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Mechanical and tribological properties of ceramic tiles: a reappraisal

Conference Paper · September 2007

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
MECHANICAL AND TRIBOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF
CERAMIC TILES: A REAPPRAISAL

SERAMİK KAROLARIN MEKANİK VE TRİBOLOJİK

ÖZELLİKLERİ

Michele DONDI

Istituto di Scienza e Tecnologia dei Materiali Ceramici, CNR-ISTEC, Faenza, Italy

ABSTRACT

In the latest years, several mechanical and tribological data have been published
about ceramic tiles, including 3-point and 4-point modulus of rupture, fracture
toughness, elastic moduli, Poisson coefficient, critical defect size, Weibull modulus,
impact strength, creep, micro-hardness, and wear rates. Literature and unpublished
data of both porous (e.g. monoporosa) and vitrified (i.e. porcelain stoneware)
ceramic tiles are shortly reviewed, together with the available phase composition and
micro-structural characteristics. The applicability of general mechanical and
tribological models to design ceramic tiles with enhanced strength and wear
performances is appraised and the major technological problems are outlined and
discussed.

Keywords: Ceramic tiles, Mechanical properties, Tribological properties.

ÖZET

Geçtiğimiz yıllarda seramik karolar üzerine 3 ve 4 noktalı kırılma modülü, kırılma

tokluğu, Elastik Modülü, Puason oranı, kritik hata boyu, Weibull Modülü, darbe
mukavemeti, sürünme, mikro-sertlik ve aşınma oranlarını içeren çeşitli mekanik ve
tribolojik veriler yayınlanmıştır. Burada, porlu (monoporoza gibi) ve vitrifiye
(porselen stoneware gibi) seramik karolara dair literatür ve yayınlanmamış verilerin,
faz bileşimleri ve mikro yapılarla beraber kısa bir derlemesi yapılmıştır. İyileştirilmiş
mukavemet ve aşınma performansına sahip seramik karoların tasarlanması için genel
mekanik ve tribolojik modellerin uygulanabilirliği üzerinde durulmuş ve temel
teknolojik problemlere değinilerek tartışılmıştır.

Anahtar Kelimeler: Seramik karolar, Mekanik özellikler, Tribolojik özellikler.

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1. INTRODUCTION

In the last decade, a growing attention has been paid to both mechanical and
tribological properties of wall and floor ceramic tiles. Many data concerning 3-point
and 4-point modulus of rupture, elastic moduli, fracture toughness, Weibull modulus,
critical defect size, micro-hardness, roughness, and wear rates have been published,
particularly for porcelain stoneware tiles [1-24]. Although less frequently, Poisson
coefficient, impact strength, scratch resistance, and creep data have also been
determined [25-29]. This remarkable scientific interest is apparently not justified by
the compliance of international standards, which in contrast fix–only for modulus of
rupture and deep abrasion resistance–limits of acceptance that are quite easily
fulfilled by tile producers. For instance, standard requirements impose a minimum
value of bending strength of 35 MPa for porcelain stoneware and 15 MPa for porous
wall tiles, with even lower values for extruded tiles. Analogously, the tribological
performance of pressed tiles is expected to be better than that of extruded ones, with
abraded volumes up to 170 mm3 allowed for porcelain stoneware tiles (Figure 1).
40 1200
Modulus of rupture (MPa)

Volume abraded (mm )

3

1000
30 PRESSED
800
EXTRUDED
20 600

400
10 EXTRUDED
200 PRESSED
0
0
0 4 8 12 16 20
0 2 4 6 8 10
Water absorption (% wt) Water absorption (% wt)

Figure 1. Standard requirements (ISO 13006, EN 14441) for mechanical and

tribological performances of ceramic tiles as a function of water
absorption.
Şekil 1. Suyun bir fonksiyonu olarak seramik karoların mekanik ve tribolojik
performansları için standart gereksinimler (ISO 13006, EN 14441).

The driving force of these investigations is:

− better understanding of mechanisms governing tribological and mechanical
behaviour of ceramic tiles in order to properly design enhanced materials;
− facing still unsolved problems connected with wear or mechanical stresses under
working conditions, e.g. chipping (due to impact), loss of brightness (due to
scratches), breaking during polishing (load combined with rotating moment), late
warping and cracking (related to residual stresses).
This paper outlines literature and unpublished mechanical and tribological data of
both porous and vitrified ceramic tiles, trying to appraise the applicability of general
models involving micro-structural features and phase composition. Furthermore,
the main technological hindrances to design products with improved wear and
strength performances are reviewed.

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2. BENDING STRENGTH

From the mechanical viewpoint, ceramic tiles exhibit a brittle fracture all along their
wide porosity range (i.e. 0-40 %, approximately). The main mechanical variables,
however, are strongly affected by porosity, presenting a power dependence on the
pore fraction P, such as:
σ = σ0 (1 – P)k (1)
where σ is the modulus of rupture (MOR), σ0 the MOR of the pore-free material, and
k is a constant. Similar relationships are also present for the Young modulus and the
fracture toughness (Figure 2). However, no clear control of porosity on mechanical
strength is observed when single categories of tiles are concerned, i.e. when the
porosity range is restricted.
This situation is generally ascribed to the fact that silicate ceramics are defect-
sensitive materials. Therefore, their bending strength depends on the size and
geometry of the flaw causing the formation of the initial crack, leading to the
catastrophic breakage, according to the Griffith’s model [30]:
σ = Y-1 KIc c-1/2 (2)
where KIc is the fracture toughness, c is the critical defect size and Y is a geometrical
factor. Indeed, ceramic tiles seem to comply with this model, since both the linear
dependence of the modulus of rupture on fracture toughness and the inverse square
root correlation of σ on c are fulfilled (Figure 3).
Thus, porosity governs in a complex way the bending strength of ceramic tiles. Any
attempt to draw a Weibull probability plot for porcelain stoneware tiles – pointing
out by fractographic analysis different kinds of defects responsible for the rupture –
was unsuccessful. In many cases, in fact, the fracture energy is too low to develop
any microstructure useful to identify a specific flaw. Only for high breaking strength
samples, it was possible to identify flaws by the fractographic approach, being
usually coarser pores or zones with a higher pore concentration [19].
Interestingly enough, the flaw size (as estimated by fractography) frequently does not
correspond to the critical defect size (as calculated after the equation 2). A typical
example is pictured in Figure 4, where a porcelain stoneware specimen broke due to
a flaw consisting of a gathering of micro-pores, each of few microns, having on the
whole a diameter of about 200 µm. On the basis of its σ and KIc, however, this
sample has a critical defect size as coarse as ~500 µm; thus, the material is sensitive
to bigger flaws, not easily recognizable in a micro-structural investigation. More than
one single coarser pore, porcelain stoneware tiles breakage is due to a certain critical
concentration of micro-pores. This makes very difficult any micro-structural design
of the material, since tile makers have no easy manner to control the distribution of
the micro-pores remaining after sintering.
From this standpoint, attempts to apply the Weibull modulus, m, in the assessment of
the mechanical performance of ceramic tiles gives a rather rough picture (Figure 5).
Higher values of m, implying a more uniform distribution of bending strength data,
are found in wet ground instead than dry ground porous tiles. Such a distinction does
not arise for porcelain stoneware tiles, for which is not clear on what depend the
lowest values of m (micro-structural or micro-chemical homogeneity?)

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100

Modulus of rupture (MPa)

90 Porcelain stoneware
80 Porous tiles

70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0,6 0,7 0,8 0,9 1,0
(1-P)

90
80
Young modulus (GPa)

70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
(1-P)
2.0
1.8
Fr. toughness (MPa m )
1/2

1.6
1.4
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
(1-P)
Figure 2. Dependence of mechanical properties of ceramic tiles on total porosity
(1-P) [12, 20-23].
Şekil 2. Seramik karoların mekanik özelliklerinin toplam poroziteye
bağımlılıkları (1-P) [12, 20-23].

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2.0

Fracture toughness (MPa m )

1/2

1.6

1.2

0.8

0.4
10 30 50 70 90 110
MOR (MPa)

1100
Porcelain stoneware
Porous tiles
Critical defect size (µm)

900

700

500

300

100
10 30 50 70 90 110
MOR (MPa)

Figure 3. Modulus of rupture versus fracture toughness and size of critical defect in
porcelain stoneware and porous wall tiles.
Şekil 3. Porselen stoneware ve porlu duvar karolarında Kopma Modülünün kırılma
tokluğu ve kritik hata boyu ile değişimi.

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2 mm

200 µm
c calculated = 500 µm

c observed = 200 µm

Figure 4. Fractographic analysis of a representative porcelain stoneware specimen

broken under 4-point bending test.
Şekil 4. 4 noktalı eğme testinde kırılan porselen stoneware örneğin fragtografik
analizi.

The size <c> of the flaw initiating the crack – as detected under SEM–is around 200
µm, while the calculated size of c is around 500 µm.

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Therefore, the material seems to be sensitive to a concentration of defects (open
circles=micro-pores) more than to the occurrence of a single, coarser pore or grain.
40
porcelain stoneware
35 WET GROUND porous tiles
Weibull modulus m
30
25
20
15
10
5 DRY GROUND
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Modulus of rupture (MPa)
Figure 5. Weibull modulus vs. modulus of rupture of ceramic tiles. A distinction is
made between dry and wet ground bodies for porous tiles (unpublished
data).
Şekil 5. Seramik karoların Weibull ve Kopma Modülleri değişimi. Porlu karoların
üretiminde, kuru ve yaş öğünmüş bünyeler arasında ayırım yapılmaktadır
(yayımlanmamış veriler).

3. IMPACT RESISTANCE

Forces applied suddenly for a very short period of time have a twofold effect,
changing both the strains and stresses produced, and the resisting properties of
materials. Therefore, the mechanical behaviour is usually different under sudden load
compared to static load applied in the bending test of ceramic tiles. This agrees with
plenty of field observations about easy breakage by impact, even for tiles, highly
resistant under static bending conditions.
As a matter of fact, the modelling of impact behaviour is different from that of
bending strength for both stress and elastic energy at the point of fracture [31-32]:

stress under sudden load (N·m-2) s = [3 (W v2 g-1) (d2 E I-1 L-1)]1/2 (3)

where W is the load (kg), v the velocity of impact (m·s-1), g the gravity acceleration
(m·s-2), d the distance from the outer fibre (m), E the Young modulus (N·m-2), I the
moment of inertia (kg·m2), and L the specimen thickness (m);

elastic energy at the point of fracture U = 0.5 σ2 V k E-1 (4)

where V is the specimen volume and k is a constant. However, none of these models
has been assessed for ceramic tiles yet. Research up to now has been concentrated on
the development of suitable methods or on simple testing by steel ball drop [26].

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These models indicate two possible chances to increase the fracture energy (Eq. 4)
and hence the impact resistance:
− increasing the volume of the tile (that is the solution usually followed by tile
makers when design impact resistant, i.e. thicker products).
− Increasing the σ2/2E ratio, that in porcelain stoneware tiles is from 10 to 50 x103,
with most data in the 30-45 range [Figure 6 (a)].
This latter requires an optimization of the mechanical performance, for which at
present both the theoretical approach and the practice are lacking. In fact, no
investigation dealt with the reasons why there are two populations of data with high
(i.e. >35·103) or low σ2/2E ratios [Figure 6 (b)].

14 60

12 (a) 50

10

(MOR) / 2E ratio
40
Frequency

8
30
2

6
20
4

2
10 (b)
0 0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 2.3 2.35 2.4 2.45 2.5 2.55
2
(MOR) / 2E Bulk density (g cm-3)

Figure 6. Frequency distribution of the σ2/2E ratio of porcelain stoneware tiles (a)
and its correlation with bulk density (b).
Şekil 6. Porselen stoneware karoların σ2/2E oranının frekans dağılımı (a) ve
kitlesel yoğunlukla ilişkisi (b).

Direction of motion Plastic groove

Surface

c
b

Lateral crack Plastic zone

Figure 7. Simplified model of the wear process by an abrasive body [44].

Şekil 7. Bir aşındırıcı bünyeyle yapılan aşınma sürecinin basit modeli [44].

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4. ABRASION RESISTANCE

The wear resistance is one of the most important technical requirements, particularly
of porcelain stoneware tiles, since they are often installed in areas suffering a strong
wear by pedestrian traffic. An adequate knowledge of the tribological behaviour of
tiles is fundamental for both predicting the lifetime in service and improving the
polishing process, in order to achieve smooth surfaces with less defects and less
wastes due to breakage [33-42].
The response of porcelain stoneware to mechanical stresses, such those of a wear
process by abrasive particles, can be described by the classical scheme of fracture
formation by indentation [43]. A model derived from it is represented in Figure 7. As
a general rule, the amount of mass (Q), which can be removed by abrasion of a brittle
material, is directly proportional to the applied load (W) and inversely proportional
to the micro-hardness (H) and the fracture toughness (Kc). Different models have
been derived from this geometrical sketch, which are able to predict the amount of
material abraded per sliding unit of the abrasive body (Q):
W 5/8 (E / H )4/ 5
Evans & Marshall [45] Q = a3 1/ 2 (5)
Kc H 5/8
W 5 / 4d 1/ 2
Hutchings [46] Q = a4 3/ 4 (6)
A1 / 2 K c H 1 / 2
where a3 and a4 are material-independent constants, W is the applied load (kg), E is
the Young modulus (MPa), H is the micro-hardness (kg·mm-2), Kc is the fracture
toughness (MPa·√m), d is the size of abrasive particles (m) and A is the apparent
contact area (m2).
The behaviour of porcelain stoneware tiles to deep abrasion is satisfactorily
described by the Hutching’s model [23]. However, the determination of micro-
hardness by Vickers indentation is a critical point, being widely variable from 5 to 8
GPa [5, 9, 21, 27, 33-35].
As the mechanical properties are affected by the residual porosity present in the
porcelain stoneware, a certain positive trend between volume of material removed
and pore volume exists, though it is not able to explain the entire variance of the
measurements of wear resistance. The phase composition has a noticeable influence
on abrasion: the larger is the amount of “hard” minerals, the smaller is the wear rate.
In particular, mullite and zircon give the larger contribution to the wear resistance.

5. TOUGHENING

Various attempts have been aimed at evaluating possible toughening mechanisms

acting in ceramic tiles [13-15, 21], including the role of fibres added to the body and
the appraisal of residual stresses on glazed tiles [47-48].
In general, the complex microstructure of porcelain stoneware gives several keys to
infer strengthening/toughening mechanisms, involving the various crystalline phases
[13-15]. In particular, mullite and zircon are thought to improve the mechanical
performances through a predominant mechanism of matrix reinforcement, while
quartz micro-cracking plays an opposite role (Tables 1 and 2).

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Similarly, they enhance the wear resistance due to their hardness and to a dispersion
toughening-type mechanism, related to differences of thermal expansion and elastic
moduli between glassy and crystalline phases.
The lower value of the thermal expansion coefficient of mullite and zircon–
compared to the glassy matrix of porcelain stoneware–ensures a sort of toughening,
due to compressive effects at the crystal boundary [23].
In a rather fine grained body such as porcelain stoneware, fibres usually act more as
a sort of coarse defect than playing a toughening effect [6, 22].

Table 1. Elastic moduli and thermal expansion coefficients of the mineralogical

phases [21]
Çizelge 1. Mineralojik fazların ısıl genleşme katsayıları ve Elastik Modülleri [21]

Property Glass Quartz Mullite Corundum Zircon

Özellik Cam Kuvars Müllit Korund Zirkon
Young Modulus
64.4 94.5 143.1 376.9 165.5
Young Modülü (GPa)
Poisson’s Ratio
0.183 0.078 0.238 0.240 0.2
Puason Oranı(adim.)
Thermal Expansion
Coefficient
6.0-7.4 19.3 5.0 7.5 3.8
Isısal Genleşme
Katsayısı (MK−1 )

Table 2. Particle stress which crystalline phases undergo during cooling as

calculated on the basis of data in Table 1 [21]
Çizelge 2. Çizelge 1’deki verilere gore hesaplanmış, soğutma esnasında kristal
fazların maruz kaldığı tane gerilmesi [21]

Phase Stress on the Particle

Faz Tane Üzerindeki Gerilme (MPa)
Mullite
41 66 93 89
Müllit
Quartz
−370 −350 −330 −330
Kuvars
Corundum
−0.14 −38 −4.7 −9.4
Korund
Zircon
0.2 0.2 0.3 0.3
Zirkon

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6. CONCLUSIONS

The considerable effort spent in recent times to characterize ceramic tiles from the
mechanical and tribological viewpoints made available a lot of new data concerning
modulus of rupture, fracture toughness, elastic moduli, Poisson coefficient, critical
defect size, Weibull modulus, impact strength, creep, micro-hardness, and wear rates.
Some still preliminary investigations proved that general mechanical and tribological
models are actually applicable to ceramic tiles too. However, these attempts have at
present given just a rough picture of the interdependence of strength and wear
performances on microstructure and phase composition.
Much work still needs to be done to achieve a real engineering or at least a micro-
structural design of tiles with enhanced mechanical and tribological properties. The
main technological hindrance is represented by the scarce or no control at all of
phase composition and microstructure during the industrial tile making process.

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