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Physics of VLSI Devices
Dr. Rajan Pandey

Associate Professor, SENSE
Donald A. Neamen - Semiconductor physics and devices: basic principles (McGraw-Hill, 2011)
Evaluation
Methodology Max Marks Weightage
Continuous Assessment Test I 50 modified 15
to 30
Continuous Assessment Test II 50 modified 15
to 30
Home Assignment 1 10 10
Home Assignment 2 10 10
Quiz or Home Assignment 3 10 10
Final Assessment Test 100 40
Before we begin…..
• I presume that all of you have come from a vastly different background
at the undergraduate level.
• This course assumes that many of you have no background or very little
background in semiconductor physics and devices.
• Those of you who already know some topics, this is an opportunity to
relearn…..may be from a different perspective!
• I will cover the topics noted in the syllabus in the chronological order,
unless I tell you otherwise.
• The number of hours noted for each module may vary by an hour + or -.
We shall cover (in 3 contact hours):
• Introduction
• Building blocks of integrated circuits
• Energy band theory (with a preview on basic quantum physics)
• How the bands are formed in real solids?
• What makes certain materials metals, whereas others are
semiconductors or insulators?
• Basics of semiconductors (Silicon in particular – the workhorse of
semiconductor industry for more than five decades).
Introduction
• In order to understand the functioning of modern electronic devices, we must
understand the fundamental nature of electrons under different physical
conditions.
• Modern electronic devices use all kinds of materials such as metals, alloys,
semiconductors, high-k, low-k, ultra-low-k insulators.
• The functioning of electronic devices is governed by the fundamental
properties of materials forming the devices. What do I mean by that?
• One such fundamental property is the electronic band structure that
distinguishes from one kind of material to the other kind.
• Therefore we must learn the origin of the electronic band structures.
• Before that, we must understand the electrons in atoms and molecules and it’s
fundamental behaviour.
Introduction
• The integrated circuits are designed specifically to implement certain
mathematical algorithms for information manipulation. Information is
analog in nature i.e. continuous variation in the signal.
• Integrated circuits or chips are designed to manipulate the information.

However, whether this manipulation will be reliable or not will depend
on the reliability of the individual semiconductor devices, which are the
building blocks of any integrated circuit.
Building Blocks of an Integrated Circuit
Single crystal Si wafers Epi

Most common:
200 mm (~8 inches) diameter,
725 µm thick &
775 µm thick.
Fin
Oxide n-MOSFET
gate M e ta l G a te
High k
H ig h -k
source drain
n+ channel n+ In te rfa c e L a ye r
p-type substrate S ilic o n

Physics of VLSI Devices
Dr. Rajan Pandey
Review of Quantum Physics
• Short review of quantum physics. Why?

• Though most of the functioning of semiconductor devices can very well
be understood from classical physics (electrostatics, and transport).
• We need to go beyond classical physics to understand the energy band
picture in semiconductor devices, functioning of certain devices like pn-
junction in reverse bias, leakage current, tunnelling, tunnel diode,
photo diode, light emitting diodes, and all the modern semiconductor
devices including ultra-scaled MOSFETs.
• Semi-classical (Boltzmann) transport, and quantum transport (ballistic)
in nanoscale devices.
Quantum Theory of Energy and Matter
• Quantum Theory of black body radiation (Max Planck) – 1900.

• Photoelectric Effect (Albert Einstein) – 1905.
• Bohr model of atomic structure – 1913.
• Quantum Theory of Matter (Louis de Broglie, Erwin Schrodinger, Werner
Heisenberg, Paul Dirac, Max Born and many others) – 1920s onwards.
• Let us take the simplest atom – the Hydrogen atom (1 proton in the nucleus and
one electron around it).
• What are the typical dimensions of the nucleus and the electron orbit around it?
• 10-15 m, and 10-10 m (0.529 Angstrom to be precise) respectively.
• Let us zoom-in several orders of magnitude (say 1015) such that the nucleus has
about 1 meter diameter. How far the electrons will be from the nucleus if I
assume the Bohr model of an atom?
• Around 50 kilometres away (halfway between Vellore and Chennai)! So much
empty space within an atom!
Schrodinger Equation: what is it and why we use it?
• Schrodinger incorporated the quantization theory proposed by Planck and the wave-like nature of
matter as proposed by de Broglie.
• Schrodinger equation in the steady-state expresses the probability of locating an electron at a point
in space. The wave function Ψ(x,y,z) is a measure of the probability amplitude.
where m is the mass, V is the potential energy, and Ε is the total energy of the electron. This V will be
different for electron in an atom versus molecule versus solid state.
• The solution of Schrodinger equation gives the energy values, E and the associated electron wave
functions Ψ.
• The quantity |Ψ|2 dv is the probability that an electron with potential energy V and total energy Ε
will be located in the spatial volume dv at the point resulting from Ψ in terms of x, y and z.
• The wave function is a complex quantity, in general. Why?
• The imaginary part of a wave is generally associated with the absorption, attenuation (scattering)!
Schrodinger Equation
In finding Ψ, two postulates are of considerable importance. These are:
Postulate 1. The wave function Ψ and its first derivative are finite, continuous, and single-valued.
Postulate 2. The probability per unit volume of finding an electron at a particular position and at a
certain instant of time is ΨΨ*, where Ψ* is the complex conjugate of Ψ. Τhe reason for multiplying the
function by its complex conjugate is that the probability must be a positive real quantity, whereas Ψ is
complex in general. If we integrate ΨΨ* over the entire system (entire volume), the result must be
unity. Hence,
The composition of a wave packet at a certain instant.

Electron is most likely to be at x0 but a smaller probability
is that it could be found somewhere in the range Δx.
Derivation/Justification of Schrodinger Equation
The time-independent classical wave equation, in terms of voltage, is given as
where ω is the radian frequency and vp is the phase velocity. If we make a change
of variable and let ψ(x) = V(x), then we have
We know that
where ν and λ are the wave frequency and wavelength, respectively. From the wave–
particle duality principle, we can relate the wavelength and momentum as
Derivation/Justification of Schrodinger Equation

where T, E, and V are the kinetic energy, total energy, and potential energy terms,
respectively. We can then write
Atomic Orbitals of H atom
Solution of Schrodinger Equation:

Energy values (left ) & the wave functions (right).
Spherically symmetric
potential
,, , ,
,, , ,
The symbols n, l, m are the three

quantum numbers describing the
solution of Schrodinger equation.
Let us visualise these wave functions…..

,, , ,
The principle number, n :

Takes values 1,2,3,…
Angular momentum number, l :

Takes values 0 , 1 , 2 ,... n - 1
Magnetic number, m :
Takes values - l, -l + 1,… l
,, , ,
Electron spends most of the time close to

the nucleus (oscillating around it radially).
Becomes negative for r > a0
Note the behaviour of the wave function

at r < a0, r = a0, and r > a0
Plots of the radial factors Rn,l and (Rn,l)2 - and the

,, , , probability-density function D = 4πr2 (Rn,l) 2, for a 2s
electron.
Energy Bands in Solids
Dr. Rajan Pandey
Molecule formation: Homo-nuclear versus Hetero-nuclear
Covalent Bonding Ionic Bonding
Na: 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s1
Cl: 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p5
Bond
energy
Bond
length
1 KJ/mol = 0.01 eV
In the non-polar covalent bond Why molecules are formed? The 11th electron in “Na” is
of H2, electrons cloud is equally weakly bound and can readily
distributed on both the atoms. Because the atoms want to become be given out. Whereas “Cl” is
In the polar covalent bonds the stable by forming the electron duet highly electronegative, it takes
electrons spend most time (H2), electron octet (O2), so that they this extra “Na” electron to get
around higher electronegative become inert. stable.
atom e.g. O in H2O.
These pictures should give
Energy States of a Molecule us some idea about how
the bands are formed.
• Electronic excitations are in
Anti-bonding
visible range of spectrum.
state
• Whereas the vibrational
spectra are in infra-red
frequencies. H H
Bonding state
• Rotational spectra are in
microwave frequency range.
Bonding corresponds to the

overlap of wave functions of
constituent atoms. We’ll come
back to this again.
Anti-bonding – absence of
one of the bonding electrons.
Energy Band Theory
Free electron:
• An electron which does not interact with its environment. In other words, the electron
is in a medium where the potential is constant.
• Since the reference for potential is arbitrary the potential can be set equal to zero (V = 0).
• The time-independent Schrödinger equation in one dimension for such an electron:
E - electron energy,
m – free electron mass.
Energy Band Theory
The solution to the Schrodinger equation
Wave propagating along +ve x Wave propagating along -ve x

E-k diagram  parabolic relation
with or
E
What is the meaning of the variable k?
• The unit in which k is expressed is meter-1. Thus, k is a
vector belonging to the reciprocal space.
• In a one-dimensional crystal, however, k can be
considered as a scalar number for all practical purposes. 0 k
The energy of the free electron is a parabolic function of its momentum k, and forms a
continuous band which means that it can take all possible energies.
Electron in a one dimensional potential well
• A situation where the electron is confined within
a small region of space. The confinement can be
realized by placing the electron in an infinitely
deep potential well from which it cannot escape.
• To
. some limited extent, the electron in a potential
well approximately resembles that of electrons in Si (Z = 14 ) in the
an atom, where the attraction from the positively ground state:
charge nucleus creates a potential well that "traps" 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p2
the electrons.
Within the potential well 0 Boundary conditions
B=0
, n=1, 2, 3,…
The wave function is given by:
The energy of the electron is:

How is it different from free electron energy?
• The difference is that for a free electron, the wave number k and the energy E
can take any value, while in the case of the electron in a potential well, k and E
can only take discrete values. These values are fixed by the geometry of the
potential well.
• If the width of the potential well becomes very large ( ) the different
values of k become very close to one another (k = nπ/a), such that they are no
longer discrete values but rather form a continuum, as in the case for the free
electron. What is the typical length scale of a?
A very important question:

What values k can take when we have a finite crystal of macroscopic dimension?
Electron in a crystal of macroscopic
dimension (one dimensional chain)
• For crystals, the atoms are arranged in a periodic fashion.
In such a case a periodic boundary condition or the
Born-von Karman boundary condition, referred to as
cyclic boundary condition is more appropriate.
• To obtain these conditions, let us bend the crystal such

that x = 0 and x = L become coincident. From the newly
obtained geometry, it becomes evident that for any value
of x, we have the cyclical boundary conditions:
The wave function of electron
• Using the free-electron wave function, and taking into account the periodic nature of the problem, we can
write:
A – normalization
Which imposes the condition: with n as integer
constant
How the bands are formed in real solids?
Energy bands of a crystal
• In a single atom, electrons occupy discrete energy levels. What happens when a large number of atoms
are brought together to form a crystal?
• Let us take the example of a relatively simple element with low atomic number, such as lithium (Z=3). In
a lithium atom, two electrons of opposite spin occupy the lowest energy level (1s level), and the third
electron occupies the second energy level (2s level).
• If a molecule containing two lithium atoms is formed, four electrons "wish" to have an energy equal to
that of the 1s level. Because of the Pauli exclusion principle, only two of the four 1s electrons with
opposite spin can occupy the 1s level. This poses a problem for the molecule. The problem is solved by
splitting the 1s level into two levels having close, but nevertheless different energies.
Odd number of valence electrons

Anti-bonding
Valence
electron
Bonding
Core
electrons
Li Atom Li Molecule
Energy bands of a crystal (Metals)
• If a cubic centimeter of a crystal of Lithium is formed by bringing together 1023 Lithium atoms, each with
one 1s and one 2s energy levels, each of these energy levels will split and extend throughout the crystal.
• Each of these levels can be occupied by two electrons by virtue of the Pauli exclusion principle. Typically, the
energy difference between the highest and the lowest energy value resulting from the process of splitting an
energy level is on the order of a few electron volts (width of energy band). Therefore, the energy difference
between two neighboring energy levels is on the order of 10-23 eV. This forms a continuum of energy values
for the electron, and introduces the concept of energy bands in a crystal.
• Between the 1s and the 2s energy bands, a range of energy values are not permitted, and called forbidden
energy gap. Because the electrons occupying the 1s levels are confined (very deep) to the immediate
neighborhood of the potential wells generated by the atomic nuclei. The electrons of the 2s band, on the
other hand, can overcome nucleus attraction and move throughout the crystal.
Band could be partially empty Metallic bonds
2s band
Forbidden energy gap All the alkali atoms are
1s band metallic: H, Li, Na, K, etc.
If Hydrogen is solidified,
Odd number of valence electrons Li Crystal it will be metallic!
Energy Bands in Semiconductors
Covalent Bonds
Eg
Molecular potential
Schematic
representations Energy Bands
Si: 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p2
Si atomic EC
potential Eg
Even number of valence electrons EV
3s and 3p orbitals are in the valence
and so these orbitals will participate
in chemical reaction, bonding etc.
Si crystal
1s, 2s, 2p orbitals are deep down and
potential
therefore these orbitals form the core.
Valence band and conduction band
• Chemical reactions originate from the exchange of electrons
from the outer electronic shell of atoms. Electrons from the
most inner shells do not participate in chemical reactions
because of the high electrostatic attraction to the nucleus.
Likewise, the bonds between atoms in a crystal, as well as
electric transport phenomena, are due to electrons from the
outermost shell.
• The electrons responsible for forming covalent bonds between

atoms are found in the last occupied band, where electrons
have the highest energy levels for the ground-state atoms, is
called the valence band.
• The permitted energy band directly above the valence band is

called the conduction band. In a semiconductor this band is
empty of electrons at low temperature (T = 0K). The energy
difference between the bottom of the conduction band and the
top of the valence band is called "forbidden gap" or "bandgap“.
Electronic Properties of
Materials
Dr. Rajan Pandey
What makes certain materials metals, whereas
others are semiconductors and insulators?
Atomic Structure, Chemical Bonding, and Crystal Structure!

Bonding Forces in Solids
Na has 11 electrons. The 11th electron is Ionic bonds
weakly bound to the outer-most orbital
and can readily be detached or donated.
Na: 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s1
Cl is highly electronegative and can
take electron from outer orbital of Na. Cl: 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p5
Si atom has 14 electrons. 4 electrons are

tightly bound to the last and last but
one orbitals While pure Na is a metal.
NaCl is an insulator (Eg = 7 eV).
1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p2
Covalent bonds
One s and three p orbitals i.e.
s, px, py, pz mixed together
to get four sp3 hybrid orbitals.
Useful in chemical bonding!

What type of chemical bonding?
Decided by the difference in the electronegativity.

Electronegativity Bond Type
Ionic character increases

Covalent character decreases
difference
(0 - < 0.4) Zero Non-polar C-C
Si-Si
Covalent Ge-Ge
Polar Si-N
(0.4 – 1.8) Intermediate La-O
Covalent Hf-O
Na-Cl
(> 1.8) Large Ionic Ca-O
Metallic bonding involves sharing of electrons over many atoms of same type (like
covalent bond), but also the bonding is electrostatic in nature (like ionic bond).
Metals, Semiconductors, & Insulators
• In certain solids, electrons with the highest energies
can leave the atom and move in the crystal freely. A
material with such a property is a metal.
• In certain other solids, an electron must receive a

significant amount of energy before leaving an atom
and moving "freely“ in the crystal. A material with
such properties is a semiconductor. Thermal energy More spread out
or excitation from visible-light photons can give wavefunctions of
electrons enough energy for "jumping" from the electrons, & overlaps
valence band into the conduction band. Highly localised
wavefunctions of
• The distinction between a semiconductor and an electron
insulator is based on the value of the energy gap.
Semiconductor band gap is typically smaller than 2
eV. Insulators have significantly wider energy band
gaps: 5 eV – 9 eV. In these materials room
temperature thermal energy is not large enough to
place electrons in the conduction band.
Metals, Semiconductors, and
Insulators “Certain solids” with atoms having
even number of electrons are
insulators. Elemental: Si, C, Ge, and
compound: GaAs, ZnS. Most
Alkaline earth, and semiconductor-oxides and metal
transition metals oxides: SiO2, HfO2, ZrO2, TiO2, ZnO,
are exceptions. Si3N4, GaN.
Metallic bonds are large.
Covalent bonds are small. More spread out
wavefunctions of
electrons, & overlaps
Highly localised
wavefunctions of
electron
Covalent Solids
“Certain solids” with atoms containing odd number of
electrons like Li, Na, Cu, Au, Ag are metals. Most metal
nitrides: TiN, HfN have odd number of electrons.
A solid hydrogen would be a metal!
Metals, Semiconductors, and Insulators
Furthermore……
• A metal is good conductor having low resistivity.

• An insulator has high resistivity.
• A semiconductor has conductivity between conductors and insulators.
• In the basic building blocks of todays integrated circuits, we have all kinds of
materials: metals, alloys, semiconductors, low, ultra-low, and high-k insulators.
• Also, these materials have various physical forms or states, namely crystalline,
amorphous, and polycrystalline
Polycrystalline Amorphous Crystalline

Building Blocks of Modern Integrated Circuit
FEOL
Single crystal Si wafers (flawless, free from defects)
M e ta l G a te
Most common:
H ig h -k
300 mm (~12 inches) diameter, In te rfa c e L a ye r
S ilic o n
MOL Vias are connections

between the metal lines.
BEOL
Line
15-18 layers of Cu interconnects.

Basics of Semiconductors
Elemental and Compound Semiconductors
Elemental IV Compound III-V Compound II-VI Compound
Si SiC AlP ZnS

Ge SiGe AlAs ZnSe
GaP ZnTe
GaAs CdS
InAs CdSe
InSb HgS
InP ZnO
GaN HgSe
Most semiconductors have diamond or zinc blende crystal structures
Basics of Semiconductors
Dr. Rajan Pandey
Elemental and Compound Semiconductors
Elemental IV Compound III-V Compound II-VI Compound
Si SiC AlP ZnS

Ge SiGe AlAs ZnSe
GaP ZnTe
GaAs CdS
InAs CdSe
InSb HgS
InP ZnO
GaN HgSe
Most semiconductors have diamond or zinc blende crystal structures
Silicon Crystal Structure
• Unit cell of silicon crystal is Average bond length = 2.35 Å
cubic. 8 atoms in the unit Conventional unit cell
cell. Lattice parameter = 5.43 Å
• Each Si atom has 4 nearest Electron wavefunction in a

neighbors. periodic crystal:
• Cell volume = (5.43 Å)3

= 1.6 X 10-22 cm3
uk has the same periodicity
• Density of Si atoms: as the crystal.
2.35 Å
= 8/1.6 X 10-22 = 5 X 1022 cm-3
k = 2π/a, a = lattice parameter
Diamond structure: Similar to k = 2π/λ for a wave
Two interpenetrating FCC lattices 1/4, 1/4, 1/4 along the body diagonal.
FCC  Face Centred Cubic Lattice (there are 14 Bravais lattices)
Silicon Wafers and Crystal Planes The standard notation for
z z z crystal planes is based on
[111] the cubic unit cell.
direction
Silicon wafers are usually
(100) plane cut along the (100) plane
y (110) plane
y (111) plane
y with a flat or notch to help
orient the wafer during IC
fabrication.
x [100] direction x [110] direction x
As electrons move along (100) direction, they see a particular

arrangement of Si atom. If they move along (110) or (111)
direction, they will see a very different arrangements of Si
atoms in space. The electron transport in (100) or (110) or
Si (111) plane (111) orientations, will result in the change in the conductivity.
Energy bands formation in Si (qualitative)
Si (Z = 14 ) in the ground state:
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p2
• Let us consider an isolated silicon atom which has

14 electrons.
• Out of these 14, 10 electrons occupy the deep

lying energy levels forming the core
• Remaining 4 electrons are weakly bound and are

involved in chemical reactions
• We shall consider only these 4 outer electrons.

Energy Bands formation in Si (qualitative)
• As the interatomic distance is
decreased, electrons from the 3s
and 3p will start to interact and
their wave function will overlap
with each other.
3p
• At equilibrium interatomic distance
the energy levels split such that four
energy states per atom form the 3s
lower band and four energy states
form the upper band.
• Electrons accommodate the lower

energy states (valence band), 2p
whereas the higher energy states
2s
(conduction band) remain empty,
separated by a finite gap.
1s
Effective Mass
In an electric field, E, an electron or a hole accelerates.
Electrons, holes
Electrons and holes in solids under electric force field behave as if they have
effective mass rather than free electron mass, due to crystal potential.
Effective mass is a measure of the curvature of the band. Larger

the curvature, smaller the effective mass and vice versa.
Electron and hole effective masses
Si Ge GaAs InAs
mn/m0 0.2 0.08 0.067 0.026
mp/m0 0.49 0.33 0.51 0.42
Band Structure & Effective Mass of Si
Band structure of Si  2 k||2
 2 (k 21  k 2 2 )
E  , Inverse effective mass tensor
2ml 2mt
 mi1 0 0 
1  
There are six equivalent CB  0 mt1 0 ,
3.2 eV M E* 
1.12 eV valleys in Si at the band edge.
 0 0 mt1 
Doubly degenerate and set k 

  || 
of four-fold degenerate k E   k 1 
conduction band valleys k 
 2 
Direct band gap is 3.2 eV  2 T 1 

E  kE * kE
Indirect band gap is 1.12 eV 2 ME
(111) (000) Effective mass of electrons and holes in units of free electron mass
(100)
8
Light Hole Heavy Hole Light Electron Heavy Electron
High symmetry points in k-space.
These points show the optimal values 0.16 0.46 0.19 0.98
of energies: either maxima or minima.
Direct and Indirect band gap
Direct and Indirect Band Gap Semiconductors me* - electron effective mass
mh* - hole effective mass
• Most of the III-V and II-VI semiconductors have i - indirect band gap
ϵ - dielectric constant
direct band gap. Good optical properties. d - direct band gap
Eg – band gap
• Useful in optoelectronics, LED, displays m0 – free electron mass
a - lattice parameter
ϵ0 – permittivity of free space
Indirect band gap ∗ ∗
Material 𝒆 𝒉 ϵ (in Eg eV a (Å)
Direct band gap (in units (in units units (0 K)
of m0) of m0) of ϵ0 )
Si 0.19, 0.98 0.16, 0.49 11.7 1.12 (i) 5.43
Ge 0.08, 1.64 0.04, 0.28 16.2 0.67 (i) 5.65
Trap or
phonon GaAs 0.067 0.082 12.58 1.43 (d) 5.65
InAs 0.023 0.40 14.55 0.36 (d) 6.05
InP 0.077 0.64 12.37 1.27 (d) 5.86
CdS 0.21 0.80 5.5 2.42 (d) 4.13
k- Space band diagram CdSe 0.13 0.45 9.2 1.74 (d) 4.30
Indirect band gap semiconductors ZnS 0.40 0.86 8.9 3.60(d) 5.41
are not good for optical properties. Hole effective mass is greater than electron effective
mass in majority of the cases. Holes are heavier!
Variation of Energy Bands
Variation of band gap with alloy Variation of band gap with alloy
composition: GaAlAs composition: SiGe
SiGe  SixGe(1 - x)
GaAlAs  GaxAl(1 - x)As
System Band Gap (eV) Lattice Parameter (Å)
Si 1.12 5.43
SiGe: 12.5% Ge 0.95 5.45
SiGe: 25% Ge 0.87 5.48
SiGe: 50% Ge 0.82 5.53
SiGe: 75% G 0.82 5.59
SiGe: 87.5% Ge 0.78 5.61
Ge 0.67 5.64
!dea: Band gap engineering (optoelectronics)

Variation of Energy Bands Variation of band gap with Alloy Composition
Examples: GaAlAs, SiGe
GaAlAs  GaxAl(1 - x)As SiGe  SixGe(1 - x)
System Band Gap (eV) Lattice Parameter (Å)

Si 1.17 5.43
SiGe: 12.5% Ge 0.95 5.45
SiGe: 25% Ge 0.87 5.48
SiGe: 50% Ge 0.82 5.53
SiGe: 75% G 0.82 5.59
SiGe: 87.5% Ge 0.78 5.61
Ge 0.70 5.64
• The band gap of semiconductors also varies by introducing stress. The stress is introduced by depositing a
material called stress liner. Si3N4 is the stress liner usually used in the semiconductor integration process .
• As a result we can modulate the band gap as well as the curvature of the band, and therefore the effective
mass of carriers (usually a reduction). This has shown to increase the performance of the devices.
Measuring the Band Gap Energy by Light Absorption
electron
photons EC
Eg
EV
photon energy: hν > Eg
hole
Eg can be determined from the minimum energy (hn) of

photons that are absorbed by the semiconductor.
Bandgap energies of selected semiconductors
Semi-
conductor InSb Ge Si GaAs GaP ZnSe Diamond
Eg (eV) 0.18 0.67 1.12 1.42 2.25 2.7 6
Measuring the Band Gap Energy by Light Absorption
Q. If a semiconductor is transparent to light with a wavelength longer than 0.87 μm, what is
its band-gap energy?
Photon energy of light with 0.87 μm wavelength, with c being the speed of light
Therefore, the band gap of the semiconductor is 1.42 eV. The semiconductor is GaAs.
• The visible spectrum is between 0.5 and 0.7 μm. Silicon and GaAs have band gaps
corresponding to the hv of infrared light. Therefore they absorb visible light strongly
and are opaque (not able to be seen through, not transparent).
• Semiconductors such as indium and tin oxides have sufficiently large band gaps, and
are transparent to the visible light. They are extensively used as the transparent
electrode in LCD (liquid crystal display) flat panel displays.
Real Space Band Diagram
• Close to the band edge the E-k diagram shows parabolic band structure. Recall E = ђ2k2/2m.
• The electron transport in metals and semiconductor is governed around band edges.
• For the semiconductor devices, it is more suitable to use real space band diagram.
Metal type-2
Semiconductor band diagram with embedded Typical band structures at 0 K
k-space bands on top of the real space bands.
EC
Metal type-1
Eg
EV
• Metal conduction band is half-filled.

• Semiconductors have lower Eg than Totally filled bands and totally empty bands do not allow current flow.
insulators and can be doped. (Just as there is no motion of liquid in a totally filled or empty bottle.)
Major Semiconductor Devices
Ref: S. M. Sze and M. K. Lee
Semiconductor Devices:
Physics & Technology
Si and Ge band structures (quantitative) kz
k-space: ky
Brillouin zone
kx
CBM
VBM
Silicon Primitive unit

cell in real space
(100) k ~ 1/x.
Γ X Smaller the x,
larger the k and
vice-versa.
CBM From primitive unit cell of

VBM
two Si atoms, one can create
the conventional unit cell and
Germanium then the entire solid.
(111) CBM = Conduction Band Minimum
k (1/Bohr) Γ L VBM = Valence Band Maximum
Intrinsic and Extrinsic
Semiconductors
Dr. Rajan Pandey
We shall cover…
• Intrinsic semiconductors: Bond and Band models.

• Extrinsic semiconductors (doping a semiconductor): Bond and Band
models.
• Hydrogen-like donors and acceptors.
• Doping of compound semiconductors.
• Density of states
• Thermal equilibrium and Fermi function
• Fermi level
• Electron and hole concentration
• Equilibrium concentration
• Temperature dependence of carrier concentration
One shouldn’t work on semiconductors, that is a filthy mess;
who knows if they really exist!
• Wolfgang Pauli, 1931

• (Nobel Prize, Physics, 1945)
I am flashing this quote not to defame Pauli but to

convey to you that one should be skeptical in saying
something so strong without scientific proof.
"Kroemer's Lemma of Proven Ignorance":
If, in discussing a semiconductor problem, you cannot draw an Energy Band Diagram,
this shows that you don't know what you are talking about,
with the corollary:
If you can draw one, but don't, then your audience won't know what you are talking about.
In 2000, Herbert Kroemer was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics "for developing
semiconductor heterostructures used in high-speed devices and opto-electronics".
Bond picture of intrinsic semiconductor
Intrinsic Semiconductors
At 0 K Atomic arrangement when
viewed along <100> direction
• An intrinsic semiconductor is a perfect semiconductor

crystal with no impurities or lattice defects.
• At higher temperatures electron-hole pairs are

generated. The energy required to break the bond
At finite is the band gap energy Eg.
temperature
• For intrinsic semiconductors n = p = ni. At a given
temperature there is a certain concentration of
electron-hole pairs  ni.
Every Si atom is covalently bonded with 4 other

Si atoms (4 bonds) sharing two electrons each.
Band picture of intrinsic semiconductor
Electrons and Holes: Energy band picture of a semiconductor
• There are no charge carriers at 0 K, since the valence band is filled with electrons and the conduction
band is empty.
• As the temperature is raised, certain number of conduction band electrons and valence band holes are
created by the excitation of valence band electrons. After excitation to the conduction band, an electron
is surrounded by a large number of unoccupied energy states.
• The equilibrium number of electron-hole pairs in pure Si at room temperature is only about 1010 /cm3,
compared to the Si atom density of 1022 atoms/cm3.
• Recombination occurs when an electron in the conduction band makes a transition (direct or indirect) to
an empty state (hole) in the valence band, thus annihilating the pair.
electron kinetic energy
Not useful!
Increasing electron energy
Increasing hole energy
At equilibrium, the generation rate and recombination

rate are equal, and are temperature dependent.
Both electrons and holes tend to seek their lowest

energy positions. Electrons tend to fall in the energy
band diagram. Holes float up like bubbles in water.
hole kinetic energy
Extrinsic Semiconductors
• In addition to the intrinsic carriers generated thermally, it is possible to create carriers in semiconductors
by purposely introducing impurities into the crystal. The process is called doping, and it enhances the
conductivity of semiconductors.
• When impurities or lattice defects are introduced into an otherwise perfect crystal, additional levels are
created in the energy band structure, usually within the band gap.
• An impurity from column V of the periodic table (P, As, and Sb) introduces an energy level very near the
conduction band in Ge or Si. This level is filled with electrons at 0 K, and very little thermal energy is
required to excite these electrons to the conduction band. At about 50–100 K virtually all of the electrons
in the impurity level are “donated” to the conduction band. Such an impurity level is called a donor level,
and the column V impurities in Ge or Si are called donor impurities.
• Atoms from column III (B, Al, Ga, and In) introduce impurity levels in Ge or Si near the valence band.
These levels are empty of electrons at 0 K . At low temperatures, enough thermal energy is available to
excite electrons from the valence band into the impurity level, leaving behind holes in the valence band.
• Since this type of impurity level “accepts” electrons from the valence band, it is called an acceptor level,
and the column III impurities are acceptor impurities in Ge and Si.
Extrinsic Crystal lattice and chemical bond picture
These donor and acceptor
Semiconductors Donor levels are usually 10 – 50
meV away from conduction
1 Aluminum or Phosphorous band edge and valence band
atom in 100000 silicon atoms P
edge respectively.
(bulk) — 0.001 %, increases (Shallow levels) donors
Acceptor
the conductivity 1000 times! Al
Si14  1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p2 acceptors
P15  1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p3
Al13  1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p1
These are hydrogen like impurities
Energy band picture
Donor state
The binding energy of the
donor and acceptor
impurities ~ 10 – 50 meV
Acceptor state
Hydrogen-like impurities
We can approximate this situation by using the Bohr model results, considering the loosely bound electron
as ranging about the tightly bound “core” electrons in a hydrogen-like orbit. The magnitude of the ground-
state energy (n = 1) of such an electron is
The value of K must be modified from the free-space value used in the hydrogen atom
where ϵr is the relative dielectric constant of the semiconductor.
 Calculate the radius of the electron orbit around the donor, assuming a ground state hydrogen-like
orbit in Si. Compare with the Si lattice constant. Use m* = 0.26 m0 for Si. For Si, ϵr = 11.8.
∗ Learning:
Note that this is more than four lattice spacing of Si (a = 5.43Å) The wavefunction of the
Phosphorous in Silicon matrix is like a big hydrogen atom with one impurity electron extends
outer electron moving in effective nuclear charge of a proton, and over up to more than four
with Si atom in between, instead of vacuum. So we use ϵr instead lattice spacing!
of ϵ0. We also use effective mass instead of free electron mass.
Donors and Acceptors:
(Shallow versus Deep)
Conduction Band
Ec
Donor Level Ed
Donor ionization energy
Acceptor ionization energy

Acceptor Level
Ea
Ev
Valence Band
!dea: Defect engineering
Ionization energy of selected donors and acceptors in silicon
Energy levels of impurities
Donors Acceptors in Si, measured from the
Dopant Sb P As B Al In nearest band edge (Ev or Ec).
Ionization energy, E c –E d or E a –E v (meV) 39 44 54 45 57 160 Donor levels are designated
by a plus sign and acceptors
The shallow donors/acceptors are useful. Deep defects in most cases are problematic
by minus sign.
as far as electronic properties are concerned, but may be useful in optical properties.
What kind of doping in compound semiconductors?
GaAs, III-V Compound Semiconductors, and Their Dopants
Each Ga atom is
surrounded by 4
As atoms and
vice versa
• GaAs has the same crystal structure as Si.

• GaAs, GaP, GaN are III-V compound semiconductors, important for
optoelectronics.
• Which group of elements are candidates for donors? acceptors?
Doping a compound semiconductor
• In III–V compounds, column VI impurities occupying column V sites serve as donors.
For example, S, Se, and Te are donors in GaAs, since they substitute for As and provide
an extra electron compared with the As atom.
• Similarly, impurities from column II (Be, Zn, Cd) substitute for column III atoms to form
acceptors in the III–V compounds.
• A more ambiguous case arises when a III–V material is doped with Si or Ge, from
column IV. These impurities are called amphoteric, meaning that Si or Ge can serve as
donors or acceptors depending on whether they reside on the column III or column V
sublattice of the crystal.
• In GaAs it is common for Si impurities to occupy Ga sites. Since the Si has an extra
electron compared with the Ga it replaces, it serves as a donor. However, an excess of
As vacancies arising during growth or processing of the GaAs can cause Si impurities to
occupy As sites, where they serve as acceptors.
Doping a semiconductor in general
• The importance of doping will become obvious when we discuss electronic devices
made from junctions between p-type and n-type semiconductor material.
• In Si, for example, the intrinsic carrier concentration ni is about 1010 cm-3 at room
temperature. If we dope Si with 1015 As atoms/cm3, the conduction electron
concentration changes by five orders of magnitude. As a results, the resistivity of Si
changes from about 2 x 105 Ω-cm to 5 Ω-cm with this doping.
• When a semiconductor is doped n-type or p-type, one type of carrier dominates.

We refer to the small number of holes in n-type material as minority carriers and
the relatively large number of conduction band electrons as majority carriers.
Similarly, electrons are the minority carriers in p-type material, and holes are the
majority carriers. The minority carriers may also result from the intrinsic carriers
(electron-hole pairs) generated due to thermal agitation.
Intrinsic and Extrinsic
Semiconductors
Dr. Rajan Pandey
Density of States
E
Conduction band Dc
E
Number of states per unit Ec Ec Density of states
volume per unit energy D increases at higher
Ev Ev energies as E1/2
Valence band Dv Important, when we study the

electron/hole transport
Conduction band number of states in E  1 
Dc ( E )   3 
density of states E  volume  eV  cm 
8mn 2mn E  Ec 
Dc ( E )  mn = electron effective mass
h3 mp = hole effective mass
Similarly, the
8m p 2m p Ev  E  h = Planck constant
valence band Dv ( E ) 
density of states h3
For detailed derivation of DOS, please refer to Ben G Streetman
Terminologies
• No external forces are applied:
 No electric field
 No magnetic field
 No mechanical force or stress
 No interaction with light
• Equilibrium: every process in nature is balanced by its inverse process. For example
at thermal equilibrium
 Electron-hole pair generation rate = electron-hole pair recombination rate.
• Thermal agitation:
 Electrons and holes exchange energy with the crystal lattice and with each other.
 Every energy state in the conduction band and the valence band has a certain
probability of being occupied by electrons and holes respectively.
Thermal equilibrium and the Fermi function:
An analogy for thermal equilibrium
Sand particles
The question is how the carriers (electrons/holes) are distributed

among the available energy states in semiconductors?
Similar to the sand particles, in a semiconductor there is a certain probability for

the electrons in the conduction band to occupy high-energy states under the
agitation of thermal energy.
The Fermi Function: Probability of a State at E being Occupied
• There are g1 states at E1, g2 states at E2… • Electrons in solids obey Fermi–
There are N electrons, which constantly Dirac statistics, which considers
shift among all the states but the average the indistinguishability of the
electron energy is fixed at 3kT/2. k is electrons, their wave nature, &
Boltzmann’s constant, T is temperature. the Pauli exclusion principle.
• There are many ways to distribute N • We want to find the most
among n1, n2, n3….and satisfy the 3kT/2 probable distribution, which
condition. means that we want to find the
• The equilibrium distribution is the distribution that maximizes maximum of f(E)!
the number of combinations of placing n1 in g1 slots, n2 in g2
slots: • The Fermi–Dirac distribution function, f(E)
gives the probability that an available
energy state at E will be occupied by an
electron at absolute temperature T.
• EF is a constant determined by the condition n  N
i • The quantity EF is called the Fermi energy,
• The total number of electrons are fixed. If the total number which is very important in the analysis of
of electrons changes, the Fermi level will change. semiconductor behavior.
The Fermi Level (Fermi-Dirac distribution) Since it is a probability,
the value is: 0 ≤ f(E) ≤ 1
The distribution of electrons over a range of
allowed energy levels at thermal equilibrium At T = 0K
Larger the value of T, 𝒇 𝑬
larger the population

of e-h pair.
Probability that a state with
energy E is occupied: k is Boltzmann’s constant .
EF - is the Fermi energy
With T = 0 in the denominator of the exponent, f(E) is 1/(1 + 0) = 1 when the
exponent is negative (E < EF); and f(E) is 1/(1 + ꝏ) = 0 when the exponent is
0 positive (E > EF). This rectangular distribution implies that at 0 K every available
energy state up to EF is filled with electrons, and all states above EF are empty.
At T > 0K
For an energy E equal to the Fermi level energy EF, the occupation probability is
Thus an energy state at the Fermi level has a probability of 1/2 of being
occupied by an electron.
Fermi function–the probability of an energy
state being occupied by an electron
• At T = T1, there is some probability f(E) that states
above EF are filled, and there is a corresponding
probability [1 - f(E)] that states below EF are empty.
• The Fermi function is symmetrical about EF for all

temperatures. This makes the Fermi level a natural
reference point in calculations of electron and hole
concentrations in semiconductors.
• For intrinsic material, the Fermi level EF must lie at the

middle of the band gap. Since f(E) is symmetrical about
EF, the electron probability “tail” of f(E) extending into
the conduction band is symmetrical with the hole
probability tail [1 - f(E)] in the valence band.
• In n-type material, there is a high concentration Increased probability of
of electrons in the conduction band compared occupation of states in
to the hole concentration in the valence band. the CB by electrons.
Thus, in n-type material the distribution function
f(E) must lie above its intrinsic position on the
energy scale.
• The larger concentration of electrons at Ec in n-type

material implies a correspondingly smaller hole
concentration at Ev . The energy difference (Ec - EF)
gives a measure of how strongly n-type the material is.
Strong n-type  smaller (Ec - EF).
• For p-type material the Fermi level lies near the

valence band such that the [1 - f(E)] tail below Ev is Increased probability
larger than the f(E) tail above Ec. The value of (EF - Ev) of occupation of states
indicates how strongly p-type the material is. in the VB by holes.
1
f (E)  ( E  E F ) / kT
EF is the Fermi energy
1 e
Boltzmann approximation:
At large E (E – EF >> kT),
Maxwell-Boltzmann
1 in the denominator can f ( E )  e   E  EF  kT E  E F  kT
be ignored…
The probability of a state being occupied decreases exponentially
Fermi-Dirac with increasing E. This is the Boltzmann statistics.
For lower E (E – EF << –kT
or E << EF -kT),
f ( E )  1  e   E F  E  kT E  E F  kT
The occupation probability approaches 1. In other words, the low
energy states tend to be fully occupied.
There is only one Fermi level in a system at equilibrium

Carrier Concentration
Dr. Rajan Pandey
1
f (E)  ( E  E F ) / kT
EF is the Fermi energy
1 e
Boltzmann approximation:
At large E (E – EF >> kT),
Maxwell-Boltzmann
1 in the denominator can f ( E )  e   E  EF  kT E  E F  kT
be ignored…
The probability of a state being occupied decreases exponentially
Fermi-Dirac with increasing E. This is the Boltzmann statistics.
For lower E (E – EF << –kT
or E << EF -kT),
f ( E )  1  e   E F  E  kT E  E F  kT
The occupation probability approaches 1. In other words, the low
energy states tend to be fully occupied.
There is only one Fermi level in a system at equilibrium

Example: Let T = 300 K. Determine the probability that an energy level 3kT above the Fermi energy is
occupied by an electron.
The probability that a state is occupied is

1 1 1 1
f (E)  ( E  E F ) / kT
    0.047  4.7%
1 e 1  e ( 3kT ) / kT 3
1  e 1  20.09
At energies above EF , the probability of a state being occupied by an electron can become significantly
less than unity, or the ratio of electrons to available quantum states (ni /gi) can be quite small.
Example: Assume that the Fermi energy level for a particular material is 6.25 eV and that the electrons in
this material follow the Fermi–Dirac distribution function. Calculate the temperature at which there is a 1
percent probability that a state 0.30 eV below the Fermi energy level will not contain an electron.
1
The probability that a state 1  f (E)  1 
is empty is 1  e ( E  EF ) / kT
1
0.01  1 
1  e ( 5.956.25) / kT
Solving for kT, we get kT = 0.0653 eV, so the temperature is T = 756 K.
Electron and Hole Concentrations
The Fermi distribution function can be used to calculate the concentrations of electrons and holes in
a semiconductor, if the densities of available states in the valence and conduction bands are known.
n and p can be given in terms of D(E) and f(E)

Number of electrons top of conduction band From Boltzmann approximation
per cm3 in the entire n f ( E ) Dc ( E )dE
conduction band Ec
8mn 2mn 
  E  E F  kT We can choose the integration
n
h 3 Ec
E  Ec e dE limit from 0 to ꝏ.
We can write  8mn 2mn  Ec  EF  kT    E  Ec  kT

(E – EF) = (EC – EF + E – EC) 
h 3
e 0
E  Ec e d ( E  Ec )
Introducing a new variable The above integral becomes Gamma function

Electron and Hole Concentrations
32 Nc is called the effective
n  N c e  ( Ec  EF ) / kT  2mn kT  density of states (of the
where N c  2  2 
 h  conduction band).
A larger n implies smaller (EC – EF). What happens when (EC – EF) is negative?
Similarly, we can have the number of holes per cm3 in the entire valence band
32 Nv is called the effective

 2m p kT 
p  N v e  ( EF  Ev ) / kT where N v  2  2  density of states of the
 h  valence band.
For Si, NC = 2.8 X 1019 cm-3 and NV = 1.04 X 1019 cm-3.

Therefore, the closer EF moves up to EC, the larger n is; the closer EF moves down
to EV, the larger p is. This shows how strong n or p type the semiconductor is!
What do we mean by these?
n  N c e  ( Ec  EF ) / kT p  N v e  ( EF  Ev ) / kT
• If we know the position of the Fermi level, we can find out electron and hole
concentration. Conversely, if we know the electron/hole concentration, we can
estimate the position of the Fermi level with respect to the band edges (Ec or Ev).
• (Ec – EF ) negative means that Fermi level will lie above Ec. This implies a
degenerately n-doped semiconductor: Instead of the impurity level, there exist
impurity band. This heavily doped semiconductor, will behave like metal, and
even at 0 K, electrons will be available in the conduction band.
• Likewise (EF - Ev) negative means that Fermi level will lie below Ev. This implies a
degenerately p-doped semiconductor: Instead of the impurity level, there exist
impurity band, and even at 0 K, holes will be available in the valence band.
Electron and Hole Pictorially
Conduction band
Concentrations
• DC (E) is proportional to E1/2, so 𝑫𝑪 𝑬 𝒇 𝑬 = 𝒏(𝑬) 𝒇 𝑬
the density of states in the DC(E)
DC(E)
conduction band increases with
electron energy. On the other n
hand, the Fermi function becomes
extremely small for large energies. 𝒇 𝑬
The result is that the product Undoped semiconductor
f(E) DC (E) decreases rapidly above
EC , and very few electrons occupy 𝑫𝑽 𝑬 [𝟏 − 𝒇 𝑬 ] = 𝒑(𝑬)
energy states far above the
[𝟏 − 𝒇 𝑬 ]
conduction band edge. DV(E)
DV(E)
• Similarly, the probability of p

finding an empty state (hole)
in the valence band [1 - f(E)]
decreases rapidly below EV , Valence band
𝒇 𝑬 =𝟎
and most holes occupy states 𝒇 𝑬 =1
near the top of valence band.

n-type p-type
Electron and Hole
Concentrations:
After doping
DC(E) DC(E)
n
n
EFi – Fermi level of intrinsic
or undoped semiconductor 𝒇 𝑬
𝒇 𝑬
EF – Fermi level of either
n-type or p-type doped
semiconductor
DV(E) DV(E)
p
p
𝒇 𝑬 =𝟎 𝒇 𝑬 =𝟏 𝒇 𝑬 =𝟎 𝒇 𝑬 =𝟏
Electron and Hole Concentrations (T = 0K to T = 300 K)
(a) (b) (a) (b)

Energy band diagram at T = 0K for (a) n-type and The energy-band diagram showing (a) the discrete donor
(b) p-type semiconductors energy state and (b) the effect of a donor state being ionized.
(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Energy band diagram showing complete ionization of The energy-band diagram showing (a) the discrete acceptor
(a) donor states and (b) acceptor states. energy state and (b) the effect of an acceptor state being ionized.
Carrier Concentration: Summary
Majority
Majority
carriers
carriers
Minority Minority
carriers carriers
What decides the Fermi level position?
The Fermi Level and Carrier Concentrations
Where is Ef for (a) n =1017 cm-3? And for (b) p = 1014 cm-3?
For Si (at room temperature), NC = 2.8 x 1019 cm-3 and NV = 1.04 x 1019 cm-3
 ( Ec  E f ) / kT
(a) n  Nce At room temperature, kT = 26 meV

Ec  E f  kT ln  N c n   0.026 ln 2.8  1019 / 1017  0.146 eV 
 ( E f  Ev ) / kT
(b) For p = 1014cm-3, p  N v e

E f  Ev  kT ln N v p   0.026 ln 1.04 1019 / 1014  0.310 eV 
0.146 eV
Ec Ec
Ef
Ef
0.310 eV
Ev Ev
(a) (b)
General theory of electron
and hole concentrations
Dr. Rajan Pandey
The Fermi Level and Carrier Concentrations
Low Moderate Heavy doping
 ( Ec  E f ) / kT
n  Nce
E f  Ec  kT ln  N c n 
As n increases, NC /n decreases  ln(NC /n) decreases

 EC - Ef is smaller  Ef increases (as EC is fixed for a
semiconductor). Similarly for a p-type semiconductor.
For higher temperatures, thermally generated electron-hole pair will move the Fermi
level slightly down for n-type and will move slightly up for p-type semiconductor.
The np Product and the Intrinsic Carrier Concentration
 ( Ec  E f ) / kT  ( E f  Ev ) / kT
Multiply n  N c e and p  Nve
 ( Ec  Ev ) / kT  E g / kT
np  N c N v e  Nc Nve
2
np  ni What does it mean?
Doping a semiconductor with equal amount of n and p type dopants is equivalent to undoped semiconductor.
 E g / 2 kT Intrinsic concentration of a semiconductor is

ni  N c N v e strongly dependent on the band gap and the
temperature.
In an intrinsic (undoped) semiconductor, n = p = ni .
ni is the intrinsic carrier concentration = 1.5 x 1010 cm-3 for Si (300 K).
ni for GaAs = 2 × 106/cm3(300 K)! Why? Because the band gap is 1.46 eV (larger than Si (1.12 eV).
ni for Ge = 2 × 1013/cm3(300 K)! Why? Because the band gap is 0.67 eV (smaller than Si (1.12 eV).
What is the probability of a state above EFi being occupied at kT, 2kT and what will be ni at kT, 2kT?
The Intrinsic Fermi Level
In an intrinsic semiconductor, n = p. Therefore Ec – EF ≈ EF – Ev and the Fermi level is
nearly at the middle of the band gap, i.e., EF ≈ Ec – Eg/2. This level is called the intrinsic
Fermi level, Ei or EFi.
 E g / 2 kT
ni  N c N v e
 ( Ec  E F ) / kT
n  Nce
For intrinsic semiconductor  ( Ec  E Fi ) / kT
ni  N c e
EFi would be at the midgap, Ec – Eg/2, if Nc = Nv. For silicon, EFi is very close to the midgap.
More on donors, acceptors and intrinsic carrier concentration
Donor/Acceptor and intrinsic carrier concentration
N-type doped semiconductor: ND is the concentration
of the donor atoms:
• If ND >> ni (intrinsic carrier concentration)
Thermal agitation then the concentration of electrons in n-type
or light absorption semiconductor:
of
of
electrons
P-type doped semiconductor: NA is the concentration

of the acceptor atoms:
• If NA >> ni then the concentration of holes in p-type
semiconductor:
Thermal agitation
or light absorption of
of
Donor/Acceptor and intrinsic carrier concentration
If NA >> ni
NA
If NA >> ni or ND >> ni
is not true then what
happens?
If ND >> ni We shall discuss this

ND after a few examples.
EXAMPLE: Carrier Concentrations
• What is the hole concentration in an N-type semiconductor with 1015 cm-3
of donors?
nn = 1015 cm-3.
2
ni 10 20 cm -3
pn   15 3  105 cm -3
nn 10 cm
• After increasing T by 60 C, n remains the same at 1015 cm-3 while p

 E / kT
increases by about a factor of 2300 because ni 2  e g . As ni
increases, p increases but n does not increase in an n-type semiconductor
because 1015 + 103 = 1015.
• What happens to the Fermi level after raising the temperature by 60 C?
• What is np if pp = 1017cm-3 in a P-type silicon wafer?
2
ni 10 20 cm -3
np   17 3  103 cm -3
p p 10 cm
EXAMPLE: Complete ionization of the dopant atoms
In a silicon sample doped with 1017cm–3 of phosphorus atoms, what fraction of the
donors are not ionized?
Let us assume that all the donors are ionized.
n  N d  1017 cm 3  E f  Ec  146meV
The value of Ef is taken from
Room temperature is assumed 45meV 146 meV the previous problem on Fermi
Ed = EC - 45 meV Ed EC level position.
for P dopants in Si Ef
Ed – Ef = EC – 45 – (EC – 146) = 146 - 45

From the Fermi EV
function
Probability of electron
 1 1
occupying Ed ( Ed  E f ) / kT
 ((146  45 ) meV ) / 26 meV
 0.020
1 e 1 e
Therefore, it is reasonable to assume complete ionization, i.e., n = Nd .
What happens if we have a host semiconductor
doped with both n and p type material?
General Theory of n and p
A semiconductor at thermal equilibrium,
n
doped with both n and p type dopants.
Charge neutrality n  Na  p  Nd
requires that: and 2
np  ni
The above two equations Complicated 
can be solved for n & p. Isn’t it?
1/ 2
N d  N a  N d  N a  
2
2
n     ni 
2  2  
1/ 2
p
N a  N d  N a  N d  
2
2
p     ni  Decided by
2  2   the dominant
doping type &
Let us talk about some special conditions… Where will be the Fermi level?
temperature!
Degenerately doped
I. N d  N a  ni (i.e., N-type) n  Nd  Na Dopant Elements
semiconductors
2 n-type P, As, Sb
p  ni n
p-type B, Ga, In, Al
2
If N d  N a , n  Nd and p  ni N d
Type of doping Ratio

II. N a  N d  ni (i.e., P-type) p  Na  Nd
2 Heavily doped 1:103
n  ni p Moderately doped 1:106
Low doped 1:1010
2
If N a  N d , p  Na and n  ni Na
• The impurity level broadens into an impurity band that merges with the
conduction band in heavily doped semiconductor (i.e., when donors or
acceptors are close to one another).
• This happens for the same reason the energy levels broaden into Heavily doped n or p
bands when atoms are brought close to one another to form a crystal. type semiconductor
Generation and
Recombination
Dr. Rajan Pandey
A semiconductor at thermal equilibrium,
n
doped with both n and p type dopants.
Charge neutrality n  Na  p  Nd
requires that: and 2
np  ni
The above two equations Complicated 
can be solved for n & p. Isn’t it?
1/ 2
N d  N a  N d  N a  
2
2
n     ni 
2  2  
1/ 2
p
N a  N d  N a  N d  
2
2
p     ni  Decided by
2  2   the dominant
doping type &
Let us talk about some special conditions… Where will be the Fermi level?
temperature!
Degenerately doped
I. N d  N a  ni (i.e., N-type) n  Nd  Na Dopant Elements
semiconductors
2 n-type P, As, Sb
p  ni n
p-type B, Ga, In, Al
2
If N d  N a , n  Nd and p  ni N d
Type of doping Ratio

II. N a  N d  ni (i.e., P-type) p  Na  Nd
2 Heavily doped 1:103
n  ni p Moderately doped 1:106
Low doped 1:1010
2
If N a  N d , p  Na and n  ni Na
• The impurity level broadens into an impurity band that merges with the
conduction band in heavily doped semiconductor (i.e., when donors or
acceptors are close to one another).
• This happens for the same reason the energy levels broaden into Heavily doped n or p
bands when atoms are brought close to one another to form a crystal. type semiconductor
EXAMPLE: Dopant Compensation
What are n and p in Si with (a) Nd = 61016 cm-3 and Na = 21016
cm-3 and (b) additional 61016 cm-3 of Na?
Since Nd – Na >> ni
(a) n  N d  N a  4 1016 cm 3
2
p  ni / n  10 20 / 4  1016  2.5 103 cm 3
2 x 1016 donors have compensated for 2 x 1016 acceptors.

Electrons are majority carriers, and holes are minority carriers.
(b) Na = 21016 + 61016 = 81016 cm-3 > Nd

Since Na – Nd >> ni
p  N a  N d  8  1016  6 1016  2 1016 cm 3
2
n  ni / p  10 20 / 2  1016  5 103 cm 3
6 x 1016 donors have compensated for 6 x 1016 acceptors.
Holes are majority carriers, and electrons are minority carriers.
Temperature Dependence of Carrier
Concentrations
The variation of carrier concentration with temperature is given by
 E g / 2 kT
ni (T )  N c N v e
• ni has a strong temperature dependence and that EF can also

vary with temperature. The exponential temperature dependence
dominates ni(T). Variations due to the T3/2 dependence of the
density-of-states function is neglected.
• At T = 400 K, n >> ni for Si doped with Nd = 1015 cm -3. So Si would

be good n-type. Ge doped with 1015 donors per cm3 is not good if
it has to operate at 400 K because it has ni > n. So Ge would Semi log graph
require more donors for useful n-type functioning at 400 K. Let us
understand this more…
 Increase in temperature
Temperature Dependence of Carrier  E g / 2 kT
n  p  ni  N c N v e
Concentrations (n-type doping)
1/ 2
N N 
n   c d  e ( Ec  Ed ) / 2 kT
 2 
• Si is doped n-type, with Nd of 1015 cm-3.

• At very low temperatures (large 1/T), negligible intrinsic
n
electron-hole pairs exist. Semi log scale
• At about T=100 K (1000/T = 10) all the donor atoms are
ionized. This temperature range is called the ionization High Cryogenic
region. Carrier concentration, n Nd = 1015 cm-3. temp Room temp
temp
• At this point n is virtually constant with temperature
until the concentration of intrinsic carriers ni becomes
comparable to the extrinsic concentration Nd.  Increase in temperature
• At even higher temperatures, ni is much greater than Nd ,
and the intrinsic carriers dominate.
• In most devices, it is desirable to control the carrier concentration by doping rather than by thermal
electron-hole pair generation. Thus one usually dopes the material such that the extrinsic range extends
beyond the highest temperature at which the device is to be used. Device functioning should not vary with T.
• The effective mass of the conduction electron in a semiconductor at the band edge (m* ) is 0.1 m0.
Calculate the energy of the electron as measured from the edge of the conduction band in the vertically
upward direction (E) corresponding to the wave-vector having the value 0.3/Å. hbar = .
• A Si sample is doped with 1017 As atoms/cm3. What is the equilibrium hole concentration p at 300 K?
Since Nd >> ni we can approximate n = Nd
per cm3
• A GaAs sample is doped n-type at 6 × 1017 cm−3 Find out the position of the Fermi level at 300 K assuming
all donors are ionized. Given that NC = 4.45 × 1017 cm −3.
Since all donor are ionized, the electron concentration in the conduction band is:
 Ef is 7.8 meV above EC.

• In n-type Ge, the donor concentration corresponds to 4.41 × 1015 cm-3. Assume that the effective mass of
the electron equals one half the free electron mass. At room temperature, how far from the edge of the
conduction band is the Fermi level? Assuming full ionization n = ND. k = 1.38 X 10-23 Joules/Kelvin. h =
.
∗ /
8.87 x per cm3
Therefore, EF is 0.198 eV below EC.

Summary
 ( Ec  E F ) / kT
n  Nce
 ( E F  Ev ) / kT
p  Nve
n  Nd  Na
p  Na  Nd
2
np  ni
Generation and Recombination
Excess carrier concentration
• Let the equilibrium carrier concentrations are denoted by n0 and p0.
• The total electron and hole concentrations can be different from n0

and p0, when light shines on the sample and generates electrons and
holes.
• The differences are called the excess carrier concentrations n’ and p’.
n  n0  n'
p  p0  p '
Charge Neutrality n’
• If n’ and p’ are created by light or any other

means, they will be equal (as they are created in
pair) because of charge neutrality.
p’
Creation of excess electron and hole
• When a non-zero n’ is present, an equal p’ may be densities by photons
assumed to be present to maintain charge
equality and vice-versa.
n'  p'
Recombination of excess carrier

re-establishing thermal equilibrium
Electron-Hole Recombination
Recombination Lifetime
• Assuming that the light generates n’ and p’ carriers. If the light is

turned off, n’ and p’ decay with time until they become zero.
• The process of decay is called recombination.
• The time constant of decay is the recombination time or carrier

lifetime,  .
• Recombination is nature’s way of restoring equilibrium (n’= p’= 0).

Recombination Lifetime
• Relaxation time   ranges from 1 ns to 1 ms in Si and depends on
the density of metal impurities such as Au and Pt (deep traps).
• The deep traps (due to impurities) capture electrons and holes to

facilitate recombination and are called recombination centers.
How deep the traps
Direct are located?
Recombination
For Si band gap of 1.12
is unfavorable eV, a deep defect is 200
in silicon meV to 600 meV away
from band edges.
An electron–hole pair recombines when an electron drops from the

conduction band into the valence band either directly or through traps.
Recombination Lifetime: Direct and Indirect Band Gap
Radiative Trap Mostly

recombination non-radiative
recombination
Direct band gap Indirect band gap

Example: GaAs Example: Si
Direct recombination is Indirect recombination is rare as
efficient as k conservation k conservation is not satisfied.
is satisfied.
Rate of recombination (s-1cm-3)
The recombination rate (per cubic centimeter per second) is proportional to n’ and p’
dn n

dt 
Recombination rate increases with increase in the carrier
concentration, and decrease in relaxation time.
n  p
dn n p  dp 
  
dt   dt
EXAMPLE
A bar of Si is doped with boron at 1015cm-3. It is exposed to light such that electron-
hole pairs are generated throughout the volume of the bar at the rate of 1020/s·cm3.
The recombination lifetime is 10s. What are (a) p0 (b) n0 (c) p’ (d) n’ (e) p (f) n and
(g) the np product?
(a) p0 = Na = 1015 cm-3
(b) n0 = ni2/p0 = 105 cm-3
(c) In steady-state, the rate of generation is equal to

the rate of recombination.
1020/s-cm3 = p’/
 p’= 1020/s-cm3 · 10-5s = 1015 cm-3
EXAMPLE
(d) n’= p’= 1015 cm-3
(e) p = p0 + p’= 1015 cm-3 + 1015 cm-3 = 2×1015 cm-3
(f) n = n0 + n’= 105 cm-3 + 1015 cm-3 ~ 1015 cm-3 since n0 << n’
(g) np ~ 21015 cm-3 ·1015 cm-3 = 21030 cm-6 >> ni2 = 1020 cm-6.
The np product can be very different from ni2.

Quasi-equilibrium and Quasi-Fermi Levels
• Whenever n’ = p’  0, np  ni2, the semiconductor is not at equilibrium.
Nonetheless, we would like to preserve and use the simple relations:
 ( Ec  E f ) / kT  ( E f  Ev ) / kT
n  Nce p  Nve
• These equations lead to np = ni2.
• When np  ni2, we introduce two quasi-Fermi levels Efn and Efp such that:
 ( Ec  E fn ) / kT  ( E fp  Ev ) / kT
n  Nce p  Nve
Efn and Efp are the electron and hole quasi-Fermi levels. When electrons and holes are at
equilibrium, i.e., when np = ni2, Efn and Efp coincide and this is known as Ef. Otherwise, Efn ≠ Efp.
EXAMPLE: Quasi-Fermi Levels
• Consider a Si sample with Nd = 1017 cm–3.
1. Find the location of Ef.
2. Find the location of Efn and Efp when excess carriers are introduced such that n’ = p’ = 1015 cm–3.
( )/
Ef is below EC by 0.15 eV
( )/
Efn is nearly identical to Ef because n  n0 .

EXAMPLE: Quasi-Fermi Levels
( )/
0.15 eV 0.15 eV
Non-equilibrium
Thermal Equilibrium Condition
0.24 eV
Thermal equilibrium energy band diagram Quasi Fermi levels for electrons and holes
for Nd = 1017 per cm3 if 1015 per cm3 excess carriers are present
Comments
• Since the majority carrier electron concentration does not change, the quasi-Fermi
level for electrons is not different from the thermal-equilibrium Fermi level.
• To be very precise, the electron concentration has increased by a very small amount,
the quasi-Fermi level for electrons has moved slightly closer to the conduction band.
• The quasi-Fermi energy level for the minority carrier holes is significantly different
from the Fermi level and illustrates the fact that we have deviated from thermal
equilibrium significantly.
• Because the hole concentration has increased significantly so that the quasi-Fermi
level for holes has moved much closer to the valence band.
• We will consider the quasi-Fermi energy levels again when we discuss forward-biased
pn junctions.
Current Flow Mechanism in
Semiconductors
Dr. Rajan Pandey
Motion of Electrons and Holes
Thermal Motion
Even without an applied electric field, carriers are not at rest but possess finite kinetic energy due to
the heat exchange from surrounding in a material system.
Three degrees of freedom,
each having energy (1/2)kT
Average electron or hole kinetic energy
k – Boltzmann constant
T - temperature
vth = thermal velocity
meff - Conductivity effective mass
de Broglie wavelength of thermal electron 
de Broglie wavelength of thermal electron is a yardstick for quantum confinement in

nanostructures. For example: for Si it is 12 nm, implies that when the size of Si crystal
becomes comparable to or smaller than 12 nm, the electrons will be quantum confined.
Thermal Motion
– • Zig-zag motion is due to collisions or scattering
with imperfections in the crystal.
Net vth = 0
• Imperfections could be grain boundaries in crystals
– (also called geometrical defects), and atomic
impurities (point defects).
• Net thermal velocity is zero.
• Mean free time between collisions is m ~ 0.1ps.
Also called relaxation time
The distance between collisions (mean free path) is

a few tens of nm or a few hundred angstroms.
Because net vth is zero, we do not get electric shock

if we touch metals or heavily doped semiconductors.
However, the picture changes under the condition
of an electrostatic discharge, when the charge
carriers are under the influence of the electric field!
Drift
Electron and Hole Mobilities
The average velocity of the carriers is no longer zero when an electric field is
applied to the semiconductor. This nonzero velocity is called the drift velocity.
+ The zig-zag motion

is due to scattering In this case there is a net
drift velocity of the +ve
+ charge in the direction of
the electric field.
E
Drift is the motion caused by an electric field.
A faster carrier velocity is desirable, as it allows a semiconductor device or
circuit to operate at a higher speed.
m p v  qE  mp τmp – mean free time for hole
The drift momentum gained
τmn – mean free time for electron
between collisions is equal to
the force times the mean free qE  mp
v mp – hole effective mass
time (assuming for holes).
mp mn – electron effective mass
 v is the drift velocity

Force = rate of change of momentum v   pE
 E is the applied electric field
F = dp/dt = m dv/dt  m dv = F dt
q mp • p is the hole mobility and
m v = qE t p  • n is the electron mobility
mp
Mobility is a measure of how quickly the
The negative sign means that the
electrons drift in a direction opposite
v    nE charge carriers respond to the applied
electric field (as µ = v /E ).
to the field. They do so because the qmn
electron is negatively charged. n  Smaller the carrier effective mass, larger
mn the mobility, and vice versa. Larger the
mean free time, larger the mobility and
Engineering !dea: effective mass, mobility. vice versa.
 cm/s cm 2 
v = E ;  has the dimensions of v/E   .
 V/cm V  s 
Electron and hole mobilities of selected semiconductors
Why electron mobility

Si Ge GaAs InAs
Why InAs electron
is much higher than  n (cm2/V∙s) 1400 3900 8500 30000
the hole mobility? mobility is very high?
 p (cm2/V∙s) 470 1900 400 500
Engineering !dea
Based on the above table alone, which semiconductor and which carriers
(electrons or holes) are attractive for applications in high-speed devices?
• GaAs has a much higher µn than Si (due to a smaller mn). Thus, high-speed transistors can be made with GaAs,
which are typically used in communication systems.
• InAs has an even higher µn due to much smaller mn, but the technology of fabricating InAs devices has not yet
been fully developed.
Semiconductors
Dr. Rajan Pandey
Q & A on CAT - I
Q. How the examination will be conducted? What will be the duration?
A. Through MS Teams. Duration of examination will be 45 minutes to an hour.
Q. What type of questions will be asked?
A. Questions will be of mixed type. There will be conceptual questions as well
as questions requiring numerical solutions. The questions will be short
answer type - conceptual, and descriptive - numerical.
Q. Up to what topic or module, the questions will be covered in CAT-I?
A. Up to module 2 for sure, will be covered in the class before CAT-I.
Q. What will not be asked?
A. There won’t be questions on quantum mechanics - Schrodinger equation,
hydrogen atom problem etc.
Note that the questions (conceptual or numerical) related to energy bands may
be covered.
Drift Velocity, Mean Free Time, Mean Free Path
EXAMPLE: Given mp = 470 cm2/V·s for Si, what is the hole drift velocity at E = 103
V/cm? What is tmp and what is the distance traveled between collisions (called the
mean free path)?
n = mp E = 470 cm2/V·s  103 V/cm = 4.7 105 cm/s
tmp = mpmp/q =470 cm2/V ·s  0.39  9.110-31 kg/1.610-19 C
= 0.047 m2/V ·s  2.210-12 kg/C = 110-13s = 0.1 ps
mean free path = tmhnth ~ 1 10-13 s  2.2107 cm/s
= 2.210-6 cm = 220 Å = 22 nm
This is larger than the typical dimensions of devices manufactured today!
Do we expect ballistic transport?
Nope, because of many other sources of scattering (many other τ’s).
For a microelectronic device of say 10 micron, application of say 5V on the device would mean
an electric field = 5 V/10 µm = 5 V/10 x 10-4 cm  103 V/cm.
Mechanisms of Carrier Scattering
What are the imperfections in the crystals that can cause carrier collisions or scattering?
There are two main causes of carrier scattering:
1. Phonon (Lattice Vibration) Scattering

2. Ionized-Impurity (Coulombic) Scattering
Phonon scattering - mobility decreases when temperature rises:

1 1
m phonon  t phonon    T 3 / 2
phonon density  carrier thermal velocity T  T 1 / 2
m = qt/m
T
vth  T1/2
What about the impurity scattering mobility?
Impurity (Dopant)-Ion Scattering or Coulombic Scattering
The dopant ions are fixed charge in the semiconductor crystal. They can make electrons
and holes change the direction of motion through the coulombic force. An electron can
be scattered by either a donor (positive) ion or an acceptor (negative) ion:
Electron Boron Ion Electron
_
– –
+
Attractive Coulomb
Repulsive Coulomb Arsenic Ion scattering
scattering
• The mobility due to impurity scattering is inversely

vth3 T 3/ 2
proportional to the sum of the donor and acceptor ion
mimpurity   concentrations.
Na  Nd Na  Nd • It is also proportional to T3/2. Why is the mobility
higher, i.e., the scattering weaker, at a higher T?
• At a higher temperature, the electron has a higher
There is less change in the direction of travel if thermal velocity and flies by the ion in a shorter time,
the electron zips by the ion at a higher speed! and its direction of motion is less affected by the ion.
Total Mobility 1 1 1
 
m m phonon mimpurity
1 1 1
 
Electrons t t phonon t impurity
• Silicon hole mobility is about one-third of the

electron mobility. Part of this difference in
mobility can be explained by the difference in
the effective mass. The rest is attributable to
Holes the difference in the scattering mean free time.
• The inverse proportionality to dopant density is

not followed at the limit of very large Na or Nd.
The electron and hole mobilities of silicon at 300 K. At low • The reason is free-carrier screening. When the
dopant concentration, the electron mobility is dominated carrier concentration is large, the carriers can
by phonon scattering; at high dopant concentration, it is distribute themselves to partially screen out the
dominated by impurity ion scattering. coulombic field of the dopant ions.
Temperature Effect on Mobility
Lattice scattering - phonon
• At small dopant concentrations, μ decreases with
increasing T, indicative of the dominance of phonon
scattering.
10 1 5
• At very high dopant concentration and low
temperature, where impurity scattering is expected
to dominate, μ increases with increasing T. The
mobility data do not agree perfectly with the
previous data. Beyond a certain T, µ decreases.
• With increase in the dopant concentration, mobility
decreases, but it does not agree fully with the
previous data.
• This goes to show that it is not easy to measure
mobility accurately and that we should presume the
Schematic plot of the temperature existence of uncertainties in experimental data in
dependence of μn. general.
Velocity Saturation
• In small devices, the electric field can easily reach
105 V/cm. If the electron mobility is 103 cm2/V·s,
the drift velocity, according to v = μE, should be
108 cm/s. In reality, electron and hole velocities
saturate at around 107cm/s and do not increase
beyond that, no matter how large E is. Saturation of electron
drift velocity at high
• When the kinetic energy of a carrier exceeds the electric fields for Si.
optical phonon energy, Eopt, it generates an optical
phonon and loses the kinetic energy. Therefore,
the velocity does not rise above saturation
velocity, vsat which is 107 cm/s.
• Velocity saturation has a damaging effect on

device speed.
Drift Current and Conductivity
p-type semiconductor bar
When an electric field is applied in a semiconductor,
E Jp electrons and holes acquire drift velocity, and the
consequent motion results in electric current, which
unit is drift current.
+ area
A is the cross sectional area
normal to the current flow
+n
More useful way of quantifying v – drift velocity
current in semiconductor devices p – hole density per cm3
q – charge
Hole current density Jp = qpv A/cm2 or C/cm2·sec
EXAMPLE: If p = 1015cm-3 and v = 104 cm/s, then

Jp= 1.610-19C  1015cm-3  104cm/s
= 1.6 C/s  cm 2  1.6 A/cm 2
Hole current density in n – electron concentration
terms of mobility Jp,drift = qpv = qpmpE p – hole concentration
q – electronic charge
Electron current density in µ - mobility
terms of mobility Jn,drift = –qnv = -qn(-mnE ) σ – conductivity
ρ – resistivity
Jn,drift = qnmnE J – current density
E – electric field
The total drift
current density is
Jdrift = Jn,drift + Jp,drift = (qnmn+qpmp)E =  E
conductivity of a semiconductor:  = (qnmn + qpmp) 1/ohm-cm or siemens/cm
1/ = ρ  is resistivity (ohm-cm)
Usually, in the conductivity, only one of the components is significant because

of the large ratio between the majority and minority carrier densities.
Semiconductors
Dr. Rajan Pandey
p-type semiconductor bar
When an electric field is applied in a semiconductor,
E Jp electrons and holes acquire drift velocity, and the
consequent motion results in electric current, which
unit is drift current.
+ area
A is the cross sectional area
normal to the current flow
+n
More useful way of quantifying v – drift velocity
current in semiconductor devices p – hole density per cm3
q – charge
Hole current density Jp = qpv A/cm2 or C/cm2·sec
EXAMPLE: If p = 1015cm-3 and v = 104 cm/s, then

Jp= 1.610-19C  1015cm-3  104cm/s
= 1.6 C/s  cm 2  1.6 A/cm 2
Hole current density in n – electron concentration
terms of mobility Jp,drift = qpv = qppE p – hole concentration
q – electronic charge
Electron current density in µ - mobility
terms of mobility Jn,drift = –qnv = -qn(-nE ) σ – conductivity
ρ – resistivity
Jn,drift = qnnE J – current density
E – electric field
The total drift
current density is
Jdrift = Jn,drift + Jp,drift = (qnn+qpp)E =  E
conductivity of a semiconductor:  = (qnn + qpp) 1/ohm-cm or siemens/cm
1/ = ρ  is resistivity (ohm-cm)
Usually, in the conductivity, only one of the components is significant because

of the large ratio between the majority and minority carrier densities.
Relationship between Resistivity
and Dopant Density
Relationship between resistivity and
dopant density of silicon at room  = 1/
temperature.
DOPANT DENSITY cm-3

As the dopant density increases,
conductivity increases. Therefore P-type
resistivity decreases.
Do you see an ambiguity here?
N-type
For n-type donor  ≈ qn 1/ = ρ
n
in majority
But
Nd range 1014 – 1020, µn range 1400 – 100.

σ still increases as n goes up by 106 order
RESISTIVITY (cm)
whereas µn decreases by one order.
EXAMPLE: Resistance with doping
(a) What is the resistivity () of silicon doped with 1017cm-3 of arsenic?
(b) What is the resistance (R) of a piece of this silicon material 1m long and
0.1 m2 in cross-sectional area?
Difference Between Resistance and Resistivity
• Resistance is macroscopic or an extrinsic property and depends on the

geometry of the conductor or semiconductor, whereas the resistivity is
microscopic or an intrinsic property of a conductor.
• This means that resistivity of a conductor is always the same and is
independent of its length or size.
• Resistance and resistivity of a material are related to each other through an
equation Resistivity = resistance x area of cross-section/length.
• The same material (say Cu) would have the same resistivity, but the resistance
becomes higher as the cross section area gets smaller.
EXAMPLE: Resistance with doping
(a) Using the N-type curve in the previous figure, we find that  = 0.085 -cm.
(b) R = L/A = 0.085 -cm  1 m / 0.1 m2
= 0.085 -cm  10-4 cm/ 10-9 cm2
= 8.5  103 
EXAMPLE: Resistance with temperature
By what factor will R increase or decrease from T =
300 K to T = 400 K?
10 15
The temperature dependent factor in  (and

therefore ) is n. From the mobility vs.
temperature curve for 1017cm-3, we find that n
decreases from 750 at 300K to 400 at 400K.
Therefore conductivity decreases, and so resistivity
increases. As a result, R increases by a factor
Diffusion
• When a light is flashed at a small region near the

center of a long thin bar of semiconductor material,
electron-hole pairs, in addition to those available at
thermal equilibrium, are generated at the center
because of the light energy absorption by the
semiconductor.
• These excess carriers will move randomly to the right

and to the left of the generation zone, resulting in an
outwards flux of carriers away from the center. These
carriers are said to diffuse (like a drop of ink in a glass
of water quickly mixes with water).
Spreading of a pulse of electrons by diffusion.

Diffusion Current
Flux density
Dn(p) - electron(hole)
diffusion constant.
Particles diffuse from a higher-concentration

location to a lower-concentration location.
Flux density
Particles could be electrons, holes or even ions, atoms

Diffusion Current If the electron/hole concentration is not uniform, there will be electron/hole
diffusion current, which is proportional to the gradient of the electron/hole
concentration.
Dn(p) - electron(hole) diffusion constant.

Concentration gradient
Ln(p) - Electron (hole) diffusion length
τn(p) – Electron (hole lifetime)
Larger the concentration gradient,

more the diffusion current.
Larger the Dn is, faster

Electron flow Hole flow the electrons diffuse.
Current flow Current flow
Total Current – Review of Four Current Components
dn
Jn = Jn,drift + Jn,diffusion = qnnE + qDn
dx
dp
Jp = Jp,drift + Jp,diffusion = qppE – qD p
dx
These are current density equations
JTOTAL = Jn + Jp
E(x)
Electric field
Jp (diffusion), Jp (Drift)
n(x)
Concentration
variation Jn (diffusion)
p(x)
Jn (Drift)
Hole current = direction of hole motion
Electron current = opposite direction of electron flow.
Examples
• A specimen of metal has 7.87 × 1028 free electrons per cubic meter. The mobility of electrons in the
metal is 35.2 cm2/V-s (a) Compute the conductivity of the metal (b) If an electric field of 30 V/cm is
applied across the specimen, find the drift velocity of free electrons and the current density.
(a). Mobility = μ = 35.2 × 10-4 m2/V-s

Conductivity σ = neμ = 7.87 × 1028 × 1.6 × 10-19 × 35.2 × 10-4 = 44.32 × 106 Siemens/m or 1/Ohm-m
(b). Electric field E = 30 × 102 V/m

Hence, drift velocity of free electrons is v = μ E = 35.2 x 10-4 x 30 x 102 = 10.56 m/s
Current density J = σ E = 44.32 x 106 x 30 x 102 = 13.3 × 1010 A/m2
• Calculate the drift velocity of free electrons in a copper conductor of cross-sectional area (A) 10−5 m2
and in which there is a current (I) of 100 A, assuming the free electron concentration (n) of copper to
be 8.5 × 1028 m−3.
The current I through a conductor of cross-section area A and free electron concentration n is given by
The drift velocity

Examples
• A potential difference of 1V is applied across a uniform wire of length (L) 10m. Calculate the drift
velocity of electrons through the copper. Given that the relaxation time (τ) is 10−14 s and the
effective mass of the electron is 0.02 × 9.1 × 10−31 kg.
The electric field,
• Assume that, in an n-type gallium arsenide semiconductor at T = 300 K, the electron concentration
varies linearly from 2 x 1016 to 5 x 1015 cm-3 over a distance of 0.20 cm. Calculate the diffusion
current density if the electron diffusion coefficient is Dn = 195 cm2/s.
The diffusion current density is given by
, (1.6 )(195) 2
More Problems
• If the probability that a state being filled at the conduction band edge (Ec) is precisely equal to the
probability that a state is empty at the valence band edge (Ev), where is the Fermi level located?
Use Fermi-Dirac distribution function to arrive at your conclusion mathematically.
f(E) is the probability of a state being filled at E, and 1-f(E) is the probability of a state being empty at E.
Using F-D function, we can rewrite the problem as
1 1
Ec E f /kT  1 Ev E f /kT
1 e 1 e where f(E  Ec )  1  f(E  Ev )
E E /kT E E /kT
1 1 e v f 1 e v f 1
1 Ec  E f /kT  E  E /kT  E  E /kT   E  E /kT
1 e 1 e v f 1 e v f 1 e v f
Now, the equation becomes 1 1

E c  E f /kT   
 E v  E f /kT
1 e 1 e
This is true if and only if Ec  E f  Ev  E f 
Ec  Ev
Solving the equation above, we find Ef 
2
• The probability of a state being filled at Ec + kT is equal to the probability of a state being
empty at Ec + 3 kT. Where is the Fermi level located?
f(E) is the probability of a state being filled at E, and 1-f(E) is the probability of a state being
empty at E. Using F-D function, we can rewrite the problem as
f(E  Ec  kT)  1  f(E  Ec  3kT)

1 1
Ec  kT  E f /kT  1  Ec 3kT  E f /kT
1 e 1 e
where E  3 kT  E /kT E  3 kT  E /kT
1 1 e c f
1 e c f
1
1 Ec  3kT  E f /kT  Ec  3kT  E f /kT  Ec  3kT  E f /kT   E  3 kT  E f /kT
1 e 1 e 1 e 1 e c
1 1
Now, the equation becomes Ec  kT  E f /kT   
 E c  3 kT  E f /kT
1 e 1 e
This is true if and only if Ec  kT  E f  Ec  3kT  E f 
Solving the equation above, we find E f  Ec  2kT

Semiconductors
Dr. Rajan Pandey
Semiconductor in an electric field
1.5 V
Potential drop (gradient) across the Si bar
External electric field
1.5 V
E
Semiconductor bar acts like an ohmic resistor
Electron energy Constant takes care of reference
at the CB edge
EC (x) = constant – qV(x) 
Carriers will move when the
E electric field is applied.
1.5 V
Ec and Ev vary in the opposite direction from the voltage.
That is, Ec and Ev are higher where the voltage is lower.
The slope of Ec and Ev indicates the electric field. The electrons roll downhill like stones in the
energy band diagram and the holes float up like bubbles.
Semiconductor in an electric field
Kinetic energy
gained in an
electric field EC
Analogy of
water drop Superimposition of the
(E, k) band structure on
and a bubble
the E-versus-position.
in filled and EC
empty bottles EV
• When a voltage is applied across a piece of semiconductor, it

alters the band diagram. By definition, a positive voltage raises
the potential energy of a positive charge and lowers the
potential energy of a negative charge. It therefore lowers the EV • Electron energy increases
energy diagrams since the energy diagram plots the energy of going up, while hole energy
an electron (a negative charge). increases going down.
• Similarly, electron and hole
• The energy band diagram is lower (at the left) where the wavevectors point in
voltage is higher. The band diagram is higher where the voltage opposite directions and they
is lower. Ec and Ev are always separated by a constant Eg. move opposite to each other.
Einstein Relationship between D and 
Consider a piece of non-uniformly doped semiconductor.
• The semiconductor is at equilibrium,  ( Ec  E f ) / kT

and therefore the Fermi level Ef is
N-type semiconductor n  N ce
constant.
• The left side is more heavily doped dn N ( E  E ) / kT dEc
 ce c f
than the right side, and so Ec is Decreasing donor concentration dx kT dx
closer to Ef on the left side. Because
n dEc
Ec is not a constant, there is an EC(x) 
electric field equal to (1/q) dEc /dx. kT dx
• This field is internally created and is Ef n  dV 
as real as a field created by an   q 
kT  dx 
external voltage.
EV(x)
• Because the semiconductor is at
n
equilibrium, there cannot be any Internal electric field  qE
Jn or Jp. kT
Einstein Relationship between D and 
dn n
 qE
From the drift-diffusion dx kT
equation for electron
dn
  +
J n qn n E qDn  0 at equilibrium.
dx
qD
0  qn n E  qn n E
kT
Very important
kT kT
Dn   n Similarly, Dp  p relationship: µ is
q q drift component
and D is diffusion
These are known as the Einstein relationship. component.
Consequences:
(1) The electron drift and diffusion currents will perfectly cancel each other out for an arbitrary doping
profile, if and only if the above equation for electron is satisfied. The same is true for the hole.
(2) All the scattering mechanisms i.e. phonon and impurity scatterings that impede electron drift
would also impede electron diffusion.
EXAMPLE: Diffusion Constant
Calculate the hole diffusion constant in a piece of

silicon with p = 410 cm2 V-1s-1 ?
kT/q = 26 mV at room temperature.
 kT 
D p     p  (26 mV)  410 cm 2 V 1s 1  11 cm 2 /s
 q 
Summary
v p   pE dn
J n ,diffusion  qDn
vn  -  nE dx
J p ,drift  qp pE dp
J p ,diffusion  qD p
dx
J n,drift  qn nE
kT
Dn  n
q
kT
Dp  p
q
Transport Equations
The transport equations are a set of five equations that govern the behavior of
semiconductor materials and devices. The first two transport equations are the
drift-diffusion equations.
Drift-Diffusion Equations:
E
In one dimensional problem
E
Poisson Equation: Using the expression for Displacement current and from Maxwell’s equation
and
Using the relationship between the electric field and the potential Poisson equation tells
us: given the charge
density, what is the
potential and vice versa.
The Poisson equation
where ϵs is the permittivity of the semiconductor and ρ is the local charge density in Coulomb/cm3
in the semiconductor.
If all the doping atoms are ionized, which is the case at room temperature, one obtains:
In short In one dimension

Continuity Equation
Consider a differential volume of semiconductor material. The cross-sectional area of the volume under
consideration is A with length dx. An electron current density Jn(x) (unit: Amps/cm2) enters the volume and
a current density Jn(x + dx) flows out of it.
For one-dimensional current flow in the x-direction the variation of

the number of free electrons in the volume A.dx as a function of
time is given by the number of electrons entering the volume, minus
the number of electrons flowing out of the volume, plus the number
of electrons generated minus the number of electrons recombined:
U – Intrinsic generation rate

G – Extrinsic generation rate
Continuity Equation
Continuity Equation for

electrons in one dimension
Continuity Equation for

holes in one dimension
If we neglect the effects of
In three dimensions generation and recombination
Rate of change of carrier

concentration is equal to
divergence of J plus the
net carrier generation rate.
The set of equations composed of the drift-diffusion equations, the Poisson equation, and the continuity
equations is called the “transport equations”. The transport equations allows one to derive most properties
of semiconductor devices. These equations are solved numerically and are backbones of device simulators.
• In n-type Ge, the donor concentration corresponds to 4.41 × 1015 cm-3. Assume that the effective mass of
the electron equals one half the free electron mass. At room temperature, how far from the edge of the
conduction band is the Fermi level? Assuming full ionization n = ND. k = 1.38 X 10-23 Joules/Kelvin. h =
.
∗ /
8.87 x per cm3
Therefore, EF is 0.198 eV below EC.

• A Silicon sample is doped with Arsenic with number density Nd = 8×1016 cm-3 and as well as Boron with
number density Na = 3×1016 cm-3. Find Electron concentration, hole concentration and position of Fermi
level at 300K. Show Fermi level on suitable band diagram.
A new semiconductor has
Nc = 5x 1019 cm-3,
Nv = 8x1018 cm-3 and
Eg = 1.8eV. If it is doped with
5 x 1017 cm-3 acceptors.
Calculate the electron, hole
and the intrinsic carrier
concentration at 327 ºC.
Show Fermi level on
suitable band diagram.

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Physics of VLSI Devices

Dr. Rajan Pandey

• Integrated circuits or chips are designed to manipulate the information.

Single crystal Si wafers Epi

p-type substrate S ilic o n

• Short review of quantum physics. Why?

• Quantum Theory of black body radiation (Max Planck) – 1900.

The composition of a wave packet at a certain instant.

Solution of Schrodinger Equation:

The symbols n, l, m are the three

Let us visualise these wave functions…..

The principle number, n :

Angular momentum number, l :

Electron spends most of the time close to

Becomes negative for r > a0

Note the behaviour of the wave function

Plots of the radial factors Rn,l and (Rn,l)2 - and the

Bonding corresponds to the

Wave propagating along +ve x Wave propagating along -ve x

The wave function is given by:

The energy of the electron is:

A very important question:

• To obtain these conditions, let us bend the crystal such

The wave function of electron

Odd number of valence electrons

• The electrons responsible for forming covalent bonds between

• The permitted energy band directly above the valence band is

Atomic Structure, Chemical Bonding, and Crystal Structure!

Si atom has 14 electrons. 4 electrons are

Useful in chemical bonding!

Decided by the difference in the electronegativity.

Ionic character increases

• In certain other solids, an electron must receive a

• A metal is good conductor having low resistivity.

Polycrystalline Amorphous Crystalline

MOL Vias are connections

15-18 layers of Cu interconnects.

Si SiC AlP ZnS

Si SiC AlP ZnS

• Each Si atom has 4 nearest Electron wavefunction in a

• Cell volume = (5.43 Å)3

As electrons move along (100) direction, they see a particular

• Let us consider an isolated silicon atom which has

• Out of these 14, 10 electrons occupy the deep

• Remaining 4 electrons are weakly bound and are

• We shall consider only these 4 outer electrons.

• Electrons accommodate the lower

Effective mass is a measure of the curvature of the band. Larger

Doubly degenerate and set k 

Direct band gap is 3.2 eV  2 T 1 

!dea: Band gap engineering (optoelectronics)

System Band Gap (eV) Lattice Parameter (Å)

Eg can be determined from the minimum energy (hn) of

• Metal conduction band is half-filled.

Ref: S. M. Sze and M. K. Lee

Silicon Primitive unit

CBM From primitive unit cell of

• Intrinsic semiconductors: Bond and Band models.

• Wolfgang Pauli, 1931

I am flashing this quote not to defame Pauli but to

with the corollary:

• An intrinsic semiconductor is a perfect semiconductor