Architecture of Ancient China (Part 3)

WOOD

- Chinese people trust that life is connecting with nature and humans should
interact with animated things, therefore wood was favored as opposed to stone,
which was associated with the homes of the dead.
- However, unlike other building construction materials, old wooden structures
often do not survive because they are more vulnerable to weathering and fires
and are naturally subjected to rotting over time.
- What differentiates traditional Chinese architecture from the traditional
architecture in other parts of the world is mainly the construction material.
- While most ancient Western buildings were constructed with stones, ancient
Chinese people simply loved wooden architectures.
- “ For the carpenters and artisans who preserve this architectural style, and for
the people who have lived in and among the space defined by it for generations,
it has become a central visual component of Chinese identity.” (UNESCO 2009,
on the intangible heritage of china)
- According to archaeological discoveries, Chinese people began to develop this
unique construction style as early as more than 7,000 years ago.
- Generations after generation and dynasties after dynasties, Chinese carpenters
and artisans had ingeniously invented a great number of wooden components to
build flexible and earthquake-resistant structures for durable dwellings,
magnificent temples, and grandiose palaces.
UNIFOREMD STURCTURAL FEATURES
- Most of the traditional Chinese architectural craftsmanship for timber-framed
structures have been recorded in ancient building manuals or treatises such as
“Mujing” or “Timberwork Manual” which has usually been attributed to Yu Hao
(AD 956-989), a highly experienced and skillful craftsman; “Yingzao Fashi” or
“State Building Standards” written by Li Jie (1065-1110), a renowned writer of
the Song Dynasty (960-1279) and “Qing Gongbu Gongcheng Zuofa” or the
“Qing Architecture Standards,” a 74-volume and 2768-page official
architectural guideline of the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911), which was compiled in
1734.
- These manuscripts and treaties had not only recorded the traditional methods,
practices, and techniques in production of complicated timber-framed structures,
but also set standards and specific measurements for wooden architectural
components and supports. So, that is why so many ancient Chinese buildings,
especially temples and palaces shared uniform structural features.

DOUGONG
- Due to the interlocking wooden bracket, the eaves of some buildings could
project out aa far as more than 4 meters, thus providing vital protection for the
wooden structures and mud walls from weather damage.
- The bracket sets also provide a vertical support for the uplifted roof edges, or the
so-called flying eaves, designed to let light penetrate the interior of a building.
- Apart from its practical function, dougong had also been used in ancient Chinese
architecture for its ornamental appeal. Usually, the more important the building
was, the more complex the dougong would be.

- The origins of the Chinese bracketing system also are found on pictorial bronzes,
showing a spreading block (dou) placed upon a column to support the beam
above more broadly, and in depictions of curved arms (gong) attached near the
top of the columns, parallel to the building wall, extending outward and up to help
support the beam; however, the block and arms were not yet combined to create
traditional Chinese brackets (dougong) or to achieve extension forward from
the wall.
 - The pieces are fit together by joinery without the use of glue or nail, and the
process can be repeated many times.

- Bracket systems help to solve problems that arise as buildings get bigger:

1. How to reduce beam spans

2. How to brace wall sections above columns
3. How to support a wide eave
4. How to strengthen the frame

WUJIA

- Wujia, or truss, is a framework of beams, rafters and posts forming a structure

to support a roof. In ancient China, trusses were almost always made of wood.
- Over thousand of years, Chinese trusses slowly developed distinct features.
Chinese wooden trusses were mostly rectangular with tenon-and-mortise works
and bracket sets while western countries usually built triangular trusses.
- Typically, ancient Chinese roofs were supported by beams and pillars rather than
walls. Due to semi-rigid tenon-and-mortise works, such frameworks were better
at shock absorption, which made such buildings safer in the event of an
earthquake.
- The ancient Chinese roof trusses can be roughly divided into two types, namely,
the post-and-lintel construction and the post-and-baulk construction.
 1. The former used two or more levels of post and lintel structure to uphold the
roof and the latter used square logs to bind together pillars and posts to
provide support to the roof.
2. The post-and-lintel construction was widely applied in official building,
temples, and folk houses in the northern part of the county, while the post-
and-baulk construction was often seen in the south.

- However, sometimes, both wooden roof trusses were used in the same building.

TIMBER FRAME
- Framework of the roof determine the position of the columns, often of nanmu
wood.
1. Rigidity of the framework and roof beams was relied on to keep the columns in
position on the stone foundation.
2. Roof beams were tenoned direct at various heights into the shaft without the
intervention of a second member or capital.
3. Development of a distinctive wooden framing system to support the heavy tile
roof distribute gravitational forces downward and then out through the wooden
frame.
4. Weight-bearing frame provides flexibility for the placement of walls, windows, and
doors.

Tailiang

Chuandou
 Two main kinds of framing systems developed:

- Pillars-and-beams (tailing)
- Pillars-and-transverse-tie-beams (chuandou)

ZAO JING

- As a distinctive architectural feature of temples or palaces in ancient China,

zaojing, or caisson ceiling, is an ornamental sunken panel in a ceiling or dome.
- Using mainly the mechanism of dougong (bracket set), the caisson is built with
multiple interlocking layers of wood structural members. They are always richly
carved, decorated or painted and appear in shapes such as square, circle,
hexagon and sometimes a combination of these shapes.
- As a symbol of sanctity, the caisson is always located directly above the most
import part of a temple or palace, such as the throne or an altar. So, the center of
a caisson is often decorated with bas-relief carving or painting of dragons or
other sacred creatures.
- Apart from its function for decoration, the caisson ceiling also represents one of
the 28 lunar mansions in the Chinese constellations system, which is in charge of
water. Since most ancient Chinese buildings were built with wood, the owners
wished to have virtual water source in the building to prevent fire hazards.
- So, often one can find caisson ceilings in ancient Chinese buildings decorated
with carvings or paintings of aquatic plants, such lotus and water chestnuts.
- Today, some most representative ancient Chinese wooden architecture is still in
existence.

TIMBER FRAM STRUCTURE

Advantages Disadvantages

Much easier to cope with than stone –

from collecting, transporting to Can easily be destroyed by fire
processing which save time and labor
Vulnerable to humidity and pest. Must
Resist earthquakes because of the use
be raised with columns and must be on
of tenons and mortises
a stone base.
Timber frame structure carries all the
weight of the roof as well as the beam,
walls perform as enclosures and
partitions
RAMMED EARTH
- To base the buildings, the builders made hard-stamped floors.
- People living along the Yellow River made rammed earth floors in 2000 BC, and
this was the common base of structures until modern times.
- For the buildings of the wealthy such as those in the Forbidden City, ceramic tiles
were used to pave the stamped earth. Bricks were also used to cover the
stamped earth.

- The earliest walls and platforms in China were of rammed earth construction, and
over time brick and stone became more frequently used.
- This can be seen in ancient sections of the Great Wall of China, while the brick
and stone on great wall seen today is a renovation of the Ming Dynasty (1368-
1644).
- For foundation of most imperial buildings are typically raised on raised platforms
as their foundations. Vertical structural beams may rest on raised stone
pedestals which occasionally rest on piles.
- In lower class construction, the platforms are constructed of rammed earth
platforms that are unpaved or paved with brick or ceramics.
- In the simplest cases vertical structural beams are driven into the ground directly.
- Upper class constructions typically have high raised stone paved rammed earth
or stone foundations with ornately carved heavy stone pedestals for supporting
large vertical structural beams. The vertical beams rest and remain on their
pedestals solely by friction and the pressure exerted by the building structure.
ROOF

Different types of roof:

1. Yingshan roof – there are two slopes and extension beyond the gables at
both ends.
2. Yingshan Juanpeng roof – it differs from Yingshan roof is that there is no
ridge on the top of the roof.
3. Xiashan roof – there are four slopes, and two triangular vertical planes are
added on the lateral slopes.
4. Xiashan Juanpeng roof – it differs from Xianshan roof is that there is no
ridge on the top of the roof.
5. Double eaves Xianshan roof – it differs from Xianshan Juanpeng roof is that
it is of double eaves.
6. Xuanshan roof – it differs from Yingshan roof is that there are gable boards
at the upper side of lateral ridges.
7. Wudian roof – it is in the from of four slopes with five ridges.
8. Tented roof (cone type) – there is no ridge in this type.
 9. Tenred roof (pyramidal type) – its difference from the cone type is that there
are ridges on top of the roof. It is a type of roof where all sides slope
downwards to the walls.

- Symbol of hierarchy
- Graded according to the size and difference in images from high to low; big to
small, important to less important.
- Roofs one over the other
1. Sign of dignity
2. Grandeur could be signified by the number of tiers – in terms of floors or
roofs.
3. Protect interior from extreme heat and cold
- Emphasis on the horizontal axis
1. Construction of a heavy platform and large roof that floats over the base, with
the vertical walls. Contrast to Western architecture which emphasizes height
and depth in buildings.
2. Stressed the virtual impact of the width and symmetry of buildings
3. Halls and palaces in the forbidden city – have rather low ceilings when
compared to stately buildings in the west, but their external appearances
suggest the all-embracing nature of imperial china.
4. Does not apply to pagodas.
- Use of color was restricted according to strict social status classification.
1. Yellow – symbol of the emperor
2. Green - 2nd to yellow
3. Blue – temples because of the symbol of heaven

- Decorative roof and ceiling. Decorations also convey through symbolization and
analogy, certain cultural connotations.

1. Dragons (Long) – reborn from its own ashes symbolizes continuity and
divinity.
2. Phoenix (Feng) – affluence or good fortune. They are used to represent
emperors and their consorts and were the main decorative patterns to be
seen on various imperial structures. Palaces, columns, pathways, and screen
walls are all inscribed or carved or painted with their images.
3. Tiger – divine power and strength.
- Roof ridges with elaborate ornaments

- Roof decorations include a dragon with a bell underneath, a man on a chicken

(tyrant emperor), various guardian beasts and a carp, which is believed to bring
success.
- The more important a building, the more guardians it includes to protect from evil
spirits, fire, etc.
 BASIS OF ANCIENT CHINESE ARCHITECTURE

- Quadrangle – basic form of combination in Chinese Architecture group.

o Rites – ancient Chinese political ideas
o Criteria which determines the human relations, distinguishes right from
wrong, and the regulation from which to formulate virtue and benevolence.
o Set of hierarchy and hierarchical system which not only regulates the
social ideology and virtue but also people’s life ad behavior.
- SYSTEM AND REGULATION CONCERNING ARCHITECTURE
o Proportion of the house and utensils used the higher and bigger the loftier
o Applicable in the height of the tomb and thickness of coffin timbers.
o Regulates ancestor worship. The most senior the ancestors should be
placed in the middle in arranging the tablets of ancestors and tomb
location. The rest are placed on the left and right according to seniority.

CLASSIFICATION OF CITIES

- Imperial Cities – highest and biggest

- Capitals of fiefdoms belonging to the vassal lords
- Cities of imperial relatives in the locality

- Planning and Layout:

1. Size of the capital should reflect its significance in the hierarchy of authority.
2. City should face towards the brightness of the south.
3. Should be laid out in squares and rectangles aligned with the four directions
of the earth.
4. Internal organization should reflect the orderliness of the universe.
5. Each social function should have its appropriate place.
o Imperial palace, temples and mansions of the princes should be
positioned in more important locations. The imperial palace should be
placed at the heart of the settlements.
o Lesser activities such as markets and mercantile shops – should be
situated at secondary sites.
6. The ancestral temple should be to the right of the central axis, with the altar of
heaven.
7. A great wall symbolizing the power of the emperor should enclose the whole
metropolis.
 Chinese Imperial City Planning

REGIONAL VARIATIONS OF CHINESE ARCHITECTURE

SINICIZATION

- Sinicization, sinicisation, sinoffication, or sinonization is a process whereby non

– Chinese societies come under the influence of Chinese culture,
particularly Han Chinese culture, language, societal norms, and ethnic identity.
 - Areas of influence include diet, writing, industry, education, language, law,
lifestyle, politics, philosophy, religion, science, and technology, culture, and value
systems.
- More broadly, “Sinicization” may refer to policies of acculturation, assimilation, or
cultural imperialism imposed by China onto neighboring East Asian countries,
and minority ethnic groups inside China.
- Evidence of this can be seen in the value systems, cuisine, architectural style,
and lexicons. This is reflected in the histories of Japan, Korea and Vietnam, in
the adoption of the Chinese writing system, which has long been a unifying
feature in the sinosphere as the vehicle for exporting Chinese culture to these
Asian countries.

SHANXI

- Shanxi architecture, or Shansi architecture, or Jin architecture, refers to the

architectural style of the Shanxi province of northern china.
- The old buildings of Pingyao ancient city and numerous family compounds of
Shanxi merchants in the Ming and Qing dynasties are representative of the
architecture styles of vernacular architecture in north china.
- Religious temples in Mount Wutai and Yungang Grottoes in Datong exemplify the
sacred Buddhist architecture in china.

SHANXI – PRE-TANG DYNASTY

- Traditional Chinese architecture are mostly of wooden structure, yet there are no
wooden architectures before Tang dynasty preserved in China. However, some
grottoes and tomb paintings and other related archeological evidences elucidate
the ancient arhcitctural styles of Shanxi before the Tang Dynasty.
- Yungang Grottoes in Datong illustrate rock-cut architecture dating back to the
Northern Wei Dynasty. Tianlongshan Grottoes in Taiyuan was constructed over
several centuries, as early as the Northern Qi dynasty.
 Yungang Grottoes in Datong

SHANXI – TANG DYNASTY

- The oldest preserved wooden structures in China are found in Shanxi. The four
preserved Tang architectures are Foguang Temple and Nanchan Temple in
Mount Wutai, Five Dragons Temple in Ruichrng Country, Tiantai Temple was
first constructed in Later Tang of the Five Dynasties, instead of Tang Dynasty.
- Among these four surviving Tang architectures, Foguang Temple is the best
preserved, partly due to its remote location outside of the central areas
surrounded by the five mountains of Mount Wutai.

The Zushi Pagoda at Foguang Temple

SHANXI – SONG DYNASTY

Goddess Temple in Jinci, Taiyuan

- Jinci temle in Taiyuan is one of the most prominent temples in Shanxi, and the
oldest surviving architecture there – the Goddess Temple was constructed from
1023 to 1032 during the Song Dynasty.

SHANXI – LIAO AND JIN ARHCTECTURE

Sakyamuni Pagoda of Fugong Temple

 - The Buddhists texts library of the Huayan temple in Datong was established in
1038, during the Liao Dynasty (907-1125). The Mahavira Hall of the Huayan
TempleinDaong was originally bult in the Liao Dynasty, but was rebuilt in 1140
during the Jin Dynasty. It is nine – room wide, five – room deep and covers an
area of 1559 square metre (16780 sq ft.). It is the largest architecture in China
built during the Liao and Jin Dynasties
- The Sakyamuni Pagoda of Fugong Temple in Ying Conty, Shuozhou, also known
as “Yingxian Muta” was built in 1056 during the Liao Dynasty. It has survived
several large earthquakes throughout the centuries. It is the oldest existent fully
wooden pagoda still standing in China.
- The Amitabha Hall and the Mahayana bodhisattva (Guanyin) Hall of the Chongfu
Temple in Shuozhou were built in the Jin Dynasty, which is famous for its statues
and murals.

SHANXI - YUAN ARHCITECTURE

Dry fresco

- Yuan Buddhist temples and Taoist palaces in southern Shanxi have world-
renowned dry fresco paintings. It is mostly because of the painting school led
by Zhu Haogu. This painting school with many famous painters was very active
in southern Shanxi during that historic time.
- Yongle Palace in Yuncheng has preserved dry fresco murals in unparalleled
integrity in China. The palace is one of “Three Great Ancestral Courts” of the
Quanzhen School of Taoism. The “Homage to the First Principle” (Chaoyuan tu)
on the walls of the Yongle Palace are the largest mural paintings of Yuan dynasty
in China.
SHANXI – MING AND QING ARHCITECTURE
- During the Ming and Qing dynasties, the Shanxi merchants accumulated
enormous wealth, particularly through the international trade of tea to Russia and
the development of draft banks, or “Piaohao”, which secured Shanxi as the
financial center in the Qing Dynasty.
- Pingyao ancient city is well-preserved city with numerous ancient architectures.
There are also a number of family complexes scattered throughout Shanxi that
were built during these two dynasties, which are representative of vernacular
architecture in North China. The notable Shanxi family complexes include:

Wang Family Compound

 Quiao Family Compound

Main Gate of the Chang Family Compound

Chang Family Compound

SHANXI -RELIGIOUS ARHICTECTURE

- Other than Yunggang Grottoes and Tianlongshan Grottoes as two notable
religious arhcitectures, Mount Wutai has the largest concentration of buddhist
 architectures in Shanxi, with temples constructed through thousands ofyears
from the Tang Dynasty to modern days.
- In Southern Shanxi, Qinglian Temple in Jincheng, and Guangsheng Temple in
Hongtong Country are among the most notable religious architectures.

SHANXI – YAODONG
- Yaodong is a special form of vernacular architecture, commonly found in the
Loess Plateau in North China.
 - Yaodong are commonly seen int the mountainous areas of Shanxi, in contrast to
the more elaborate aforementioned family compounds, which are usually found
in flat plains or basins of Shanxi.
- Yaodong is a type of earth shelter, usually carved out of a hillside. Sometimes,
Yaodong can be found in relatively flat areas with the entire central courtyard dug
out from the flat land, and then the rooms are carved from the surrounding walls.
The earth shelter serves as a good insulator and keeps the indoor space cool in
hot summers and warm in cold winters.

Yaodong vernacular architecture in Shanxi

YAODONG
- In order to avoid the wind and utilize sunlight and water, most Yaodongs are
distributed along the sides of the cliffs and valleys to conform to the terrain, in
principle, forming three types of Yaodong.
o Cliffside Yaodongs are the most common among all types. People dig
caves in the cliff on the edge of the slopes with the floor rectangular and
the top arched. In front of the cave is an open space for lighting and
ventilation, so that the user does not feel the space to be depressive.
o According to the number of cave holes, the Yaodongs can be further
classified into three hole type, two hole type and single hole type.
- In order to avoid the wind and utilize sunlight and water, most yaodongs are
distributed along the sides of the cliffs and valleys to conform to the terrain, in
principle, forming three types of Yaodong.
- Those dug around an excavation conducted at the surface, serving as interior
courtyard, called yaodong-well or sunken courtyard.
- Sunken yaodong has two types according to the form of entrance: slope-
entrance and flat-entrance. Both are excavation of pits in the fat ground.
o First, if the yaodong is surrounded by flat ground, slope can be used for
entering and leaving the pits. This is called the “dikenyuan” or the “pit
yard”.
o Second, if there is a cliff or a steep slope next to the yaodong, it can be
used to excavate the corridor through the cliff or slope to reach the
horizontal entrance of the courtyard. This type of Sunken yaodong which
is also called the well courtyard or the well-yaodong it he majority in the
area.
- In order to avoid the wind and utilize sunlight and water, most yaodongs are
distributed along the sides of the cliffs and valleys to conform to the terrain, in
principle, forming three types of yaodong.
o The Hoop yaodong, also called independent yaodong, is the most
valuable type considering its construction techniques.
o A hoop yaodong is usually built wholly or partially outdoors, with an
arched structure inspired by the underground dwellings. This arch-shaped
form, not only reflects the Chinese traditional thinking of a round sky an
square earth, more importantly, the high arch of the cave plus high
windows allows the sun to further penetrate inside the cave in winter,
therefore making full use of solar radiation. These new vaulted homes of
this type are now common among farmers in the area.
Cliffside Yaodong

Sunken Yaodong
 Hoop Yaodong

LINGAN
- Lingan architecture, or Cantonese architecture, refers to the characteristics
architectural style(s) of the Lingnan region – the Southern Chinese provinces of
Guangdong and Guangxi.
- Usually, it is referring to the architecture associated with the Cantonese people,
with other peoples in the area (such as the Hakka and the Teochew) having their
own styles.
 - This style began with the architectural of the ancient non-Han Nanyue people
and absorbed certain architectural elements from the Tang Empire and Song
empire as the region sinicized in the later half of the first millennium AD.

The Chen Clan Ancestral Hall in Guangzhou is widely considered a good

example of classical Lingnan Architecture

- Overall the classical Lingnan style, which is the best-known of Lingnan

architecture, tends to favor people colors such as green and white, avoid circular
structures, adopt large number of relief carvings and sculptures, have many open
structures like balconies and verandas, and be built using materials resistant to
molds and moisture.
- The last two points are obviously related to the hot and humid subtropical climate
of Lingnan.

LINGNAN CLASSICAL ARCHITECTURE

Commonly cited characteristics of the classical Lingnan style include:

Doors and directions

- Classical Lingnan architecture pays much attention to the use of doors. This is
partly due to the influence of strong Feng shui culture: there is the traditional
belief that having the main door face south means prosperity, which results in
most classical Lingnan Style buildings (especially ancestral halls) facing north.
 - Larger buildings also tend to have many types of doors with “central doors”
only usable for high-status individuals (i.e., male leaders of the household,
important guests, and women with male heirs) in older times, while other people
could only use “side doors”.
- They also have a concept called “manner doors”, which means that there is a
second door behind the main door. Manner doors are especially common in
ancestral halls, where ancestors are worshiped , due to the traditional belief that
one should not go straight at ( which has connotations such as “to conflict with”)
one’s ancestors upon entering the hall.

Narrow Doors

- Narrow door is an architectural feature common in the classical Lingnan style,

referring to a sudden narrowing of the walkway at the end of a corridor or
alley. These narrow doors have been built to separate alleys from each other
and set at tactically crucial points.
- They are traditionally open in daytime and closed after sunset unless in case of
emergency. They are used to for “defensive circles”, in each of which a number
(ranging from2 to 50) of households help look out for one another. This feature
arose to serve defensive purposes against bandits, pirates, and other clans.

Cold Alleys

- Cold alleys have been called the “essence” of classical Lingnan architecture and
is utilized in the region outside the classical style. The cold alley is a narrow path
walled on both sides by buildings, like a corridor within the complex. The
narrowness of a cold alley results in an increase in wind speed within, which in
turn causes the hot air in the rooms connected to the cold alley to be brought out
more quickly while cool air enters, achieving good ventilation – a trait very useful
in the subtropical Lingnan.
- Cold alleys can be divided into two types: indoor and outdoor. When used indoor,
a cold alley rarely receives sunshine. When used outdoor, a cold alley (called
“blue cloud alley” in this case) receives relatively little sunshine due to being
shadowed by the tall buildings that wall it from both sides. Either way, this results
in even better cooling effect.

Carvings and Sculptures

- Cantonese people have been known for being prolific craftsmen and merchants.
The region historically exported a large number of sculptures and other craft
products.
 - The classical lingnan style goes along with this: It traditionally uses very large
amount of relief carvings and sculptures for the purpose of decorations
(especially in temples and ancestral halls).
- The carvings and sculptures could be made from wood, bricks, stones, and so
on, they are usually uncolored, but some are decorated with garish colors. The
subject matters of these carvings and sculptures generally revolve around
figures and scenes from Chinese mythology and Cantonese folktales.

Lingnan Gurdain Lion

- Chinese architecture in general uses guardian lions. However, it has been noted
that Southern China has a style different from Northern China.
- Southern Chinese guardian lions are used in Lingnan, Fujian, and Taiwan. They
are noted for having large heads and small legs, protruding skulls and flat
noses, leaf-shaped ears, mouths set in roaring configurations, and sharp
teeth.
- Lingnan guardian lions tend to be more elongated and have more varied poses.
The male guardian lions are generally on the left side of the door and stepping on
embroidered balls – which is considered to symbolize good luck.

Other Characteristics

- “Three rooms and two corridors” is a typical layout found in classical Lingnan
residential architecture, with Tai Fu Tai Mansion being a good example. Also, in
classical Lingnan residence, indoor windows are usually small and high on the
walls, for the purpose of defense against bandits.
- These windows, however, are poor at lighting up the rooms and this often
accompanied by skylight or other structures that involve opening on the ceilings.

The use of Green Brick

- Green brick is a popular building material in the Lingnan region. It is well known
for being resistant to changes in temperature and moisture o which makes it very
useful for building in the hot and humid Lingnan region.
Wok yi uk

- Wok yi uk (“house with wok ears”) is a distinct characteristic in Lingnan

architecture. It is a building that has a pair of curved walls protruding vertically at
both ends of its roof, usually seen in traditional residential buildings.
- It emerged at around 15th century, during which Lingnan was ruled by the Ming
Empire. It was a tradition to build such walls for people who have been granted
honors through the empire’s examination system.
- This later evolved into the belief that building such walls could help one’s sons
and grandsons attain similar honors. It also has more practical purposes,
however – having the two walls protruding from both ends of the roof could help
reduce the amount of sunlight directly shining on the roof, resulting in lowered
temperature.

LINGAN OYSTER SHELL HOUSE

- Oyster shell house is an architectural style that arose in Lingnan in the late 16th
to early 17th century. It arose when certain Cantonese villages started gathering
oyster shells from nearby coasts to build homes. It is said that the use of oyster
shells helps the building become more resistant to wild changes in temperature,
accumulation of rainwater and insect infestation.
- These used to be hundreds of such houses dispersed across Guangdong, but
now most have been demolished. Only four of them remain. At present the
Hoizyu district has developed a plan to protect and maintain the remaining oyster
 shell house. This style is viewed as an indication of the strong “ocean
culture” elements in Cantonese culture.

LINGAN – TONG LAU

- Tong lau is a tyle tenement buildings architecture found in Lingnan (and in some
other areas by the South China Sea) starting from 19th century.
- It is essentially a balcony-type, multi-story tenement building for residential
and commercial use, with each story being three to four meters tall,
typically built with either green brick or, later, concrete. The main purpose of
tong lau is to let people live upstairs while running some sorts of business
downstairs. It has been influenced by European architecture and arose due to
Lingnan’s extensive commercial exchanges with Western Europeans since 15th
century. This style is thus especially prevalent in regions with more exposure to
Western Europeans cultures, such as Hong Kong and Macau.
LINGNAN GARDENS

The most frequently cited traits of Lingnan gardens are:

- They tend to surround their plants with buildings to provide protection to the
plants, due to frequent rainfalls and storms in the region.
- Lingnan gardens usually use plant species native to the region, such as red
cotton flowers and lychee trees.
- Due to Lingnan being far away from the center of power (i.e., Zhongyuan),
gardens in the region have historically been less bounded by royal standards,
resulting in a style that leans more towards the common people.
 - Lingnan gardens are decorated with large amount of handcraft products of local
people, ranging from sculptures to porcelains, and tend to use smaller buildings.
- As in the case with classical Lingnan architecture, with Cantonese being prolific
craftsmen, Lingnan gardens tend to use a large number of relief carvings and
sculptures.

HOKKIEN
- Hokkien architecture, or called Hoklo architecture or Minnan architecture,
refers to the architectural style of the Hoklo people, the Han Chinese group who
have historically been the dominant demographic of the Southern Chinese
province of Fujian ( called “Hokkien” in the Hoklo language), Taiwan, and
Singapore.
- This style shares many similarities with those of surrounding Han Chinese
groups. There are, however, several features that are unique or mostly unique to
Hoklo-made buildings, making many traditional buildings in Hokkein and Taiwan
visually distinctive from those outside the region.
- Before the Hokkien underwent Sinicization between 7th to 13th century, the region
was inhabited by the Minyue people, branch of Baiyue aboriginals.

MINNAM – SWALLOWTAIL ROOF

- Swallowtail roof (literally “swallowtail ridge”) is a feature rarely seen in non-

Hoklo Han Chinese architecture. It is very common in Hokkien and Taiwan.
 - The term refers to a roof that has an upward-curving ridge shaped like the tail
of a swallow. The degree of curving may vary.
- The “swallowtail” in question can be single or double layered and is typically
decorated with a large amount of colorful carvings.
- This feature originated in 16th century (Ming Dynasty).
- Due to its bright and showy nature, this architectural feature is commonly found
in major temples, mansions, and ancestral halls.

MINNAM – CUT PORCELAIN CARVING

- Cut porcelain carving is also prevalent among Hoklo architecture and, to a lesser
extent, Vietnamese one.
- Traditionally, Hoklo porcelain artists would often gather small colored
porcelain artifcats ( such as bowls and other eating utensils), cut and/or
grind them into smaller fragments, and then paste these fragments onto
sculptures attached to buildings for the purpose of decoration.
- This art is frequently used on the ridges, window frames, and doors of temples
and larger residence, often in conjunction with swallowtail roof. The sculptures
may vary – ranging from plants and animals to figures from Chinese mythology
or Hoklo folktales.
- In Taiwan, a new style has even been formed by combining cut porcelain carving
with cochin ware.

HOKKIEN – SANHEYUAN

- Sanheyuan (literally “three-combo building”) is a type of building found

throughout most of the Greater China region.
- They are residence with structures on three sides of a courtyard, forming an
inverted U-shape. While this style is shared by nearly all Han Chinese groups,
Hokkien Sanheyuan have been noted to use multiple wings (called “protecting
dragons” in Taiwan) to spread outward, a trait quite distinctive to Hoklo.
TENG-A-KHA

- Teng-a-kha is a style of architecture found in much of Southern China and

considered the Hokkien counterpart of Cantonese tong lau.
- It is a style that incorporates element from Western European architecture,
arising in late 18th century due to the presence of Western European merchants
in Hokkien.
- A typical teng-a-kha has a ground floor used for running some sort of business
and upper floors that are used for residential purpose.
- Amoy’s teng-a-khas are said to be marked by having pink and white as main
colorings, use of streets full of teng-a-kha as markets, and disctribution of teng-a-
khas in netilike structures. The city of Chinchew has also been noted to have a
well-preserved set of teng-a-khas.
Teng-a-kha
FUJIAN TULOU

- Hokken earthen buildings, called “Fujian Tulou” is another distinct type of

architecture found in the Hokkien region.
- It is a set of large, enclosed, and fortified earth buildings associated with the
Hakka people, who speak the Hakka language, rather than Hoklo.
- However, it has been noted that this style of architecture is found almost
exclusively among Hakka people in Hokkien and thus has become associated
with the region.
- A Hakka walled village is a large multi-family communal living structure that is
designed to be easily defensible.
- This building style is unique to the Hakka people found in southern China. Walled
villages are typically designed for defensive purposes and consist of one
entrance and no windows at the ground level.
- The Hakka were originally immigrants from northern China who settled in the
southern provinces. From the 17th century onwards, population pressure drove
them more and more into conflict with their neighbors (called puntin in
Cantonese).
- As rivalry for resources turned to armed warfare, the Hakka began building
communal living structures designed to be easily defensible. These houses,
sometimes called Tulou, where often round and internally divided into many
compartments for food storage, living quarters, ancestral temple, armory etc.
- The large houses covered 40000 m2 (430000 sq ft) and it is not unusual to find
surviving houses of over 10000 m2 (110000 sq ft).
- Other than pagodas, the compound does not contain any structure higher than
two stories.
GAN (JIANGXI)

- Architecture of Jiangxi refers to the traditional masonry houses, residential

compounds, monuments, and academies built in Jiangxi of East China.
- Distinct from its counterparts in surrounding regions, Jiangxi architecture has a
series of characteristics that differs form its neighbors’ styles in many ways.
o The exterior of Jiangxi architecture is tall brick walls that dominantly favor
the original color of bricks, with a slight white line painted with quicklime
under the roof tiles.
o Also, Jiangxi people are used to living on the ground floor within the
residence and thus, Jiangxi architecture generally consists of one story
and a half (the half storey is used for storage).
TIBETAN

- Architecture of Tibet contains Chinese and Indian influences but has many
unique features brought about by its adaptation to the cold, generally arid, high-
altitude climate of the Tibetam plateau.
- Buildings are generally made from locally available construction materials and
are often embellished with symbols of Tibetan Buddhism.
- Religious structures fall into two main types: temples, which are used for religious
ceremonies and worship; and stupas (Chortens), which are reliquaries and
symbols.
o Temples (gompas) come in a great variety of styles, generally reflecting
local architectural traditions.
- The design of the Tibetan Chortens can vary, from roundish walls to squarish,
four-sided walls.

Residential:

- Cover for wind and rain

- A house with a certain scale may belong to the 3 lords

Traditional architecture:

- Mostly timber
Religious architecture:

- Buddhist

Tashilhunpo shows the influence of Mongol styles of architecture

Potala Paalce
 Palcho Monastery

OTHER VARIATIONS OF ARCHITETURE

HUTONG

- Hutong are a type of narrow street or alley commonly associated with northern
Chinese cities, especially Beijing.
- In Beijing, hutong are alleys formed by lines of siheyuan, traditional courtyard
residences.
- Many neighborhoods were formed by joining one hutong to another.
- The word hutong is also used to refer to such neighborhood.
LONGTANG (LONGDANG)

- A longtang is a lane in Shanghai and, by extension, a community centered on a

lane or several interconnected lanes.
- It is sometimes called lilong; the latter name incorporates the -li suffix often
used in the name of residential developments in the late 19th and early 20th
century.
- The shanghai longdang is loosely equivalent to the hutong of Beijing. As with the
term hutong, the Shanghai longdang can either refer to the lanes that houses
face onto, or a group of houses connected by the lane.
SHIKUMEN

- Shikumen (“stone warehouse gate; Shanghainese: zakumen) is a traditional

Shanghainese architectural style combining Western and Chinese elements that
first appeared in the 1860’s.
- At the height of their popularity, there were 9000 shikumen-style buildings in
Shanghai, comprising 60% of the total housing stock of the city, but today the
proportion is much lower as most Shanghainese live in large apartment buildings.
- Shikumen is classified as one type of lilong residences, sometimes translated as
“lane houses” in English.