The amygdala receives neuronal signals from all portions of the limbic cortex, as well as from the neocortex

of the temporal,
parietal, and occipital lobes—especially from the auditory and visual association areas. Because of these multiple connections,
the amygdala has been called the “window” through which the limbic system sees the place of the person in the world. In turn,
the amygdala transmits signals (1) back into these same cortical areas, (2) into the hippocampus, (3) into the septum, (4) into the
thalamus, and (5) especially into the hypothalamus.

Effects of Stimulating the Amygdala. In general, stimulation in the amygdala can cause almost all the same effects as those
elicited by direct stimulation of the hypothalamus, plus other effects. Effects initiated from the amygdala and then sent through
the hypothalamus include (1) increases or decreases in arterial pressure; (2) increases or decreases in heart rate; (3) increases or
decreases in gastrointestinal motility and secretion; (4) defecation or micturition; (5) pupillary dilation or, rarely, constriction; (6)
piloerection; and (7) secretion of various anterior pituitary hormones, especially the gonadotropins and adrenocorticotropic
hormone.

Aside from these effects mediated through the hypothalamus, amygdala stimulation can also cause several types of
involuntary movement. These include (1) tonic movements, such as raising the head or bending the body; (2) circling
movements; (3) occasionally clonic, rhythmical movements; and (4) different types of movements associated with olfaction and
eating, such as licking, chewing, and swallowing.

In addition, stimulation of certain amygdaloid nuclei can cause a pattern of escape, punishment, severe pain, and fear similar to
that elicited from the hypothalamus, as described earlier. Stimulation of other amygdaloid nuclei can give reactions of reward
and pleasure.

Finally, excitation of still other portions of the amygdala can cause sexual activities that include erection, ejaculation, ovulation,
uterine activity, and premature labor.

Effects of Bilateral Ablation of the Amygdala—the KlüverBucy Syndrome.

When the anterior parts of both temporal lobes are destroyed in a monkey, this removes not only portions of temporal cortex but
also of the amygdalas that lie inside these parts of the temporal lobes. This causes changes in behavior called the Klüver-Bucy
syndrome, (exploratory behavior and hypersexuality )

Overall Function of the Amygdalas. The amygdalas seem to be behavioral awareness areas that operate at a semiconscious level.
They also seem to project into the limbic system one’s current status in relation to both surroundings and thoughts. On the basis
of this information, the amygdala is believed to make the person’s behavioral response appropriate for each occasion.

Function of the Limbic Cortex

The most poorly understood portion of the limbic system is the ring of cerebral cortex called the limbic cortex that
surrounds the subcortical limbic structures. This cortex functions as a transitional zone through which signals are
transmitted from the remainder of the brain cortex into the limbic system and also in the opposite direction. Therefore, the limbic
cortex in effect functions as a cerebral association area for control of behavior.

Stimulation of the different regions of the limbic cortex has failed to give any real idea of their functions. However, as
is true of so many other portions of the limbic system, essentially all behavioral patterns can be elicited by stimulation of specific
portions of the limbic cortex. Likewise, ablation of some limbic cortical areas can cause persistent changes in an animal’s
behavior, as follows.

Ablation of the Anterior Temporal Cortex. When the anterior temporal cortex is ablated bilaterally, the amygdalas
are almost invariably damaged as well. This was discussed earlier it was pointed out that the KlüverBucy syndrome occurs.

Ablation of the Posterior Orbital Frontal Cortex. Bilateral removal of the posterior portion of the orbital frontal cortex
often causes an animal to develop insomnia associated with intense motor restlessness,

Ablation of the Anterior Cingulate Gyri and Subcallosal Gyri . The anterior cingulate gyri and the subcallosal gyri are the
portions of the limbic cortex that communicate between the prefrontal cerebral cortex and the subcortical limbic structures.
Destruction of these gyri bilaterally releases the rage centers of the septum and hypothalamus from prefrontal inhibitory
influence. Therefore, the animal can become vicious and much more subject to fits of rage than normally.

it is perhaps best to state that the cortical regions of the limbic system occupy intermediate associative positions between the
functions of the specific areas of the cerebral cortex and functions of the subcortical limbic structures for control of behavioral
patterns. Thus, in the anterior temporal cortex, one especially finds gustatory and olfactory behavioral associations. In the
parahippocampal gyri, there is a tendency for complex auditory associations and complex thought associations derived from
Wernicke area of the posterior temporal lobe. In the middle and posterior cingulate cortex, there is reason to believe that
sensorimotor behavioral associations occur.