Primary Trait Analysis: A Tool for Classroom-Based Assessment

Author(s): Judith A. Baughin, Evelyn F. Brod and Deborah L. Page

Source: College Teaching , Spring, 2002, Vol. 50, No. 2 (Spring, 2002), pp. 75-80
Published by: Taylor & Francis, Ltd.

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College Teaching

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 Primary Trait Analysis
A Tool for Classroom-Based Assessment
Judith A. Baughin, Evelyn F. Brod, and Deborah L. Page

Abstract. The article describes Primary Trait ment assessment initiatives may . . . have (1993, 10). With classroom-based assess
Analysis (PTA) as a technique for instructors become a rush ... to ensure educational ment, "External evaluators are able to
interested in classroom-based assessment. The
quality by providing concrete evidence engage in a more holistic assessment of
study continues with the history of PTA at
Raymond Walters College (RWC) and about instructional performance" (1998, student learning by examining actual
explains how RWC faculty developed PTA 50). As all educational institutions are examples of student performance rather
scales to communicate learning objectives and aware, accrediting agencies require than by relying only on numerical ratings.
evaluative criteria to students. The article pro assessment to be documented. St. Ours This leads to consensual validation of
vides several specific scales as examples. This
and Corsello confirm, "Faculty no longer learning outcomes" (Farmer 1993, 10).
work demonstrates that PTA can be easily
adopted in any classroom to improve teaching need to be convinced of the importance of Another advantage is that PTA improves
and learning. these efforts; they are now willing to share teacher/student communication regardless
their observations, plans, and outcomes of discipline. The nature of the assign
derived from the assessment process" ment, the expectations, and learning out
(1998, 6). Unfortunately, the process of comes become more obvious to both
Primary Trait Analysis (PTA) is an
effective tool for classroom-based assessment often takes on a life of its own. teacher and student. Classroom research
assessment. It can be used to Albone appeals to our common sense on at the University of Cincinnati, Raymond
this issue with the statement that "assess Walters College (RWC) is based on the
improve teaching and learning outcomes
as well as improve dialogue within depart ment should be the consequence of an premise that "[cjlassroom teachers know
ments. It may also be used to fulfill accred ongoing quality program, not a goal for its the data earliest and most thoroughly, and
iting associations' assessment require own sake" (1998, 6). because they own it they have strong
ments. Primary Trait Analysis scales Primary Trait Analysis fulfills this incentives to act on it" (Walvoord, Bardes,
provide a basis for modifying assign requirement easily. One strength of this and Dent?n 1998, 10). RWC has been
ments, determining class focus, and estab measure is that it is discipline specific; it successfully using Primary Trait Analysis
has been used successfully in disciplines since 1995 to assess its educational
lishing department and institutional goals.
The National Center for Postsecondary as diverse as biology, chemistry, English, process. As a result, 80 percent of all
Improvement states, "the outcomes foreign language, history, math, and many full-time faculty in 100 percent of the
assessment movement in higher education
others. It allows an instructor to define departments use Primary Trait Analysis
has steadily, and rather quietly, gained goals and evaluate and assess student (Academic Assessment Committee 1998).
achievement of the goals as each disci In this article we will demonstrate how
momentum. In fact, the push to imple
pline requires. Farmer was an early pro PTA has become a successful assessment
ponent of this facet of assessment. He tool at RWC and that it can be adopted at
Judith A. Baughin is a professor of analyzed discipline specific and generic any school, college, or university.
Romance languages and chair of the foreign assessment designs and found that "facul
language department, Evelyn F. Brod is a ty in different disciplines have different
What Is Primary Trait Analysis?
professor of Spanish, and Deborah L. Page Primary Trait Analysis is a rubric scale
expectations of students at the point of
is an assistant professor of German, all at the
University of Cincinnati, Raymond Walters graduation, as determined by the frame that communicates to students exactly
College. works of their respective disciplines" what is expected of them on an assign

Vol. 50/No. 2 75

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ment and what they must do to achieve a
certain grade. Creation of a PTA scale
puts into precise words what it is that the
instructor requires from student work. As
Walvoord contends, we all know what an
A paper looks like, just as we all recog
nize B, C, D, and F work.1 But instructors
sometimes fail to communicate this infor
mation to the student effectively. The
process of creating a PTA scale requires
that the instructor inform the students of
the learning objectives of the assignment
while specifying the evaluation criteria
for that assignment. Such a grading rubric
enables the instructor to communicate the
behavioral objectives for each letter Trait Analysis as an assessment tool in
grade. Initially, the instructor must strug
gle with the precise wording necessary to
communicate goals and objectives clear
ly. But this investment of time reaps divi
dends. Walvoord and Anderson cite the
following benefits to instructors who use
an assessment tool such as PTA. The
explicit nature of a PTA scale can:
Save time in the grading process
Allow you to make that process consis
tent and fair
Help you explain to students what you
expect
Show you what to teach
Identify essential relationships between
discipline information and processes
Help students participate in their own
learning, because they know what they
are aiming for
Help students evaluate their own and
each other's work
Save you from having to explain your
criteria to students after they have
handed in their work, as a way of justi
fying the grades they are contesting
Help student peers give each other con
structive feedback on plans and drafts
Help team teachers or teaching assis
tants grade student papers consistently
Help teachers of sequenced courses
communicate with each other about
standards and criteria
Form the basis for departmental or
institutional assessment (1998, 65).
This list demonstrates the power of the
PTA scale as an assessment tool. As
Angelo enumerates in goals 2, 3, and 8 of
his "Teacher's Dozen List": "Learning
requires focused attention, and awareness
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of the importance of what is to be
learned. Learning is more effective and
efficient when learners have explicit, rea
sonable, positive goals, and when their
goals fit well with the teacher's goals.
The ways in which learners are assessed
and evaluated powerfully affect the ways
they study and learn" (1993, 11-12).
Thus the use of the PTA technique favor
ably influences student learning, our pri
mary goal as teachers.
PTA at RWC
RWC faculty began to use Primary
September 1995. In anticipation of the
1999 outside accreditation of the college,
the Academic Assessment Committee of
Raymond Walters College invited Bar
bara Walvoord to present a workshop to
the entire faculty on Primary Trait Analy
sis scale construction and use. Walvoord
asked faculty to consider this question,
"Which assessment method has universal
faculty participation, enjoys superb stu
dent participation, is never accused of
violating academic freedom, provides
detailed diagnostic assessment of student
learning, is tightly linked to teaching, . . .
has a tight feedback loop into classroom
learning and into teacher planning, and is
cheap to implement? Answer: Grading,
when it is well-done" (Walvoord and
Anderson 1995, 8).
In the past, faculty members have
always managed to assign grades; howev
er, "as isolated artifacts?when no one
knows what they mean?grades are not
useful for departmental or institutional
assessment" (Walvoord, Bardes, and
Dent?n 1998, 1). The all-inclusive nature
of PTA, one that would easily conform to
the principles of good practice for assess
ing student learning as summarized by
the American Association for Higher
Education (1992), motivated the faculty.
The proposed process used classroom
grades to assess not only student learning,
but also classroom teaching, program
efficacy, and even the college's ability to
meet general education goals stated in the
RWC mission statement (Functional Mis
sion Statement 1999). The success of this
workshop inspired the faculty to pursue a
new and unique educational journey. Par
ticipation in the PTA scales process led to
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subsequent poster sessions where faculty
in many of RWC's academic and
career-oriented programs shared their
newly designed primary trait scales. In
response to the interest generated
throughout the college, the RWC faculty
formally adopted Primary Trait Analysis
as its assessment tool (Walvoord and
Anderson 1998, 172). RWC is a two-year
college affiliated with a major Carnegie
Research I institution. It offers a multi
plicity of disciplines, all of which use
PTAs. This indicates the universal
promise of the technique and underlines
the fact that this model can be used wide
ly in any educational setting.
The RWC faculty began to develop
PTAs, recognizing that the process would
state more clearly what each instructor
was already doing. As mentioned previ
ously, by the end of the 1995 academic
year, the majority of full-time faculty in
all RWC departments had written and
used one or more PTA scales. The Col
lege Academic Assessment Committee
asked all departments to complete a year
end report in which they indicated how
many of their faculty members were
using PTA rubrics in the assessment
process. The examples in this article illus
trate how widespread and varied the use
of PTA rubrics was and still is at RWC.
We will focus primarily on foreign lan
guages, using sample PTAs as models,
and then give additional examples from
other disciplines.
Our work with PTA had a significant
impact on communication within the
departments. It has led to spirited discus
sions involving teaching, learning, and
assessment and has enabled the creation
and maintenance of a written departmen
tal/institutional memory. "The most suc
cessful, long-lasting CA [Classroom
Assessment] programs are embedded in
and connected to the institutional culture"
(Angelo 1995, 13). The assessment pro
gram established by the college faculty,
which was based in the classroom and
directly tied to teaching, contributed sig
nificantly to the ten-year accreditation
granted in March 1999. The visiting team
summed up its findings by saying, "The
institution has implemented academic . ..
assessment and has made assessment a
part of the campus culture" (Couch
1999).
76 COLLEGE TEACHING
Primary Trait Analysis Scales?
A Process, Not a Result
When put into practice, PTA rubrics go
through various iterations. Initially,
instructors grapple with precise wording.
After using the scale with students, they
see the need to make changes. Benander
et al. contend that "assessment scores are
inform students at any time where they
stand with regard to the participation per
centage of their overall grade. The
instructor adds together the total points
the student has earned, divides by the
total points possible, and arrives at a par
ticipation grade for the term.
Scale:
prepared and who had been actively
engaged during the entire class rated
themselves correctly as 4s or As. Like
wise, those who were unprepared and
unengaged rated themselves accordingly.
Thus, an added benefit of using such a
device to assess classroom participation
is that it allows the students to assume

useful only if those scores can directly 4 points (A): You voluntarily partici ownership of and responsibility for their
inform teaching and learning in the class pate with a high degree of accuracy. You progress. The process of assigning that
room" (2000, 281). These modifications are fully prepared for class and have com grade usually took less than a few min
may involve the particular assignment, pleted all assigned work with few errors. utes after each class. The positive results
in the classroom, with added volunteer
the manner of teaching, or even entire You are prepared to ask questions about
courses and curricula. After using the anything you do not understand. You take participation, and meaningful classes to
PTA scale on a class assignment, the the risk of speaking. which students came prepared, already
instructor looks at the distribution of 3 points (B): You voluntarily partici aware of what they did not understand,
grades earned by the students and calcu pate with a lesser degree of accuracy. You highlighted this PTA scale's success.
lates data pertaining to student perfor are fully prepared for class and have com
Assignment: Oral Presentation
mance. The results guide the instructor in pleted all assigned work. However, you
analyzing, modifying and improving not may have produced significant errors in In beginning and elementary French
only the PTA scale, but also teaching homework preparation. You are prepared classes, the instructor requires students to
practices. Anderson and Walvoord (1991) to ask questions about anything you do give a five- to ten-minute presentation in
point out that significant improvement in not understand. You take the risk of French about their families. The activity
student learning is possible when instruc speaking when prompted. affords students the opportunity to use the
tors use a PTA scale to assess that learn 2 points (C): You rarely volunteer and vocabulary and structures they have stud
ing and then change their teaching meth have a low degree of accuracy. You are ied and practiced in a more authentic sit
ods accordingly. This closes the feedback not sufficiently prepared and your home uation. With appropriate modifications by
loop, a crucial factor of the assessment work may be incomplete or very inaccu individual instructors in other disciplines,
process. rate. You do not risk speaking initially. this rubric could form the basis for any
You lack total engagement in class. oral presentation:
Sample PTA Scales 1 point (D): Your preparation is not evi
dent. You do not respond unless called A: Student speaks in French 90-100 per
The following examples demonstrate cent of time. Student makes few or no
upon directly. Your responses are general
various styles of PTA scales. Although mistakes in French. Student does not
ly not accurate enough to communicate
they are devised for particular disciplines, use notes during presentation. Student
clearly. You are engaged in the class
they are neither course nor discipline spe turns in outline of presentation on
cific. activities on the most minimal level, with
no apparent attempt to speak. time. Student uses excellent pronunci
0points (F): You are absent from class. ation, vocabulary, and/or sentence
Assignment: Daily Participation (sample
structure. Student uses originality or
from Elementary German)
The instructor reasoned that being able imagination in presentation (props
Meaningful preparation for and partic to use a more objective tool to assign a such as a family photo and/or a family
ipation in each class meeting are essential grade for participation positively assisted tree). Student speaks for five to ten
to a student's success in a foreign lan evaluation of oral performance and stu minutes.
guage and many other courses of study. dent lesson preparation. Students had B: Student speaks in French 80-90 perc
To make evaluation of participation as something concrete upon which to base ent of time. Student makes some mis
objective as possible, this PTA scale their daily activities in the classroom, and takes in French. Student may occa
addresses the speaking goal of a depart as some stated, they felt a sense of per sionally refer to notes. Student turns in
ment's curriculum. As with all faculty sonal responsibility in determining their outline of presentation on time. Stu
who must assign a grade to student class own success during each class meeting. dent needs some work on pronuncia
room performance, foreign language fac At least once in the course, the instructor tion, vocabulary, and/or sentence
ulty struggle with this component of eval gave students the opportunity to rate structure. Student uses some original
uation, which students often view as themselves, and they were very accurate ity or imagination in presentation. Stu
more subjective than a test, quiz, or paper in rating their own participation when dent speaks for five to ten minutes.
grade. The instructor distributes the PTA they used this scale. Other instructors C: Student speaks in French 70-80 per
scale for oral participation and assigns a may choose to have students rate them cent of time. Student makes mistakes
daily grade. Other instructors may prefer selves more frequently. Those students in pronunciation, vocabulary, and/or
to assign a weekly grade. Faculty can who knew they had come to class fully sentence structure. Student uses writ

Vol. 50/No. 2 77

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 ten notes frequently. Student does not as mentioned earlier by Walvoord and five complete sentences in Spanish on
turn in outline on time. Student Anderson (1998, 65). one or more of the compositions, and
demonstrates insufficient preparation. there are some errors that sometimes
Assignment: Keeping a Journal (may be
Student uses minimal originality or adapted for any discipline) interfere with the meaning.
imagination in presentation. Student
The journal assignment PTA rubric for 2 points (C)
speaks for five to ten minutes.
Elementary Spanish guides students in You meet the requirements as listed
D: Student speaks in French 60-70 perc
ent of time or less. Student makes developing writing power and style in the in 4 (A) except you write less than five
second language while providing them complete sentences in Spanish on one or
many substantial mistakes in French.
the opportunity to practice compositionmore compositions, do not use appropri
Student uses written notes throughout
topics that may appear on each chapter ate vocabulary from the current chapter,
the presentation. Student does not turn
in outline. Student needs extensive test. The instructor gives students a PTA and make several significant errors
for the format of the compositions (not which affect the meaning of the compo
work in one or more of the following
included here). This PTA covers the writ sition.
areas: pronunciation, sentence struc
ing style (dialogues, narratives, post You use the same or similar style on
ture, and use of vocabulary. Student
cards, autobiographies, want ads), all the compositions, and your spelling
uses no props in the presentation. Stu
mechanics (writing on every other line, contains some errors.
dent speaks for less than five minutes.
writing in ink, writing the date as
Class has difficulty following French
required), and presentation (using a 1 point (D)
and/or presentation.
required folder, writing each composition You meet the requirements as listed
F: No presentation.
on a separate page, maintaining all the in 4 (A) except you write less than five
This presentation has been assigned for entries in chronological order). This complete sentences in Spanish on one or
a number of years, but students have assignment addresses the writing compo more compositions, you use inappropri
become more successful since the PTA nent of the foreign language curriculum ate vocabulary, there are many significant
was developed. Before this scale was used, and complements the college's general errors in grammar, usage, spelling, punc
the length of the presentations varied con education goal of effective writing in all tuation, and/or accents. The styles of the
courses. It could also be used in ESL
siderably, students did not always organize compositions may be repetitive and it
the presentations using all the components (English as a Second Language) courses, may be difficult to comprehend what you
the instructor required, and they often read or adapted for any brief writing assign have written.
from their papers. The scale has made stu ment in any discipline.
Journal Grade (PTA Scale)
0 points (F)
dents focus on what can be presented with
in the time frame required and established You do not hand in your journal, or
4 points (A)
in the PTA. It tells the students exactly you hand it in late.
You write a minimum of five and a
what the instructor expects and lets them The instructor gave the journal assign
know that, in addition to using the target maximum of ten original, complete sen ment for years, but only since 1995 in
language, they must include some origi tences in Spanish for each week's entry. PTA format. Prior to that year, she gave
nality or an imaginative element. The You use appropriate vocabulary from students oral instructions such as "Get a
instructor also requires an outline well in the chapter being studied.
folder," and "Write a weekly composi
advance of the presentation, as indicated in You write the sentences as a para
tion using the grammar we are studying
the PTA rubric. graph or conversation with a topic sen
tence and other sentences related to the
in the chapter." The instructor's goals
In addition, the instructor regularly were not totally clear, and students had
topic sentence, or theme. (You vary the
asks students to help grade the presenta great difficulty completing the assign
tions. She selects two or three students at style throughout the year.)
ment satisfactorily.
random, and they evaluate one another
You base your composition on a The PTA scale has communicated
based on the criteria listed. Each student grammar point being studied that week in
much more effectively the instructor's
the current chapter.
has at least one opportunity to participate requirements and goals and thus has
There are very few errors, none of
in the evaluation process. Students, helped students achieve the quality of
which affects the meaning or the compre
already familiar with the PTA from using work they need to attain to receive the
hension of the composition.
it to complete their own presentations, desired grade. Improved student perfor
find it easy to use this rubric with their You spell correctly.
mance has consistently resulted. Data
peers. From student assessment and the You use appropriate punctuation and
collected over two years show that
instructor's own evaluation, both based on write accents accurately.
although the number of As did not
You hand the journal in on the date
the rubric, the instructor assigns the increase in year 2, the total of As and Bs
grades. Teacher evaluations and those of indicated during class. rose from 61 percent to 70 percent, indi
the students largely coincide since both 3 points (B) cating increased communication and
use the PTA guidelines. This confirms the You meet all of the requirements as understanding between instructor and
consistency and validity of the PTA scale, listed in 4 (A) except you write less than students. As, Bs, and Cs went from 76

78 COLLEGE TEACHING

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percent the first year to 87 percent in the
second. Furthermore, the combined total Table 1.?Scale: Density Determination
of Ds and Fs fell from 24 percent to 13
percent, a drop of nearly 50 percent in Trait Criteria Score
below-average performance. Clearly, the
PTA helped the majority of students
improve their language writing skills on Drawing a graph Graph has a title, labels on the axes, appropriate 3
this assignment. scale, best fit line, and the correct variables on the axes.
With each use of the PTA, the instruc One of the above characteristics is missing. 2
More than one of the characteristics is missing. 1
tor incorporated minor clarifications and
Determining the Has selected 2 points on the best fit line and correctly 3
refinements to guide students even better.
equation of line calculated the value of the slope, including units. Has
The physical appearance of this PTA extrapolated the line to determine the value of the y
scale has spotlighted significant informa intercept when x = 0.
tion. The new, efficient bullet format and Has correctly determined either the slope or the intercept, 2
but not both.
separation of content from form have
Has incorrectly calculated both. 1
enabled students to focus on the assign
ment requirements while improving their Application of Has manipulated the equation of the straight line and used 4
the equation it to calculate the x variable given y, and vice versa. The
writing skills. The scale tells students answer includes units.
they must pay careful attention to details Same as above but omits units. 3
like correct spelling, topic sentences, Only correctly calculates the x variable given y; units may 2
proper punctuation, correct accent usage, or may not be included.
and elimination of errors. Instructors in Only correctly calculates the y variable given jc; units may 1
or may not be included.
other disciplines may wish to emphasize
different aspects of the writing assign Source: Benander et al. 2000, 287
ment. Using this PTA scale has shown
that "student learning outcomes can be
clearly related to specific teaching[,] and the PTA once again to isolate those items Indicates an appropriate use for the
changes in teaching methods should be (Benander et al. 2000, 288-89). She will source, and appropriate additional
reflected in the outcomes" (Benander et then have created another teachable information
al. 2000, 281-82). moment. The instructor reported that Answers succinctly and accurately
Because instructors usually know what "student learning in this area improved three of the questions*
concepts are challenging for students, noticeably .... Clearly, being explicit Accurately summarizes the informa
using a PTA scale for those assignments about my criteria and standards had tion in the source
can help isolate specific difficulties and rewards for both the students and me." The writing is organized, with few mis
improve teaching and learning. The PTA (Benander et al. 2000, 289). takes in proofreading and editing, and
in table 1 was designed by a chemistry Another RWC instructor in History/ ideas are expressed in an unambiguous
instructor at RWC for a lab on density Women's Studies uses the following PTA manner
determination. in her American Issues and Problems A Grade of C indicates that a student
The data obtained using this PTA with course. has achieved the following:
students informed the instructor that they
Assignment: Source Evaluation Paper
were unable to determine the best fit line, Attempted to indicate an appropriate
use for the source
A grade of A indicates that a student
though that information was taught in a
has achieved the following: Answered two of the questions*
prerequisite course. She created a new
first lab exercise where students worked Accurately summarizes the informa
Displays creativity, as well as knowl
tion in the source
specifically on graphing and line equa edge, about the best use for the source
tions. Whereas only 16 percent of the stu and the additional information which The writing conveys information, but
dents were able to correctly identify the the meaning is not always clear, and
might be useful in evaluating the source
best fit line the first year, 60 percent were Answers succinctly and accurately all
there are more errors in grammar,
able to do so during the year following the questions asked about the source*punctuation, and spelling
the instructional change. The data A Grade of D indicates that a student
Accurately summarizes the informa
obtained during the second year provided tion in the source
has achieved the following:
the instructor with additional informa
The writing is clearly organized, care
tion, but also informed her that although Answered one of the questions*
fully proofread and edited, and ideas are
60 percent were able to calculate the line Accurately summarizes the informa
expressed in an unambiguous manner tion in the source
equation, 28 percent were unable to
determine either the slope or the inter A Grade of B indicates that a student
No organization to the writing, little
cept. Therefore, she intended to rewrite has achieved the following: evidence of proofreading or editing

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 A Grade of F indicates that a student
has done the following:
goals as needed. Students receive a con
Answered no questions*
crete guide so that they know exactly
Failed to accurately summarize the
information in the source
what has to be done, how it has to be
The writing fails to convey any useful
information
*Questions
1. Who were the authors (or makers)? What
was the source of their authority?
2. Who was the audience? What assump
tions did the author have about the knowledge
or background of the audience?
3. What was the purpose of the text, both
explicit and implicit? When and where was
the text produced? How was it distributed?
4. What biases or contradictions are there in
the document? (Kornbluh 2001)
The reader can see from the variety of
PTAs included here, that this rubric style
is available to all instructors, regardless
of discipline, and that it has measurable
benefits in the classroom.
Conclusion
Assessment plays an important role in
education today. Teachers must be able to
show administrators, the general public,
and national accrediting associations
what they are accomplishing in the class
room and how they are evaluating stu
dents' progress. Students want to know
what they must do to achieve high grades.
PTA is an invaluable tool in this entire
process. All educators can use this
method. Different proficiencies, depend
ing on the discipline, can be assessed
with a PTA scale. PTAs can also be
changed from one assignment to the next
and from one year to another. This mal
leability gives the instructor a chance to
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improve teaching by clarifying assign teen general, research-based principles for
ments, modifying criteria, and changing improving higher learning in our class
rooms. AAHE Bulletin 3:3-13.
-. 1995. Improving classroom assess
ment to improve learning: Guidelines from
research and practice. Assessment UP date:
done, and when it has to be done. Progress, Trends, and Practices in Higher
Education 7(6): 1-2, 12-13.
Primary Trait Analysis serves as an
Benander, R., J. Dent?n, D. Page, and C.
excellent benchmark against which stu
Skinner. 2000. Primary trait analysis:
dents and teachers can measure success
Anchoring assessment in the classroom.
and achievement. It demonstrates to the The Journal of General Education 49(4):
outside evaluator that learning has taken 280-302.
place. We recommend the Primary Trait Couch, R. 1999. Rationale, strengths, and
challenges. NCA Visiting Team Prelimi
Analysis Assessment Tool for use in any
nary Report on Raymond Walters College
teaching and learning setting. Accreditation Visit.
Farmer, D. W. 1993. Course-embedded
Key words: Primary Trait Analysis, assessment: A teaching strategy to improve
assessment, grading, standards student learning. Assessment UPdate:
Progress, Trends, and Practices in Higher
NOTE Education 5(1): 8-11.
Functional mission statement. Assessment at
1. Barbara Walvoord made this statement
Raymond Walters College. 1999 [Internet]
during the September 1995 workshop for Available: World Wide Web, <http://www.
RWC faculty. At that time she was a colleague
rwc.uc.edu/phillips/index_assess.htm>.
and a professor of English at the University ofKornbluh, A. 2001. [Source Evaluation
Cincinnati. At present, she is concurrently
director of the John Kaneb Center for Teach Paper]. Unpublished raw data, University of
Cincinnati, Raymond Walters College.
ing and Learning and a professor of English at
the University of Notre Dame, Indiana.
National Center for Postsecondary Improve
ment. 1998. Tracking a subtle storm:
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