for use where access to the work is limited «Cross Pein: As for the straight pein, but the axis of the pein is at 90° to that of the shaft * Hide/Copper Face: The rawhide facing enables heavy blows to be delivered without damaging the surface of the work, while the copper face may be used for heavier types of work than hide faced hammers «Rubber Head and Plastic Face: More modem versions of the Hide Face hammer. Can often have one of each type of face on each end of the head * Claw Hammer (not shown): More commonly used for woodworking. The face is used for hammering nails whilst the claw is used for removing nails * Body Hammer (not shown): Little used in aircraft work, as they are primarily used to remove dents and blemishes from sheet metal. They are also known as planishing hammers. Ball Pein Straight Pein Cross Pein ; Hide/Copper Face Hidepase Rubber Head Plastic Face ‘Types of Hammers Fig. 7 The weight of hammer required can be found with experience. Before use, it must be ensured that the head is secure on the shaft. The shaft should be gripped close to the end opposite the head, as proper control is not possible if itis held close to the head. Page 19European aviation 3.1.8Punches Although punches are not ‘pounding tools’, they do allow the force from a hammer blow to be concentrated in the immediate area of the punch tip. This in turn means that the pressure at the end of the punch is increased compared to a hammer blow without a punch, 3.1.9 Metal-Cutting Chisels Metal-cutting chisels (also called Cold Chisels) are used in conjunction with stee! hammers. Chisels are forged, usually using short lengths of hexagonal-sectioned, high- carbon steel bars, with the cutting edge hardened and tempered. Chisels are classified by their shape, overall length, cross-section of shank and width of cut. There are four principal shapes of chisels (refer to Fig. 8), in general use. They are the: © Flat Cross-Cut Diamond-Point Half-Roune, Flat chisels are used for general chipping work, such as parting sheet metal or cutting flat surfaces, preparatory to filing. The cutting edge is formed slightly convex. Cross-Cut (or Cape) chisels ate used to cut narrow, flat-bottomed, grooves, such as keyways in shafts or where it is not practical to use a flat chisel. These chisels are also used to remove the heads of round-headed rivets during repairs. Half-Round (and may, also, be called Round) chisels are general-purpose, grooving chisels, which are suttable for cutting helf-round, bottomed, grooves. They are also suitable for rectifying an incorrect start when drilling. // Fiat Cross-Cut Diamond-Point Half Round Chisel Types Fig. 8 Page 20European aviation 3.1.10 Bench Vice The bench vice (refer to Fig. 9) is used to firmly grip the material or item upon which work is being done in @ workshop. The body of the vice is provided with detachable ‘steel jaws. The screw is made with a square or with a buttress thread. Bench Vice Fig. 9 3.1.11 Hand Vice A hand vice (refer to Fig. 10) is classified by its overall length and can be used when splicing cables or holding small objects that are to be shaped or drilled. The body and screw ate made of mild steel, with a wing nut provided for the operation of the hand vice. Small vice clamps can also be used with these vices when working with soft material Hand Vice Fig. 10 3.1.12 Hacksaws Hacksaws are used for parting off, or for cutting materials approximately to size. They ate designed primarily for cutting metal, but may be used on other materials. The saw consists of a mild steel frame, with a suitable handle and a replaceable, serrated blade, which is made from high-carbon or alloy steel Page 21European aviation Fine-tootned blades have 24 or 32 teeth per inch and are used for cutting thin material. Coarser blades, with 14 or 18 teeth per inch are for thicker material, A ‘rule of thumb’ is that at least two teeth must be in contact, with the work being cut, at all times (refer to Fig. 11) "Co" ” Thicker Sections - Less Teeth per Inch Tr Oo Thinner Sections - More Teeth per Inch Hacksaw Teeth in Contact with Workpiece Fig. 14 The blade mountings must be set in the most convenient position with the teeth facing away from the handle. This allows the blade to cut on the more efficient, forward stroke. ‘Saw blades are given an alternate ‘set, during manufacture, which results in the cutting slot (the 'ker?) being wider than the blade thickness (refer to Fig. 12). This prevents the blade from jamming, which may result in a bent or broken blade. SSS Teeth ‘Set Fig. 12 Page 22European aviation 3.1.13 Sheet Metal Shears and Snips eet tes Shears are another type of cutting tool used on aircraft sheet metal. Long, straight cuts, across a piece of sheet metal, are made on a guillotine, which may also be referred to as ‘squaring shears! Cuts straight—yellow handle The fabrication of smaller parts requires hand cutting, followed with further trimming to the final dimensions. This can be achieved with different types of shears, known as Tinman’s Shears or Aviation Snips. They can vary in length from 175 mim (7 in) up to 300 mm (12 in and can be straight or curved cutting) Cuts right—green handle Straight shears (or snips) are primarily for cutting straight or wide radius curves whilst the curved shears are dedicated solely to cutting curves. Curved shears can be found in symmetrical form, which can be used to cut curves in either direction, or they can be asymmetrical and dedicated to cutting curves in one direction only. The handles of asymmetrically curved shears are usually colour-coded (fed and green), to indicate the intended cutting direction. ‘Leftcutting shears are coloured red while ‘right-cutting' shears are coloured green 3.1.14 Files Files are cutting tools for removing metal from a surface and are made of high-carbon steel. The blade is hardened, whilst the tang (to which, a handle must always be attached, for safety reasons, before the file is used), is left in a softer, tougher condition and is, therefore, less brittle. Hand files are classified by their: * Length Shape Cross-Section Cut Grade. The length of a file is measured from the shoulder to the tip of the blade, Files are available, for special work, in lengths from 76 mm (3 in) to 350 mm (14 in). The most common sizes are 180 mm (6 in), 200 mm (8 in) and 250 mm (10 in). Files are available in 2 variety of shapes (refer to Fig. 13), and the most common shapes are those which are: * Parallel * Tapered * Bellied. Page 23European Aviation Part 147 Asproved Crgeization Tip Shoulder Parallel = Length Tang Bellied [3 Three Most Common Shapes of Files Fig. 13 The various shapes and the cross-sections of files allow them to be used on a wide range of tasks, The standard file cross-sections (refer to Fig. 14) are e Hand Round Half-Round Square Three-Square. |ol Oa Hand Round Half-Round ‘Square Three-Square File Cross-Sections Fig. 14 The ‘Cut of a file refers to the arrangement of the cutting teeth, on the blade of the file. The pattern, in which the teeth are cut, will depend upon the type of material to be filed, The common cuts of files (refer to Fig. 15) are the: Single Cut Double Cut Dreadnought Rasp. The ‘Grade’ of a file refers to the depth and spacing (number of teeth per inch) of the cutting teeth in a similar manner to the size and spacing of the particles employed on abrasive papers and wheels. The rate of cutting and the finish given to the work is. determined, to a large extent, by the grade of the file Page 24RRS ee, AAA RR amen AA Pe tos ees =| AAA 8 7 AAA Single Cut Double Cut Dreadnought Rasp File Cuts Fig. 15 While there are several more grades of files, available from manufacturers, the most common grades (or degrees of coarseness) of the single and double cut files, found ina typical aerospace technician's toolkit, are the: - Bastard (approx. 30 teeth per inch) - Second-Cut ( approx. 40 teeth per inch) - Smooth (50 to €0 teeth per inch) 3.1.15 Twist Drills While the range of tools, designed to create holes in metals and other materials is vast, the Morse-type (named after its inventor, an American engineer) of Twist Drill (refer to Fig. 17) is the one most commonly used in aircraft (and in general) engineering. The shank is the part of the twist drill that is gripped and driven by the chuck of the drilling machine and it is on the shank that the details of the type (grade) and diameter of the drill can usually be found printed or engraved On drills up to 12.5 mm ('4") diameter, the shank is parallel and placed into the jaws of a seff-centring chuck On drills above 12.5 mm the shank is usually tapered (to a Morse Taper) of 1:20. The tapered shank fits directly into a matching tapered housing in the driling machine spindle. Land Flute Point Body ‘Shank Twist Drill Fig. 17 The tapered shank usually ends in a tang and this arrangement provides a more positive drive, which is necessary to overcome the higher forces when drilling with the larger diameter drills, Page 26European aviation The helical flute (or fluting), formed in the drill body, provides a rake angle for the cutting edges of the drill. The fluting also allows any lubricant to flow towards the cutting edges and provides 2 path for the waste metal (‘swart), to move clear. ‘The land of the drill actually touches the wall of the hole and steadies the drill during rotation, Immediately behind the land, metal is removed from the body of the dill, to reduce the friction during rotation. Web or Point Ange ' 115-135" i; Inclasi 7 Angle 42-18" 5 Cutting Edges Typical Twist Drill Point Angles In order that the drill will Fig. 18 1d to the correct shape (refer to Fig. 18). The cutting, angie or oy (118° inclusive), a clearance angle of 12° and a web angle of 130°, are typical for normal metal cutting, such as aluminium alloys, steels, cast iron and copper. These can be changed to suit the cutting of different materials such as harder metals, softer metals or plastics. It is essential that the drill point is central and that the cutting angles of 59° are equal. An offset point or unequal cutting angles will cause an unbalanced rotation that will, in turn, produce an oversized hole. To achieve the desired cutting and clearance angles (and resulting web angles), a drill grinding attachment may be found attached to a grinding wheel in a workshop. Hand grinding/sharpening of drills can be achieved (especially after practice), to an acceptable standard for general work. For the high standard of hole, required to recewe rivets, in the pressurised skins of aircraft, it is common practice to discard drills, which have become blunt and to replace them with new drills. There are many different grades of metal, used in the manufacture of twist drilis, the most common being * Carbon Steel * High Speed Stee! «Cobalt Steel Carbon Steel drills, in addition to iron and carbon, contain various amounts of manganese, silicon, sulphur and phosphorus. The letters CS may be found on the shanks of these drills. Page 26European aviation High Speed Steel (HSS) drills, contain a comparatively high percentage of tungsten (8%-12%) with a lesser percentage of chromium (5%) and smaller amounts of vanadium and, possibly, molybdenum added to the carbon and iron in this steel. HSS dlls retain their hardness at low red heat and can, thus, be used at much higher speeds than carbon steel drills. This results in much less damage to the cutting edges and, although HSS drills are more expensive than CS drills they can, over a period of time, result in-@ greater economy in the purchase of drils. Cobalt Steel drills, contain up to 12% cobalt, with as much as 20% tungsten, 4% chromium, 1%-2% vanadium and traces of molybdenum combined with 0.8% carbon. These drills are normally used on metals such as stainless steels, titanium and other very hard metals. Being extremely hard, Cobalt Steel drills are also quite brittle. Because of this, the use of these diills can be very dangerous, and, s0, stict observance of the recommended cutting speeds is essential Drill diameter sizes are also usually marked upon the shank of the drill and can be identified by the method used in their sizing. The most common methods of identifying the diameter of twist drills are: © Metric * Fractions of an inch «The Number/Letter range. In the Metric range, the smallest, commercially available, drill has a diameter size of 0.35 mm, The full range proceeds in increments of 0.05 mm up to 5.0 mm, and, for larger sizes, in increments of 0.1 mm. The Fractional (Inch) range has a minimum size of ‘/s:” diameter, proceeding in steps of ‘Yea up to 17/5", and then in steps of '/-: up to 3” diameter. Table 6 shows an extract from the Number/Letter Range method of sizing drills. This method utilises numbers from 80 to 1 and letters from A to Z The smallest size being the Number 80 (0.3 mm diameter) drill, and the decreasing number of sizing indicating an increase in the drill diameter. Table 2 EXTRACT FROM THE NUMBER/LETTER RANGE OF DRILL SIZES Number or] Standard [Number or] Standard | Number or] Standard Letter Metric Size_| Letter Metric Size_| Letter Metric Size 80 0.35 4 6.30 Ss 8.85 79 0.38 3 5.40 T 9.10 78 0.40 2 5.60 u 9.35 i 0.45) 1 5.80 Vv 9.56 The Metric sizes have virtually superseded the numbered and lettered ranges and, usually, 2 metric size can be found as @ replacement for an obsolete size Page 27European aviation The use of a suitable lubricant when drilling is very important, not only does the use of lubricant improve the quality of the hole, but it also assists in dissipating the heat produced by drilling. This improves the cutting efficiency and prolongs the life of the dil Table 3 shows some of the recommended lubricants, which may be employed when drilling metals. Table 3 RECOMMENDED LUBRICANTS FOR METALS Material Lubricant Mid Steel ‘Soluble Gil High-Caroon and Alloy Steels | Kerosene or Turpentine ‘Aluminium Alloys Kerosene, Cast Iron and Brass Usually no Lubricant Required When drilling small holes, up to 6.0 mm (%4") diameter, the depth of the centre punch mark will, usually, accommodate the non-cutling, chise-like point of the drill, Keeping it on centre and guiding the drill unti it is established in the metal, When a hole larger than 6.0 mm diameter is to be drilled, the centre punch mark is not latge enough to accept the non-cutting point of the drill. In this instance it will be necessary to employ the use of a pilot drill (refer to Fig. 19) to provide a guide for the larger dril Firstly the centre of the hole is marked out on the metal and care must be taken to accurately centre punch the metal. A small drill (the pilot drill, whose diameter is slightly larger than the non-cutting point of the ‘finished size’ drill, is selected and a pilot hole is drilled in the metal (ensuring that the correct lubricant, for the particular metal, is used). The pilot drill is replaced by the ‘finished size’ dril, which can, then (and again using lubricant), be guided through the pilot hole to complete the hole to the appropriate size. 3.1.46 Stop, and Press (Dimpling), Countersinking Tools ‘Two special tools, used during the riveting process, are the ‘Stop’ countersinking bit and the ‘Press’ countersinking, or (as it is more commonly known), the Dimpling tool. Both of these tools have evolved as a result of the need for flush skins on high-performance aircraft. In order to have the rivet heads flush with the surface, the skin must be prepared by either cutting away a portion of the metal to match the taper of the rivet head, or by indenting (by pressing) the edges of the hole to accept the rivet head Locknut Stop Fibre Collar Face ‘Stop Countersink Too! Fig. 20 lot Drill Chuck Fitting Chip Opening Page 28European Aviation Part 147 Aoproved © Press countersinking or ‘dimpling’ is done where the aircraft skin is too thin to countersink, and without the attendant risk of enlarging the drilled hole, The edges of the hole are formed, to accommodate the head of the rivet, by using a set of dimpling dies, using either ‘coin dimpling’ or ‘radius dimpling’ methods. Coin dimpiing forces the sheets into the lower die, leaving a sharply defined and parallelsided hole. This process also allows a number of sheets to be ‘stacked! together at the expense of a complex pair of tools and leaves a neat, clean dimpled hole with smooth sides (refer to Fig. 21) With harder materials, such as magnesium and certain aluminium alloys, a process called hot dimpling is used. This method involves pre-heating the metal, so that it forms more easily and is less likely to crack when shaping takes place Dimpled Punch Skin era Rea ESS After Rivet has | Fr mua been Formed Dimpling Toot Fig. 21 3.1.17 Reamers Reamers are precision-ground tools, which are used to enlarge drilled holes to accurate dimensions and provide smooth internal finish to accommodate precision-ground bolts and some special types of rivets. Reamers are manufactured from high-carbon steel or alloy steel and are fluted to provide a series of cutting edges. They are available, either for use by hand, or for using with a suitable driling machine. Machine reamers can usually be identified by the Morse tapered shank, which is inserted directly into the spindle of a drilling machine. Hand reamers are rotated, by means of the hand wrench, which locates on the squared portion of the shank, They must always be rotated only in the cutting direction, even ‘when withdrawing from @ hole. The cutting lubricants, used on specific materials, are those which are used for drilling procedures, Reamers are used for removing only small amounts of material, which, typically, for hand reamers, is approximately 0.2 mm-0.3 mm (0.008 in-0.012 in), so holes should be drilled with this fact in mind. Page 29eevee en Reamers are supplied in protective sleeves, to protect the fine, vulnerable cutting edges, which run along the body of the tool and, to preserve the sharp edges, they should be kept in their sleeves when not in use The three most common types of hand-operated reamers are the: * Hand Parallel Reamer © Hand Expanding Reamer © Hand Taper Reamer. Hand Parallel Reamers (refer to Fig. 22) are fixed-size, parallel-bodied reamers, possessing either straight or spiral flutes. The straight fluted reamer can be considered to be the generakpurpose reamer, whilst the spiral fluted reamer is used for reaming holes which have keyways or grooves as the spiral flutes smoothly bridge the edges of the gap in the metal while the reamer rotates. SS» ie ‘Straight Fiuted Reamer BP ae Soiral Fluted Reamer Hand Parallel Reamers Fig. 22 Hand Expanding Reamers (refer to Fig. 23) are used where standard parallel reamers of the required dimension are not available. This type of reamer has separate, replaceable biades that slide, in tapering slots, and which are held in position by a pair of circular nuts. The reamer blades can be adjusted to the required cutting size by slackening one nut and tightening the other. The shape of each biade is such that, at any point along the slot, its cutting edge is always parallel to the axis of the reamer. The size range of each expanding reamer is stamped on its shank. The actual size set during adjustment can be checked using either a ring gauge or micrometer/calliper. J A) Ya ” Hand Expanding Reamer Fig, 23 Page 30European Aviation Part 147 Aoproved © Hand Taper Reamers (refer to Fig. 24), are used to produce a tapered hole for the insertion of a standard taper pin. The two types of tapered reamers are the © Metric: This type, and its corresponding taper pins, have a taper of 1:50. Its size is etched, or stamped, on the shank, and refers to its smaller diameter * Imperial: The reamers and the taper pins, for which they are used, have a taper of 1:48. The size of a reamer is indicated by numbers (which range from 0 to 10), or by a fractional designation. The size Is etched or stamped on the shank and refers to its larger diameter. ees) Hand Taper Reamer Fig. 24 The difference between the Metric and Imperial tapers is very slight, but itis sufficient to make the taper pins incompatible. When replacement taper pins are required, particularly when both types are available, then great care must be taken to ensure that pins of the correct taper, size and type are installed 3.1.18 Intemal Screw Thread, Cutting Taps ‘Taps are used for the hand cutting of internal (female) screw threads of the common types, up to a maximum diameter of approximately 25.4 mm (1.0 in). They are short, threaded bars of hardened and tempered steel, which are fluted to give cutting edges and the end of the shank is squared, to facilitate tuning with a wrench (refer to Fig. 25). Taps ate normally made in sets of three, with the exception of the BA thread tap sets, which have only two taps to a set. A tap set, which all have the same maximum diameter, normally consists of a * Taper Tap * Second Tap * Plug Tap The Taper Tap is used to start the thread cutting process. It is tapered gradually from the point for about two thirds of the threaded length, so that it can enter the pre-drilled hole easily and assist in the correct alignment of the tap (which is very important) before cutting commences. The last third of its length has fully formed threads. The Second (or Intermediate) Tap is used, following the taper tap, to deepen the thread. This tap is tapered for the first two or three threads only and, where it is possible for the tap to pass the whole length through a hole, it is capable of cutting a fully formed thread. The Intermediate is the tap that is not available in BA thread tapping sets. The Plug (or Bottoming) Tap has no taper and its purpose is to finish the threads in deep, through holes or to cut threads to the bottom of ‘blind’ holes. Page 31European aviation Before the thread can be cut, a hole must be drilled in the workpiece. This hole must be of the correct size and the dll that is selected (the ‘tapping’ drill, must have the same diameter as the minor diameter of the thread needed to be cut. The correct tapping drill size can be obtained from workshop charts and reference books. Unfortunately, because taps are ‘glass hard’ they are also brittle and can, thus, be easily broken if due care is not given to thelr use. It is imperative that the tap's location in the drilled hole be constantly confirmed and that its main axis is maintained in proper alignment with the corresponding axis of the hole. Adequate cutting fluid (as used in the drilling procedure) must be applied, and the arms of the wrench should be of an appropriate length (not too long) so that the possibility of the tap wobbling in the hole, or excessive tuming force being applied to the tap (and especially to the smaller diameter taps), is minimised < Plug Tap Full Length Threads fi Second Tap —____» 23 Thread Ful Taper Threads +— Taper Tap Gradial yy Taper Threads Conventional Tap Set Fig. 25 3.1.19 External Screw Thread, Cutting Dies Dies are used for the hand cutting of external (male) threads on round rods or bars of comparatively small diameters. While there are several designs of dies (depending on the diameter of the thread being cut), consideration is given here only to the ‘split circular or button dies (refer to Fig. 26), which are, typically, found in aircraft maintenance workshops and may be used, by aircraft technicians, for the manufacture of studs and similar items. Cireular dies consist of an intemally threaded (‘right’ or ‘left handed’) disc of hardened and tempered steel, which is fluted to form several cutting edges. Dies also need to be rotated (in a similar manner to the previously mentioned taps), in order to cut threads but, unlike a tap and wrench, a die is rotated by the use of a stock. Die discs, within the smaller diameter ranges have a standard outside diameter, which allows a range of dies, with different intemal sizes, to be used with the same, standard, stock. The discs are ‘split, to allow for a degree of adjustment to the depth of the thread being cut. Page 32a Shoulder Stock Outer Securing and Adjusting Screws Centre Adjusting Screw Circular Die and Stock Fig. 28 Before extemal thread cutting is commenced, it is necessary to obtain a suitable length of rod, the diameter of which is equal to the major diameter of the thread to be cut. Care needs to be taken in this matter (and especially where closely sized Imperial and Metric rods are available) because It is possible to create a thread on slightly undersized or oversized rods. The undersized rod would, of course, be a looser fit with the corresponding female threaded item, which would not be acceptable, while the oversize rod may cause damage to the other threaded device by being too tight a fit. The die should be placed in the stock with the tapered threads (if any) away from the shoulder and the split aligned with the centre adjusting screw. It is next necessary to set the die to the maximum diameter, by slightly slackening the outer adjusting screws and gently tightening the centre adjusting screw. This will ensure that the first cut will be shallow. Failure to do this will invariably result in a poor quality thread. A shallow taper, or chamfer, must be ground or filed onto the end of the rod; to assist in the location of the die before cutting commences and the rod should be clamped firmly, and, preferably, vertically in the bench vice with the tapered end uppermost. Once more, adequate lubrication must be used throughout the procedure, again, using the same lubricants as used for the driling and tapping tasks. Ensuring that the die is set to cut the maximum diameter, as described previously, the die should be placed squarely onto the taper of the rod and, with steady downward hand pressure, the die is carefully rotated (clockwise) to start the cut It must be ensured that the die remains square to the rod at all times during the cutting, which is continued in a series of small arcs, reversing each time to sever the cuttings, in a similar manner as is done when using the taps. When enough thread has been cut, the die is removed and the thread checked, using a finished nut. If the thread proves to be too tight, then, after backing off the centre adjusting screw and (carefully) tuming the outer adjusting screws inwards another cut is, made with the die. Page 33European aviation The procedure is repeated as often as necessary until a satisfactory fit is achieved between the two, mating, threaded items. As the internal tapped thread is NOT adjustable, the intemal thread should be cut first. The extemal thread, which CAN be slightly adjusted, should always be cut last to ensure the desired degree of fit between the respective threads. 3.1.20 Screwdrivers Despite the many shapes and sizes which may be met, it can be stated that screwdrivers may be divided into two main groups, which, basically, are: * Blade Screwdrivers * Cross-Point Screwdrivers. The correct engagement of the screwdriver blade in the slotted head of the screw or bolt is most important (refer to Fig. 27). The most common faults can be seen in the illustration. The end of the blade should never be ground to a sharp chisel edge and a blade of the correct thickness and width should always be chosen. ‘Screwdrivers of the wrong size can cause serious damage to fasteners, surrounding aircraft structure and to the persons using them: Blade too Small Blade Correct Blade too Large Correct Screwdriver Engagement Fig. 27 Cross-Point Screwdrivers have been designed, by the several manufacturers of the different types of screw heads (refer to Fig. 28) These screw heads allow greater torque to be applied to the fasteners but, due to the variations in design, it is vital that the correct screwdriver be used with each type of screw head as they are not compatible. The accurate fit of cross-point screwdrivers into the recess in the respective screw head is essental if damage is to be prevented. Page 34European aviation Reed and Price Phillips Posidrive Triwing Various Types of Cross-Point Screwdrivers Fig, 28 Screww heads for special structure screws Hi-Torque® —_Torg-Set® TH-Wing? ——_Pozidriv® Tor’ 3.1.21 Pliers Pliers are classified by type and overall length and usually made from alloy steel, with an insulated handle. They are designed for gripping, bending or moving small items that cannot be easily handled with the fingers. Some of the many types, that are available fora variety of purposes, include: * Side-Cutting Pliers: which are the general-purpose type, and are useful for the installation and removal of splitpins, They also have a facility for cutting wire * Round-Nosed Pliers: which are useful for putting small radius bends into wire in addition to a variety of other tasks © Flat-Nosed Pliers: which, because the jaws are much thinner, may be used for many small holding and bending tasks, that are not possible with the side-cutting pliers Pliers = Combination/Slip Joint Pliers Standard pliers that have serrated jaws for gripping round objects and flat jaws for holding flat materials ‘When the jaws are open wide, the handle pivot may be slipped from one pivot hole to the other, allowing the jaws to open wider to hold larger objects Page 35European Aviation Part 147 Aoproved © * Needle-Nosed Pliers: which have finely pointed jaws and can be used in electrical and electronic work, that involves holding small components and thin wires. Needle- nosed pliers may, sometimes, have the jaws turned at right angles to the handies, to allow the operator to see the work being held © Wire-Locking Pliers: which are used for the specific task of gripping wire, during the wire-locking of components. Due to their integral Archimedes’ screw, they are also able to spin and so twist two wires, so that a neat and tight wire-locking is obtained © Circlip Pliers: which may be found in two, basic forms (Internal and External). Both types have pins on the ends of the jaws, which are used to install and remove cifclips from around (and from within) components. The mechanisms are designed so that, squeezing the handles together, either results in the jaw pins coming together, (intemal), or spreading apart (External). There are other groups of gripping tools that could, loosely be called pliers, but they usually go under the names of grips or ciamps. These include ‘Mole’-type Grips: which can be locked, holding a component, freeing up the operator's hand for other work, Pipe Clamps, which can be used for gripping pipe unions, and Slip-Joint (or Water Pump) Pliers that can have several, different gripping ranges, due to their multi-pivot mechanisms. Page 36Part 147 Asproved Orgaization Water Pump Pliers A\so called agjustable-joint pliers. The long handles are for applying force to the jaws and torque to the object being turned. Available with a slip-joint adjustment or a tongue and groove type of adjustment that cannot slip, in lengths from 4-1/2 inches with parallel jaws that open to 1/2 inch, to 16 inches with jaws that open to more than 4 inches. Vise-Grip® Pliers These patented locking pliers have a knurled knob in the handle that adjusts the opening of the jaws. When the handles are squeezed together, a compound-lever action applies a tremendous force to the jaws, and an over-center feature holds them tightly locked on the object between the jaws. Needle-Nose Pliers Used to hold wires or small objects and to make loops or bends in electrical wires. Some have straight jaws and others are bent to reach into obstructed areas; available in lengths from 4-1/2 to more than 10 inches. Diagonal Cutting Pliers Diagonal cutters, or “dikes,” are used to cut safety wire and cotter pins. The name of these pliers is derived from the shape of the jaws that have an angled cutting edge. Duckbill Pliers Duckbill pliers have long handles and wide serrated jaws that hold safety wire firmly while it is being twisted. Page 37Fart 147 Approved Organization 3.1.22 Wite Snips (Nippers) Wire Snips (which are also, often, called 'Nippers') can be found with straight or diagonal jaws and are both very useful for cutting and stripping wire. They are also useful for removing split pins. a7 Care must be used, when cutting with wire snips, 2s the out-off pieces (locking wire and split pin legs in particular) can fly off, causing injury or getting lost within the aircraft structure or engine bays, which could lead to corrosion or to the jamming of vital control systems. 3.1.23 Safety wire twisted tool 3.1.24 Spanners, Sockets and Wrenches The commonest spanners are those which are used on the standard hexagonal heads of bolts, nuts, screws and similarly shaped fastening devices. Other spanners are often referred to as special or non-standard spanners, and are used on different types of screw thread fastenings. Some of these special spanners have a limited application, whilst others are specifically produced for a particular component, and will only be found in special toolkits applicable to that component Most spanners are manufactured from case-hardened mild steel, hardened and tempered high-carbon steel or alloy-steel, though there are some which are made from copper alloys, where spark-resistant tools are required. Earlier BS spanners can be found with two figures stamped adjacent to each other (e.g. The BSW ‘Vz BSF), The BSW figure relates to the Whitworth thread system, which is not used on aircraft, due to its tendency to loosen when subjected to vibration. The BSF refers to the British Standard Fine thread but, to avoid confusion, the older system has now been brought into line with the BS system, so that a %4" BS (BSF) spanner can (for general engineering purposes) also be used on a %' Whitworth bolt/nut combination, British Association (the third British thread system) sizes, also use Imperial measurements, and, although they are in decimal fractions of an inch, they are represented by a whole number (284, 4BA, 6BA and so on) which again relates to the nominal diameter of the fastening device. Page 38European aviation The American Fine and Unified thread systems, also use Imperial measurements. The sizes, stamped on spanners, refer to the dimensions across the spanner jaws (or across the flats of the hexagon of the fastening device). A spanner marked 7%" A/F, would be used on a bolt with an actual diameter of °/3" Metric spanners are marked with a number also denoting the width (millimetres) across the flats, of the hexagon shaped fastener on which It is used. “BS and BA (Imperial) Dimensions AmericarvUnitied (Imperial) and Metric Dimensions Spanner Sizing Systems Fig. 29 There are so many tool catalogues, crammed with a bewildering range of tools that it is impossible to include so many in these course notes. Some of the more common. spanners and wrenches (in addition to the previously-mentioned tools), which are liable to be found in the average toolkit, of an aircraft maintenance technician, include such general tools as: ‘Set’ (Open-Jaw) Spanners Ring Spanners Flare Nut Spanners. Sockets Allen Keys Torque Wrenches ——=—— nay, Open end wrench Box end wrench >= ) B— | = f[o\ (WU Ratcheting box wrench Combination wrench Page 39Flare nut wrench Allen wrenches The socket spanners are usually supplied in complete sets, of incremental sizes to suit various tasks. Deep sockets are used where a bolt extends further through a nut than normal, preventing the use of a standard socket. They are also used to remove spark plugs from piston-type aero engines. The main accessories, supplied with socket sets, can (in addition to the standard T bar driver) include: Ratchet Handles Drive Bars Speed Braces Extension Bars Universal Joints Converter/Adapters. Ratchet handles allow the turning to continue, even if the space does not allow full rotation of the normal ‘T’ bar driver. Most ratchets are reversible, either by the use of a selector lever or by the square drive being able to be ‘floated through the mechanism, to be available on both sides of the ratchet handle. Drive bars are usually produced with long handles and so, should normally be used only to break the ‘stick’ of a tight nut and not for tightening up. These are also Known as breaker bars or knuckle bars —yr Ratchet handle ———__ Breakover handle Speed handle Speed braces can have @ socket or screwdriver blade ‘snapped! onto their ends. They are normally used to tum down nuts or screws, which have many threads before they tighten-up. Final tightening is completed using either a 'T’ bar, a ratchet handle or (more usually) a torque wrench. Page 409 RAY { U Shallow socket Deep socket Crowioot Universal socket Extension bars are used where access for 2 standard drive handle is restricted Extension bats are made from forged alloy steel and come in a range of nominal lengths from 50 mm (2 in) to 1 m (39 in). Universal joints allow tightening of nuts, bolts and screws where it is not possible to obtain access in a straight line. They function better if the angle they are working through is not too great. er / ao of A Torque Wrench Is a precision tool that govems the amount of force applied to a fastener and allows accurate torque values to be applied consistently. Under controlled conditions, the amount of force required to turn a fastener is directly related to the tensile stress within the fastener. The amount of torque is the product of the turning force multiplied by the distance between the centre of the fastener and the point at which the force is applied (usually the length of the wrench handle). Table 4 shows various units of torque, including Imperial, Metric and SI values. Table 4 VARIOUS UNITS OF TORQUE Imperial Metric SI pound force foot Kilogram force metre Newton metre (lf ft) (kof) (Nm) pound force inch Kilogram force centimetre | _cent-Newton metre (lbfin) (kgfom) (cNm) Page 41Part 147 Asproved Orgaization When using an adapter on a torque wrench that adds to the lever length, you must use the formula below to determine the torque reading on the wrench Tw in order to attain the required amount of torque applied to the fastener by the adapter Ts. seo | TA oe aie} ° Tw = Torque indicated on the wrench ‘T= Torque applied at the adapter L= Lever length of torque wrench E = Arm of the adapter When the extension subtracts from the lever length of the wrench, use this formula. Tw= Torque indicated on the wrench ‘Ta= Torque applied at the adapter L = Lever length of torque wrench E = Arm of the adapter Page 42European aviation 3.2 COMMON POWER TooLs 3.2.1 Electrically Powered Pillar Drills Electrically powered, Pillar Drills, are used for heavy-duty ciilling tasks, where larger drill sizes and rigid holding-down of the workpiece are required Pillar drills also have an advantage in that they are equipped with a method of altering the speed of rotation (rpm) of the chuck to suit the material being drilled and the size (and type) of the drill being used This flexibility is needed to enable drills of all sizes to cut efficiently and safely for different types of materials. If the rpm of the machine were constant, then the cutting speed of any dril being used would be dependent upon the diameter of the drill. Small drills would cut slowly and larger drills more rapidly. For example, at a constant rpm, a point, on the circumference of a drill with a diameter of 10 mm, will travel twice as far, and cut at a much faster rate, than a similar point on a drill, which has a diameter of 5 mm. At this excessive rpm, the larger drill would become very difficult to control and would, almost certainly, be damaged by over-heating. The speed of rotation of most fixed drilling machines may be changed, either by means of a gearbox or by a system of coned pulleys. The work, being drilled, must be clamped in a manner that will prevent any movement during the drilling operation. Failure to observe this precaution may result in spoilt work, a broken drill and it may also cause serious injuries. Larger pieces of work are clamped directly to the driling table of the machine, whereas smail items are usually held in a machine vice, which has smooth jaws. 3.2.2 Electrically Powered Hand Drills These drills ate useful in certain locations when work cannot be taken to a fixed, pillar drill and where there is no risk of fire from inflammable materials ot vapour. They are quicker than the hand brace and, when used correctly, can be perfectly safe The smaller electric drills have 2 6.5 mm (%") chuck, whilst other larger drills can be found with chuck sizes up to 13 mm (%") and larger. This size classification simply indicates the largest size of twist dril that the chuck will hold, Battery powered (cordless), drills offer more freedom than ac powered or pneumatically powered drills, but they should not be used in the vicinity of flammable vapours as they are not considered to be ‘spark proof 3.2.3 Pneumatically Powered Hand Drills, The type of pneumatic drill, used for a specific task, depends very much on the access available. Three typical types of pneumatic hand drills, in common use, are the: «Straight Drills * Angled Drills * Pistol Grip Drills, Page 43European aviation Straight Drills have conventional chucks and keys to accept twist drills with diameters up to 5 mm ('“/sc") and have push-button operation. These drills can be used for all conventional drilling operations where direct access is possible Angled Drills are available for driling holes in positions where access is not possible with straight types. The most common types of angled drills are the Angled and Offset Head oflls (refer to Fig, 30), both of which will accept twist aris with diameters in sizes up to 4.8 mm (*ho"). Each drill size requires its own chuck collet, which is tightened into place with collet spanners. Pistol Grip Drills (refer to Fig. 30), have standard chuck and key arrangements, accept twist drills of diameters up to 8 mm (‘/;e") and have a trigger operation. All drills may be found with built-in filters, pre-set compressed air pressure- reducing devices and a requirement for lubrication. The air supply is normally via @ quick release, male and female coupling (bayonet type), allowing the tool to be moved from place to place, as the work requires. Typical Angled and Pistol Grip Pneumatic Hand Drill Fig. 30 3.2.4 Pneumatically Powered Riveting Hammers The two basic types, into which these hammers may be divided, are: * Short-Stroke: fast hitting hammers, which produce light blows « Long-Stroke: slower-hitting hammers, which produce heavy blows. The short-stroke hammers are usually used for “fap" ot ‘ie! rivets and their bodies are made from lightweight, aluminium alloy castings. Different handle styles are provided for both types of hammers (refer to Fig. 31). The Fistol Grip and Swan Neck are the most popular styles, with the Push Button (Straight) type being available for special applications where access Is not possible for either of the more popular styles of hammer. Page 44European Aviation Par 147 Approves Organization tnsune S27 orm organ Pistol Grip ‘Swan Neck Push Buttonr = Straight 3.2.5 Pneumatic Miller (Microshaver) Certain hollow rivets leave @ mandrel projecting from the work after the closing action, These are removed, leaving a flush surface, by careful use of a Miller or Microshaver (refer Fig. 32). The miller has an adjustable stop, to prevent the cutting tool (which rotates at high speed), from damaging the aircraft skin. Two rubber feet give the tool ‘stability during the cutting operation. When the shank of the rivet is closed into a countersunk hole (where the rivet is installed from inside the aircraft skin), there can be a small amount of metal projecting above the skin line. This excess metal is also removed using a miller. QR Kha Kika KG SN SSS _BSSSG_SS YS a Unformed — Formed Milled Rivet Rivet Rivet Pneumatic Miller Fig, 32 Page 45European aviation 3.2.6 Abrasive Wheels ‘The most common types of Abrasive (or Grinding) Wheels, found in workshops are the double-wheeled, bench-mounted machines, with a coarse abrasive wheel, used for rapid metal removal (green type wheel), normal work (course wheel) of a finer grade wheel, used for smoother work. The two main types of abrasives, used for grinding wheels, are: « Aluminium Oxide or Corundum: next in hardness to diamond, the blue variety of which is the sapphire, while the red variety is the ruby * Silicon Carbide: formed by the fusing together of silica (or sand) with carbon, in an electric furnace. Aluminium Oxide (Corundum), abrasive wheels are used for steel and other ferrous metals of high tensile strength. Silicon Carbide (better known under the trade name of ‘Carborundum’), wheels are used, primarily, for hard, brittle metals such as cast iron, but may also be used for grinding aluminium, brass, bronze or copper. Wheels, which are designated for use with steels, must NEVER, under any circumstances, be used for the grinding of any other materials, and in particular, NOT soft materials (light and copper alloys, wood, plastics etc.). The wheel of a grinding machine rotates from the top down toward the work piece. 3.3 PRECISION MEASURING INSTRUMENTS Where the smallest graduation on a rule is usually either 1 mm or, perhaps, "/se’, precision instruments are available which measure to 0.01 mm or to 0.000%" 3.3.1 External Micrometers ‘An External Micrometer (refer to Fig. 33), as the name implies, is used for measuring (or testing the level of accuracy of) the external sizes of objects. Graduated Bartel with Fiducial Ratchet Stop Spindl Anvi Locking Ring rame Extemal Micrometer Fia. 33 Page 46European aviation The standard (or common) extemal micrometer consists of an appropriately shaped frame, to one end of which is attached an internally threaded barrel (or sleeve) A partially, externally threaded spindle, located in a hollow, tubular thimble, is able to be screwed into (or out of) the sleeve by means of rotating the thimble. The working tip of the spindle has an accurately machined face, to match the equally accurately machined face of the anvil. The anvil is located at the opposite end of the frame and, with the spindle moved sufficiently, the object to be measured is placed between the faces of the anvil and the spindle. The ratchet stop is used to rotate the thimble so that the spindle moves until the object is held between the faces of the spindle and the anvil. To prevent distortion of the frame and to ensure that the reading is constant when taken by different users of the instrument, the ratchet stop ‘slips @ clicks!) when sufficient pressure is applied to the object being measured. The principle of the micrometer is based on the lead of the screw thread. This is the distance the thread moves, either forwards or backwards, during one complete revolution of the thimble. The circumference of the thimble and the length of the barrel are graduated to indicate the measurement of the object that is in contact with the faces of the anvil and the spindle. The barrel also has a datum (fiducial) line, against which the measurements are made, from the bevelled end of the thimble as it uncovers the markings on the fiducial line. The thimble is bevelled so that its graduations are brought close to those on the fiducial line. The bevelling eliminates shadows and also lessens parallax error when reading the measurement. The body of the micrometer usually has a matt finish, which serves to reduce glare and, thus, aids accurate readings. The locking ring (some micrometers have @ locking lever) is used to lock the spindle, when the instrument is employed as a fixed (or snap) gauge ‘The mechanism of the external micrometer is arranged so that the spindle face can only move between 0 - 25 mm (or 0 — ‘in) from the anvil face and, thus, the standard micrometer has the capability to measure items which are in this range, For larger items, the size of the frame is simply increased in successive increments of 25 mm (or ‘1in). For example, the next size of micrometer would be able to measure between 25 mm — 60 mm (1 in —2 in), the next 50 mm — 75 mm (2 in —3 in) and so on. While the frames increase in size to accommodate the larger items, the spindle movement (of external micrometers) remains in the range of 0 - 25 mm (0 ~ 1 in) Both Metric and Imperial micrometers (while their units of measurement are different), are operated in a similar manner. The Metric micrometer uses a thread pitch and, thus, a lead, of 0.5 mm (two threads per millimetre), so that the thimble moves over the barrel a distance of 0.5 mm per revolution. The fiducial line, on the barrel, is marked in increments of 0.5 mm and 1 mm, with numerals at intervals of 5 mm (5, 10, 16, ete.) to 25 mm. Page 47European aviation The thimble has a total of 50 markings, so that one thimble division represents ‘iso of 0.5 mm, or 0.01 mm. When reading a Metric micrometer (refer to Fig. 24) itis, frst of all, necessary to decide ‘on the number of divisions, on the fiducial line, which are exposed by the thimble and to note the division on the thimble which also coincides with the fiducial line. ‘The subsequent actions, to arrive at the dimension being measured, are to: ‘* Note the number of main divisions exposed (as shown at A = 8.00 mm) * Note the additional number of sub-divisions (as shown at B = 0.50 mm) * Note the number of divisions on the thimble (as shown at C = 0.28 mm) «Add all the numbers together to provide the total dimension (8.78 mm). Imperial Micrometers measure in decimals of an inch. Their screw threads have forty threads per inch, giving a ‘lead’ of "ac" (0.025"), which is the length of each sub-division on the fiducial line and represents one revolution of the thimble The thimble circumference is, now, divided into only 25 equal divisions, making one division read ‘fos of “f4a’, which equals 'f4o00" (or 0.001") movement of the spindle. Fiducial Line (0.5 mm divisions) Thimbis Bciipmn dkisions} Metric Micrometer Reading Fig. 34 Barrel markings are made at each tenth of an inch (1, 2, 3, 4, etc) with four sub- divisions between each main mark. Again, in a similar manner to the Metric micrometer, when taking a dimension, it is necessary to deduce the number of division, on the fiducial line, exposed by the thimble. Next note the mark on the thimble which aligns with the fiducial line and follow similar actions to those employed with the Metric micrometer. To ensure the integrity of any dimensions it is imperative that the faces of the spindles and anvils of micrometers are kept scrupulously clean. Page 48European aviation Micrometers should be stored in a protective case, preferably with a sachet of desiccant (or VPI paper) and not used in extremes of temperature (the temperature of a standards room is usually maintained at 20°C) Never store a micrometer with its spindle and anvil in contact. Changes in temperature will cause distortion of the frame, with the obvious consequences. Prior to use, the accuracy of a micrometer should be confirmed by doing a check on the zero setting (with the spindle and anvil faces in contact) and a sample check (using slip gauges or similar, accurate standard test pieces), of measurements within the range of the micrometer. 3.3.2 Internal Micrometers Internal micrometers are used for the precision measuring of internal dimensions, using much the same principles as those used with the external types. fandle (Ceplaced by a Grub Serew when the Handle is nat required) Intemal ‘Stick’ Micrometer Fig, 36 An Imperial, ‘Stick’ micrometer, consists of a micrometer head, with an overall closed length of only 1%", a ‘spacing’ collar which has a length of 14" and ten extension rods. The lengths of the rods increase in increments of one inch, with the shortest length being %" and the longest 9%" (e.g. 4", 174", 2%" etc.) The internal micrometer differs from the external type in that the thimble travel is only half an inch and so, from closed, the micrometer is capable of measuring intemal dimensions from 1%" up to 2". For dimensions greater than 2” it is then necessary to close the micrometer and attach the smallest extension rod ('4"), enabling dimensions up to 2%4" to be measured. By adding the spacing collar ('4") with the smallest extension rod, measurements up to 3" can be made, then, by removing both collar and rod and using the next rod (length 1%, itis possible to measure dimensions upto 3%" With alternate use of extension rod and rod/collar combinations, the Imperial intemal micrometer has a measuring range from 114" to 12". Page 49European Aviation Part 147 Aoproved © The three point micrometer This type of internal micrometer has three measuring anvils mounted 120° to each other. The inner ends of the anvils are angled and screw cut to sult the conical ‘measuring thread, springs fitted inside the cap ensure contact between them, —=—r = a a _= 3.3.3 Micrometer Depth Gauge The device (refer to Fig. 36) has a standard micrometer head (but the scale, on the barrel, Is reversed) mounted onto @ precisely ground base. When the spindle of the micrometer is flush with the face of the base, then the depth gauge reads zero and the thimble is at its maximum distance from the base. Micrometer Depth Gauge Fig. 36 3.3.4Vemier Micrometers Some micrometers (and other precision measuring instruments), have a ‘Vernier scale, which enables the instrument to measure to a greater accuracy. The ‘Vernier’ principle (inventor Pierre Vernier 1580 - 1637)) utilises two accurately graduated scales. The main scale may be fixed, whilst the other (the Vernier scale), moves parallel to the main scale (refer to Fig. 37), of, depending on the instrument (such as with micrometers), it could be the other way round, where the main scale moves while the Vernier scale is stationary. Page 50European aviation In the very basic example (refer to Fig. 37) ten divisions on the Vernier scale are made to equal nine divisions on the main scale, so that one Vernier scale division equals one tenth of nine millimetres (0.9 mm). The difference between one main-scale and one Vemier division is, therefore, 0.1 mm. Main ‘Vernier Vernier Principle Fig. 37 From this it can be seen that, whichever lines on the main and Vernier scales align, then the zero (or datum) marks will be displaced by the small amount shown on the Vernier scale. When the Vernier principle is applied to a micrometer (refer to Fig. 38), the Vernier scale is engraved on the barrel and is, therefore, stationary. The Vernier graduations are scaled, usually, to represent one tenth of those on the thimble, which enables a Vemier micrometer to read dimensions to an accuracy of one tenth of that of a standard micrometer. Consequently the graduations on the Vernier of a Metric micrometer represent 0.001 mm, while those on an Imperial micrometer represent 0.0001" Ten Vemier Scale Marks on Barrel. ‘Thimble Markinas Barrel Markings with Fiducial Line. Vemier Micrometer Fig. 38 Page 51European aviation * Note the main and sub divisions visible on the barrel (8.5) 500 mm © Note the nearest thimble reading below the datum line (27) = 0.270 mm + Note the Vernier line which aligns with a thimble line (6) * Add the readings to provide the total dimension 3.3.5 Vernier Callipers 776 mm. ‘A Vernier Calliper (refer to Fig. 39), is a versatile precision instrument, used to measure both inside and outside dimensions. Callipers, furthermore, have a working range of up to 150 mm (6 in) as opposed to the micrometer’s more limited movement. The Vemier scales on Imperial instruments are accurate to 0.001 inch, while Metric \Verniers have an accuracy of 0.02 mm. With some types of calliper, ‘nibs’ are located at the end of both jaws. The nib size, which is etched on the jaw, must be added to any intemal dimensions that have been measured. Two ‘target points may also be found on some callipers, one on the bea and one on the sliding jaw. These are used to set spring dividers accurately, when they are being used in a comparator mode. The target points are exactly the same distance apart as the reading on the Vernier and main scale Jaws for Internal pe ae Mensa Main Scale Position Lock Vernier Scale Jaws for External Measurement Vernier Calliper Fig. 39 3.3.6 Vernier Height Gauge The Vemier Height Gauge (refer to Fig. 40) is similar in construction to the Vernier calliper, except that an accurately machined, solid base replaces the fixed jaw and the beam is mounted perpendicular to the base, which enables the instrument to be used on a surface plate or table Page 52European aviation Initial Locking ‘Serew Vemier Scale Soriber Precision- Groung Vernier Height Gauge Fia, 40 3.3.7 Vernier Protractor The Vernier Protractor (refer to Fig. 41) provides greater precision than is possiisle when using a standard bevel protractor (or the protractor head of a combination set), and enables angles to be measured to an accuracy of five minutes of arc. It consists of a grooved blade, a graduated protractor head and a stock with true edges. The protractor head can be slid along the length of the blade to any required position and locked. The stock rotates about the centre of the protractor and can also be locked in any position. The angles formed by the edges of the stock, relative to the blade, are indicated on the protractor by an index mark ‘0’ on the Vernier scale that is attached to the rim of the stock disc, ‘The protractor scale is graduated in 180° from each end, meeting at 90° at the middle. This enables both acute and obtuse angles to be measured. The Vernier scale is formed into twelve equal parts, which are compared to twenty-three protractor main scale divisions (23°), so that one Vernier scale division represents 23/12 = 1° 55’. The difference between {wo protractor scale divisions (2°), and one Vernier scale division, (1° 55') Is, therefore, 5' of arc. Page 63European aviation Grooved Blade ‘Vemier Scale under Magnifier Blade Locking Device Stock Main Scale on Head Fine Adiustment Seale Locking Device Vernier Protractor Fig. 41 ‘The protractor is read from the zero on the protractor scale to the zero on the Vernier scale. This provides the number of whole degrees. The Vernier scale is read in the same direction until the coinciding line is met. The number of the coinciding line, (indicating minutes) must be added to the degrees, read from the protractor scale, to obtain the total value of the angle. 3.4 MISCELLANEOUS MEASURING TOOLS. 3.4.1 Gauge Blocks Gauge Blocks (also known as Slip Gauges), are, simply, precision-ground blocks of metal that are used either alone, or in combination with other blocks, to give extremely accurate measurements. The blocks are made from high-carbon steel or cemented carbide and are hardened, ground and lapped so that: + Opposite faces are fiat + Opposite faces are parallel + Opposite faces are , accurately, the stated distance apart. The opposite faces are of such a high degree of surface finish, that, when two blocks are wrung (pressed, with 2 simultaneous slight twist, by hand) together, they will remain firmly attached to each other. This characteristic, of gauge blocks, enable them to be built up, into combinations, which give sizes varying in increments of 0.01 mm (0.0004 in), and whose overall accuracy is of the order of 0.00025 mm (0.00001 in) even with workshop grade blocks. Page 54European aviation Gauge blocks are supplied in sets of 50, 78 or 105 pieces and protective blocks are provided for use with inspection and workshop grades, The protective blocks should, where possible, be used as the end blocks of all combinations, and the smallest number of gauge blocks should always be used when making up a combination. 3.4.2 Dial Test Indicator (DT!) The Dial Test indicator, or DTI, consists of a small dial, to the circumference of which, is connected a spring-loaded plunger. When the plunger is placed on a surface and moved over that surface (or the surface moved beneath the plunger), any variations in the surface condition will be indicated on the dial of the gauge. ‘A DTI (also called a Clock Gauge) is used, not for measuring the actual size of a component, but to indicate small differences in size or for indicating the amount of eccentricity (parallelism, run out) of revolving parts. Its dial is graduated to indicate thousandths of an inch or, in metric values, in increments of 0.01 mm or 0.001 mm, depending on the sensitivity required. The dial has the zero datum at the top (12 o'clock position), with scales of equal value to either side, which enables plus and minus values to be measured. The flatness of a surface of a workpiece, can be checked, by attaching a DTI to a scribing block that is standing on a surface plate, The surface being checked is set beneath the DTI plunger and the bezel is zeroed. The workpiece is moved beneath the DTI and variations in flatness are displayed and quantified by the dial reading. A bar may also be checked for bowing by using a DTI, attached to a scribing block, whilst the bar is supported by ‘V" blocks. 3.4.3 Feeler Gauges Feeler Gauges have a wide application and consist of a serles of thin, flexible, steel blades in varying thicknesses (normally from 0.04 mm to 1.00 mm or from 0.0016 in to 0.015 in) 3.4.4 Wire gauges used for measuring of sheet thickness and wire diameters 3.4.5 Screw Pitch and Radius Gauges These gauges are used to check the profiles of threads and radii, by comparison with ‘sets of blades held in a case much like feeler gauges. Page 55Part 147 Approves Orgerization Fig. 73 SCREW PITCH GAUGES Fig. 72, RADIUS GAUGES 3.4.6 Go/No-Go Gauges Where a single dimension has to be repeatedly measured, a comparator-type of gauge Js sed which checks, simply, whether a component is within a pair of dimensions, usually referred to as maximum and minimum dimensions. Plug Type Gauge Callioer or Snap Gauae Limit (GO/NO-GO) Gauges Page 56