Nutrition

Notes
• Food nutrients: carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, vitamins, minerals and
water
• Structure of carbohydrates, proteins and lipids
• Sources of carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, vitamins, minerals and water
• Functions of carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, vitamins, minerals and water in
the body
• Significant interrelationships between nutrients, including:
o Iron and vitamin C
o Iron and fibre
o Calcium and phosphorous
o Calcium and vitamin D
o Calcium and fibre
o Calcium and lactose
o Folate and vitamin B12
o Sodium and potassium
• Digestion, absorption and metabolism of food

Protein
Functions of protein:
1. Making up the structure of body, proteins make up parts of each cell. Structure of protein
relates to function; e.g. long proteins may be used in muscles (actin & myosin), flat sheets
and networks in hair and nails etc.
2. Growth and repair; used to replace the proteins that have been lost through damaged cells.
3. Enzyme action: enzymes are made from proteins. Chemical messaging: hormones are also
made from proteins.
4. Energy: Can be used as fuel if every other source of energy is gone. Makes toxic by-
products of metabolisation, which makes energy from protein a non-preferable choice.
Food sources of protein: Mostly animal products, plants have not all complete protein with all
essential amino acids.

What are proteins?
• Organic molecules made up of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and sulfur (sometimes).
• A protein is made out of various amino acids, 22 are found biologically and can be
synthesised using DNA instructions.
• The amino acids are the building blocks to combine to make protein.

Structure of proteins
 • Amino acids: Amino group (NH2) , carboxyl group (COOH) and a radical group.

• Proteins are made up of ‘strings’ of amino acids known as polypeptides.
• The amino acids are linked by peptide bonds.
• These bonds form between the amino group from one amino acid and the carboxyl from the
next amino acid. H20 is given off in the process.
• These peptide bonds form the backbone of the protein.

Protein chains can take on 2 forms:
1. Globular: 3D in shape, round like a globe.
2. Fibrous: straight, elongated. They may be coiled and spring like, elastic extended proteins, or
straight, inelastic extended proteins. Gluten is said to be elastic and connective tissue or gristle is
said to be inelastic.

Amino acids are categorized as either essential or non-essential.
Essential: Not synthesised by the body, so must be ingested and supplied by diet, otherwise
deficiencies may develop. There are 8 essential amino acids for adults, and 9 for children.
Example: tryptophan, leucine, lysine,

Non-Essential: The other biological amino acids that can be synthesised by the body, which do
not need to be supplied in the diet. There are 14 non-essential amino acids for adults, and 13 for
children.
Example: alanine, glutamine, cysteine, cystine

Food may supply either ‘complete’ or ‘incomplete’ protein.

Complete Incomplete
Define A food source with all 8-9 essential amino A food source that doesn't
acids. contain all the 8-9 essential amino
acids.
Food Animal flesh, and many animal products such Many plant sources such as
Sources as egg and dairy. E.g. beef, veal, lamb, pork, celery.
chicken and fish, eggs, milk, dairy, soy beans
(exception to vegetable rule)

Limiting amino acids: This is the amino acid that has the shortest supply in a food of incomplete
protein. E.g. wheat, corn and rice are incomplete protein foods because they have low lysine.
Therefore, lysine is their limiting amino acid.

 Is it possible to COMPLEMENT proteins? How is this done?
It is possible to complement proteins, because wide varieties of foods with different limiting
amino acids will allow one food supply to provide an amino acid that another food lacks.
Complementing proteins are food sources that when eaten together in a meal, provide a
complete source of protein.
E.g. rice with peas/lentils, bread with peanut butter, corn tortillas with kidney beans.

Veganism: Diet of fruits, vegetables and grains, no foods of animal origin.
Lacto-vegetarian: Plant foods + dairy products
Lacto-ovo-vegetarian: plant foods + eggs + dairy

Complementary proteins are important for all types of vegetarians in order for them to obtain all
essential amino acids.
Usually healthy adults do not need to eat complementary proteins at the same meal, because
amino acids are stored in the body for a while. Over the day, amino acids from different foods are
held in the body, to be combined according to bodily needs.
However, older people may not store amino acids in the same way and may need to combine
proteins in the same meal to ensure adequate intake. This can also be good for people with
higher protein requirements e.g. children and pregnant women.

Carbohydrates
Functions:
• To provide energy (the brain & red blood cells only uses carbohydrates for energy)
• To provide fibre

What are carbohydrates?
• Compounds composed of carbon and a hydrate (Oxygen and hydrogen)
• Sugars and starches found in many different foods

Structure:
• Monosaccharides: Composed of 1 simple sugar unit, include glucose (used for respiration),
fructose (sweetest simple sugar), galactose (not very sweet)
• Disaccharides: Composed of 2 monosaccharides joined together. E.g. sucrose (table sugar) is
glucose + fructose. Lactose (milk sugar) is glucose + galactose. Maltose is 2 glucose molecules.
• Polysaccharides: Monosaccharides can be joined together to make polysaccharides.
o Starch: glucose polysaccharide found in plants, broken down to glucose. 2 different
forms: amylose (long chain of glucose) and amylopectin (branched chains of glucose)
o Glycogen: glucose polysaccharide found in body to store glucose in the liver and muscles
for extra use e.g. overnight, between meals and for exercise.
o Pectin: polysaccharide found in fruits (mostly seeds, pith and peel) and some vegetables.
Used to set jams into gel.
o Cellulose (dietary fibre): Extremely long chains of glucose, cannot be broken down in
human gut due to structure.

Fibre:
• Not considered a nutrient for humans, it passes through and isn't absorbed.
• Important to keep gut working well.
• It absorbs moisture, swelling to create large and softer mass in gut to maintain peristalsis to
keep gut contents moving.
• Prevents constipation and may reduce cell damage from harmful substances in food, by
adsorbing some toxins and keeping them from being absorbed by your body.
 • Provides extra bulk in diet, making food more satisfying.
• Binds to bile salts, meaning that more cholesterol is used up to make them, lowering
cholesterol levels.

Structure of Polysaccharides
A polysaccharide contains many monosaccharide units which are bonded together. The four
most important polysaccharides are starch, glycogen, pectin and cellulose (dietary fibre).

Starch
Starch is a polysaccharide of glucose produced by plants. It acts as a store of energy which
can be converted back into glucose when required. Starch is found in one of two forms:
Amylose, containing between 50 and 500 glucose units in a straight chain. Draw an
example below:

Amylopectin, which contains up to 100 000 glucose units in a branch like structure. Draw an
example below:

Sources of starch include wheat, corn, rice, potatoes, sweet potatoes, oats and rye. The
starch is stored in the plants in small granules, then broken down into glucose for use as
energy. Starches are complex carbohydrates, in such a large molecule, that they are
insoluble in water. They form virtually tasteless, dry powders. Cornflour is an example of
practically pure starch. Seeds used as food are good sources of starch.
These include:
• cereal grains such as wheat, oats, rice, corn
• nuts of all kinds
• legumes including beans and peas, especially dried.

Storage root organs such as potatoes and yams are another excellent food source of starch.
Starch is the major component of flours extracted from these plant sources. In your diet,
wheat flour, especially in breads, pastas, cakes and biscuits, and breakfast cereals are
common sources of starch. Starches usually take longer to digest and absorb than sugar.
Starch is obtained only from plant foods.


Glycogen
Glycogen is the body’s equivalent to starch. It is stored in the liver and muscles and is
broken down into glucose when energy is required.

Pectin
Pectin and pectic substances are compounds which are found in the cells and between cells
of fruits and some root vegetables. Pectin’s are important in the gelling of jams.

Cellulose (dietary fibre)
Cellulose or fibre is the indigestible part of plant foods. Like starch, cellulose is a
polysaccharide of glucose but it is structurally and nutritionally different from starch
because the glucose molecules are joined together in a different way. The human body is
incapable of digesting cellulose because it lacks the necessary enzymes. The only possible
breakdown of cellulose occurs through the mechanical action of chewing.

Lipids
What are lipids?
Group of substances that include fats, oils, fatty acids, phospholipids, sterols, glycolipids and waxes.
Stores large amount of energy in small volume. 37 kJ per gram.

Function of lipids: lipid or fat cells (adipose tissue) do functions such as:
• Providing sources of energy, storing energy.
• Providing soft outer layer to protect body from injury
• Carrying fat soluble vitamins in your blood
• Providing essential fatty acids that are important for nerve & brain function
• Keeping skin and hair soft and smooth
• Forming cell structure e.g. cell membrane
• Acting as part of the endocrine system, forming parts of hormones and prostaglandins.

Structure of lipids
Most common form of dietary lipids are triglycerides.
Glycerol backbone, attached to 3 fatty acid tails.

A fatty acid is a carbon chain that has a carboxylic acid group attached to the end, which joins onto
the glycerol.
These vary in length, and vary in the amounts of hydrogen atoms attached to the carbon chain.

Saturated vs Unsaturated Fats
Saturated fats are fats in which all the carbons on the chain are attached to the maximum amount of
hydrogens, and there aren't any double bonds (which means the carbon can still bind to more
hydrogens if the bond were broken).
These tend to be animal fats, and are solid.

Unsaturated fats in which not all the carbon atoms are saturated with hydrogen, some of them are
double bonded. These tend to be plant fats, and are extremely soft, if not liquid oils. A fat with one
double bond is called monounsaturated. A fat with 2 or more double bonds is polyunsaturated.

Side note: saturated and long chain fatty acids tend to be solid at room temperature, while
unsaturated and short chain fatty acids tend to be liquid.

Hydrogenation
It is possible to turn unsaturated fats into saturated fats through a process called hydrogenation.
This breaks the double bond between the carbon, and adds extra hydrogen atoms into the fat. This
turns a previously liquid fat solid, and is used to make margarine from vegetable oil.
This is not better for you than saturated fat, because it is saturated fat.
It can be a lot worse for you, as the oils may not be fully hydrogenated, forming trans fats (where
the hydrogens on either side of the double bond are on the opposite sides of the carbon chain, as
opposed to cis fats) which can cause many health problems.


Essential Fatty Acids:
• Essential fatty acids are needed for normal growth but can't be synthesised.
• 3 essential fatty acids are linoleic acid, linolenic acid and arachidonic acid.
• These omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids are found in fish and other seafood, nuts and seeds,
and green vegetables.

Cholesterol:
• Are not triglycerides, are sterols with different structure.
Cholesterol has these purposes:
• Used to make bile acids
• Absorbs and uses lipids from your food
• Makes important hormones
Your body makes cholesterol in the liver, and other animals also make it, so it is found in animal
foods.
If you eat loads of cholesterol, the amount you make should usually decrease.
High saturated fat intake promotes high levels of cholesterol in the blood.


Structure of cholesterol: a sterol

Food Sources of Lipids

Animal sources:
• Meat: all fats: mostly saturated fatty acids, and cholesterol
• Fish: fish liver/liver oil, oil fish (tuna & salmon): mostly unsaturated fatty acids, cholesterol,
essential fatty acids
• Dairy products: Milk, butter & cream, cheese: mixture of saturated and unsaturated fatty
acids, cholesterol

Plant sources: are generally lower in fat, but some exceptions.
• Fruits/vegetables: Avocado, Olive: Mostly monounsaturated fatty acids, no cholesterol.
• Nuts/legumes/seeds: brazil nut, walnut, peanuts, sesame, sunflower: mostly polyunsaturated
fatty acids, no cholesterol, essential fatty acids.
• Other: Palm kernel/coconut: mostly saturated fatty acids, no cholesterol.

Vitamins
Fat-Soluble Vitamins: Stored in liver and fat tissue. This store can meet fat-soluble vitamin needs for
months.

Vitamin Use Signs of deficiency Food sources Comments
Vitamin A Forms rod and Poor vision, especially • Retinol/carotene • Carotene
(retinol) cone cells in eye, in low light • Animal livers converted to
needed for Linings of gut, lungs (retinol), lipid retinol in gut
vision etc. do not stay parts of meats • Over 400
Helps maintain moist. • Carotenoids in carotenoids,
mucus-secreting Eyeball dries out and red, orange, converted to
tissue e.g. gut, becomes damaged, yellow and green different
lungs, nose, causing blindness veg. amounts of
throat, eyes eventually retinol.
• Most
bioavailable
 carotenoid is
beta-carotene
Vitamin D Vitamin in Abnormal bones • Made in skin • People not
(ergocalciferol charge of bones, • Children: exposed to UV exposed to
& strength from Rickets; bones light sunlight are at
cholecalciferol) calcium are weak, • Fish liver oils risk of
phosphate develop in bent • Small amounts in deficiency.
Controls shape. oily fish, egg yolk, • Food sources
turnover of • Adults; dairy fats. are more
calcium & Osteomalacia: important for
phosphate in bones prone to these people.
and out of bone breaking and • Has to be
Promotes pain converted to
calcium and active form in
phosphate body.
absorption,
controls amount
that kidneys
allow to be lost
in urine.
Vitamin E Antioxidant, Higher risk of damage Fat in plant foods • Group of 8
(alpha- protects from free radicals, e.g. different
tocopherol) cells/nutrients toxins, ageing and • Nuts and compounds
from oxidative cancer seeds called
damage. • Vegetable oil tocopherols.
Captures and • Margarine • Most active
disarms free • Wheatgerm form is alpha-
radicals tocopherols.
• Free radicals
are molecules
that cause
damage due
to an unpaired
valency
electron.
Vitamin K Involved in Deficiency rare, • Green leafy • Deficiency is
(phylloquinone) blood clotting by sometimes in vegetables rare because
(menaquinone) controlling 4 of newborn babies • Small amounts: it is produced
the proteins that causes excessive • Other veg by gut
are needed for bleeding • Fruit bacteria
clotting. • Cereal • Newborns
grains vulnerable
• Seeds because guts
are sterile.


Water soluble vitamins:
• Not stored in body, continuously replenished.
• Excess is excreted in urine.
• B and C group vitamins.

Vitamin Use Signs of deficiency Food sources Comments
Thiamin Essential to releasing Very general and • All plants and • Highly
(B1) energy from similar to other animals processed
carbohydrates and lipids deficiencies. • Meat/meat foods are
Called beri-beri organs usually
• Loss of appetite • Poultry lower in
• Vomiting • Fish thiamin
• Irritability • Wholegrain • Deficiencies
• Depression cereal usually
• Eventually • Legumes occur in
nerves are • Nuts poor
unable to • Seeds countries
function • yeast where a
properly processed
leading to grain is the
muscle cramps main food
• 'Dry' beri-beri (e.g. rice)
becomes very • Particularly
thin with in growing
mental children
confusion with higher
• 'Wet' beri-beri energy
oedema (fluid needs
swelling in body
tissues) which
can cause heart
failure and
death
Riboflavin Essential part of • Usually general • Found in all •
(B2) carbohydrate, protein and accompanied plants/animals
and lipid metabolisation by other • Milk & dairy
deficiencies as • Meats
riboflavin is • Organ meats
important in the • Wholegrain
whole body. cereal
• Deep cracking & • Vegetables
redness at corners • Eggs
of mouth & eyes • yeast
• Sore throat and
eyes, inflamed
sore tongue
Folate Essential for cell • Reduced growth • Nearly all foods Required most
(B9) production/maintenance rate and anaemia • Green leafy veg in periods of
and genetic material • More general • Yeast growth e.g.
inside cells symptoms are loss • Organ meats childhood &
of appetite, pregnancy
diarrhoea, because of its
weakness, role in cell
production.
 irritability, sore
tongue.
• Inadequate folate
in pregnancy
increases risk of
prematurity and
neural tube
defects.
• E.g. spina
bifida, the
spine isn't
developed.
Vitamin C Involved with collagen • Scurvy • Plant foods •
(ascorbic formation (protein in • Weak body tissues, • Citrus fruits
acid) connective tissue). swelling, bleeding (lemons, limes,
Collagen helps maintain and tenderness of oranges)
strength of cell walls & skin, muscle and • Berries
body tissues. joints. • Red Capsicum
• Gums bleed, teeth • Tomatoes
may fall out • Green leafy
• Scars turn back vegetables
into fresh wounds
• Bruising and
nosebleeds are
common
• Healing ability lost

Minerals + Water
Needed in large amounts:
• Calcium
• Phosphorus
• Iron
• Sodium
• Potassium
• Magnesium
• Sulfur
Trace elements:
• Iodine
• Zinc
• Copper
• Cobalt
• Manganese
• Molybdenum
• Chromium
• Selenium
• Nickel
• Vanadium
• Tin
Mineral Function Food Sources Comments
Calcium • Bones & teeth: calcium • Dairy foods • Inadequate calcium causes
phosphate • Sardines, salmon, calcium released from
• Nerve and muscle whitebait (eaten bones to meet needs;
functioning with bones) weakening bones
• Clotting of blood • Tofu • Severe deficiency has
• Tahini symptoms similar to Vit D
• Green vegetables deficiency.
(some) • Pregnancy uses up a load
of calcium stores in bones
Phosphorus • Bones & teeth • Meat • Phosphate released from
• ATP (adenosine • Poultry bones to maintain
triphosphate) • Fish phosphate levels in blood
• Eggs
• Dairy
• Whole-grain cereal
• Legumes
• Nuts & seeds
Iron • Role in reactions: • Meat & organs with • Iron is reused after blood
forming collagen, blood cells die
converting carotene to • Haem iron: iron • Only lost through wounds
retinol from blood or menstruation etc.
• Forms haemoglobin • Egg yolk • Iron stores in body are
(blood) and myoglobin • Fish eaten whole controlled, if stores are
(muscles) to carry oxygen • Non-haem iron: low, iron is absorbed from
Plants food more.
• Legumes • Iron deficiency is anaemia
• Nuts & seeds
• Wholegrain cereal
• Green leafy veg
Sodium and • Fluid balance: • Sodium in all foods • Lost in urine depending on
Potassium • Na for extracellular • Especially: what the kidneys want to
fluid • Meat do
• K for intracellular • Fish • Sodium also lost in sweat
fluid • Seafood
• Na/K pumps allow ions to • Eggs
move in and out • Dairy
• Regulates pH balance in • Green veg
body • Cooking salt
• Muscle impulses & nerve • Salted foods
messages • Cereals
• Heart needs K to beat • Bread
• Too much K can cause • Spreads
heart attacks too • Biscuits
• Na used in glucose • Cheese
uptake Potassium:
• K used to release energy, • Fresh fruits/veg and
to help make proteins juices
and for glycogen storage • Tomatoes
• Kidneys control K and Na • Potatoes
concentration • Bananas
 • Oranges
• Meat, fish, cereal,
chocolate
Zinc • Found in enzymes & is a • Oysters & shellfish • Deficiency causes stunted
co-factor for enzymes. • Liver growth, poor wound
• Essential for metabolism • Meat healing, hair and skin
• Important for protein • Chicken problems, loss of taste
synthesis • Cheese sensitivity.
• Growth • Wholegrain cereals • More easily absorbed from
• Wound healing • Nuts animal foods, because fibre
• Healthy hair/skin can bind with zinc.

Fluorine Strength of calcium • Fortified tap water
phosphate in bones and • Seafood
teeth • Tea
Helps harden enamel and
prevent caries

Interrelationships Between Nutrients
Iron's interaction
• Vitamin C:
o Increases iron absorption
o Changes iron in non-ferrous state to ferrous state which is more easily absorbed/used
up.
• Dietary Fire:
o Reduces iron uptake by adsorbing it from digestive tract and making absorption through
intestinal wall impossible. (oxalic acid content)

Calcium:
• Phosphorus:
o Equal amounts of calcium and phosphorous must be present or body is less efficient at
absorbing calcium.
• Vitamin D:
o Controls calcium and phosphorous levels in blood, as well as amount of phosphorous
absorbed from GI tract and kidneys.
• Lactose:
o Lactose improves calcium transfer through intestinal wall and into blood
• Fibre:
o Reduced when a meal is high in acids found in fibre.
o These acids bind to calcium making it unavailable for absorption.
o E.g. oxalic acid found in some foods such as spinach.

Folate and Vitamin B12
• Are needed to produce protein
• Particularly DNA needed to produce mature red blood cells.
• Deficiency of either one causes the ability of the other to be reduced.

Sodium and Potassium work together to:
• Maintain correct osmotic pressure within cells
• Relax and contract muscles (with calcium)
 • Transfer nerve impulses
• Control pH (acid/base balance) of the body
• Sodium found inside cell, potassium found in fluid that surrounds cell
• Too much of either one will affect the osmotic pressure within cells and either dehydration or
oedema results
• Imbalance will affect muscles, going into spasm instead of doing what they should
• Successful transmission of nerve impulse takes place only when Na+ and K+ levels are correct
and the same.

Digestion, Absorption and Metabolism of Nutrients
• GI tract: tube up to 8 metres long, starts at mouth, finishes at anus.
• Digestion: mechanical and chemical breakdown of food into smaller nutritional components.
• Absorption: movement of these components from gut into the blood and lymphatic systems
of the body.
• Metabolism: All chemical processes that use nutrients to make other substances.
o Catabolism: Nutrients broken down to their components, usually for energy or to make
other substances. E.g. the break down of muscle to provide energy in times of starvation
o Anabolism: New molecules produced from substances released by catabolism. E.g.
recovery from injury, bodybuilders

Organs of digestion:
Organ Features/Function
Mouth • Teeth grind and break up food (mastication)
• Saliva lubricates (mucin in saliva is slimy)
• Enzymes (amylases) break down carbohydrates
Epiglottis • Small flap at back of throat
• Seals top of trachea when swallowing
Oesophagus • Tube transports food from mouth to stomach
• Peristalsis: moves food towards stomach; muscular action
• Oesophageal sphincter prevents acid reflux into oesophagus from stomach
Stomach • Churning of food
• Digestive juices, HCl & enzymes chemically digest food
• pH of 2
• Proteases start to break down proteins
• Food turned into a chyme paste, released into small intestine by the pyloric
sphincter.
• Pepsin breaks down proteins into smaller polypeptide chains, or peptones.
Pancreas • Produces pancreatic juice, added to duodenum
• Contains all 3 groups of enzymes
Liver & gall • Liver produces bile: stored in gall bladder.
bladder • Bileduct takes bile to duodenum: it isn't an enzyme, it emulsifies fats/lipids.
• Liver also stores some excess products of digestion.
Small intestine: • Produces all 3 groups of enzymes, together with pancreatic juice & bile,
Duodenum digestion is completed.
Jejunum • Food & water absorbed
Ileum • Villi (finger like projections)increase surface area
• Microvilli (villi on villi) further increase surface area
• Alkali environment neutralises the acids
Large intestine: • Undigested and unabsorbed food passes into large intestine.
Caecum • Water, vitamins and soluble minerals are absorbed into bloodstream.
Ascending colon • Undigested material, bacteria, water & salts form faeces, which are
Transverse colon eliminated through the anus.
Descending colon • Makes up 1.5 metres of GI tract.
Sigmoid colon • 4 times thicker than small intestine
Rectum & anus • Digestion occurs due to bacteria, not from enzymes produced.
• Gut bacteria produce vitamin K and some B-group vitamins.

Digestion of protein:
• Stomach: pepsin breaks proteins down into smaller polypeptide chains, or peptones.
• Peptones enter duodenum and are broken down into amino acids by enzymes trypsin,
chymotrypsin, carboxypeptidases, aminopeptidases and erepsin.

Digestion of carbohydrates:
• Amylase in mouth
• Pancreatic amylase breaks down remaining starch into the disaccharide maltose, in
duodenum.
• Once chyme reaches the jejunum, it comes in contact with maltase, lactase and sucrase
(invertase). Disaccharides are then broken down into their respective monosaccharides.

Digestion of lipids:
• Lipases break triglycerides into monoglycerides.
• Bile produced in liver and stored in gall bladder just emulsifies fats to make it easier for lipases
to reach them.
• Glycerol and fatty acids are absorbed through ileum wall.

Absorption of nutrients:
• Villi in small intestine absorb carbohydrates, proteins and lipids.
• Glucose, amino acids, water-soluble vitamins and minerals all flow from intestinal cells to the
blood stream.
• This is then taken to the liver which coordinates use, storage and transport to other parts of
the body.
• Fat is absorbed into the gut wall and re-formed into triglycerides while they are in the gut cell.
o These don’t pass into the blood immediately.
o They travel into the lymph system as chyle, a creamy/fatty liquid.
o This is released into the bloodstream from the thoracic duct (opening in chest).
o This is slow, as the process is passive.
• Fat then travels into blood stream, when it is taken up by cells for energy.

Food Quality
- Methods of storing foods to maintain quality such as dry storage, cold storage and freezing
Safe preparation and presentation of Food
• Equipment and utensils to produce quality food products across a range of settings
• Safe and hygienic work practices when handling food
• Preparation methods to produce food products across a range of settings
• Layout of food for visual appeal, including styling for photography and plating for service
• Sensory characteristics of foods, including appearance, odour, taste (flavour) and texture (mouth feel)
• Sensory assessment of a variety of foods
Functional properties of food, including:
• The role of proteins in denaturing, coagulation, gelation, foaming and browning
• The role of carbohydrates in gelatinising, dextrinising, caramelisation and crystallising
• The role of fats in emulsifying and aerating
Factors that affect the functional properties of food, including:
• Oxygen
• Temperature
• Acidity
• Agitation
• Enzymes
• Addition of other ingredients

Factors Affecting Microbial Growth

Availability of nutrients: self explanatory
Water: self explanatory

pH: Different micro-organisms prefer to live in environments of different pH (potential hydrogen, a measure of
alkalinity or acidity). A pH near 7 (neutral) is optimal for most bacteria. However, yeasts thrive in a pH of 4.5, while
moulds like a pH of 3.0.

Temperature: Microbes can be broadly classified based on temperature requirements.
Low temperature: psychrophiles
Medium temperature: mesophiles
High temperature: thermophiles.
Some bacteria thrive at refrigeration temperatures (e.g. Listeria monocytogenes).
Most bacteria responsible for food-borne illnesses grow between 5-60 C. This is called the temperature danger zone.
Below 5C, the microbes become less active, but grow/multiply once the temperature rises; freezing does not destroy
all bacteria.
At temperatures >60C, growth is slowed, and most microbes are destroyed >80C.

Atmosphere
Oxygen and carbon dioxide levels affect microbial activity. They can also be classified according to gaseous
requirements.
Aerobe: requires oxygen for growth. Includes moulds (which is why they grow best on food surfaces),
Anaerobe: prefers oxygen-free atmosphere

Adverse Conditions:
Some microbes can produce spores to survive, so that they can lie dormant.
These spores are very resistant and some can tolerate up to 4 hours of boiling, or months or years of dry/frozen
conditions.
They will germinate under favourable environmental conditions.
They can be prevented from germinating by keeping food out of the danger zone, or by rapidly heating and cooling.

Safe Storage of Food

Commercial storage
Cold storage - fruit, veg, meat (0-4C)
Dry storage (12-20C)
Freezer storage (-18 - -10C)

Food Spoilage:
• Not all food spoilage has an indicator smell, colour or taste.
• Food can deteriorate because of enzymes in the food, or microbial contamination.
• In general, spoiled food isn't safe to eat, because the decomposition may promote growth of pathogens.

Shelf-life of food: Food cannot be kept forever, over time their is quality loss. The shelf-life refers to the expected
time for food to keep its quality and applies to unopened food items. Factors affecting this are micro-organism
growth, changes in moisture and chemical/biochemical changes.
• Use-by date: After this date, food shouldn't be consumed (safety concerns). E.g. use-by-date on packed fresh
vegetables and fresh cream.
• Best-before date: Food is at highest quality before this date, will start to deteriorate after. E.g. fresh milk, eggs,
mayonnaise, tomato sauce, packaged breadcrumbs, breakfast cereals, cooking oil, frozen vegetables, ice-
cream. A baked on date or use-by date is often on bakery items such as bread and bread rolls.
Some food may be acceptable past its shelf life, provided it is stored according to instructions, but it is best to follow
the dates.

• Perishable foods: Short shelf life of a few days, correct storage (usually in cool/cold environment) is essential
to preserve quality. E.g. fresh milk/dairy, meat, fish, bread, fruit (strawberries)
• Semi-perishable foods: Last several weeks-months if stored correctly. E.g. frozen foods, potatoes, other fresh
root vegetables and packaged cereals
• Non-perishable: Long shelf-life, lasting over a year possibly. E.g. canned foods, bottled foods, dried foods.

Storage: Food manufacturers/retailers carry out correct procedures so food will be the best for the customer.

Cold storage: (temperatures of 0-5C)
• Microbial and enzyme activity significantly slowed
• Food quality maintained, shelf life extended
• Cheap and safe way to store fresh and cured flesh foods, dairy, and fresh fruit/veg.
• Fruits:
o Picked before ripe often, kept in cold storage until there is demand.
o Low temperature slows ripening enzymes
o Ripening gives off ethylene. This starts a chain reaction of other fruits ripening and also giving off
ethylene.
o Important to control level of ethylene gas, it also destroys chlorophyll, causing change from green to
brown.
o Controlled atmosphere is needed for commercial storage: control water, oxygen, carbon dioxide etc.
• Vegetables:
o Temperature slightly above 0C: helps maintain sweetness level. Once a vegetable (particular high starch
e.g. corn) is harvested, it starts to lose sweetness.
o Control atmosphere as with fruits
o Water vapour in air is controlled: vegetable skin is thinner, promoting wilting and loss of turgor.
Maintaining right conditions will maintain the turgor and discourage micro organism growth.
o Produce is allowed to ripen after the season for the fruit/vegetable is over. This is done by gradually
increasing temperature and allowing ethylene and oxygen levels to rise.
o E.g. apples, oranges, potatoes, carrots will be kept in cold storage for several months.
• Flesh foods:
o Contain enzymes that cause flesh to change/age.
o High water content, perfect growth environment for bacteria on surface.
o Cold storage slows microbe growth and enzymatic ageing.

Dry storage: (temperatures of 12-20C)
• Foods with low Aw (water activity) e.g. rolled oats, flour, dried beans, must be stored in dry air.
 • If moisture is present, the low Aw food will absorb it (due to osmosis), and microbes will multiply, the quality
will drop.
• Moisture could activate enzymes
• Very low Aw foods: need to be reconstituted e.g. dried beans, dried soup mix, cereals, flour, cake mix, tomato
paste, jelly crystals
• Moderately low Aw foods: Crisp texture will be lost if in contact with moisture e.g. biscuits, crackers
• Freeze dried foods - coffee, herbs etc.
• Some fresh vegetables; onions, potatos
• Frozen foods
• Some individual low moisture foods e.g. dried fruits, breakfast cereal, are sold in airtight packages to
consumers. Some other e.g. flour and dried pasta is too expensive to pack airtight

Freezer storage:
• If freezing is quick, it is effective to maintain quality of food for long periods.
• Process: holding food at very cold temperatures of between -18C and -30C
• Usually lasts for 3 and 12 months
• Low temperatures cause microbes to become less active, enzyme activity in food is reduced.
• If temperature drop is fast enough, ice crystals will be small, cell structures will suffer less damage. Little loss
of nutrients/quality if food is carefully wrapped.
• If frozen food is not properly wrapped to keep out cold dry air, the air will remove water from the exposed
surface, resulting in freezer burn. The dried out spot is brownish grey in colour and spongy in texture.

Safe Preparation and Presentation of Food
Food stylists have job opportunities mainly in situations of food photography, such as in cookbooks, magazines,
posters and television advertisements.

Television advertisements can present food in ways that are only achieved using effects.
E.g. cooked rice takes the shape of a rack of lamb using hairspray and glue.
These advertisements are designed to gain attention and get us to buy a product rather than showing us what the
finished product actually looks like. The cookbook is to more realistically show the product.

Cookbook publishers and magazines have to show food that can be realistically be made and eaten at home. The
expectation is never the reality as people do not have the time to wipe sauce off the plate, spray wilted food with
water or brush dried bits with oil etc.

Food photography requires special skills, equipment and large amounts of patience. With digital photography, the
effects of food displays can be viewed quite quickly. Food photographers mostly work with an SLR (single lens reflex)
camera, zoom lens and computer software such as photoshop. Blemishes on food can be edited out using digital
photography.
Lighting is important, food must be even lit from sides and the top. If food has an undesirable shadow (e.g. on the
inside of a pie with a slice removed) then a mirror can be used to focus light on the area. This creates a 3D feel.

Food photography is about simplicity and freshness these days. Donna Hay has set the trend of white plates and
single dishes that are not overcrowded with food. The food looks crisp and fresh with minimum food. Colour is
added with props such as placemats, glasses or napkins.

Food photography rules:
• Control the colour of the food
• Bright colours indicate freshness - dark broccoli, bright red tomatoes etc.
• Contrasting colours - light and dark, patterns and plain
• Cooked food looks darker and overcooked - only partially cook the photographed food. Make hot food look
'hot' and cold food look 'cold'.
• Put partly cooked food in the microwave for 30 seconds to produce steam before photography.
• To make food look golden brown: brush surface with paprika and brown food colouring, or brush with oil or a
sugar/water syrup.
 • To make food look chilled: spray cold water on surface. To photograph a cold drink, place ice cubes in the
container and spray outside with fine mist of water until drops roll down the glass. Plastic ice cubes may be
used to avoid replacing melted cubes.
• Make the food look 'life sized' as cameras tend to flatten food and reduce overall size.
• Create height by arranging food in uneven layers, not laying it flat on a plate.
• Make decorations taller than the food - e.g. handles or baskets that show above the food.
• Use glasses with medium-sized stems as part of the shot.
• Use different heights in the plates, bowls and serving dishes.
• Cut or make food pieces larger than you normally would.

Sensory Characteristics of Food

Sensory methods are used to evaluate what senses are affected when we eat food. Food triggers our senses and all
these factors combine to help us make the decision about whether we want to eat a particular food item.

Flavour: From 4 main components
• Taste
• Aroma
• Temperature
• Texture

Best temperature for flavour evaluation is 20-30 degrees celsius, but isn't appropriate for hot or cold foods.

Taste:
• Chemicals in the food stimulate taste receptors (tastebuds).
• Primary sensations:
o Sweet
o Salty
o Sour
o Bitter
o Umami: savoury flavour indicating amines and MSG etc.
• Specific areas detect tastes better, because tastebuds respond differently to flavours.
• Astringency: Components such as tannins create sensations of dry mouth etc. This is called astringency.
• Heat/Coolness: Peppermint and menthol creates coolness, while capsaicin forces the mouth to feel pain as
heat.

Texture: How a food actually feels in the mouth
• Tactile texture (stuff you can feel): Between lips, against teeth, on tongue, roof of mouth (mouth feel), or in
the hand.
• Visual texture: How you perceive something to feel, from just a look. E.g. a crispy looking wrap.

Characteristic Foods
Hardness Celery
Softness Ripe avocado
Brittleness Peanut brittle
Smoothness Chocolate bar
Cohesiveness Caramel bun
Crumbliness Sponge cake
High viscosity Thick cheese sauce
Low viscosity Thin gravy
Elasticity Grilled steak
Chewiness Baked potato skins

Aroma:
• Hot food has more aroma than cold food: steam carries volatile aromatic substances (contributing to aroma
and flavour)
• The more a food is heated, the stronger its aroma (some cooks depend on the smell to know when food is
ready.)
• Some food is covered on the table, when it is lifted the aroma is released.
• Some cold foods such as fruits have aromas: pawpaws, strawberries, mangoes etc.
• Electronic sensing of volatile aromatic compounds is in machines that sense things so we can store foods at
optimal conditions.

Sound:
• Not the main sensory characteristic, but does play a part.
• Food sizzling adds to the appeal.
• Can create negative impression; if an apple doesn't crunch, we know it isn't fresh.

Visual Appeal:
• Colour is the most important, the food industry uses many colours because of consumer expectations.
• Colours are associated with certain flavour: orange jellies should taste like oranges, cooked meat should be
brown, and baked bread should have a golden brown crust.
• Appearance can influence acceptability: scrambled eggs that are dry and crumbly are not as appealing as moist
scrambled eggs, lumpy gravy is not acceptable.

Sensory Tests

Sensory testing is subjective: how people perceive a product using their senses.
Physical properties are also measured by the industry:
• Height and weight
Chemical properties:
• pH
A full picture of the food can be determined using a combination of these tests.

Most purchased food has been processed in some way, and sensory tests conducted by the food manufacturer
influence the sensory tests that consumers conduct at home.

Sensory analysis: Analysis of aroma, taste, overall appearance and texture. Can be done to test development of a
new product or to improve an existing product.
Sensory tests can measure:
• Consumer preference for one food over another: which sells better, due to flavour or colour etc.
• Consumer acceptance/rejection of certain flavours, textures and aromas.
• Difference between processing or storing procedures. E.g. waxed paper liner improving cereal texture more
than a foil-lined pouch? Did increasing temperature by a little during canning have undesirable effects?
This information is important to the manufacturer, as the more sensory characteristics that the consumers like, the
greater the product sales.

Guidelines must be followed to ensure validity of each test.

General organisation:
• Only one characteristic tested at once (e.g. saltiness)
• No more than 5 samples should be tested at once. The stronger the food, the fewer the samples, as senses tire
quickly and cannot detect differences as easily and accurately.
• Sensory evaluation sheet should be provided so each panellist carries out the same tests. Some computer
choices are allowed in certain test.
• Product samples should be labelled in a way that prevents bias.
• Each sample's random number should be recorded so that samples are not confused.
• When comparing similar products, check ingredients list to identify differences.

Panellists/Tasters:
• The testers are called panellists or tasters. They can be average consumers or experts, trained to taste for
specific things.
• They should not have a cold, it dulls senses.
• Should not occur when taster is hungry or full.
• Only 2-3 bits or sips should be taken for taste and texture tests.
• Mouths should be rinsed after each sample, reducing contamination of taste.
• Differences can be described or explained in the tester's own words. Some tests insist that products are
ranked, even if the tester cannot sense a difference.
• Shouldn't discuss evaluation with others, this will affect answers.
• Individual results shouldn't be given, although group results may be shown.

Presentation of food:
• Water for rinsing should be at room temperature, cold water will dull taste.
• Food should be presented at correct temperature for eating: hot foods should be hot, cold foods cold.
• Environment should be controlled so that testers cannot see/smell foods before they test, this may affect
results.
• Panellists should be separated from one another by dividers.

Types of sensory tests:

Hedonic scales: Ranking food by the rate of pleasure that it gives the consumer.
A simple form uses faces to indicate pleasure given from food, useful when children are testing.
Can also use words relating to satisfaction e.g. very poor, good etc.

Descriptive tests: Provide information about selected characteristics. A list of words describing characteristics is
presented on the scorecard, the taster selects the most appropriate description.

Ranking: Several foods of the same kind are assessed together, placed in order of preference for a characteristic.
Ranking can be used along with descriptive words.

Profiling food: Ranks descriptive words to create a food profile of the product. The results are presented on a star
diagram that has few or many points, depending on qualities tested. Can be used to compare similar products, or the
results of several tasters.


Difference Sensory Testing:
• Testing perceived/recognised differences between products in appearance, flavour, texture or aroma.
• At least 20 panellists needed to ensure results are worthwhile in predicting consumer preference.

Paired comparison test: Samples presented in pairs, more than one pair to taste.
The taster will try:
• Sample P + Sample P
• Sample P + Sample H
• Sample H + Sample H
With 3 paired samples, if the taster recognises the difference, it will more likely because of an actual taste difference
than chance.

Triangular comparison test: Most common of all difference sensory tests, aiming to determine if tasters can
recognise differences. Only 2 samples tested, but presented in 3s, so the taster is asked to identify the odd one out.
They will taste:
• Sample P + Sample H + Sample P
• P + H + H
• P + P + H
• H + P + H
• H + P + P
• H + H + P
Sometimes the taster will be permitted to indicate 'no perceivable difference' if they are absolutely unable to detect
a difference.
A variation of this test is called the duo-trio test. In this test, one of the samples is identified for the taster and acts
as a control. The remaining samples are tasted and compared with the control, either tasting similar or different to
it.

Two out of Five comparison test: The most reliable difference test for showing the average ability to detect
difference.
Panellists taste 5 samples, 2 of which are the same. They are asked to identify the identical samples.
Using these results, a manufacturer can predict how 90% of consumers will feel about the food.
Not used for testing taste or aroma, because a large number of samples needs to be tested at once.
Only appearance and texture can be tested.

Functional Properties of Food: Protein
• Made up on amino acids, joined by peptide bonds. There are 22 biological amino acids, joined up to form
polypeptide chains

Fibrous proteins: Coiled 'helix' structure of proteins elongated to form a strand. Found in muscle fibres of meat,
poultry and fish, also in products with gluten.
Globular proteins: Protein strands are twisted to round compacted shape. Found in:
• Eggs: albumin in eggwhite, vitellin and vitellenin in egg yolk
• Milk and dairy: caseinogen, lactalbumin and lactoglobulin.
• Enzymes - in cells of lots of things.

Denaturation and Coagulation:
Structure of protein is altered by heat, agitation, the presence of acids/salt or enzymes.

Denaturation: Bonds holding the protein in its shape (intermolecular forces) are broken, and the protein unravels.
• Globular proteins denature easily, and this change is easier to see.
• E.g. Adding acid to milk, beating egg whites into a foam. Acidophilus bacteria are in yoghurt to denature milk
protein
• Fibrous protein denaturation is less visible. Structure of protein is less affected by things, as there are less
intermolecular forces that can be broken.
• E.g. Meat is marinaded overnight to break down bonds in collagen, making meat more tender.
Coagulation:
• Denatured proteins separate from other nutrients and solidify. Solid mass is formed.
• Coagulated protein strands can bind liquids to form gels e.g. gelatin mixtures. However, if proteins
overcoagulate, they shrink and toughen, forcing liquid out (syrenesis)

Factors contributing to denaturation and coagulation
Temperature:
• Heat causes proteins to denature. Higher the temperature, the more quickly the proteins denature and then
coagulate. E.g. room temperature egg whites form foams quicker.
• pH: Acids attack and break salt bridges between amino acid strands e.g. marinading meats, making yoghurts
etc. Bases/alkalis also denature proteins, but this isn't commonly found unless using baking soda or lye etc.
Agitation:
• Causes proteins to denature. E.g. kneading, mixing, whipping or beating. This causes protein strands to
stretch. E.g. bread, cakes etc.
• Too much beating stretches the strands until they break and denature. E.g. Overbeating eggwhites causing
them to clot
Enzymes:
• Are biological catalysts
• Breaks down large molecules into smaller molecules that can be absorbed by cells.
• E.g. pineapple juice with enzyme bromelin can denature myosin on the outside of muscles. Also rennin is
used to coagulate milk.
Salt:
• NaCl can denature and coagulate proteins. E.g. boiling eggs cooked in salt water so if the eggshell cracks, the
hole is sealed quickly.
• Salt added when making cheese to increase firmness of curd.
Sugar:
• Protein can tolerate higher temperatures if sugar is near it. It protects the protein.
• E.g. sugar glaze on honey ham protects the outer layer from becoming tough.

Gelation:
• Tiny drops of liquid are trapped within coagulating proteins, forming soft elastic products.
 • Heat, acids or enzymes are necessary for the formation of these gels.
• Once coagulation has occurred, gelation occurs more quickly if temperatures are low.

Aeration of eggwhites:
• Adding air to a substance: e.g. making meringues
• Ovomucin in eggwhite separates from rest of eggwhite when beaten. As it denatures, it coils and traps air,
forming bubbles.
• Continued beating causes bubbles to become smaller and foam to become whiter and finer in texture.
• If foam is beaten for too long, liquid weeps and protein clumps.
• Foams must be used immediately, stretched protein loses elasticity after a few minutes.
• If foam is heated, trapped air rises and protein stretches to give structure.
• Temperature: the higher the temperature, the more foam is produced.
• Acids: small amounts of acids slow foam formation, but increase stability, so it can be left for longer before
cooking.
• Agitation: The greater the rate of agitation, the greater the volume of foam produced.
• Other ingredients: fat prevents eggwhites forming foam. Water increases volume but makes it less stable.
Sugar added towards the end of beating makes the foam shinier, finer and more stable.

Gluten
• Composed of 2 proteins: glutenin and gliadin. When moistened and mixed with a bit of fat, these stretch to
form gluten strands, becoming elastic.
• Agitation and kneading increases development of gluten strands.
• Presence of fats e.g. butter can stop water coming in contact with flour, making the product crumbly and
less elastic
• Sugar in baked products absorbs water so gluten isn't as developed.

Protein browning
• Oxidative browning of red meat: myoglobin and haemoglobin make meat red.
• Myoglobin (bright red) + oxygen ------> oxymyoglobin (red) ----> metmyoglobin (brown)
• High temperatures, ultraviolet light, freezing temperatures, certain metals and the presence of bacteria
speed up the oxidative browning.

Non enzymatic browning of red meat (non-oxygen related)
• When the blood protein myoglobin in meat is heated, it denatures, changing from pink to brown to grey.

Maillard Reaction
• Occurs when dry heat is applied to food containing protein and a sugar.
• Formation of dark yellow to a brown crust on cooked foods e.g. roast meat, cakes, bread, fried chips is a
result of the Maillard reaction.
• Dry heat only: e.g. baking, roasting, barbecuing, grilling and frying.
• Moist-heat methods of cooking do not produce the Maillard reaction (e.g. microwaving, steaming)
• Can also be unwanted, e.g. drying milk and eggs causing off taste and brown colour
• If food containing protein and sugar is heated above room temperature, it is possible to get undesirable
colour changes.

Functional Properties of Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates are organic molecules composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. There are 3 types:
• Monosaccharides - 1 sugar unit: glucose, fructose or galactose.
• Disaccharides - 2 sugar units: lactose, maltose and sucrose (common table sugar)
• Polysaccharides - more than 2 sugar units (often long chains) : their functional properties are different from
disaccharides and monosaccharides.

Functional Properties of Starch
• Starch is a common polysaccharide found in grains and their products e.g. potatoes and cassava (tapioca).
• Size of starch granules varies, as well as their specific components.
 • Starch molecules are composed of amylose and amylopectin. The ratio varies and this creates different
qualities in different starches.
• Most starches have ~25% amylose, but some selectively bred corn varieties have more than 50%. The
proportions of amylose and amylopectin produce foods of different qualities.
• Starches with more amylose are used to produce semi-solid opaque gels, the ones with more amylopectin
are used to produce clearer gels that are more a thick liquid than a solid.
• High amylose cornstarch and rice starch are used to make edible packaging films, such as the ones on lollies
and sweets.

Gelatinisation of starch: Starch thickens mixtures by absorbing liquid in the presence of heat. The process is called
gelatinisation.
• The physical qualities of gel produced are determined by the ratio of amylose to amylopectin and the
method used.
• Plain wheat flour, cornflour and arrowroot are the most common thickening agents in a domestic kitchen.
Wheat flour contains high proportions of amylose, produces thick and cloudy gels. However, it also contains
10-15% gluten, so has less starch than other thickening agents.
• Cornflour contains more amylose than arrowroot, so produces a thicker and cloudier sauce than arrowroot.
• Potato starch is often used to give soups a slightly thicker consistency; it has higher amounts of amylopectin,
so does not form lumps or a gel.

Factors affecting gelatinisation:
• Temperature: needs to be warm and moist.
• Starch is not soluble in cold water, so in order for it to absorb liquid, the outside of the starch granule needs
to be softened by heating. At 64-72C, the outer shell softens, allowing it to swell. At 86-90C, the granules
burst and the amylose and amylopectin is released, forming a gel.
• These mixtures should be boiled for at least 1 minute to ensure that all starch has become gelatinised,
otherwise the finished product will be starchy.
• As the mixture cools, it forms a more rigid gel. Some cold gels rupture and weep liquid when cut/stirred.
They break when reheated, which is why lumps appear in flour-thickened reheated gravy.
• Roux: A mixture of melted fat and flour to soften outer shell of starch granules.
• Agitation: needed to maximise surface area of flour to absorb water. To prevent lumps forming, mix flour
with cold water in a cup rather than adding dry flour to a warm mixture, e.g. thickening stew. Only add cold
liquid to starch mixture. Adding a hot liquid causes starch molecules to gelatinise on contact, forming lumps.
Constantly stir, and cool roux mixtures before adding cold liquids.
• Sugar: Absorbs water so that starch doesn't absorb the water, reducing gelatinisation. Sugar raises the
temperature which starch granules start gelatinising, making the mixture more liquid and unstable.
• Acid: Breaks starch down into smaller dextrins, which have less thickening power than starch. This is why
acid must be added after gelatinisation.
• Equal quantities of fat and flour in a roux ensures that there is enough fat to disperse the starch and
minimise lump formation.

Dextrinisation of Starch - Browning Reaction
• The process which starch breaks down into dextrins e.g. bread toasting.
• Polysaccharide breaks down into shorter glucose chains called dextrins. They are the halfway point in the
complete breakdown of a starch molecule into glucose.
• Starch --> dextrins ---> maltose ---> glucose
• Dextrins are chemically different from starch: they are water soluble, sweet and aren't good thickening
agents.
• Dextrinisation is caused by: exposure of starch to dry heat (most common), acid and enzyme action.
• Dextrinisation is the reason for brown toasted bread, toasted cereals being sweeter, gravies being brown
etc. Dextrins are used commercially as a colouring and sweetening agent.

Functional Properties of Pectin:
• Used to create gels: found in lemons, limes, apples, cumquats, blackberries, cranberries, currants, grapes,
guavas and sour plums.
• Simmer fruit, so pectin is released. No lumps form as pectin is water soluble. Sugar is added, and the mixture
is boiled to evaporate water to reach setting point.
 • Test mixture at 103-105C, cool a spoonful and allow to drip. It is ready when the mixture drips in heavy,
separate drops.
• If it has a negative test, adding a bit of lemon juice may help. Do not overcook, otherwise pectin is
destroyed, and undesirable colours/flavours may be produced.

Functional Properties of Sugars
• Crystallisation of disaccharides: Disaccharides are crystalline, sweet and water soluble. Monosaccharides
have similar characteristics, but do not produce large crystals.
• Crystallisation is used to produce confectionary e.g. toffee, brittle, fudge and caramel.
• Sugar dissolved in liquid and heated, concentrating/supersaturating the sugar solution. As the solution is
cooled, the sugar reforms into crystals. Crystals will be small and texture smooth if cooled quickly and not
agitated. Movement and slow cooling encourages the development of larger crystals.
• Temperature: Hotter the water, the greater the amount of sugar that can dissolve in it. More crystals can
form if there is more sugar in the solution. High temperatures produce brittle crystalline products that show
signs of caramelisation.
• Acidity: Acids (e.g. vinegar or cream of tartar) split bond joining the disaccharide to create separate
monosaccharides, referred to as invert sugars. These inhibit development of large crystals, so gives
confectionary a smoother texture. However, if too much is present, the product remains runny.
• Agitation: If solution is stirred while hot, crystallisation starts soon, producing a grainy texture. Sugar should
be fully dissolved before mixture boils, and then stirred.
• Fudge requires beating to develop texture. Solution must be cooled to 40C before stirring, to produce
smooth texture. Beating should continue until crystallisation is complete and product becomes solid.
• Caramels require beating while heating. Butter helps minimise crystal size, and milk product contributes to
flavour. The thick mixture must be stirred throughout.
• Fat: surrounds small crystals, stopping larger crystals from forming.

Functional Properties of Lipids:

Lipids: All biological fats, oils, sterols, phospholipids etc. Undergo emulsification and aeration in food preparation.

Emulsification: The process that produces an emulsion.
• Emulsion: stable combination of oil and water
• Fat globules are reduced in size to a small uniform diameter so can be evenly distributed throughout the
water. This is called homogenisation and is used in the production of full cream and low fat milk.
• Another specific ingredient (emulsifier) is added to stop separation of lipid and water. These are substances
that can have an attraction for both the lipid and the water so allows for them to mix.
• Emulsions can be destroyed under certain conditions e.g. high temperatures, freezing, agitation after
formation and addition of salt can break down an emulsion. If the emulsifier bridge breaks, the lipid
separates from the water.

Factors affecting the emulsification of lipids
• Temperature: High temperatures causes lipids to become more fluid and water to move more rapidly,
making it harder for the emulsifier to hold them together. Freezing changes the state of water and oil; this
causes the connections with the emulsifier to break, thus the mixture separates when product is defrosted.
• Agitation: mixture must be beaten rapidly so the oil has access to the emulsifier. Beat the mixture while
adding oil slowly, don't add too much at once. Continuous beating after the mixture has already emulsified
can break the connections between emulsifier and oil, destroying the emulsion.
• Addition of salt: Chemical attraction between water and salt is greater than the attraction between water
and emulsifier. Adding salt can causes water to separate and move towards the salt.
Emulsifiers can be found naturally in foods e.g. lecithin in egg yolk, and gelatin. Synthetic emulsifiers such as glyceryl
monostearate, SPANS and TWEENS can be made in a laboratory.

Parts of an emulsion:
• Dispersed phase, continuous phase & emulsifier. The smallest quantity of substance is dispersed in the
other, and is the dispersed phase. The continuous phase is the main component. The emulsifier joines both.
Types of emulsions: Water in oil (more water than oil) e.g. margarine, butter. The other is an oil in water emulsion
(more water than oil), and is found is mayonnaise, salad dressings, gravies etc.

Aeration of Fats:
• Air is added to a mixture, affecting consistency and texture. Plasticity of saturated fats make them more
effective at aerating mixtures than unsaturated oils.
• E.g. Creaming butter and sugar together when preparing cake batters. Sugar crystals are pressed into the fat,
a small quantity of air is included in each indentation.
• E.g. rubbing in butter to make scones
• E.g. laying fat between layers of gluten to make puff pastry.
• E.g. whipping cream to form a foam.
Foams:
• Air is whipped/beaten into a liquid. E.g. whipped cream with fat and protein surrounding air bubbles. This
partly solidifies the fat and partly denatures the protein.
• Fat content of cream needs to be 22-35% before it can be whipped. Evaporated milk is more concentrated,
so can be whipped more easily.
• Factors that affect foaming of cream are: age of cream (2-3 days is best), temperature (1-7C is best), amount
of beating (when overbeaten, fat clumps and cream looks curdled), addition of gelatin (making foam thicker)
and the addition of sugar (decreases volume of foam but if added towards the end of beating, decreases the
likelyhood of curdling and gives cream a shinier appearance).

Oxidative reactions with food:
• Some proteins undergo oxidative reactions e.g. myoglobin browning
• Lipids undergo oxidative rancidity if exposed to air for a long time especially in high temperatures. Oxygen
reacts with double bonds along the carbon chain of a fatty acid: oils (unsaturated) are more likely to go
rancid than fats (saturated). This oxidative reaction causes spoilage, making a bitter taste, odours and a
lower smoking points. This can be prevented by adding an antioxidant.
• Carbohydrates aren't affected by oxidative reactions.
• Fruits and vegetables are susceptible to oxidative reactions because enzymes are exposed to air when cut,
turning the food brown. This can be wanted (cider) or unwanted (apple browning). This can be prevented by
eliminating air in packing, coating food with acid to denature enzymes and coating food with antioxidant e.g.
citrus juices or pineapple juice.


Influences on Food Availability


Global Migration of Cultural Groups

Colonial food production:
• At first, settlers relied on staple foods brought from England, due to the different things they
saw Aboriginals eating. Beef, salted pork, biscuits, dried peas, butter, wheat flour or grain,
rum and gin were brought to Australia.
• Cultivation attempts failed, supplies ran short. Medical officers sent to investigate native
supplies could add a few native plant/animal species to the food rations. E.g. Native spinach,
native celery, native parsley, wild currants, heart of the cabbage palm, fish and game such as
brush turkeys. (Range was still not as varied as the nutritious diet of the Aborigines).
• Poor health was the result of a diet lacking in fresh fruits and vegetables.

Vegetables and fruit:
• Early attempts to grow food in Sydney Cove were unsuccessful.
• 1879: Government farm established in rich Parramatta soil, crops used to supplement
rations given out from military stores.
• Production involved mostly human labour because there weren't enough animals to pull
ploughs. Therefore, process was slow and tiring.
• Lack of food between 1788-1791 forced Governor Phillip to bend the original rule which
banned convicts from growing own produce. Convicts given garden allotments were
permitted to eat things they grew to supplement their rations.
• Previously, was mandatory to give food grown in colony to military stores for distribution as
rations.
• Australia's first market gardens and orchards developed from grants of land given to
convicts.

Milk and milk products:
• A few officials could keep a house cow, few dairies in the early colony.
• 1805: dairy established in Ultimo. People who obtained milk made milk products, mainly
butter and cheese.

Fish:
• Fishing was done casually until the early 1800s.
• 1800s: Fishermen began to meet at the Hospital Wharf (now Circular Quay) or at Cowper's
Wharf at Wooloomooloo.
• Fishmongers bought fish and sold it from their street carts.

Cereals:
• 1789: From then, wheat and barley were grown at Parramatta and used as rations.
• Some free settlers also grew grain for their own use, or fed it to animals, because there was
no free marketplace to sell surplus.
• Only marketplace was the government, which bought grain from settlers to supplement
supplies from the Government Farm.
• Excess produce wouldn't be exported due to the charter signed with the East India Trading
Company, preventing trade with or by any other shipping company in the colony.
• By 1793, Parramatta and the Hawkesbury River areas were the largest grain producers in
Australia.



Migration timeline:

1830: Germans --> South Australia (Barossa Valley, vineyards for winemaking)

1850s: Gold Rush (People from everywhere), wealth attracted people, climate and opportunities
left them in Australia.

• Chinese migrants: labourers, shepherds and shearers in QLD and NSW, operated laundries,
stores and restaurants.
o Staple vegetables were grown because they weren't previously available.
o Stir-fry meals were lighter than the roasts and heavier meals that Europeans were
used to eating.
• Scandinavians: Settled in Victoria, set up dairy industry (starting with butter and cheese).
Ate crispbreads, cheese-cake and smorgasbords.
• Greek community: Victoria (Melbourne), used vine leaves, feta, filo pastry
• Americans: Brought technology for farming and cooking (not much for food preparation)

1880s: Italians in sugarcane fields and timber mills, QLD. Grew fruits and vegetables, established
cheese industry (primarily ricotta).

1920s: 2nd wave of Americans, set up factories: cereal (Kellogg's), soups (Heinz) and cheese
products (Kraft).

1940s:
• Americans in Australia in WWII brought Coca-cola, hamburgers, tinned sweetcorn, dried
vegetables, frozen foods.
• Lebanese people came to join previous family migrators. Opened milk bars, introduced
tabouli, falfel and hummus.

1960: McDonald's, KFC and Pizza Hut were introduced to Australia from America.

1970s: Immigrants from Asia (Cambodia, Thailand, Vietnam and South Korea), introducing noodles
as a staple alternative to boiled rice.


Foods Native to Australia

Traditional Aboriginal Animal foods:
• Seafood - fish, sharks, stingrays, pippies, clams, crayfish, freshwater mussels, dugongs, eels
and sea cucumber
• Reptiles - lizards, snakes, turtles and their eggs, goannas
• Frogs
• Birds - mutton birds, wild geese, emus, mallee fowl, swans
• Bugs - witchetty grubs, bogong moths, honey ants, green ants, plague locust
• Marsupials - wallabies, kangaroos, possums, flying foxes, echidnas.

Flesh levels on these wild animals are lower than that of domesticated farm animals that we eat.
Insect foods are high in fat, energy and protein.

Fish were caught on hooks and line or nets, spearing larger fish was done from rocks. Sea turtles,
dugongs and larger seafare stranded on the beach were prized.

Catching methods:
• Pits and poison to catch emus
• Coating trees with wattle gum, gluing birds to the tree
• Grass burning to expose tortoises
• Traps with trip wires to catch larger animals
• Boomerangs to catch water birds

Plant sources of food:
• Roots - yams, waterlily roots, bush onion, bulrush bulbs
• Fruits/vegetables - bush raisins, wild figs, quandongs, bush beans, bush oranges, bush
tomatoes, bush potatoes, bush bananas, wild plums, bush apples, yam daisy, bush fruit,
Indian gooseberry, bush berries, waterlily pods
• Stems - pigweed, mulga grasses, waterlily stalks
• Seeds/Nuts - pandanus nuts, bunya nuts, cycad nuts, millet, Moreton Bay chestnuts, bush
nuts/water chestnuts, waterlily seeds, pigweed seeds.

Plant preparation methods:
• Drying fruits by leaving them on the ground
• Yams soaked, sliced and dried, then reconstituted when needed.
• Quandong nut is extremely poisonous, only eaten after being found in faeces of the
cassowary and processed.
• Cycad nuts (also toxic) are hulled, roasted and soaked in a creek for weeks, then ground up
and made into a white porridge. Sometimes the porridge was made into small cakes which
can be kept for days. These were often ceremonially used.

Bush tucker: The plants and animals eaten by Aborigines when the colonists arrived. These days,
bush food is more commonly called bush tucker and that includes edible plants and animals native
to Australia.

Technology and Food

Technology has made it possible to:
• Preserve food so it can be stored for long periods and still be safe to eat e.g. Raspberries and
cold stored juice
• Maintain a constant food supply that is generally wholesome and constantly changing e.g.
supermarkets always have food available, no shortages.
• Eat foods that are out of season e.g. bananas
• Eat foods produced in other parts of the world e.g. Thai curry paste
• Produce foods that bear little resemblance to the foods from which they were made e.g.
Bread, pasta, biscuits from wheat
• Transform one raw food into numerous products e.g. eggs and desserts, cakes, savoury dishes







Production and manufacturing processes and equipment techniques

Availability of electricity:
Brought changes in production methods in industry and domestic life. Electricity allowed for the
development of appliances and equipment used in food preparation.
WWI and WWII: Needed large amounts of food to be produced and preserved quickly. The food also
had to maintain quality during transportation. New equipment and methods of food manufacture
were invented in response to this need.

Plastics: Became widely available and were used in the production of new equipment and packaging.

Manufacturing methods: Streamlined to increase speed of production. Automated machinery,
assembly production line techniques and computer technology have increased the rate of goods
being produced. This has improved efficiency, making goods cheaper and within the reach of an
average consumer.

Storage and Distribution
For a food industry to be successful, it has to supply consumers with food products of acceptable
quality whenever and wherever they want them.
• Facilities must be designed and built to protect foods from contamination and spoilage
before processing and distribution.
• Technology has enabled development of storage systems such as those used for apples and
other fruit.
E.g. Apples are stored carefully in their controlled environment: Oxygen, carbon dioxide and
ethylene (gas given off by fruit during ripening) and moisture content are controlled in this
environment.

Distribution networks are essential for processed food to reach the market.
Type of transport is determined by physical qualities of the food, quantity, and the distance to be
travelled.
Cost of transportation is included in the price of food, companies who use cheapest transport will be
benefitted most.

In countries where there is a lack of a transport system (roads or rails), distribution of food is very
difficult, especially in times of famine in developing countries.

Marketplace Practices

The marketplace is the environment where consumers purchase products they need.

Once, people sold goods only within their local area, but today the marketplace is expanded due to
technology. Multinationals exist everywhere.

International marketplace:
Countries try to sell products to other countries, to try and bring money into their economies. Goods
can be imported as a raw product e.g. strawberries from the USA to be sold out of season in
Australia, or can be a product e.g. canned pumpkin which is processed overseas, then imported.
When goods are processed, their selling price is increased and they are said to have value added.
Most companies try to sell value-added products because this increases the selling price of the
product and the profit therefore. Consumers are also able to purchase foods with less preparation.


Before the 1930s: Australians shopped in small stores (e.g. butcher and bakery), which specialised in
only a few items. Food was fresh (storage conditions were limited, so unfresh food went off).
General store sold basic items but there was usually only one brand name for each item.
Store owners allowed regulars to keep store account and pay for food at the end of each month.
Delivery boys were employed to help customers take the products home. Shopping was slower and
less complicated.

Drawbacks:
• Smaller shopkeepers couldn't afford to keep a large variety of similar products.
• Customers had limited purchasing opportunity for sale items.
• Food weight on scales or counted by hand and put into bags, shopping was time consuming.
• Involved frequent trips to the store because the purchase had to carry bags home rather than
drive.

During the 1930s: Supermarkets began to appear in Australia.
Variety of products grew rapidly; today, one product can be made by several companies e.g. Jam by
Cottees, IXL and Dick Smith.
Larger supermarkets can display more products from a range of different producers, many
supermarkets now also produce their own generic brands.
Shopping time is decreased.
Range is increased, supermarkets now also include specialty sections with meat, seafood, bread etc.
in one storefront.

Technology:
• Electronic scanning devices read barcodes, register price and record product sales.
• Store credit isn't available, but most large supermarkets allow customers to pay by credit card
or by EFTPOS.
• Shopping by phone - customers phone order through to supermarket, make arrangements to
collect or have it delivered.

Since 1970s:
• Opening times for convenience stores have been increasing, today some shops can be open till
late at night most days of the year, or even 24 hours a day and 7 days a week.
• Online shopping popularity is increasing, it saves time. Online shopping is useful for
housebound, disabled or elderly with no methods of transport because food is chosen from an
electronic list via the internet, paid for electronically and delivered, removing the need to
leave home to go shopping.

Influences on Food Availability

Economic Influences

Market economy: Production and distribution of goods/services is private. Prices determined by
demand and supply. Government only controls legislation about food production etc.

Most develop countries like Australia have the interest and investment of foreign companies that
wish to secure a share of the market. Then the economy attracts more consumers and continues to
grow. Compared to the economies of developing nations, developed nations have strong and stable
economies.

Absolute poverty: Individuals and communities are unable to supply any of their basic needs for long
periods of time. The constant lack of money to buy basics is common in developing nations.

Relative poverty: One or more of a person's basic needs are not met due to a lack of money. Those
living in relative poverty have a lower standard of living below the rest of the community. In
developing countries, there will be some people in relative poverty who have lower standards of
living (e.g. homeless people)

Subsistence agriculture: Where there is no surplus of food being produced, and what is grown is
shared amongst the local community. Relies mainly on weather, and if the crop fails, the people
suffer. Primarily found in developing countries where agriculture is the primary economic sector.
The economy based off of it is known as a subsistence economy.

Poverty cycle: The vicious cycle of poverty leading to undernutrition.
• Poverty leads to no education, no medical care and no food.
• No food leads to undernutrition.
• Undernutrition leads to a compromised immune system.
• Compromised immune system leads to infection
• Infection and disease leads to staying home and not working
• Not working leads to little money and the cycle goes on and on.

Producing food in developing nations:
Plant staples provide the bulk of their dietary intake, people in developing countries need their crops
to produce a high yield to survive.
Most people here live a subsistence existence; they rely on annual crops to provide food for their
families for that year. If there is low yield, the citizens suffer.

Low levels of technology
• Can't produce good quality fertilisers to suit the types of soil (alkaline, acidic, clay, sandy,
rocky, weak, rich etc.) and having organic or chemical fertilisers.
• Fertilisers are too expensive, and people cannot afford to use them to increase crop yields.
• Types of machinery used are really basic; require human or animal labour. Even if farmers do
have tractors, they can't afford fuel.
• Incorrect storage of grains for the next year's planting season can lead to damage, and it is
wasted. No technology to store it properly. They might not be using the 'latest' breed of seed,
meaning that their plants may not have the same advantage.
• Always cropping the soil, nutrient levels lost.

Natural disaster recovery:
• Forces people to leave their land
• They drift to towns and cities to look for work.
• Subsistence economy doesn't have large enough food reserves for when crops fail, life and
death situation occurs in the city.
• Organisations have to set up famine relief in an effort to help the starving.

Government Policy

Influence of Australian Government on Food Availability

• Australia is a small country, to cater for every food need, we need to import.
• Recent years now the government has departed from protection policy.
 • Protection: Any action a country takes to give domestic producers an advantage over imported
goods, using tariffs, embargoes and subsidies, regulates the movement of foreign products
onto our shelves.

Tariff: A tax put on imported goods, making them more expensive, so local producers can compete
with cheaper imports.

Embargo: A ban or restriction put on goods from a particular country for health reasons or because
of political actions.
E.g. Imported fish could be embargoed if it was found with high mercury levels.

Subsidy: A cash payment made by the government to a local producer who can then charge the
customer less and compete with cheaper imports.
E.g. No subsidies are given at the moment by Australia, but in the US, lam is subsidised so it is harder
for Australian lamb producers to export to the US.

• Government is moving towards policy of 'trade liberalisation', lowering protection given to
Australian industry on world market to try and make our companies more competitive on the
world market.
• Hoped that if Australia removes trade restrictions, other countries will do the same for
Australian goods. Most other countries have lowered tariffs and Australia now exports to 150
countries worldwide without restriction.
• Removing trade restrictions means imports are cheaper. E.g. NZ beef can be sold in Australia
without tax now, due to agreement, however it means more competition for local farmers.
• Government can give local producers assistance (financial payment) in time of disaster, e.g.
assistance to wheat farmers during the last drought.
• 1995: WTO (World Trade Organisation) set up to enforce general rules regarding volume of
and reduction of the amount of trade protection in world trade. Each country of the WTO
agreed to work towards fair and easy trade. Aim to have free trade by 2020 by: reducing
agricultural subsidies, reducing percentage of protected products, eliminating quotas,
reducing tariffs, and opening previously closed markets (embargoed former Soviet Union
countries).
• Negotiating agreements between countries can be slow, because local producers want to be
able to compete with imports, and with no tariff, the import may be priced below the local
product.
• Australia has free trade with NZ, Fiji and Singapore, and up to 75% free trade between EU and
US. Current negotiations are underway with China, Thailand and Malaysia.

Import/Export strategies:
• For economical survival, there must be balance between imports and exports.
• Australia is consistently in the top 20 trading nations. Main exports were once primary
industry (wheat, wool and beef). Agricultural exports are decreasing now, minerals and fuels
are now largest export, followed by the service sector.
• Countries can choose who they trade with. E.g. EU placed high tariffs on Australian exports
because they wanted to trade between themselves for a decade. In response, Asia Pacific
Economic Cooperation Group (APEC) was established with 19 nations. Most important: Aus,
US, Japan, China, NZ, Hong Kong, Taiwan and South Korea. Aim was to achieve free trade
between members, and trade has grown steadily.
• Since 1980s, businesses need to think on regional/global market rather than just local, so the
industry can win export markets.
 • Industry must produce good product at affordable price. Production quality has to be high to
maintain market.
• Government help goes a long way helping industries achieve goals.
• Governments can assist in export by funding research/development of new products, and
marketing strategies. E.g. Export Market Development Grants by Australian government to
give financial assistance to new and current exporters.
• Governments can revise legislation that encourage industries. Can review taxes, or implement
programs that lower production cost etc. Can ensure establishments of positive industry
relations so that items reach markets on time rather than be delayed through industrial
disputes.

Taxation:
Cost (therefore availability) of food can be influenced by tax. E.g. GST (goods and services tax), 10
percent tax.
Foods free from GST includes many staples: e.g. fruit/vegetables, meat, eggs, bread, cheese, soup,
milk, tea, coffee, fruit and vegetable juices (with minimum 90% juice volume), breakfast cereals,
flour, infant formula, sugar, some beverages/ingredients, fats and oils for culinary purposes.

War
• Government may become more involved in availability and distribution of food.
• When trade between nations stops in war, imports are cut off, and there is abundance of food
that is normally exported.
• Government may take control of food production/distribution depending on the length of war
and damage done to food production facilities. This is rationing, e.g. WWII Australia.
Food Availability and Selection

Influences on food availability:
• Historical changes to the availability of food, including:
o Global migration of cultural groups
o Use of foods native to Australia
• Technological developments in influential on food availability, including:
o Production and manufacturing processes and equipment techniques
o Storage and distribution techniques
o Marketplace practices
• Social, economic and political influences on food availability, including:
o Effects of poverty and affluence
o Type and state of the economy
o Government policy, eg. Taxation, embargoes, subsidies, war, export strategies

Skills:
• Outline the historical changes to food availability in Australia.
• Debate the issue of social justice in relation to food consumption in developed and developing regions of the
world.

Migration timeline:

1830: Germans --> South Australia (Barossa Valley, vineyards for winemaking)

1850s: Gold Rush (People from everywhere), wealth attracted people, climate and opportunities left
them in Australia.

• Chinese migrants: labourers, shepherds and shearers in QLD and NSW, operated laundries, stores
and restaurants.
o Staple vegetables were grown because they weren't previously available.
o Stir-fry meals were lighter than the roasts and heavier meals that Europeans were used to
eating.
• Scandinavians: Settled in Victoria, set up dairy industry (starting with butter and cheese). Ate
crispbreads, cheese-cake and smorgasbords.
• Greek community: Victoria (Melbourne), used vine leaves, feta, filo pastry
• Americans: Brought technology for farming and cooking (not much for food preparation)

1880s: Italians in sugarcane fields and timber mills, QLD. Grew fruits and vegetables, established cheese
industry (primarily ricotta).

1920s: 2nd wave of Americans, set up factories: cereal (Kellogg's), soups (Heinz) and cheese products
(Kraft).

1940s:
• Americans in Australia in WWII brought Coca-cola, hamburgers, tinned sweetcorn, dried
vegetables, frozen foods.
• Lebanese people came to join previous family migrators. Opened milk bars, introduced tabouli,
falafel and hummus.

1960: McDonald's, KFC and Pizza Hut were introduced to Australia from America.

1970s: Immigrants from Asia (Cambodia, Thailand, Vietnam and South Korea), introducing noodles as a
staple alternative to boiled rice.

Foods Native to Australia

Traditional Aboriginal Animal foods:
• Seafood - fish, sharks, stingrays, pippies, clams, crayfish, freshwater mussels, dugongs, eels and sea
cucumber
• Reptiles - lizards, snakes, turtles and their eggs, goannas
• Frogs
• Birds - mutton birds, wild geese, emus, mallee fowl, swans
• Bugs - witchetty grubs, bogong moths, honey ants, green ants, plague locust
• Marsupials - wallabies, kangaroos, possums, flying foxes, echidnas.

Flesh levels on these wild animals are lower than that of domesticated farm animals that we eat. Insect
foods are high in fat, energy and protein.

Fish were caught on hooks and line or nets, spearing larger fish was done from rocks. Sea turtles, dugongs
and larger seafare stranded on the beach were prized.

Catching methods:
• Pits and poison to catch emus
• Coating trees with wattle gum, gluing birds to the tree
• Grass burning to expose tortoises
• Traps with trip wires to catch larger animals
• Boomerangs to catch water birds

Plant sources of food:
• Roots - yams, waterlily roots, bush onion, bulrush bulbs
• Fruits/vegetables - bush raisins, wild figs, quandongs, bush beans, bush oranges, bush tomatoes,
bush potatoes, bush bananas, wild plums, bush apples, yam daisy, bush fruit, Indian gooseberry,
bush berries, waterlily pods
• Stems - pigweed, mulga grasses, waterlily stalks
• Seeds/Nuts - pandanus nuts, bunya nuts, cycad nuts, millet, Moreton Bay chestnuts, bush
nuts/water chestnuts, waterlily seeds, pigweed seeds.

Plant preparation methods:
• Drying fruits by leaving them on the ground
• Yams soaked, sliced and dried, then reconstituted when needed.
• Quandong nut is extremely poisonous, only eaten after being found in faeces of the cassowary and
processed.
• Cycad nuts (also toxic) are hulled, roasted and soaked in a creek for weeks, then ground up and
made into a white porridge. Sometimes the porridge was made into small cakes which can be kept
for days. These were often ceremonially used.

Bush tucker: The plants and animals eaten by Aborigines when the colonists arrived. These days, bush food
is more commonly called bush tucker and that includes edible plants and animals native to Australia.

Technology and Food:

Technological developments in influential on food availability, including:
o Production and manufacturing processes and equipment techniques
o Storage and distribution techniques
o Marketplace practices

Technology has made it possible to:
• Preserve food so it can be stored for long periods and still be safe to eat e.g. Raspberries and cold
stored juice
 • Maintain a constant food supply that is generally wholesome and constantly changing e.g.
supermarkets always have food available, no shortages.
• Eat foods that are out of season e.g. bananas
• Eat foods produced in other parts of the world e.g. Thai curry paste
• Produce foods that bear little resemblance to the foods from which they were made e.g. Bread,
pasta, biscuits from wheat
• Transform one raw food into numerous products e.g. eggs and desserts, cakes, savoury dishes

Production and manufacturing processes and equipment techniques

Availability of electricity:
Brought changes in production methods in industry and domestic life. Electricity allowed for the development of
appliances and equipment used in food preparation.

WWI and WWII: Needed large amounts of food to be produced and preserved quickly. The food also had to maintain
quality during transportation. New equipment and methods of food manufacture were invented in response to this
need.

Plastics: Became widely available and were used in the production of new equipment and packaging.

Manufacturing methods: Streamlined to increase speed of production. Automated machinery, assembly production
line techniques and computer technology have increased the rate of goods being produced. This has improved
efficiency, making goods cheaper and within the reach of an average consumer.

For a food industry to be successful, it has to supply consumers with food products of acceptable quality whenever
and wherever they want them.
• Facilities must be designed and built to protect foods from contamination and spoilage before processing and
distribution.
• Technology has enabled development of storage systems such as those used for apples and other fruit.
E.g. Apples are stored carefully in their controlled environment: Oxygen, carbon dioxide and ethylene (gas given off
by fruit during ripening) and moisture content are controlled in this environment.

Distribution networks are essential for processed food to reach the market.
Type of transport is determined by physical qualities of the food, quantity, and the distance to be travelled.
Cost of transportation is included in the price of food, companies who use cheapest transport will be benefitted
most.

In countries where there is a lack of a transport system (roads or rails), distribution of food is very difficult, especially
in times of famine in developing countries.

Technology and the Marketplace:
The marketplace is the environment where consumers purchase products they need.

Once, people sold goods only within their local area, but today the marketplace is expanded due to technology.
Multinationals exist everywhere.

International marketplace:
Countries try to sell products to other countries, to try and bring money into their economies. Goods can be
imported as a raw product e.g. strawberries from the USA to be sold out of season in Australia, or can be a product
e.g. canned pumpkin which is processed overseas, then imported.
When goods are processed, their selling price is increased and they are said to have value added. Most companies
try to sell value-added products because this increases the selling price of the product and the profit therefore.
Consumers are also able to purchase foods with less preparation.


Before the 1930s: Australians shopped in small stores (e.g. butcher and bakery), which specialised in only a few
items. Food was fresh (storage conditions were limited, so unfresh food went off).
General store sold basic items but there was usually only one brand name for each item.
Store owners allowed regulars to keep store account and pay for food at the end of each month.
Delivery boys were employed to help customers take the products home. Shopping was slower and less complicated.

Drawbacks:
• Smaller shopkeepers couldn't afford to keep a large variety of similar products.
• Customers had limited purchasing opportunity for sale items.
• Food weight on scales or counted by hand and put into bags, shopping was time consuming.
• Involved frequent trips to the store because the purchase had to carry bags home rather than drive.

During the 1930s: Supermarkets began to appear in Australia.
Variety of products grew rapidly; today, one product can be made by several companies e.g. Jam by Cottees, IXL and
Dick Smith.
Larger supermarkets can display more products from a range of different producers, many supermarkets now also
produce their own generic brands.
Shopping time is decreased.
Range is increased, supermarkets now also include specialty sections with meat, seafood, bread etc. in one
storefront.

Technology:
• Electronic scanning devices read barcodes, register price and record product sales.
• Store credit isn't available, but most large supermarkets allow customers to pay by credit card or by EFTPOS.
• Shopping by phone - customers phone order through to supermarket, make arrangements to collect or have it
delivered.

Since 1970s:
• Opening times for convenience stores have been increasing, today some shops can be open till late at night
most days of the year, or even 24 hours a day and 7 days a week.
• Online shopping popularity is increasing, it saves time. Online shopping is useful for housebound, disabled or
elderly with no methods of transport because food is chosen from an electronic list via the internet, paid for
electronically and delivered, removing the need to leave home to go shopping.

Influences on Food Availability

Economic Influences:
Market economy: Production and distribution of goods/services is private. Prices determined by demand and supply.
Government only controls legislation about food production etc.

Most develop countries like Australia have the interest and investment of foreign companies that wish to secure a
share of the market. Then the economy attracts more consumers and continues to grow. Compared to the
economies of developing nations, developed nations have strong and stable economies.

Absolute poverty: Individuals and communities are unable to supply any of their basic needs for long periods of time.
The constant lack of money to buy basics is common in developing nations.

Relative poverty: One or more of a person's basic needs are not met due to a lack of money. Those living in relative
poverty have a lower standard of living below the rest of the community. In developing countries, there will be some
people in relative poverty who have lower standards of living (e.g. homeless people)

Subsistence agriculture: Where there is no surplus of food being produced, and what is grown is shared amongst the
local community. Relies mainly on weather, and if the crop fails, the people suffer. Primarily found in developing
countries where agriculture is the primary economic sector. The economy based off of it is known as a subsistence
economy.

Poverty cycle: The vicious cycle of poverty leading to undernutrition.
• Poverty leads to no education, no medical care and no food.
• No food leads to undernutrition.
• Undernutrition leads to a compromised immune system.
• Compromised immune system leads to infection
 • Infection and disease leads to staying home and not working
• Not working leads to little money and the cycle goes on and on.

Producing food in developing nations:
Plant staples provide the bulk of their dietary intake, people in developing countries need their crops to produce a
high yield to survive.
Most people here live a subsistence existence; they rely on annual crops to provide food for their families for that
year. If there is low yield, the citizens suffer.

Low levels of technology
• Can't produce good quality fertilisers to suit the types of soil (alkaline, acidic, clay, sandy, rocky, weak, rich
etc.) and having organic or chemical fertilisers.
• Fertilisers are too expensive, and people cannot afford to use them to increase crop yields.
• Types of machinery used are really basic; require human or animal labour. Even if farmers do have tractors,
they can't afford fuel.
• Incorrect storage of grains for the next year's planting season can lead to damage, and it is wasted. No
technology to store it properly. They might not be using the 'latest' breed of seed, meaning that their plants
may not have the same advantage.
• Always cropping the soil, nutrient levels lost.

Natural disaster recovery:
• Forces people to leave their land
• They drift to towns and cities to look for work.
• Subsistence economy doesn't have large enough food reserves for when crops fail, life and death situation
occurs in the city.
• Organisations have to set up famine relief in an effort to help the starving.


Influence of Australian Government on Food Availability

• Australia is a small country, to cater for every food need, we need to import.
• Recent years now the government has departed from protection policy.
• Protection: Any action a country takes to give domestic producers an advantage over imported goods, using
tariffs, embargoes and subsidies, regulates the movement of foreign products onto our shelves.

Tariff: A tax put on imported goods, making them more expensive, so local producers can compete with cheaper
imports.

Embargo: A ban or restriction put on goods from a particular country for health reasons or because of political
actions.
E.g. Imported fish could be embargoed if it was found with high mercury levels.

Subsidy: A cash payment made by the government to a local producer who can then charge the customer less and
compete with cheaper imports.
E.g. No subsidies are given at the moment by Australia, but in the US, lam is subsidised so it is harder for Australian
lamb producers to export to the US.

• Government is moving towards policy of 'trade liberalisation', lowering protection given to Australian
industry on world market to try and make our companies more competitive on the world market.
• Hoped that if Australia removes trade restrictions, other countries will do the same for Australian goods.
Most other countries have lowered tariffs and Australia now exports to 150 countries worldwide without
restriction.
• Removing trade restrictions means imports are cheaper. E.g. NZ beef can be sold in Australia without tax
now, due to agreement, however it means more competition for local farmers.
• Government can give local producers assistance (financial payment) in time of disaster, e.g. assistance to
wheat farmers during the last drought.
• 1995: WTO (World Trade Organisation) set up to enforce general rules regarding volume of and reduction of
the amount of trade protection in world trade. Each country of the WTO agreed to work towards fair and
 easy trade. Aim to have free trade by 2020 by: reducing agricultural subsidies, reducing percentage of
protected products, eliminating quotas, reducing tariffs, and opening previously closed markets (embargoed
former Soviet Union countries).
• Negotiating agreements between countries can be slow, because local producers want to be able to
compete with imports, and with no tariff, the import may be priced below the local product.
• Australia has free trade with NZ, Fiji and Singapore, and up to 75% free trade between EU and US. Current
negotiations are underway with China, Thailand and Malaysia.

Import/Export strategies:
• For economical survival, there must be balance between imports and exports.
• Australia is consistently in the top 20 trading nations. Main exports were once primary industry (wheat, wool
and beef). Agricultural exports are decreasing now, minerals and fuels are now largest export, followed by
the service sector.
• Countries can choose who they trade with. E.g. EU placed high tariffs on Australian exports because they
wanted to trade between themselves for a decade. In response, Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation Group
(APEC) was established with 19 nations. Most important: Aus, US, Japan, China, NZ, Hong Kong, Taiwan and
South Korea. Aim was to achieve free trade between members, and trade has grown steadily.
• Since 1980s, businesses need to think on regional/global market rather than just local, so the industry can
win export markets.
• Industry must produce good product at affordable price. Production quality has to be high to maintain
market.
• Government help goes a long way helping industries achieve goals.
• Governments can assist in export by funding research/development of new products, and marketing
strategies. E.g. Export Market Development Grants by Australian government to give financial assistance to
new and current exporters.
• Governments can revise legislation that encourage industries. Can review taxes, or implement programs that
lower production cost etc. Can ensure establishments of positive industry relations so that items reach
markets on time rather than be delayed through industrial disputes.

Taxation:
Cost (therefore availability) of food can be influenced by tax. E.g. GST (goods and services tax), 10 percent tax.
Foods free from GST includes many staples: e.g. fruit/vegetables, meat, eggs, bread, cheese, soup, milk, tea, coffee,
fruit and vegetable juices (with minimum 90% juice volume), breakfast cereals, flour, infant formula, sugar, some
beverages/ingredients, fats and oils for culinary purposes.

War
• Government may become more involved in availability and distribution of food.
• When trade between nations stops in war, imports are cut off, and there is abundance of food that is
normally exported.
• Government may take control of food production/distribution depending on the length of war and damage
done to food production facilities. This is rationing, e.g. WWII Australia.

Factors affecting food selection:
• Physiological factors, including:
o Hunger, appetite, satiety
o Nutritional requirements, e.g. age, gender, size, activity level
o Reactions to food, e.g. appearance, odour, taste, allergy
• Psychological factors, including:
o Values, beliefs, habits, attitudes, emotions, self-concept, experiences
• Social factors, including:
o Traditions and culture
o Lifestyle e.g. employment, education, household structures, roles, geographic location, interests.
o Social interaction e.g. peer group, family hospitality
o Media
• Economic factors, including:
o The marketplace (retail and purchasing practices)
o Resource availability such as food processing equipment and food preparation skills
o Occupation and finances

Skills:
• Explain how various factors influence selection of food by individuals and groups
• Prepare foods that reflect various factors influencing food selection
• Investigate current food consumption and expenditure patterns in Australia.
• Analyse the eating patterns of a selected group to identify influences on food selection.

Physiological Factors Affecting Food Selection

Hunger
• Feeling of emptiness, weakness or pain caused by lack of food. Becomes more intense with time, until we
can't think of anything but food. For those suffering extreme hunger, the focus of life is to stop the hunger.
• Hunger is controlled by a gland in the base of the brain, the hypothalamus. It has a number of functions
(works closely with the pituitary gland) to: control body temp, regulate appetite, thirst and bodily fluids,
induce sleep and wakefulness, and control the release of growth and sex hormones from various glands in
the body.

Appetite
• Is often confused with hunger.
• Appetite is the desire for food even when the body isn't hungry.
• Can be triggered by sight of appetising food, aroma of food preparation, and even the mention of food.
• Hypothalamus registers cues from the senses and sends messages to the brain which cause you to think of
food.
• Salivary glands are stimulated to produce extra fluid: your mouth waters.
• Unlike hunger, if appetite isn't satisfied, it'll eventually go away.

Satiety
• Feeling of fullness that comes with eating adequate amounts of food.
• Body digests foods at different rates, different foods remain in stomach for varying lengths of time.
• Simple carbohydrates (sugars) are digested quickly, complex carbohydrates (fibre) remain in the stomach for
longer periods. Because they leave the stomach more slowly, fibrous foods give a feeling of fullness, or
satiety, for an extended time after eating.
• Foods ranked by rate of stomach movement (slowest to fastest): Dietary fibre, fats, protein, sugar, water


E.g. age, gender, size, activity level

The food we eat should provide essential nutrients that the body can absorb and metabolise (be used by cells for
energy, building or repair).
• More Australians need to learn nutritional values, rates of obesity have doubled in the past 20 years.
• Governments are taking steps to educate Australians about nutrition. Australian Dietary Guidelines were
developed for health concerns. They aim to encourage people to eat more varied and nutritious diet, to
reduce the risk of suffering from malnutrition.
• The government has introduced these new initiatives: Healthy Active Ambassadors Program; inviting well
known healthy people to speak publicly for awareness, National Children's Nutrition and Physical Activity
Survey to find out what Australians are eating and their level of activity, Healthy Weight website launched to
promote healthy eating and provide tools (BMI calculator), and tell the specific dietary requirements for
people of different ages/genders. Other initiaves: community/school grants programs, consumer resources
on being overweight/obese. Each state has a healthy school canteen strategy network.

Body size/type and heredity
• Different people need to eat different foods.
• Individuals who have larger bodies need more nutrients to operate their body processes. They have the
same body tissue and organs as smaller people, but need more carbohydrates because they need the extra
energy to move larger masses and sustain more cells.
• Smaller people need less protein, they need to maintain and repair less body tissue.
• Each person can be described according to body type. Type is identified by : skeleton size, amount of body
fat, weight, amount of muscle.
 • Heredity controls skeleton shape, but a person can control their fat and muscle levels and weight.
• Correct exercise can allow you to change body shape to some extent, which can be endomorph, mesomorph
or ectomorph.
• Endomorph: Large skeletal frame, high percentage of body fat centred on waist, buttocks, hips and thighs.
• Mesomorph: Medium to large frame with low level of body fat and well developed muscles.
• Ectomorph: Light skeletal frame (any height), low body fat, not much muscle.

Age
• Humans go through specific growth stages.
• Infants have enlarged heads, their arms and legs are short in relation to their body.
• Early childhood sees dramatic changes in body proportions. Arms increase in length and muscle tone,
allowing for greater coordination. Legs extend to make up half the body's height. This period of
growth/development continues throughout adolescence until the body becomes more adult.
• Because nutrients carry out specific functions in the body, the amount of nutrients needed by an individual
is regulated by growth processes.
• 3-9 years - more calcium, protein for growth of bones and tissue, carbohydrates for energy
• 20 to (40-50) years - genetically predetermined height/build achieved, muscle and fat varies depending on
diet and exercise.
• 40+ years - basal metabolic rate (BMR) slows down. Energy rich food intake needs to be lower, and exercise
increased.

Level of activity
• Physically active people need to consume more energy.
• If large amounts of energy/fat is consumed but not used, the body stores the excess as adipose tissue (fat).
• People with sedentary lifestyles don't need as much protein, because they only need to maintain and not
develop muscle tissue with activity.
• Athletes may think they need greatly increased protein intakes to build muscle, but some research doesn't
support this. The body can only use a certain amount of protein daily, excess is altered and stored as fat for
future energy use.

Gender
• Biological activities such as menstruation and childbirth mean that women need more iron and calcium.
• Men have higher proportions of muscle tissue on their bodies, so they need more protein.
• Gender will affect fat storage. Women have more fat on their upper arms, bust, waist, hips and thighs.
• During middle age when BMR slows down, they will gain weight. Women normally increase in fat around the
buttocks, hips and thighs to become pear shaped. Men gain fat around the waist and midriff, becoming
apple shaped.

Health Status
• Healthy people need to continue with what they are eating. Unwell people need specific nutrients to aid
recovery.
• Diseases related to poor diet include: beri-beri, pellagra, rickets, scurvy, osteoporosis and anaemia.
• Anaemia (means 'without blood' in Greek), is where the person is deficient in red blood cells and/or
haemoglobin. Symptoms include fatigue. Caused mainly by iron deficiency. Canned clams, fortified cereals,
cooked oysters and organ meat are rich sources of iron.
• A person's state of health can lead them to consume certain foods and less of other foods. E.g. If a person
has high cholesterol, they can reduce the amount of animal fat in their diet, which may reduce cholesterol as
much as 10 percent, according to CSIRO research.

Pregnancy and Lactation
• Nutrient needs of pregnant women increase, foetus shares the nutrients in the mother's bloodstream.
• Nature always makes sure that the foetus gets enough nutrients, so if not enough nutrients are given, the
mother will develop a deficiency.
• Pregnant women need to choose varieties of nutritious foods including carbohydrates, vegetables/legumes,
fruit, dairy, meats.
• As much as 12-14kg is commonly gained in pregnancy, so pregnancy isn't the time to restrict eating.
 • Many women in the first 3 months of pregnancy take folic acid supplements to prevent birth abnormalities
such as spina bifida. Foods naturally rich in folate include green leafy vegetables, chick peas, nuts, orange
juice and some fruits.
• During pregnancy, need for iron increases (due to extra blood being made). Sources of iron: lean beef,
skinless duck, chicken, fish, green vegetables, cooked legumes.
• Calcium is also important. RDI for calcium for pregnant women is 1100 or 300mg above the requirements for
a woman the same age. Dairy products, especially cheese, tofu, and tahini are good sources of calcium.

Personal perceptions have major influence on our food selection. We select/reject food based on appearance,
presentation, smell and texture. Using the senses to judge quality and appeal of food is called sensory perceptions.

Businesses use attractive colours and creative arrangements of food to stimulate appetite and salivary glands,
creating desire for foods that may not otherwise be chosen.

Appearance:

Colour:
• Indicates quality and nutritional value. Most desirable colours are displayed by fruits and vegetables at their
peak (both in texture and nutrition).
• As plant foods become over ripe, their turgor and nutrition decreases, as does the intensity and desirability of
their colour.
• Colour changes are one of the first signs of spoilage.
• If a colour is unnatural or dull, we reject the food in favour of one with a better colour. E.g. Green spots on
bread crust, brown patches on fruit, white film on edge of cheese: encourage us to inspect the food.
• Some colours rarely occur naturally in foods, so their use is limited. Blue and pink are mainly used in
confectionary, which is not meant to look like natural food. This is why kerosene and petrol are coloured blue
and pink, so people don't drink it.

Shape:
• Shape influences appeal. Pictures show shape is important in food preparation.
• Carrot can be sliced into rings, elongated ovals, julienned, grated/diced to make interesting shapes.
• Changing the sizes of foods in products can affect sales, customers may feel they are eating what they like, but
less of it (e.g. magnum minis)
Turgor
• Amount of water in the cells of the food (If a food is turgid, cells have a lot of water).
• Turgid cells give food a full, fresh appearance, firm texture and crisp mouthfeel.
• Flaccid and wilted vegetables have lost turgor and are visually unappealing, as well as having less nutrients.
• Textural differences in foods create interest and stimulate appetite. Firm textures are complemented by soft
textures e.g. cheddar cheese on biscuits. Creamy textures are contrasted by crunchy feel e.g. vanilla slice with
puff pastry and custard filling.
Flavour:
• Taste/smell combined. Taste sensors on tongue to detect flavour with help from smell.
• 9000-10 000 tastebuds. Most located on tongue, some located on roof of mouth (soft palate) and at the back
of the epiglottis (top of throat).
• Tastebuds have short lifespan, lasting only 10 days before being replaced. Number of active buds decreases
with age. Young children do not like highly flavoured foods due to this. Adults compensate by eating highly
flavoured foods.
 • Four types of tastebuds, which taste different flavours. Sweet, salty, sour, bitter and umami.

• To be tasted, the flavouring substance must be dissolved in a liquid. This liquid may be present in food or
provided by saliva. Dry mouth inhibits ability to taste. Taste buds send nerve impulse to brain, registering the
taste sensation.
Aroma
• How something smells.
• Olfactory nerves in nose transmit signals to hypothalamus in brain.
• Taste and aroma are related.
• People with keen senses of smell can identify subtle differences. E.g. Winemakers identifying right time to
bottle wine.
• Another word to describe smell is odour. When food is described to have an odour, it indicates a lack of
freshness like in sour milk, or ripeness like in pineapples.

Allergies
• Some peoples' food choices are limited because of allergies to specific foods/ingredients.
• Reactions vary, may include: abdominal swelling, vomiting, diarrhoea, itches/rashes, wheezing, headaches,
disturbed sleep.
• Foods commonly associated with allergies include: cow's milk, shellfish, eggs, peanus, wheat, soy.
• People with allergies need to be cautious with food. They have to read labels/menus carefully.
• Some people are so sensitive, that they will react when near a food that contains them, or even if their food
was cooked in a visibly clean container that was previously used to prepare an allergen.

Psychological Factors:
Psychological factors relate to mind and emotions. These are difficult to describe, and differ from every person.
Some factors such as beliefs, habits, values and past experiences have constant influences on selected food, while
choices made as a result of emotions, self-concept and attitudes and change day to day.

Values:
• Deep personal feeling about what is important.
• May reflect those of the family and culture in which they were raised, or may be personal response to
experiences in life.
• The values most likely to influence food selection are related to food origin, and health maintenance.
• People who value life very highly respect rights of all living things to exist in peace free from pain.
Vegetarianism is a reflection of value based food selection, the thought of killing and eating an animal may be
revolting for them. They may also disagree with the conditions that the food was raised in.
• Some people value an animal's rights to freedom so highly that they do not agree with consuming animal
products.

Beliefs:
• Often related to religion and cultural heritage.
• Is an opinion/conviction which isn't based on scientific proof. They can be challenged/changed, unlike values
which are fixed.
• May religions have restrictions e.g. Buddhists are partial vegetarians, they don't injure and kill animals apart
from fish. Hindus can eat all meat except beef.
• Many restrictions were originally imposed to protect people from diseases from poor hygiene.
• Some social groups/cultures also have beliefs about food, they may be fad diets and not be good for a person.
• More cultural beliefs include taboos, such as eating dog in Australia. Some taboos are common in primitive
cultures, and may restrict consumption of animal products that are good sources of complete protein.
• E.g. Area of mid africa, people believe that animal milk is a repulsive body secretion similar to urine, so it isn't
consumed, despite being nutritional. Eggs and chickens are avoided in some parts of South-East Asia because it
is believed to affect fertility.

Attitudes and experiences:
• The way in which a person views something and behaves towards it, after evaluating its merit.
• Origin of food: Some people believe that organic food is better, snail and crocodile meat do not appeal to
many people, because of their habitat.
• Culture: Eating raw meat and fish is part of Japanese culture.
• Personal history: Past bad experiences e.g. being forced to eat spinach as a child could result in someone
avoiding it in adulthood.
• Travel experiences: Eating foreign cuisine may be part of the cultural experience, but would not necessarily be
eaten at home.
• Perceived status: e.g. Lobster, truffles, fillet mignon may be perceived to be higher up that flake fish, turnips
and chuck steak.
• Economic depression/war: Depending on food availability, new migrants and older Australians who have gone
through major depressions and wars with rationing and shortages, would eat more offal (animal organs) and
feel it is wasteful to not eat everything on your plate.

Habits:
• Many food choices are routine. A habit is something we do regularly without thinking.
• Food habits are difficult to break, e.g. putting butter on toast, putting sauce on a meat pie, eating the same
cereal every morning, drinking soft drinks instead of water, putting salt on food etc.
• These habits are sometimes unhealthy and may need to be identified if a change is needed.

Emotions:
• Food is sometimes a mean to relieve emotional stress.
• Some may gain comfort from eating food (can overeat when anxious), others may not eat until the stress is
over.
• People eating comfort foods tend to select foods with high energy value such as chocolate.
• Sugar, fat and caffeine in comfort foods may act as a stimulant and restore energy levels, or that these are
associated with pleasant experiences.
• E.g. Homesick travellers crave foods from home to lessen their loneliness.

Self-Concept:
• Self concept is a word used to describe how we feel about ourselves (self-esteem) and the way we see our
personal appearance (body image). Each individual has a picture in our minds of:
o How we look physically - strengths and weaknesses
o How well-coordinated we are
o Smartness
o Luck
o How extroverted/introverted we are
o How well we manage money
o Our dress sense
o Talent at the arts (art, music, dance)
o Importance as a sibling or child.
 • Self concept develops in childhood, these days, dissatisfaction with body images increases from age 11 to the
mid twenties, especially in females. However, it is not static: it can change over time or many times a day.
Some reasons for a change in self concept may include:
o How we physically feel; how tired we are
o What people say to or about us: compliments or negative criticisms.
o Weight gain/loss: gaining muscle may be good, but gaining fat may be seen as bad.
o Messages presented by media
• Media presents us with idealised human forms, people who eat, drink or use a certain product. People strive
to use those products to be like the people who they use to advertise.
• People weigh more than they did 20 years ago, but the ideal body type is getting thinner.
• AMA (Australian Medical Association) and other parenting groups are working towards better educating
people regarding the messages that the media sends about body image, about advertising. In late 2002, AMA
made public statement about body image, and what needed to be done to help Australians with maintaining
body image and health.
• Recommendations were made in the areas of the role of the practitioner, weight management, cosmetic
procedures, fitness and health, eating disorders, education and schools, and research and funding.

Social Factors:
Traditions and culture:
• Traditions are customs that are repeated at specific times by members of a group. Many of these involve food.
Festive and social occasions always involve food to some degree, and the meal is often the focus. Family
traditions often revolve around food, as do many customs, e.g.:
o Easter - receiving and giving painted hard boiled eggs, or confectionary and chocolate eggs
o Chinese New Year - celebration with displays of special foods such as rice cakes.
o The aboriginal ceremony of initiation - feasts of meat with traditional dancing

Lifestyle Factors:
Employment
• Physical demands of job influence food you eat, e.g. construction workers need carbohydrates, while an office
worker should be careful not to overeat.
• Due to pressure of meeting deadlines, up to 40% of office workers eat lunch at their desk, and an increasing
amount of people just snack instead of taking a lunch break.
• Some occupations combine social occasions with work e.g. meeting at a café or restaurant for a meal; with the
temptation to order a energy rich foods - even a salad may have a high fat dressing.
• Employment status affects food selection, when a person is employed they have more money to spend on
food, but less time to prepare it.
• This leads to pre-prepared meals/ingredients to be purchased, and interests in tools/equipment to make food
quicker will arise.
• People of higher income will be able to afford more luxury foods, and they would spend less of a proportion of
their salary to buy food.

Education
• Wiser choices come from having more information about options.
• Students in early high school learn about nutrition and digestion. Food Technology course further teaches
students about food preparation, food safety and food planning etc. This allows them to make wiser decisions
when selecting food.
• People also become more informed through: government programs, reading magazines, watching tv shows,
reading food brochures/handouts etc.
• The better informed a person is about nutrient content, dietary requirements and food preparation, the
greater the likelihood of wiser food selections.

Household structure and roles
• Make-up of the family determines variety, quality and quantity of food per meal. E.g. Young children have
sensitive tastebuds and like less spicy foods, elderly people like heavily flavoured (especially salty and sweet)
foods.
• Personal likes and dislikes influence greatly. E.g. Setting up healthy eating habits. Now a lot of cookbooks are
aimed at giving children healthy foods. There is also information available to tailor food to specific dietary
 requirements. Catering to requirements may mean that more care needs to be taken to prepare food in an
attractive and enjoyable way.
• Commitment to activities also influence selection. This means that family members may eat at different times.
• The family role influences food selection, in many homes, it is the mother that prepares meals. If she works,
she may pre make meals or buy takeaway food, because she may not have the time or energy to cook meals
from scratch.

Climate and Geographic location:
• Staple food depends on what easily grows in the geographic and climatic condition of a country.
• E.g. tropical climate means more and cheaper pineapples, sugar cane, bananas and coconuts.
• Locally grown food is cheaper and fresher.
• However in developing countries, modern technology is not readily available, meaning that food is lost
through poor storage. Lack of transport means there is a limited choice of available foods.
• Climate affects food choices, e.g. light fruits eaten in summer, with heavy soups and pastas eaten in winter.

Travel and other interests:
• Internet allows us to make purchases from faraway countries, trade agreements mean that events in one place
can be felt in the rest of the world.
• When travelling, a wider range of foods is presented, some of which we may like. When we return to our
original country, we may actively seek out those foods.
• E.g. An interest in environmental issues may affect choices made at the supermarket, such as free range
chickens, less processed foods and organically grown fruits and vegetables.

Social Interaction: Media, Peers, Home Hospitality
• Food is symbol of friendship and hospitality, when friends enter your home, you may first offer them some
food and a drink.
• Helps to create atmosphere in which even a shy person can busy themselves by preparing or serving food.
• Alcohol can form part of the social interaction.
• Food served at a social gathering is often controlled by social expectations e.g. an invite to an Aussie barbecue
would bring an expectation of sausages and steak, with may be a salad or two. An invite to a cocktail party at
the Opera house may include smoked salmon canapes, stuffed mushrooms and vegetable cridites.
• Even sharing meals can influence food choices e.g. if a friend orders a salad, you may think twice about your
burger and chips.
Media:
• In affluent countries, media plays a big role in food selections. Advertising of food is everywhere.
• Promotion of celebrities, scientific experts and restaurant reviewers try to interest us in new things.
• A lot of advertised food is lower in value than unprocessed or less refined alternatives. However these
products are presented as if they are very good, models used are always healthy and have the ideal body type.
Manufacturers do not claim that their products will help people achieve this body image, but the asociation is
subconsciously made, and the products are bought.
Peer group:
• Peers are roughly the same age and social status as an individual. By interacting with a peer group and family,
a person develops their own food-related beliefs, attitudes and habits.
• The influence of the peer group is strongest during adolescence. Need for acceptance makes teenagers eat the
same time and things as their friends rather than what their parents want them to eat, or what is nutritionally
sound.
• Trying new things is safer in a peer group, sharing food is a good way to cement friendships and get to know
new people.
• Peer pressure can encourage fad dieting in order to be thin like people portrayed in the media.
Hospitality at home:
• Welcoming people into the family home for a visit and drink/meal is called family hospitality. Some families
invite many people over often, while others may have just occasional small dinner parties. The able setting and
food served depends on money and food available, the skill and time of the cook, and who the guests are.
• Family entertaining at home is becoming more informal and less frequent. People's lives are busier and it is
easier to order or eat food outside the home at a restaurant.
• Working parents don't have the time to shop and cook for a dinner party; it is easier to takeaway, or go to a
restaurant where washing up is done by someone else.

Economic Factors:
Cost of food:
• One of the most important factors for food selection: particularly important for low-income families, students
and the elderly; it isn't uncommon for these groups to spend 33 percent of their income on food.
• Cost of food varies according to:
o Quantities of food bought at once - if there is storage space, large quantities are better to buy at once.
o Whether food is in season or locally produced.
o Food processing - prepared marinated chicken skewers and bags of salads cost more than the raw
ingredients. However, some less processed foods, e.g. freshly squeezed orange juice can cost more than
the regular product.
• Ripeness/use-by date: very ripe, fresh produce is often cheaper, as is meat/dairy that is nearer their use-by
dates.
• Place of purchase: If chosen carefully, food bought at a market or roadside stall can save money, but there is
usually no money-back guarantee.
• Store specials and generic brands (i.e. homebrand, black and gold etc.)

The marketplace:
• The market place is the place where consumers purchase food. Can be the corner store, supermarket,
shopping centre, or on a world scale.
• Generally, the smaller the selling venue is, the more expensive the food items are. Smaller stores buy food
from larger stores/wholesalers and increase selling price to cover costs.
• Even the biggest supermarkets can't stock all brands of every Australian or overseas product.
• To make a profit, the retailer must know products and brands that the locals want. The store influences our
food selection, but unless many people request something, some people may have to shop elsewhere.
• Many supermarkets have their own delicatessen, meat section, bakery, fruit & veg section and pre-prepared
chilled foods, making it easy for customers to get all their food at once.
• Generally, supermarkets are situated within large shopping centres, along with other food specialty stores,
which give customers a very wide range.

Available resources:
• A resource is something we use to achieve our goals; such as time, money or skill levels.
• The supply of each resource is limited. E.g. Money is spent and is gone until you make/are given more,
equipment wears out or technology makes it obsolete. Time limits what we buy and prepare, and skills
deteriorate over time without use.
• Some Australians with limited money need to use resources of government agencies and charity groups to get
food parcels and vouchers.
• Resources can be interchangeable. If you have money, you can choose to go to a restaurant, but if you are
broke, you can use your skills, knowledge and ingredients to make a meal. If you don't have time, you can use
a frozen meal or a pre-packaged food kit etc.
• Recipe books and leaflets on display at the marketplace can provide ideas with information about ingredients
and equipment needed to prepare a dish. They may be a resource that affects the food we eat.
• Equipment is also a resource needed to prepare food. E.g. fridge, freezer, microwave. Time and money can be
saved by freezing and safely storing in season, on sale, or large quantities of food. The microwave can defrost
quickly and is cheaper to run than a conventional oven.

Occupation and finances
• Type of job a person does influences their food selection. Physical demands and social expectations of a job
are reflected in food choices.
• Income received from employment determines quality and quantity of food chosen.
• For many Australian families and other individuals in the world, economic factors are the most important
consideration when getting food.
• Expenses of raising a family, paying for accommodation, transport to work etc. add up to more money than
many families earn.
• Families often have to cut costs through lowering food expenditure, what they like to eat and what they can't
afford are different for them.
• Compared to many other countries, Australia's food is reasonably priced. Our supply is vast, and nutritious,
both fresh and processed foods are within the reach of most.