Manufacturing of Polymer composites

1. Hand Layup

Fig. 1. Schematic of hand layup

1.1. The Process

The process is depicted in in fig.1.There are basically four stages: mold preparation, application
of coatings, layup and curing
Mold Preparation
The mold preparation is one of the most critical steps in the layup process. The mold may be
made of wood, plaster, plastics, composites, or metals depending on the number of parts, cure
temperature, pressure, etc. Permanent molds, used for long runs, are made of metals. Molds
made of composites are mostly used for low volume production since they do not respond well
to repeated use. The mold may be male or female type, depending on which surface needs to be
smooth.
Application of release and gel coating
A coating of release agent is applied to the mold to facilitate the removal of the finished part.
The release agents in common use are wax, polyvinyl alcohol, silicones, and release papers. The
choice of the release agent depends on the type of material to be molded and the degree of
luster desired on the finished product.
A gel coat is applied after the preparation of the mold to produce a good surface appearance of
the part being molded. The coating is normally a polyester, mineral-filled, pigmented, non-
reinforced lamina. This resin lamina is applied to the mold before the reinforcements. Thus, the
gel surface becomes the outer surface of the laminate when molding is complete. This surface
forms a protective lamina through which the fibrous reinforcements do not penetrate and the
product may require no subsequent finishing operations
Layup and curing
The final steps involve material preparation, fiber placement, and curing. The fiber is applied in
the form of chopped strand mat, cloth, or woven roving. Pre-measured resins and catalysts are
mixed together thoroughly. The resin mixture is then applied to the fibers. Serrated hand rollers
are used to compact the material against the mold to ensure complete air removal. Curing is
usually accomplished at room temperature and the final molded part is removed by pulling it
from the mold.
1.2. Production rate and cost
The production rates and costs of the hand layup technique vary widely and depend on the fibers
and matrix used, size of the part to be manufactured, and the process used. The cost of tooling
depends on the number of parts to be made because higher quality molds are needed for larger
runs. A new mold is constructed for every new item. The cost of equipment depends on the
production rate because of the need to set up several lines working at high speed for high
production rates. The cost per part is minimized by choosing the appropriate mold construction
and adjusting production rates to the available equipment. Finally, the cost per part is affected
by the quality required because of the need for either semiskilled or skilled workers.
1.3. Advantages
 Large parts with complex geometries can be produced
 Minimal equipment investment
 Minimal tooling cost
 Void content under 1%
 Sandwich construction is possible
 Inserts and structural reinforcements can be easily accommodated
 Parts requiring excellent finish can be easily manufactured
 Curing ovens are not necessary
1.4. Disadvantages
 Only one surface of the molded part is smooth
 Quality depends on the skill of workers
 Labor intensive
 Low production rate
 High emission of volatiles
 Product uniformity is difficult to maintain
 Long curing times at room temperature
1.5. Applications
Marine: boats, boat hulls, ducts, pools, tanks, furniture
Aircraft: rocket motor nozzles and other aircraft parts
Structural: furnace filters, structural supports, flat and corrugated sheets, corrosion duct work,
housings, pipes
Consumer: bicycle parts, truck parts
2. Spray Layup
Partial automation of the hand layup process is accomplished by the spray-up process (fig.2),
which differs from the hand layup in the method of application of the resin and reinforcement.
Continuous fiber is chopped and sprayed on the mold simultaneously with resin using a chopper
gun. Spray-up is an old process, mostly used for producing parts of constant thickness: truck body
parts, small boats, shower units, and custom automotive parts. Since the operator entirely
controls the deposition of the spray on the mold, the quality of the product depends entirely
upon operator skill. The physical properties of the product obtained are inferior and not uniform
from part to part. The costs of the spray chopper guns and other special tooling add to the total
cost. Complete automation of the hand layup technique has been tried but it was found to be
very costly and inefficient, involving high equipment and tooling costs.

Fig.2. Schematic of spray layup

3. Prepegs and its manufacturing
Processes for incorporating fibers into a polymer matrix can be divided into two categories. In
one category, fibers and matrix are processed directly into the finished product or structure.
Examples of such processes are filament winding and pultrusion. In the second category, fibers
are incorporated into the matrix to prepare ready-to-mold sheets that can be stored and later
processed to form laminated structures by autoclave molding or compression molding. In this
section, we briefly describe the processes used in preparing these ready-to-mold sheets.
Knowledge of these processes will be helpful in understanding the performance of various com -
posite laminates. Methods for manufacturing composite structures by filament winding,
pultrusion, autoclave molding, compression molding, and others are described later. Ready- to-
mold fiber-reinforced polymer sheets are available in two basic forms, prepregs and sheet-
molding compounds.
3.1. Prepegs
These are thin sheets of fibers impregnated with predetermined amounts of uniformly
distributed polymer matrix. Fibers may be in the form of continuous rovings, mat, or woven
fabric. Epoxy is the primary matrix material in prepreg sheets, although other thermoset and
thermoplastic polymers have also been used. The width of prepreg sheets may vary from less
than 25 mm to over 457 mm. Sheets wider than 457 mm are called broad goods. The thickness
of a ply cured from prepreg sheets is normally in the range of 0.13–0.25 mm. Resin content in
commercially available prepregs is between 30% and 45% by weight. Unidirectional fiber-
reinforced epoxy prepregs are manufactured by pulling a row of uniformly spaced (collimated)
fibers through a resin bath containing catalyzed epoxy resin dissolved in an appropriate solvent.
The solvent is used to control the viscosity of the liquid resin. Fibers pre-impregnated with liquid
resin are then passed through a chamber in which heat is applied in a controlled manner to
advance the curing reaction to the B-stage. At the end of B-staging, the prepreg sheet is backed
up with a release film or waxed paper and wound around a take-up roll. The backup material is
separated from the prepreg sheet just before it is placed in the mold to manufacture the
composite part. The normal shelf life (storage time before molding) for epoxy prepregs is 6–8
days at 23°C; however, it can be prolonged up to 6 months or more if stored at -18°C. The
schematic of prepeg manufacturing for thermoset composites is shown in fig.3.

Fig.3. Prepeg manufacturing for thermoset composites

Sheet molding compounds and bulk molding compounds used in compression molding are
discussed later under compression molding itself.

3.2. Prepeg manufacturing for thermoplastics

Incorporating fibers into high-viscosity thermoplastic resins and achieving a good fiber wet-out
are much harder than those in low-viscosity thermoset resins. Nevertheless, several fiber
incorporation techniques in thermoplastic resins have been developed, and many of them are
now commercially used to produce thermoplastic prepregs. These prepregs can be stored for
unlimited time without any special storage facility and, whenever required, stacked and
consolidated into laminates by the application of heat and pressure.
Hot-melt impregnation is used mainly for semicrystalline thermoplastics, such as PEEK and PPS,
for which there are no suitable solvents available for solution impregnation. Amorphous
polymers are also used for hot-melt impregnation.

Fig.4. Schematic of Hot melt impregnation

In this process (fig.4), collimated fiber tows are pulled through a die attached at the end of an
extruder, which delivers a fine sheet of hot polymer melt under high pressure to the die. To
expose the filaments to the polymer melt, the fiber tows are spread by an air jet before they
enter the die. The hot prepreg exiting from the die is rapidly cooled by a cold air jet and wound
around a take-up roll. For good and uniform polymer coating on filaments, the resin melt viscosity
should be as low as possible. Although the viscosity can be reduced by increasing the melt
temperature, there may be polymer degradation at very high temperatures. Hot-melt-
impregnated prepregs tend to be stiff, boardy, and tack-free (no stickiness). This may cause
problems in draping the mold surface and sticking the prepreg layers to each other as they are
stacked before consolidation.

Solution impregnation is used for polymers that can be dissolved in a suitable solvent, which
usually means an amorphous polymer, such as polysulfone and PEI. The choice of solvent
depends primarily on the polymer solubility, and therefore, on the chemical structure of the
polymer and its molecular weight. The solvent temperature also affects the polymer solubility. In
general, a low-boiling-point solvent is preferred, since it is often difficult to remove high-boiling-
point solvents from the prepreg. Solution impregnation produces drapable and tacky prepregs.
However, solvent removal from the prepreg is a critical issue. If the solvent is entrapped, it may
create a high void content in the consolidated laminate and seriously affect its properties.

Film stacking is primarily used with woven fabrics or random fiber mats, which are interleaved
between unreinforced thermoplastic polymer sheets. The layup is then heated and pressed to
force the thermoplastic into the reinforcement layers and thus form a prepregged sheet.

Fiber mixing is a process of intimately mixing thermoplastic fibers with reinforcement fibers by
commingling, wrapping, or coweaving (fig.5). Commingled and wrapped fibers can be woven,
knitted, or braided into two- or three-dimensional hybrid fabrics. The thermoplastic fibers in
these fabrics can be melted and spread to wet the reinforcement fibers at the consolidation stage
during molding.
The principal advantage of using hybrid fabrics is that they are highly flexible and can be draped
over a contoured mold, whereas the other thermoplastic prepregs are best suited for relatively
flat surfaces. However, fiber mixing is possible only if the thermoplastic polymer is available in
filamentary form. Such is the case for PEEK and PPS that are spun into monofilaments with
diameters in the range of 16–18 mm. Polypropylene (PP) and polyethylene terephthalate (PET)
fibers are also used in making commingled rovings and fabrics.

Fig.5. Commingled, wrapped and co-weaved fibers

4. Vacuum Bagging
4.1. The process
The vacuum bagging setup is shown in fig.6. A uniform pressure applied to the laminate before
it is cured improves consolidation of the fibers and removal of the excess resin, air, and volatiles
from the matrix. Pressure is applied with the aid of a flexible diaphragm or bag. The laminae are
laid up in a mold and resin is spread. Release film or a release agent is used on both sides of the
laminate to prevent it from sticking to the mold or to the breather. Sometimes, a peel-ply is used
to leave an imprint or pattern on the surface to enhance adhesive bonding (secondary bonding)
at a later time. The breather/bleeder combination helps distribute the vacuum and channels the
volatiles and excess resin to the vacuum port. The laminate is then covered with a flexible bag,
which is perfectly sealed to the tool. Then, vacuum is applied and the part is cured with heat and
pressure. By applying vacuum under the bag, the atmospheric pressure acts uniformly over the
laminate. The vacuum helps withdraw excess volatile compounds, such as residual solvent,
trapped air, or low molecular weight components of the resin. After the cycle, the materials
become an integrated molded part shaped to the desired configuration. There are three basic
methods of applying pressure to the laminate: pressure bag, vacuum bag, and autoclave
processing, the latter two being the most popular methods.
 Fig. 6. Schematic of Vacuum bagging
4.2. Advantages
 Vacuum bags allow for the production of large, high quality parts.
 Vacuuming and curing equipment can be used for a variety of parts.
 Better consolidation of fibers
 Optimum usage of resins
 Air and volatiles are eliminated from the laminate
4.3. Disadvantages
 Added cost due to the vacuum bag and its related materials
 High skill of labor required, which can add up to the production cost
 Size of part is limited by the curing equipment, including the size of the curing oven or
autoclave.
4.4. Bagging for thermoplastic composites
Bagging procedures for thermoplastics are similar to thermoset materials except that the bagging
materials must be able to withstand the high temperatures. Materials like Kapton vacaloy are
used because they can withstand up to 370°C. Most of the thermoplastics melt in the 260-370°C
range, as compared to 120-180°C maximum operating temperature in case of thermosets. The
molding of thermoplastics must also take into account the high temperatures required to obtain
good flow and compaction. The higher viscosities of thermoplastics make the consolidation
process very complicated and high pressures may be necessary. Thermoplastics are used to
obtain improved properties in hot and wet environments and higher impact resistance. The high
cost of production of thermoplastics is sometimes compensated because of production
advantages, such as no need for refrigeration, reduced shipping costs, etc. Specific applications
involving high impact resistance and improved mechanical properties include aerospace and
medical equipment (where performance and quality are critical but cost is not such a concern),
food processing, camera and watch cases, electrical and electronic equipment, etc.
5. Autoclave processing
Autoclaves are pressure vessels that contain compressed gas during the processing of the
composite. They are used for the production of high quality, complex parts. The method is good
for large parts and moderate production quantities. Autoclave processing of composites is an
extension of the vacuum bag technique, providing higher pressure than available with a vacuum
and giving greater compression and void elimination. The composite part is laid up and enclosed
in a vacuum bag. Full or partial vacuum is drawn within the bag, and gas pressure greater than
atmospheric is applied on the exterior of the bag. The temperature is then raised to initiate cure
of the polymer. Higher temperature also reduces the viscosity of the polymer, helping wetting of
the reinforcement and consolidation of the composite. Augmented pressure exerts mechanical
forces on the unconsolidated composite, increases the efficiency of transport of volatiles to the
vacuum ports, and causes increased wetting and ow of the resin. The volume of the trapped air
and released volatile is reduced proportionally to the applied pressure vacuum at a given
temperature. Therefore, porosity and voids are minimized. Also, the transport of volatile
materials in the molten polymer to the vacuum ports is more efficient at elevated pressure. The
majority of autoclaves for composite manufacturing are cylindrical pressure vessels with domed
ends, one of which is the door or entrance. The autoclaves are usually mounted horizontally on
the factory floor to provide easy access to the interior. Diameter is the limiting factor in size.
Large-diameter autoclaves require extremely thick walls and become very expensive. Most
research and development autoclaves are about 1 m in diameter, while production autoclaves
run from about 1 to 8 m in diameter. Tools for autoclave use are usually simple male or female
forms. The surface of the part facing the tool surface is more precise and has better surface
finishing than the bag surface. The choice of materials for tooling is usually based on the
temperatures to be encountered during curing and the production quantities required. Plaster
and wood masters may be used to produce prototype parts, provided a low temperature cure is
employed. For production parts, polyester, epoxy, aluminum, steel, and cast epoxy tooling are
used. Large epoxy tools must be reinforced to give dimensional stability to the mold. Production
tools frequently contain built-in heating elements and sensors, vacuum ports around the outside
of the layup, and provisions for stiffening and handling. Autoclave operations consume large
amounts of energy and materials, including industrial gases (nitrogen is used for pressurization
as an alternative to high-pressure compressors) and bagging materials. Autoclave operations are
also labor intensive and time-consuming. The curing cycle and consolidation of a part in an
autoclave is long and intensive. In the case of very thick parts, the curing cycle may have to be
repeated several times to complete curing. Matched tool molding in presses is usually more
economical in the case of large production runs of relatively small composite parts. For large
parts exceeding the size of available presses, autoclave processing is the only choice, and for the
intermediate production runs of the aerospace industry, autoclave processing is usually the most
economical choice. The production rate depends on many factors including the tools used, the
size of the part, and the number of laminae. First the part has to be formed by the hand layup
process which is time-consuming. For vacuum bagging, a pump is used to create a vacuum of
about 100 KPa, at a rate of 60 to 400 liters per minute. Therefore, the size of the part determines
the vacuuming time. The production rate of autoclaves is also determined by the cure profile that
includes heat up, curing, and cooling time. The size of the tool used also affects the production
rate because the tool has to be heated too. Small parts can be cured in about three to five hours
and large parts can take as long as twelve to sixteen hours to cure.
6. Sheet Molding Compounds
Sheet-molding compounds (SMC) are thin sheets of fibers precompounded with a thermoset
resin and are used primarily in compression molding process. Common thermoset resins for SMC
sheets are polyesters and vinyl esters. The longer cure time for epoxies has limited their use in
SMC.

Fig.7. Sheet molding compounds (SMC-R, SMC-CR and XMC)

The various types of sheet-molding compounds in current use are as follows:
SMC- R, containing randomly oriented discontinuous fibers. The nominal fiber content (by weight
percent) is usually indicated by two-digit numbers after the letter R. For example, the nominal
fiber content in SMC- R30 is 30 % by weight.
SMC- CR, containing a layer of unidirectional continuous fibers on top of a layer of rand only
oriented discontinuous fibers. The nominal fiber contents are usually indicated by two-digit
numbers after the letters C and R. For example, the nominal fiber contents in SMC-C40 R30 are
40% by weight of unidirectional continuous fibers and 30% by weight of randomly oriented
discontinuous fibers.
XMC (trademark of PPG Industries), containing continuous fibers arrange d in an X pattern, where
the angle between the interlaced fibers is between 58 and 78. Addition ally, it may also contain
randomly oriented discontinuous fibers interspersed with the continuous fibers.
A typical formulation for sheet-molding compound SMC-R30 is presented in Table 1. In this
formulation, the unsaturated polyester and styrene are polymerized together to form the
polyester matrix. The role of the low shrink additive, which is a thermoplastic polymer powder,
is to reduce the polymerization shrinkage. The function of the catalyst (also called the initiator)
is to initiate the polymerization reaction, but only at an elevated temperature. The function of
the inhibitor is to prevent premature curing (gelation) of the resin that may start by the action of
the catalyst while the ingredients are blended together. The mold release agent acts as an
internal lubricant, and helps in releasing the molded part from the die. Fillers assist in reducing
shrinkage of

Table 1. Typical formulation of SMC-R30

the molded part, promote better fiber distribution during molding, and reduce the overall cost
of the compound. Typical filler –resin weight ratios are 1.5:1 for SMC- R30, 0.5:1 for SMC-R50,
and nearly 0:1 for SMC- R65. The thickener is an important component in an SMC formulation
since it increases the viscosity of the compound without permanently curing the resin and
thereby makes it easier to handle an SMC sheet before molding. However, the thickening react
ion should be sufficiently slow to allow proper wet-out and impregnation of fibers with the resin.
At the end of the thickening reaction, the compound becomes dry, non-tacky, and easy to cut
and shape. With the application of heat in the mold, the thickening reaction is reversed and the
resin paste becomes sufficiently liquid-like to flow in the mold. Common thickeners used in SMC
formulations are oxides and hydroxides of magnesium and calcium, such as MgO, Mg(OH)2, CaO,
and Ca(OH)2.
SMC-R and SMC-CR sheets are manufactured on a sheet-molding compound machine (Fig.8). The
resin paste is prepared by mechanically blending the various components listed in Table 1. It is
placed on two moving polyethylene carrier films behind the metering blades. The thickness of
the resin paste on each carrier film is determined by the vertical adjustment of the metering
blades. Continuous rovings are fed into the chopper arbor, which is commonly set to provide 25.4
mm long discontinuous fibers. Chopped fibers are deposited randomly on the bottom resin paste.
For SMC-CR sheets, parallel lines of continuous strand rovings are fed on top of the chopped fiber
layer. After covering the fibers with the top resin paste, the carrier films are pulled through a
number of compaction rolls to form a sheet that is then wound around a take-up roll. Wetting of
fibers with the resin paste takes place at the compaction stage.
XMC sheets are manufactured by the filament winding process (read filament winding) in which
continuous strand rovings are pulled through a tank of resin paste and wound under tension
around a large rotating cylindrical drum.
Chopped fibers, usually 25.4 mm long, are de posited on the continuous fiber layer during the
time of winding. After the desired thickness is obtained, the built-up material is cut by a knife
along a longitudinal slit on the drum to form the XMC sheet. At the end of manufacturing, SMC
sheets are allowed to ‘‘mature’’ (thicken or increase in viscosity) at about 30°C for 1–7 days. The
matured sheet can be either compression molded immediately or stored at -18°C for future use.

Fig.7. Schematic of Sheet molding compounding operation

7. Compression molding
Compression molding is used for transforming sheet-molding compounds (SMC) into finished
products in matched molds. The principal advantage of compression molding is its ability to
produce parts of complex geometry in short periods of time. Non-uniform thickness, ribs, bosses,
flanges, holes, and shoulders, for example, can be incorporated during the compression-molding
process. Thus, it allows the possibility of eliminating a number of secondary finishing operations,
such as drilling, forming, and welding. The entire molding process, including mold preparation
and placement of SMC in the mold, as well as part removal from the mold, can be automated.
Thus, the compression molding process is suitable for the high-volume production of composite
parts. It is considered the primary method of manufacturing for many structural automotive
components, including road wheels, bumpers, and leaf springs

The compression-molding operation (fig.8) begins with the placement of a precut and weighed
amount of SMC, usually a stack of several rectangular plies called the charge, onto the bottom
half of a preheated mold cavity. The ply dimensions are selected to cover 60%–70% of the mold
surface area. The mold is closed quickly after the charge placement, and the top half of the mold
is lowered at a constant rate until the pressure on the charge increases to a preset level. With
increasing pressure, the SMC material in the mold starts to flow and fill the cavity. Flow of the
material is required to expel air entrapped in the mold as well as in the charge. Depending on the
part complexity, length of flow, and fiber content (which controls the viscosity of SMC), the
molding pressure may vary from 1.4 to 34.5 MPa (200–5000 psi). Usually, high pressures are
required for molding parts that contain deep ribs and bosses. The mold temperature is usually in
the range of 130°C–160°C. After a reasonable degree of cure is achieved under pressure, the
mold is opened and the part is removed, often with the aid of ejector pins.
Advantages
• Minimizes part setup costs
• Eliminates material waste
• Reduces secondary finishing
• Requires minimum labor
• Process can be easily automated; hence can be used for high volume production
• Ribs and flanges can be designed in the mold for stiffness of the part
• Complex parts can be produced in short period of time.
Disadvantages
Does not allow a high content of continuous fibers; therefore parts are not suitable for primary
structures
Applications
Primary method of manufacturing for many structural automotive components, including road
wheels, bumpers, and leaf springs.

Fig. 8. Schematic of compression molding

8. Resin Transfer Molding

Fig. 9. Schematic of Resin transfer molding

Resin transfer molding (RTM) uses a mold, with inlets to introduce the resin and outlets that allow
air to escape. The fiber reinforcement is placed dry in the mold, and the mold is closed. Liquid
resin is pumped into the mold through the inlet, soaking the fibers and filling the mold cavity.
When the mold is full, the resin supply is removed, the mold inlets and outlets are sealed, and
heat is applied to cure the resin. After the resin is completely cured, the mold is opened and the
resulting composite part is removed. The RTM process can produce large continuous fiber-
reinforced composites with complicated shapes and relatively short cycle times. The process is
differentiated from other molding processes in that all the reinforcement is placed dry in the
mold before any resin is applied. This allows for better control over the orientation of the fibers,
thus improving material properties. Also, the process is cleaner, with less volatile organic
compounds (VOC) released, and less prone to defects. Physical properties of molded RTM
components tend to be very consistent. This is at the cost of a relatively high waste factor around
the part perimeter. Corners and edges tend to be resin-rich making it difficult to achieve uniform
fiber content through the part. When low-cost materials are used in mold construction, mold
pressures must be low, resulting in slow fill times and limited fiber contents. Poor temperature
resistance of the mold, coupled with poor heat transfer, restrict the resin chemistry to slow cure
times with minimum exothermic to prevent resin degradation or tool damage. Reinforcements
are generally cut and placed in the mold by hand for each molding, which increases cycle time
considerably for complex parts. A major limitation is the fact that the mold design is very critical
and requires great skill. Mold design, particularly inlet and outlet design and location, is
increasingly performed using software packages to simulate the flow of resin through the mold
cavity The cost and time to build a preform for resin transfer molding are significant. The absence
of reinforcement at part edges may be a limitation if ribs and bosses are required in a design.
Ribs and bosses must be loaded individually in the tool cavity, and maintaining reinforcement at
the part edge while avoiding resin richness at corners of the part can be difficult. Scrap losses
also may be more costly as component integration increases, and replacement cost can be
significant if a large component is defective. Producing mold-in holes are usually difficult in RTM.
Routinely, parts are limited to about 12 mm thickness because of the difficulty in resin transfer
through large mediums. Tolerance for RTM is di cult to keep but some applications can keep
tolerance as close as +/- 0:2 mm. Reinforcement movement during resin injection is sometimes
a problem causing leakage and non-uniform resin transfer. Production rates strictly depend on
the size and type of part being produced. The RTM production area can be configured to operate
a variety of molds simultaneously. An RTM machine can process 45 kg/min and 2-8 parts/hr while
it may take 2 hrs to produce a similar part by spray-up. The production costs of RTM are lower
than processes using prepreg because the cost of raw materials (fiber and resin) is significantly
lower. In some cases the cost of RTM has been found to be as low as 1/3 of using prepreg and
vacuum bag process to produce the same part. For a particular example using the same part, the
production cost of RTM was estimated at 80% of the cost for hand layup, including equipment
depreciation, material costs, scrap rate, and labor costs. Similar savings are reported. Equipment
costs for RTM may be as low as 35% of the cost for compression molding and autoclave processes.
In general, the equipment cost for RTM is usually lower than other composite processes except
for hand layup. However, RTM has a fairly high labor cost compared to SMC and Injection
Molding.
Advantages
• Good surface finish on both surfaces
• Complex geometries, strict dimensional tolerances
• Any combination of reinforcement in any orientation including 3D parts can be fabricated
• Fast cycle time can be achieved using proper temperature control
• Process can range from manual to automated
• Ability to incorporate inserts and other attachments into the mold
• Production cost is lower because of faster cure cycles and cheaper raw materials (unlike
use of prepegs).
• Equipment cost lower than compression molding
• Part variety is greater than compression molding
Disadvantages
• Mold size limits the part size
• High waste factor around part perimeter
• Reinforcements are cut and placed by hand on the mold, which further increases cycle
time; however in case of high automation this is eliminated.
• Mould design is critical and requires great skill
• Parts are limited to 12 mm thickness

9. Filament winding

Fig. 10. Schematic of filament winding

Fig.11. Helical and hoop winding on a pressure vessel

In a filament-winding process, a band of continuous resin-impregnated rovings or monofilaments
is wrapped around a rotating mandrel and cured to produce axisymmetric hollow parts. Among
the applications of filament winding are automotive drive shafts, helicopter blades, oxygen tanks,
pipelines, spherical pressure vessels, conical rocket motor cases, and large underground gasoline
storage tanks. The filament-winding process is also used to manufacture prepreg sheets or
continuous fiber-reinforced sheet-molding compounds, such as XMC. The sheet is formed by
slitting the wound shape parallel to the mandrel axis.
Figure 10 shows the schematic of a basic filament-winding process. A large number of fiber
rovings are pulled from a series of creels into a liquid resin bath containing liquid resin, catalyst,
and other ingredients, such as pigments and UV absorbers. Fiber tension is controlled using the
fiber guides or scissor bars located between each creel and the resin bath. Just before entering
the resin bath, the rovings are usually gathered into a band by passing them through a textile
thread board or a stainless steel comb. At the end of the resin controls the resin coating thickness
around each roving. The most commonly used wiping device is a set of squeeze rollers in which
the position of the top roller is adjusted to control the resin content as well as the tension in fiber
rovings. Another technique for wiping the resin-impregnated rovings is to pull each roving
separately through an orifice, very much like the procedure in a wire drawing process. This latter
technique provides better control of resin content. However, in the case of fiber breakage dur
ing a filament winding operation, it becomes difficult to rethread the broken roving line through
its orifice. Once the rovings have been thoroughly impregnated and wiped, they are gathered
together in a flat band and positioned on the mandrel. Band formation can be achieved by using
a straight bar, a ring, or a comb. The band former is usually located on a carriage, which trave
rses back and forth parallel to the mandrel, like a tool stock in a lathe machine. The traversing
speed of the carriage and the winding speed of the mandrel are controlled to create the desired
winding angle patterns. Typical winding speeds range from 90 to 110 linear m/min. However, for
more precise winding, slower speeds are recommended. The basic filament winding process
described earlier creates a helical winding pattern and is called the helical winding process. The
angle of the roving band with respect to the mandrel axis is called the wind angle. By adjusting
the carriage feed rate and the mandrel’s rotational speed, any wind angle between near 0° (i. e.,
longitudinal winding) to near 90° (i.e., hoop winding) can be obtained.
The filament -wound part is generally cured on the mandrel. The mandrel is then extracted from
the cured part. To facilitate mandrel extraction, collapsible mandrels, either segmented or
inflatable, are used for products in which the end closures are integrally wound, as in pressure
vessels.
Filament-wound parts have very high strength-to-weight ratios. Also, a high degree of control
over winding uniformity and orientation is afforded with this technique. Furthermore, when
automated, the process is most economically attractive. Common filament-wound structures
include rocket motor casings, storage tanks and pipes, and pressure vessels. Manufacturing
techniques are now being used to produce a wide variety of structural shapes that are not
necessarily limited to surfaces of revolution (e.g., I-beams).This technology is advancing very
rapidly because it is very cost effective.
10. Pultrusion

Pultrusion is used for the manufacture of components having continuous lengths and a constant
cross-sectional shape (i.e., rods, tubes, beams, etc.).With this technique, illustrated schematically
in Figure 12, continuous fiber rovings, or tows, are first impregnated with a thermosetting resin;
these are then pulled through a steel die that preforms to the desired shape and also establishes
the resin/fiber ratio. The stock then passes through a curing die that is precision machined so as
to impart the final shape; this die is also heated to initiate curing of the resin matrix. A pulling
device draws the stock through the dies and also determines the production speed. Tubes and
hollow sections are made possible by using center mandrels or inserted hollow cores. Principal
reinforcements are glass, carbon, and aramid fibers, normally added in concentrations between
40 and 70 vol%. Commonly used matrix materials include polyesters, vinyl esters, and epoxy
resins. Pultrusion is a continuous process that is easily automated; production rates are relatively
high, making it very cost effective. Furthermore, a wide variety of shapes are possible, and there
is really no practical limit to the length of stock that may be manufactured.

Fig.12. Schematic of pultrusion

It can be noted from fig. 12 and 13 that along with continuous fibers, fiber mats can also be used
to improve its transverse strength. The ratio of continuous strands to mats decide the mechanical
properties.
Advantages
• High volume production
• Low process waste and it is a ‘net’ process
• Variety of reinforcement types and forms can be used along with resin and fillers
• Complex thin walled shapes can be manufactured
• Can fabricate long parts with uniform cross section
Disadvantages
• Non-uniform cross sections cannot be manufactured
• Difficult to achieve tight tolerances
• Quick curing resins can only be used, which lead to lower mechanical properties
• Fibers and fillers may accumulate in the die entrance
• To solve this problem we decrease the volume fraction of fibers which makes the
composite resin rich
• If we increase the die entrance beyond a optimum level, there might be voids in the final
product.

Fig. 13. Pultruded product with continuous strands and mat layers