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Wiili Apel, Harvard Dic PDF
Wiili Apel, Harvard Dic PDF
DRENCHED
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Presented
Dictionary of Music
By
WILLI APEL
1950
[vij
PREFACE
Folk song; Modern music; Plainsong notation; Song form) which the
author would have been hesitant to publish in their present form Without
the backing of the authority which Professor Kinkeldey, the dean of
American musicology, so justly enjoys.
I wish to express my gratitude to the members of the staff of the
also
Music Department of the Boston Public Library whose kind cooperation
has greatly facilitated the completion of the book.
Grateful acknowledgment is made to Mr. W. W. Norton, New York,
for permission to reproduce a number of illustrations of instruments, taken
from C. Sachs, The History of Musical Instruments (1940); and to the
Macmillan Company, London, to reproduce from Grove's Dictionary the
illustrations for the article "Bow" and the drawing of the colascione for
the article "Lute."
In conclusion the author wishes to say that he will appreciate suggestions
for corrections to be used in a second edition which may be forthcoming
sooner or later.
W. A.
Boston, Massachusetts
May 1944
NOTE
Addenda and corrigenda will be found on page 825 and following pages.
Fviil
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
I. Periodicals
Reference usually made by annual volume numbers (i, ii, iii, . .), if a list of con-
is .
tents given with the volume. Otherwise, copy numbers are added (e.g., ii, no. 4).
is
Special methods of reference (e.g., when the volume numbering is inconsistently used)
are indicated below. In the case of articles the title of which is essentially identical
with that of the subject under consideration, this title is usually omitted.
[ viii ]
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
and continuous numbering of copies, e.g., 1922, no. i; 1937, no. 64, etc.
RM Revue musicale, La (ed. by Prunieres, monthly, 1920-).
RMC Revue musicale, La (ed. by Combarieu, monthly, 1901-10). Merged in
1911 withfiS/M.
RMI Rivista musicale italiana (quarterly, 1870-).
SIM Sammelbdnde der Internationalen Musi^gesellschajt (quarterly,
1900-14).
StM Studien zur Musityvissenschajt (Beihefte der Denkmaler dcr Tonkunst in
Oesterreich; annual, 1913-34).
TG Tribune de St. Gervais (monthly, 1895-?).
VMW Vierteljahrsschrift fur Musityvissenschajt (quarterly, 1884-94).
ZIM Zeitschrijt der Internationalen Musi\gesellschajt (monthly, 1900-14).
ZMW Zeitschrijt fur Musi\wissenschajt (quarterly, 1918-35).
II. Boo\s
AdHM G. Adler, Handbuch der Musil^geschichte, 2 vols., 1930.
ApMZ W. Apel, Musif^ aus jruher Zeit, 2 vols.
ApNPM W. Apel, Notation of Polyphonic Music, 1942 (2d ed., 1944).
AR Antiphonale Sacrosanctae Romanae Ecclesiae, 1924 (No. 820, edition in
neumatic signs).
BeMMR H. Besseler, Musi\ des Mittelalters und der Renaissance, 1931.
BuHM E. Biicken, Handbuch der Musi\tvissenschajt, 7 vols., 1928-32.
CS H. Coussemaker, Scriptorum de musica medii aevi nova series, 4 vols.,
1864-76.
DdT Denkmaler deutscher Tonkunst, 65 vols., 1892-1931.
DTB Denkmaler der Tonkunst in Bayern, 36 vols., 1900-31.
DTOe Dentynaler der Tonkunst in Oesterreich, 83 vols., 1894-1938.
EiBM A. Einstein, Beispielsammlung zur Musi^geschichte, 1930 (incorporated
in his A Short History of Music, 2d edition, 1938).
GD Grove, Dictionary of Music and Musicians, 5 vols., 1938; supplementary
vol., 1940.
GSHM Th. Gerold, Histoire de la musique des origines a la fin du xive siecle, 1936.
GR Graduale Sacrosanctae Romanae Ecclesiae, 1924 (No. 696, edition in neu-
matic signs).
GS M. Gerbert, Scriptores ecclesiastici de musica sacra potissimum, 3 vols.,
LU Liber Usualis Missae et Officii, 1937 (No. 780, edition in neumatic signs).
MoML H. J. Moser, Musi^-Lexi^on, 1935.
OH Oxford History of Music (mainly vol. i of the first ed., 1901).
ReMMA G. Reese, Music in the Middle Ages, 1940.
KHM H. Riemann, Handbuch der Musi^geschichte, 5 vols., 1904-13.
RiMB H.
RiemaLn^Mujifigcschichte
in Beispielen, 1925.
RiML H. Riemann, Musfy Lexicon, 2 vols., 1929.
SaHMl C. Sachs, History of Musical Instruments, 1940.
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
SaRM C. Sachs, Rcallexityn dcr Musifynstrumtnte, 1913.
SchGMB A. Schcring, Gcschichtc dcr Musi% in Beispiclen, 1931.
TaAM G. Tagliapictra, Antologia di musica per pianoforte, 18
. . . vols., 1931/2.
WoGM J. Wolf, Gcschichte dcr Mensurdnotation, 3 vols., 1904.
WoHN J. Wolf, Handbuch dcr Notationstyndc, 2 vols.,
IV. Signs
* indicates reference to other articles.
j*
indicates publications consisting mainly or exclusively of music.
If you want to understand the invisible, look
Abbreviations tum.
[3]
ABGESANG ABSOLUTE PITCH
Abgesang [G.]. Sec *Barform. degree of musical experience or aptitude,
but it can by no means be considered a
Abgestossen [G., detached].
measuring stick of musical talent. In
tachc [see *Bowing (b)].
fact, it is just as frequent (perhaps more
Abnehmend [G.]. Diminuendo. so) among mediocre orchestral players
as among great composers and outstand-
Abschieds-symphonie [G.]. Fare-
ing artists. While Mozart had an ex-
well Symphony. tremely acute sense of absolute pitch,
Abschnitt [G.]. Section. Wagner and Schumann are reputed to
have lacked it.
Absetzen [G.]. (i) To separate, either Absolute pitch is in various respects a
notes [*Dtache] or phrases. (2) In valuable asset to a musician, particularly
16th-century parlance, absetzen in die
to a conductor, but it may prove a real
Tabulator means to transcribe (vocal inconvenience when music for one rea-
music) into *tablaturc. son or another must be transposed in per-
Absolute music formance to another key, as is frequently
[L. absolutus, sepa-
the case in vocal music, in order to ac-
rated]. Music which is dissociated from
extramusical implications. The term is commodate the range of the singer [see
used most frequently in contradistinction remark under *chiavctte]. It is ques-
to *program music, i.e., music in which tionable, indeed, whether it is an advan-
pictorial or poetic ideas are portrayed. tage or a disadvantage to hear a composi-
It also excludes vocal music, especially
tion "all wrong" simply because it is a
that type of vocal music in which the half tone higher or lower. Needless to
text clearly influences the musical lan- say, all the discussions about the "true
pitch" of Beethoven's C minor Sym-
guage and structure (e.g., a song by
Schubert). In German usage the term is phony, for example, are entirely pointless
in a stricter sense, excluding unless the standard pitch of Beethoven's
employed
not only program and vocal music but day is taken into account. Since this
pitch has considerably changed
also music of a definite emotional char- (still
[4]
ABSTOSSEN ACATHISTUS
luten Gehors" (ZIM xiv); N. Slonimsky, and Academy of Ancient Music; Munich,
in American Mercury xxi. Akademie der Tonkunst; New York,
Abstossen Academy of Music (today the Metro-
[G.]. (i) In violin playing,
politan Opera); Brooklyn, Academy of
same as*abgestossen. (2) In organ Music (founded 1861), etc. [see *Con-
playing, to take off a stop [see *Ab]. cert halls; *Opera houses], (c) Institu-
Abstract music. Same as *absolute tions of musical education: London,
music. Royal Academy of Music; Berlin, Staat-
liche Akademie fur Kirchen- und Schul-
Abstrich [G.]. Down-bow. musik; Munich, Konigliche Akademie
der Tonkunst (founded 1846); Phila-
Abzug [G.]. *Scordatura.
delphia, Academy of Music (1870); New
Academic Festival Overture (A\a- York, Academy of Allied Arts (School
demische Festouverture). The title of of Music, 1928). See also *Societies.
Brahms's op. 80, an orchestral composi-
tion written for the University of Breslau
A cappella [It. cappella, chapel].
as a recompense for the degree of Doctor
Music written "for the choir of a chapel,"
i.e., choral music without instrumental
of Philosophy conferred upon him
a presentation of various
ft 1S accompaniment. The music of Palestrina
(1879).
German student songs, much in the man- [see ^Palestrina style] is usually consid-
ered the model of a cappella music. An
ner of a *potpourri.
a cappella choir is one formed for the cul-
thoven in one of his letters says: "Heute fore 1600 was a cappella. Such a state-
keine Akademie," i.e., "No concert to- ment is correct, however, only with re-
studies. They usually have a member- Acathistus [Gr., not seated]. hymn A
ship limited to those of demonstrable of praise of the Byzantine Church, sung
ability, maintain periodic discussions and in honor of the Virgin upon the Satur-
proceedings which are often gathered day of the fifth week in Lent by the
into publications, and generally offer whole congregation standing. Both text
honors, medals, or prizes for achieve- and music were written by the patriarch
ment in composition or research. Many Sergios in A.D. 626, on the occasion of the
of these are state-supported: Paris, Insti- deliverance of Constantinople from the
tut de France, division Academic des Persians. The poem consists of 24 stanza?
Beaux Arts; Berlin, Akademie der the initial letters of which represent the
Kiinste; Brussels, Academic Royale; alphabet (acrostic). It belongs to the
others in Stockholm and Moscow, (b) general species of Byzantine poetry
Organizations for the giving of operas known as fyntalyon [see *Byzantine
and concerts: Paris, Academic de Mu- chant II].
sique; London, Royal Academy of Music Lit.: H. J. W. Tillyard, Byzantine
[5]
ACCADEMIA ACCENT
Music and Hymnography (1923), p. 16; Accelerando [It.]. Becoming faster.
AdHM i, 131.
Accent, (i) The stress of one tone over
others. According to the position of the
Accademia [It.]. Italian learned asso-
stressed note within the measure, one
ciation, named after Plato's Academy
* may distinguish between regular (nat-
[see Academy]. An A. di Platonc was
founded in 1470 at the court of Lo- ural) accent, which falls on the first and,
in compound meters, also on other beats
renzo dc* Medici in Florence. With the
(secondary accent); and irregular (un-
beginning of the I7th century, the move-
ment spread enormously in Italy; every natural) accent, which falls on a nor-
mally weak beat. According to the
place of some repute had its accademia,
and larger cities had numbers of them. means of achieving stress, the following
distinctions are usually made: dynamic
They were of two types: (a) Learned
societies founded for the promotion of accent, which results from reinforcement;
and arts, part of whose *tonic accent, which results from higher
science, literature,
activity was the encouragement and cul-
tivation of music. The most famous of
these was the A. dci A read i of Rome
(founded 1692), which included among
its members the musicians Marcello,
Corelli, Alessandro Scarlatti, Gluck.
Handel attended many meetings, but as
a foreigner was not eligible for member-
ship. Other institutions of the same type pitch; and *agogic accent, which results
existed, in Florence: A. della Crusca from longer duration of the stressed note.
(1588), A. dei Filarmonici\ in Bologna: Of these, the dynamic accent is by far the
A. dei Gelati (1588), A. dei Concord7 most important, the other two being
(1615), A. dei Filomusi (1622), A. dei largely subsidiary or incidental. Irregular
Filar monici (1675); in Venice: A. Pelle- dynamic accent is
usually indicated by
grina (1550), A. degli Olimpici; and signs such as sf, >, . Ex. i (Mozart,
elsewhere, (b) Organizations of profes- Symphony in G minor)
shows an irregu-
sional and amateur musicians which had lar dynamic accent which, at the same
the cultivation of music as their sole pur- time, is tonic and agogic also. Frequently,
pose. The activities of these groups were the emphasis on the weak beat is en-
varied; they gave public and private con- hanced by means of striking dissonances,
certs, conducted research investigations as in Ex. 2. The *tonic accent has played
in the history ofmusic and in the sci- on Gregorian
a role in the discussions
ence of sound, founded music schools, chant and on other types of medieval
and even launched operatic enterprises. monophonic music.
The most important of these is the A. (2) [F.]. In French music of the i7th
FHarmonica of Bologna, founded in 1666 and 1 8th centuries, an ornamentation be-
[6]
ACCENTUATION ACCIDENTALS
of notation, called *ekphonetic notation. nection with chords; either written out
Cf. WoHN i, 61.
as an ordinary note, but to be played as
(4) The notational signs used in Jew- described above [Ex. i, Domenico Scar-
ish chant [see * Jewish music II]. latti,Sonata; Ex. 2, Scherzo in Bach's
Partita no. 3] ; or indicated by a diagonal
Accentuation. The proper placement
dash, in which case arpeggio execution
of accents, especially in music set to a
is usually intended, particularly in slow
text. See ^Declamation; *Text and music.
tempo. The direction of the dash indi-
cates the direction of the arpeggio [Ex.
Accentus, concentus. The terms are
used in liturgical music in two different 3 ] . The French name for this ornamen-
tation was arpegement figure. For an
though related meanings: (a) liturgi-
erroneous usage, frequent in modern
cally, as referring to the chanting of the
term acciaccatura,
of the see
priest (accentus) and to that of the writings,
under *Appoggiatura III.
schold) i.e., the choir, the soloists, or both
(concentus)\ (b) stylistically, as referring Accidentals. I. General. The signs of
to two opposite types of plainsong, the chromatic alteration momentarily intro-
syllabic recitation, largely on a monotone duced for single notes or measures, as
with slight inflections, as in the psalm to those given in the ^signature.
opposed
tones (accentus)) and the melismatic The signs of chromatic alteration to-
type found in the alleluias, graduals, etc. gether with their names in English,
(concentus). The chant of the priest is French, German, and Italian are given
usually of the simpler type; that of the in the following table:
schola of the more elaborate. See P. X
* b
Wagner, Einjuhrung in die Gregoria- E: sharp flat double-sharp
nischen Melodien, iii
(1921), p. 4. F: diese bemol double diese
G: Kreuz Be Doppelkreuz
Acciaccato [It.]. "Crushed," i.e., It: diesis bemolle doppio diesis
brusquely, forcibly. bb
E: double-flat natural
Acciaccatura [It. acciaccare, to crush],
F: double bemol becarre
Italian name for an ornament of harpsi- G: Doppcl-Bc Auflosungszeichcn
chord music (c. 1675-1725) which calls It: doppio bemolle bequadro
The sharp raises the pitch one semitone,
the flat lowers it one semitone; the
double-sharp and double-flat raise and
lower two semitones respectively; the
natural cancels any of the other signs.
The use of the compound signs W, tlb,
W to cancel partly or entirely a previous
X or bb is quite frequent but unneces-
sary. The simple signs #, b,
$ answer
ir T
I
for the lower second of the normal note cidentals to thosedemanded by this rule,
to be simultaneously struck and immedi- in order to clarify complicated passages
[7!
ACCIDENTALS ACCOMPANIMENT
II. History. All the signs used for doubled lines, either in a straight or in
chromatic alteration developed from the a diagonal position. The present sign is
T c o Cf C
The Annual of the British School
Athens, xviii.
of
preted as the letter h, to which it bears sidiary material of the left hand, as
some visual resemblance. Hence, in Ger- against the melody of the right hand.
man terminology h denotes the B-natural, The term also refers to the support given
and b the B-flat. to a soloist (singer, violinist) by a pianist
In the printed books of the i6th cen- or an orchestra. The auxiliary role of
tury the sharp sign usually occurs in a the accompaniment frequently leads to
diagonal position. The double-sharp (in- an underestimation of its musical and
troduced in the early i8th century; cf. artistic importance, on the part of the
Bach's Well-tempered Clavier, 1722, and soloist as well as the audience. Vocalists,
G. Walther's Musi\ Lexicon, 1732) demand an un-
J. especially, are inclined to
originally appeared as a sharp with due subordination of .their accompanists,
8]
ACCOMPANIMENT ACCOMPANIMENT
condemning them to complete slavery in centuries (ballades, virelais by G. de
questions of interpretation, of tempo, of Machaut and his successors, sec *Ars
dynamics, etc. This situation is the more Nova; chansons of Dufay and his con-
dangerous, since the possession of an temporaries, see *Burgundian School).
outstanding voice and vocal technique is It disappears again with the rise of
no guarantee of musical taste and artistic Flemish sacred music and of Flemish
discrimination. counterpoint (Ockeghem, Obrecht),
The modern church organist as well which is
opposed to any dis-
essentially
as the leader of a choir is frequently con- tinction between principal and auxiliary
fronted with the problem of providing parts. The instrumental doubling of
suitable accompaniment for the singing vocal parts, such as was occasionally
of the congregation or the chorus, either practiced in this period, can scarcely be
improvised or written out. Following considered an accompaniment. In the
are a number of books on this subject: 1 6th
century the renewed shift to secular
J. F. Bridge, Organ Accompaniment things immediately led to a revival of
(1886); D. Buck, Illustrations in Choir accompanied melody, e.g., in the lute-
Accompaniment (1877); C. Forsyth, songs of the German Schlick (1512), of
Choral Orchestration (1920); W. Hickin, the Spanish Valderrabano (1547), and of
Pianoforte Accompaniment', A. H. the English Dowland (1597).
Lindo, The Art of Accompanying III. A new era of accompaniment
(1916); Ch. W. Pearce, The Organist's began with the period of thorough-bass
Directory to the Accompaniment of the (Baroque period, 1600-1750), which
Church Service (1908); A. M. Richard- calls for a harmonic accompaniment to
son, Modern Organ Accompaniment be improvised upon the notes of the bass.
(1907). See also *Vamp. Moreover, the growing interest in florid
II. References to instrumental accom- and singable melody brought about a
paniment of songs are not infrequently gradually increasing separation of the
found in the Bible (harp-accompani- musical substance into a predominant
ment is suggested by the remark "on melody with subordinate accompaniment
eight strings," given with Psalms 6 and (e.g., in the aria). Whereas, throughout
12) and in the writings of the ancient the Baroque period, the written-out ac-
Greeks. Pictorial reproductions and lit- companiment (and, consequently, the
erary documents of the Middle Ages improvised one, too) shows many traits
show the use of harps, fiddles, bells, of contrapuntal and harmonic interest,
small drums, trumpets, etc., in connec- itdegenerated, in the second half of the
tion with the monophonic songs of the 18th century, into a stereotyped pattern
troubadours and Minnesinger, and in of plain chords, arpeggios, *Alberti-bass
conjunction with dance music. Neither figures, etc. As a curiosity it may be
in ancient nor in medieval music was mentioned that, about 1760, sonatas were
this improvised type of accompaniment frequently written for the "pianoforte
ever of a harmonic nature; it was merely with the accompaniment of a violin or
a unison- (or octave-) doubling of the flute" (Mondonville, 1734, see ^Editions
voice part, with occasional *heterophonic XXIV, 9; Schobert, see DdT 34), that is,
elements. The same type of accompani- with the violin or flute merely duplicat-
ment is to be found with the Oriental ing the upper part of the pianoforte. In
nations, in *China, *India, this connection it is interesting to note
especially
* Arabia. While the polyphonic music that Samuel Wesley speaks of }. S. Bach's
of the 9th to the i3th centuries (organa, "Six sonatas for harpsichord with an ob-
say of himself: "Ich bin mit einem obli- Accordatura [It.]. See *Accord (2).
gaten Accompaniment auf die Welt
gekommen." What Haydn and Mozart Accordion. A portable musical instru-
did in the instrumental music,
field of ment consisting of a rather large rec-
Schubejrt achieved in the field of song, tangular bellows with reeds in the two
headboards. It has pushed-out and
by freeing the pianoforte accompaniment
from the slavery of mere chord-filling drawn-in reeds, the former sounding by
and making it an independent, some- expiration, the latter by inspiration. The
times the most interesting, part of the modern accordion has a piano keyboard
composition. Composers such as Schu- at the right side for the playing of mel-
mann, Brahms, and H. Wolf adopted ody notes, while buttons on the left side
his method, whereas others (e.g., Tchai- operate bass notes and full chords. The
earliest instruments of this type were
kovsky) rarely went beyond a chordal
accompaniment in lush harmonies of a made by Buschmann (1822), Buffet
rather ephemeral interest. More recent (1827), and Damian (1829).
composers (Mahler, Strauss) have re- A similar instrument, preferred to the
phonic music, such as Greek music, ex- ten for it by virtuosos such as G. Regondi,
otic melodies,Gregorian chant, the songs W. B. Molique, G. A. Macfarren, and
of the trouveres, Minnesinger, etc. Nu- E. Solas, and has occasionally been used
it
Accord [F.]. (i) Chord. (2) Man- Acoustic bass (also called resultant
ner of tuning, especially that of instru- bass). On organs, a 32-foot stop which
[10]
ACOUSTICS
ACCOMPANIMENT
is obtained as a differential tone of a 16- represent, one iu*v imagine me itrvycsi
foot stop and a io%-foot made lumi-
stop. Accord- point of the tongue, A, to be
ing to the acoustic phenomenon of the nous and then photographed. If for this
differential tones [see Combination purpose a single exposure of film is used,
tones] the simultaneous sounding of C a horizontal dash ( ) will appear. If,
(produced by the i6-foot) and of G (pro-
duced by the io%-foot) produces the
tone Ci (32-foot). The acoustic bass is
frequently used where the great expense
of the large 32-foot pipes is prohibitive.
fact, known to every musician, that the produces. This problem was investigated
pitch of a vibrating string is not altered and solved by Pythagoras, who estab-
by the greater or lesser force with which lished the law relating the pitch of a note
the string is plucked, or, in other words, to the length of the string by which it
that the pitch does not depend The
upon the is obtained. results have a more
amplitude. The piano player obtains a general application, however, if they are
tone of the same pitch regardless of expressed in frequencies rather than in
whether he uses a pianissimo or a fortis- vibrating lengths. Thus expressed, they
simo touch. The same principle is borne remain unchanged regardless of whether
out by the fact that a sound does not alter the sound is produced by a pipe or by a
its
pitch when it gradually decreases in string, and they do not depend upon ad-
intensity. This means that a curve rep- ditional factors such as the tension, thick-
resenting a fading sound [Ex. 5] will ness, or material of the string. The
always have the form a, not the form b. fundamental principle is as follows: //
II. Vibrating Strings. If a violin is the frequency of a tone is n, that of the
plucked or bowed, each single point of octave is 2n, that of the fifth, %n, and
the string will make an up-and-down that of the major third,
%n. From these
ACOUSTICS ACOUSTICS
the others of the diatonic scale
tones, all however, that these terms (if properly
can be derived [see intervals, Calcula- used) include the fundamental, while the
tion of, II]. The result is as follows: term overtone (if properly used) ex-
= i):
cdefgabc'
%
cludes it. Thus, the first overtone is the
Frequency (
= 24):
i % %% 156 2
% second harmonic, etc. Although the
Frequency ( 24 27 30 32 36 40 45 48 terms harmonics and partials arc fre-
Vibrating length: x ft ft ft ft ft 9b K quently used as interchangeable, the lat-
The [Ex. 7] shows a num-
illustration ter has, in scientific studies, a wider
ber of frequencies calculated for the tone includes also non-
significance, since it
= 360 (the correct frequency for f is harmonic overtones, such as occur in
It must be noted that these fre- With
the exception
352). noises, also in bells.
quencies give the tones of *just intona- of the octaves (2,4,8) none of the har-
tion, not of equal temperament [see monics arc tones of equal temperament.
*Temperament] .
Those which result from the factors 3
IV. Harmonics. The acoustic effect and 5 (3,5,6,9,10,12, etc.) are tones of
produced by a single vibration of the *just intonation (see the above table of
type described above is called a pure frequencies) whereas the harmonics 7,
sound; but practically no vibrating body ii and 13 (indicated by black notes) can
produces a pure sound. All the musical only approximately be identified with
instruments produce composite sounds, tones available in our system of tuning
and notation. As can easily be seen, the
7th harmonic, which is 7
= 6 %, is lower
than the B-flat of just intonation which
is *% X 4
= 6
%; this, in turn, is
intonation = %) and, in
(*%X% 4
3, 4/2, .
(up to 200 and more). The
. . various sizes which reinforce one fre-
illustration [Ex. 8] shows the first 15 quency and eliminate all the others. The
overtones of the tone C.^ A^morc com- harmonics can easily be demonstrated by
mon designation for these tones is par- the following simple experiment on the
tials or harmonics. It should be noted, pianoforte: Depress the key of C with-
ACOUSTICS ACOUSTICS
out producing a sound, i.e., merely raise ing drawing appears that an open
it
the damper of the key of C; then strike pipe generates a sound the wave length
forcefully the key of Ci and release it of which is double the length of the pipe
at once; the higher C, corresponding to (N'N" = 2 AB), while a stopped pipe
the tone of the depressed key, will generates a sound the wave length of
clearly be heard. The experiment can which is four times the length of the pipe
be repeated by depressing the keys of G, (N'N" = 4 AB) and which, therefore,
c, e, g, etc., and striking each time the isan octave lower than that produced by
key of Ci. In every case, the tone cor- an open pipe of the same length. An
responding to the depressed key will be open pipe sounding C measures approxi-
heard. The explanation of the phenome- mately eight feet [see *Foot (2)].
non is found in the fact that the har- Like a vibrating string, an air column
monics C, G, c, produced by the
. . . vibrates not only as a whole but also in
fundamental tone Ci generate, by way parts (y2> Y^ %, %, etc., of its length),
of resonance, sympathetic vibrations in thus producing harmonics. While an
the shorter strings corresponding to these open pipe produces all the harmonics
tones. The harmonics are the cause of (as does a string), a stopped pipe seg-
three important musical phenomena, ments so as to give out only the odd-
namely, *timbre, the *natural tones of numbered harmonics, 1,3,5, etc - ne rea " T
wind instruments, and the *harmonics son is that an even harmonic (e.g., 2)
of the violin. would call for a loop (or a node) at both
V. Pipes. In pipes (organ pipes, and ends of the pipe, while in a stopped pipe
all wind instruments) an enclosed air there is always a loop at the open end, a
column caused to vibrate in what is
is node at the closed end [see *Wind instru-
INTERFERENCE
Ex. A: Vibrations of the Same Frequency. Ex. B:
Vibrations of Different Frequencies: I, of 12 cycles;
II, of 14 cycles; III, resulting vibration showing
14]
ACTION ADDITIONAL ACCOMPANIMENT
portant is the interference of vibration? (2) In modern French usage the word
of different frequencies, e.g., of 2 and 3 action sometimes used for an opera,
is
cycles per second, or of 12 and 14 cycles e.g., in Vincent d'Indy's Fervaal (1897).
per second [Ex. B]. The example illus-
trates the manner in which *beats are pro-
Act tune. See *Entr'acte.
duced, in the present case 2 (14-12) per Adagietto [It.], (i) A tempo some-
second. For a more complicated phenom- what faster than adagio. (2) A short
enon of interference, see *Combination adagio.
tones.
Related articles: Architectural acous- Adagio [It., comfortable, easy], (i)
Combination Slow tempo, slower than andante and
tics; Beats; Bel; Cents;
tones; Comma; Consonance and Disso- faster than largo. (2) A movement
written in slow tempo, especially the sec-
nance; Intervals, Calculation of; Just in-
Reso- ond (slow) movement of sonatas, sym-
tonation; Pitch; Pythagorean scale;
nance; Savart; Temperament; Timbre. phonies, etc. See *Tempo marks.
Lit.: W. T. Bartholomew, Acoustics
Adagissimo. Extremely slow.
of Music (1942; Buck,
bibl.); P. C.
*
Acoustics for Musicians (1918); J. Broad- Adaptation. Arrangement.
house, Musical Acoustics (1926); E. G. Added The sixth added to a
sixth.
Richardson, The Acoustics of Orchestral or the entire chord thus obtained
triad,
Instruments and of the Organ (1929);
e.g., c-e-g-a. In classical harmony,
}. Jeans, Science and Music (1937); the chord of the added sixth occurs pref-
D. C. Miller, Science of Musical Sounds
erably on the fourth degree, i.e., with a
(1916); J. Redfield, Music: a Science and subdominant function (f-a-c' d' in
an Art (1928); Stevens and Davis, Hear-
C major; also f-ab -c' d'). It is usu-
ing (1938); A. H. Davis, Modern Acous-
ally explained as the first inversion of
tics(1934); N. W. McLachlan, The New the seventh-chord on the second degree
Acoustics (1936); Olson and Massa, Ap-
(d- f-a-c'). Although according to
plied Acoustics (1934). See also under strict rules the chord must be resolved
* Architectural mu-
acoustics; *Electronic into the dominant or the tonic, it is used
sical instruments. Additional bibliog- in more recent works [impressionism]
raphy in D. H. Daugherty, A Bibliog- as a color-modification of the triad which
raphy of Periodical Literature in Musi- does not call for resolution. Jazz writers
cology . . .
(1940), pp. nyff. have abundantly availed themselves of
this over-sweet effect, especially for the
Action, (i) Any kind of mechanism final chord of a piece.
used in instruments as a means of trans-
mitting the action of the fingers to the Additional accompaniment. Desig-
sound-producing parts; in other words, nation for 19th-century revisions or en-
a sort of artificial prolongation of the largements of earlier orchestral scores,
fingers (or feet). On keyboard instru- especially those of the i8th century (Han-
ments, the action forms an essential, even del, With the ever-increasing
Bach).
the characteristic, part of the instrument size 19th-century orchestra and
of the
[see *Pianoforte I; *Organ II]. The concert hall, men felt the need of ex-
term is also applied to the key-mechanism
panding the instrumentation; but with
of wood-wind instruments which en- the ever-diminishing understanding of
ables the player to control holes which true Baroque style, many stylistic incon-
are out of reach of the hand (e.g., the gruities were allowed to enter. Thus, not
*Boehm-action of the flute). The action only were admissible and sometimes
of the harp is the mechanism controlled necessary changes made (replacement of
by the player's feet upon the pedals by obsolete instruments by newer ones,
which a transposition of a semitone or a doubling of certain parts, etc.), but also
whole tone can be effected [see *Harp], the voice leading was changed, the writ-
IS]
ADDOLCENDO AEOLOPANTALON
ing was "improved," new parts were iy for two hands. A due vod (con,
added, and in many instances the original stromentiy etc.), for two voices (choirs,
intention of the composer was thor- instruments, etc.).
oughly misunderstood or disregarded.
The composers whose works were most Aengstlich [G.]. Anxiously.
frequently subjected to arrangement
were Handel and Bach. The Messiah of Aeolian, aeolian mode. See *Church
Handel has been particularly unfortu- modes; *Modality.
nate in this regard. Mozart was among
the first to make a more modern arrange-
Aeolian harp [Gr. Aeolos, the God of
the Winds]. An instrument comprising
ment of it; subsequently various other
a long narrow box, with six or more gut
musicians made further arrangements of
Mozart's strings stretched inside over two bridges.
arrangement. Many other The
works of Handel have fared similarly, strings are tuned in unison, but
vary in thickness and, therefore, tension.
e.g., under the hands of Mendelssohn,
If the box is placed in a free current of
who later
expressed regret for having air (preferably in an open window), the
published his arrangements. Bach's can-
tatas suffered mistreatment from Robert according to their different ten-
strings,
16]
AEQUALSTIMMEN AESTHETICS OF MUSIC
Aequalstimmen [G.]. (i) The eight- Science argues with mathematics and
foot pipes of the organ. (2) *Equal logic; poetry possesses the decisive,
voices. golden word; other arts have chosen
nature as their arbiter, borrowing their
Aerophones. Sec *Instruments III.
forms from her. Music, however, is a
Aerophor (aerophon). A device in- poor orphan whose father and mother
vented by B. Samuels in 1912 by which nobody can name. But, perhaps, it is pre-
the player of a wind instrument is pro- cisely this mystery of her origin which
vided with additional air from small accounts for the charm of her beauty."
bellows operated with the foot. The air II. For more than 2000
years philoso-
is
pressed, through a tube with mouth- phers have tried to solve the mystery of
music. Among them we find Pythagoras
piece, into the mouth of the player when-
ever his breath does not suffice, e.g., for (550 B.C.), who explains music as the ex-
long-held tones or long melodies in full pression of that universal harmony which
is also realized in arithmetic and in as-
legato. R. Strauss has written passages
requiring the use of the aerophon (Al- tronomy; Plato (400 B.C.), for whom
music is the most appropriate means of
pine Symphony and Festal Prelude).
social and political education [also Con-
Aesthetics of music. I. Aesthetics is fucius; see *Chinese music I]; Plotinus
generally defined as the philosophy or (d. 270), who interprets music as a mys-
tic and occult power; Boethius
study of the beautiful. Musical aesthetics, (d. 524),
therefore, should be the study of the who divides music into three fields,
beautiful in music, the ultimate goal of musica mundana (the Pythagorean har-
such a study being the establishment of mony of the universe), musica humana
criteria which would allow us to say (the harmony of the human soul and
whether or why one particular composi- body), and musica instrumental^ (music
tion is beautiful while another is not. as actual sound), a classification which
The main objection to such a point of prevailed in musical theory for more
view is that beauty is by no means the than 1000 years; }. Kepler (Harmonices
only (and probably not even the fore- mundi libri v, 1619), who in a great
most) criterion of what may be roughly structure of thought correlates the musi-
described as "quality" or "artistic value." cal tones and intervals with the move-
At least the possibility must be admitted ments of the planets and their astrological
that music, like other works of art, may functions; W. Leibniz (1646-1716), who
be "valuable" without necessarily being paves the way for the psychological
"beautiful" unless the term beauty is method of musical aesthetics by interpret-
interpreted so broadly as to include fea- ing music as the "unconscious exercise in
tures which may well be much closer to arithmetic"; A. Schopenhauer (Die Welt
als Wille und
its
opposite. Therefore, a definition such Vorstellung, 1819), who
as the following provides a much better considers music the purest incarnation
basis for the study in question: Musical of the "absolute will" and as the expres-
aestheticsis the study of the relationship sion of human feelings (love, joy, hor-
of music to the human senses and intel- ror) in their abstract interpretation as
lect. This definition corresponds exactly metaphysical ideas; then G. T. Fechner
to the original meaning of the Greek (180187), who insists that music is the
word aisthesis, i.e., feeling, sensation. expression of "general mood" rather than
The following words by R. Schumann specific "feelings"; and finally C. Stumpf
(Gesammelte Schrtften uber Musi^ und (Tonpsychologie, 1883-90), who inaugu-
Mustier, i, 44) adequately describe die rated the scientific study of musical psy-
peculiar problem of musical aesthetics chology on the basis of experiments and
[translation by the writer]: statistics, especially with regard to the
"In no other field ii the proof of the problem of *consonance and dissonance.
fundamentals as difficult as it is in music. Stumpf s procedure has been the point
[171
AESTHETICS OF MUSIC AESTHETICS OF MUSIC
of departure for many investigations mantic period the interpretation of musi-
along similar lines, especially in Amer- cal compositions was largely based upon
ica, e.g., C. E. Seashore, The Psychology programmatic and allegorical concepts.
of Music (1938); M. Schoen, The Effects Music was understood as a sort of psy-
of Music (1927), and others [see *Tests] .
chological drama and explained in terms
For a criticism of these methods, cf. such as "desperate struggle," "the knock-
C. C. Pratt, The Meaning of Music ing of Fate," "threatening fortissimo,"
"gloomy minor," etc. An early exponent
It will be seen that not until the ad- of this school of thought is A. B. Marx,
vent of the ipth century did these theo- in his L. van Beethoven (1875). more A
ries of music begin to accord with the approach was at-
intelligent use of this
present-day interpretation of musical tempted by H. Kretzschmar, the inventor
aesthetics as defined above, a statement of musitylische Hermeneuti^ [see *Her-
which should not be construed as a de- meneutics]. He considers music not as
preciation of the much broader and, in a substitute for the pictorial arts or for ob-
a sense, "greater" views cosmic, po- jects of nature, but rather for poetry, i.e.,
litical, or theological held by the phi- as a SprachJ{unst of lesser clarity, but of
losophers of antiquity and of the Middle finer shades and deeper effects, than the
Ages. While in those periods music ordinary language. He goes back to the
found proper place and justification
its "affects" of the i8th century which, ac-
in the universe, in the state, or in God, cording to him, must be based upon the
for us it has lost these transcendental study of the musical detail (themes, in-
affiliations, but has instead gained a se- rhythm, etc.). He also relates the
tervals,
cure place in everyday life. music to the life of the composer (Bee-
III. With the foregoing survey of the thoven's "period of happiness," etc.).
theories and views held by philosophers The point was emphasized by H.
latter
and psychologists as a general back- Riemann, who maintains that the writ-
ground, we may now turn to a study of ten composition as well as the actual per-
the contributions to our problem made formance is nothing but a means of trans-
by the musicians themselves. As might ferring a psychological situation (Erleb-
be expected, these contributions aim at a nis) from the fancy of the composer to
more detailed penetration into the ques- that of the listener. Kretzschmar's
tions of musical aesthetics and are usu- method has been elaborated by Schering
ally concerned with the study of indi- [see under *Hermeneutics] A recent
.
century, music was frequently inter- in its own terms. The founder of this
preted as an oratorical art, by relating its school was E. Hanslick who, in his Vom
structural and stylistic elements (such as musil(alisch Schonen (1854), formulated
figura, rcpetitio^ fuga, climax) to cor- the sentence: "Musik ist toncnd bewegte
responding principles of speech [cf. A. Form" music is form moving in
Schering, in KJ, 1908], In the late Ro- sounds (the term *form, naturally, must
18]
AEVIA AFRICAN MUSIC
be taken in widest sense, including all
its A ff anno so [It.]. Sadly.
structural and stylistic elements of
music). He admits the use of designa- Affektenlehre [G.; doctrine of affec-
tions such as "powerful," "graceful," tions] The aesthetic theory of the *emp-
.
"tender," "passionate," but only in order findsamer Stil (sensitive style) of the
to illustrate the musical character of the later i8th century, formulated by J.
passage, not to suggest a definite feeling Quantz and Ph. Em. Bach, according
on the part of composer or listener. Still to which the chief aim of music is to
farther in this direction went August portray certain typical emotions, such as
Halm (Von zwei Kulturen der Musi^ the tender, the languid, the passionate,
etc. This theory, which is realized in the
1913), who must be considered the most
outstanding representative of musical works of Ph. Em. Bach, marks an im-
aesthetics of the present day. The follow- portant advance over the superficiality
of the Italian "stile galante" (*gallant
ing quotation from the Talmud, given
at the beginning of his book, is an ade- style) and, in spite of its rationalistic
quate expression of the central thought nature and schematic methods, paves the
of musical autonomy: "If you want to way for the free expressiveness of the
understand the invisible, look carefully Beethoven style. See * Aesthetics III (a);
at the visible." Halm, as well as his suc- *Musica reservata.
cessors, E. Kurth, H. Hermann, F. Joede, Lit.: W. Serauky, Die musi\alische
and others, advocated the separation of Nachahmungsaesthetif^ im Zeitraum
the musical work from the emotional 1700-1850 (1929); M. Kramer, Beitra'ge
world of both the composer and the zu einer Aesthetil^ der Affectenlehre in
listener, and the emancipation of the der Musi^ von 15501700 (Diss. Halle
musical thought from "sensuous intoxi- 1924); H. Goldschmidt, Die Musityies-
cation and hallucination." theti^ des 18. Jahrhunderts (1915); G.
See also *AfIektenlehre; *Hermeneu- Frotscher, Bach's Themen-bildung unter
tics;*Musica reservata; *Maniera. dem Einfluss der Affektenlehre (1926);
Lit.: F. M. Gatz, Musi^Aestheti^ in R. Schaefke, "Quantz als Aesthetiker"
ihren Hauptrichtungen (1929); H. H. (AMW vi); H. Abert, in v; H. AMW
Briton, Philosophy of Music
(1911); Kretzschmar, in JMP xviii, xix; F. Stege,
H. Riemann, Catechism of Musical Aes- in ZMW
x; A. Schering, in JMP xlv.
thetics (1895); R. Schaefke, Geschichte
der Musi^-aesthetif^ (1934); H. Besseler, Affetti [It.]. The term appears as a
der Musik-aesthetik" titleof various publications around 1600
"Grundfragen
[Dolci Affetti (1595); S. Bonini, Affetti
(JMP xxxiii). For a bibliography of re-
cent psychological studies, cf. D. H. spirituals in istile di Firenze or recitative
[19]
AFTERNOON OF A FAUN, THE AIR
Afternoon of a Faun, The. Sec tury, which were finally adopted into all
Symphonic poem IV. European music and were generally indi-
cated by stenographic signs or as notes
Agende [L. agenda, that which has to
in small type. The agrements are char-
be done]. The Protestant counterpart of
acterized by a definitely stereotyped me-
the Catholic liturgy or of the Anglican
lodic contour, a close relationship with a
rites, i.e., the entire ritual of the service
of the German Protestant Church. Cf. single note of the melody to be orna-
[20]
AIR DE COUR AL FINE
(4) See *Ayre. For air de charactere, guardian friend who warns him of some
see *Aria.
etc., approaching danger [cf. GeHM, 301;
Air de cour court song]. Short
ReMMA, 215], The German Minne-
[F.,
singer counterpart of the alba is the
strophic songs, sometimes with a refrain, or
Tagelied (day-song) Wdchterlicd
for one or more voices with lute accom-
(guardian-song) which Wagner revived
paniment, which were cultivated in in the second act of his Tristan (Bran-
France in the late i6th and in the iyth
gane's warning call). Many examples of
century. They are in simple syllabic
and in binary form. The texts are Tagelied, however, are of a more devo-
style
tional nature, serving as a sort of morn-
chiefly love-poems in affected precieux
ing prayer [cf. F. Runge, fD/> Sanges-
language, some of them in *vers me sure. weisen der Colmarer Liederhandschrtft,
The repetition of each of the two sections
was frequently ornamented at will by the p. 173]. See also *Alborada; *Aubade.
accent neumes [see *Neumes II], morning serenade [cf. G. Chase, The
Music of Spain (1941), p. 237]. Ravel's
Alala. A type of Galician folk song Alborada del Gracioso (1912) derives cer-
expressing passion and longing. Older tain features from the Spanish alborada.
examples use syllables such as la-la or See also *Alba; *Aubade.
ai-le-lo-la and are interesting because of
the of ele-
Albumblatt [G.], album leaf. A
preservation plainsong-like
ments. Cf. F. Pedrell, "\Cancionero mu- fancy name for short pieces of 19th-cen-
sical tury salon music such as might have
popular espanol (1918-22), ii, 2171!.
served as a contribution to an autograph
A la mi re, alamire. See *Hexachord album.
III.
Alcuna licenza, Con [It.].With a
Alba, albe, aube [F., dawn]. In the little license, specifically regarding the
repertoire of the Provencal *troubadours,
tempo.
a poem dealing with the departure of the
lover in the early morning. It usually is Al fine [It.]. To the end (for repeti-
a dialogue between the lover and a tion of a piece from the beginning).
ALIQUOT STRINGS ALLEMANDE
Aliquot Brings, aliquot scaling. leluia denotes the third item of the
*Sympathfcitic strings by someadded Proper of the *Mass. It was introduced
pianoforte* makers (Bliithner) above the by Pope Damasus (368-384), first for
strings of the upper register in order to Easter only. Pope Gregory (590-604)
produce a 'fuller sound by resonance. extended its use over the entire year ex-
cept for Lent, for which season the orig-
Alia breve [It.]. A tempo mark (<f) inal *tract was preserved. The alleluia
indicating quick duple time, i.e., with of the Mass consists of the word Alleluia
<
the half-note rather than the quarter-note followed by a brief sentence referring to
as the beat; in other words,, 2/2 instead the occasion, the so-called vers (versus
of 4/4. Both the name and the sign are abbr. y), e.g.: Alleluia.
allcluiaticus,
a- vestige of *mensural notation and of y. Surrexit Dominus de sepulcro [cf.
the *proportions (tempus imperjectum GR, 228; LU, 790; also HAM, no. 13;
diminutum). Originally and properly EiBM, no. 4; ReMMAy 180]. The music
alia breve means that the unit of musical for the word alleluia closes with a long
time (^tactus) is represented by the vocalization to the final vowel: (Al~
*brevis (corresponding to our double the so-called *neuma or
lelui)a ,
whole note), not as normally by the *jubilus. See also *Gregorian chant III;
semibrevis (corresponding to our whole *Psalmody II; *Sequence.
note). Today it means that the half-note
should be, regarded as the unit of time, Allemande [F., German, sc. a dance].
not as normally the quarter-note. See also A dance in moderate duple time which
*Time signatures. first appeared around 1550. Early ex-
amples occur in T. Susato's Musyc\
Allargando [It.]. Slowing down, usu-
BoexJ(en (1551); in P. Attaingnant's
ally accompanied by a crescendo; used Troisieme livre de danseries (1556); in
chiefly towards the end of a piece.
B. Schmid, Zwey Bucher einer neuen
Allegramente [It.]. Brightly, gaily. \unstlichen Tabulator (1577) [cf. W.
Merian, Der Tanz in den deutschen Ta-
Allegretto [It.], (i) A tempo between bulaturbuchern (1927), p. in]; in the
allegro and andante; see *Tempo marks. Fitz William Virginal Boo^ (c. 1620),
(2) A small allegro movement. where the name Alman, Almayne is
Alleluia [Latinization of Hebrew then this [i.e., the galliarde] (fitlie rep-
* An
halleluiah) praise ye the Lord]. ex- resenting the nature of the people, whose
pression of joy and praise of God which name it carieth) so that no extraordinarie
occurs frequently in Gregorian chant. motions are used in dauncing of it."
During Eastertide, the word alleluia is Like the pavane and passamezzo, the al-
added to all
antiphons, and to various lemande was frequently followed by a
other chants. It also occurs at the end of jumping dance in triple meter, called
chants for Christmas, Corpus Christi, *tripla, *proportz, or, in the i7th cen-
and other Alleluiatic antiphons
festivals. tury, by the courante. In the i7th cen-
are antiphons which consist of the word tury the allemande ceased to be actually
alleluia repeated three times [see, e.g., danced and became a stylized dance type
LU, 19]. More specifically, the term al- which was regularly used as the first
ALLENTANDO ALT
movement of the *suitc. These allc- words with the same initial letter. This
mandes are in very moderate 4/4-time, principle was adopted by R. Wagner in
with a short upbeat, and frequently make his Ring des Nibelungs, e.g., "Nach Wei-
ten- Wonne mein Wunsch t/erlangte aus
#>ebcndem Zfengen."
passed through the various voices of a monics [see *Acoustics IV], somewhat
pseudo-contrapuntal fabric. Our three modified by the material and by the ir-
examples (i. Ammerbach, 1571; 2. Pur- regular width of the inner tube. In par-
cell, c. 1660; 3. J. K. F. Fischer, c. 1690) ticular, the fourth (nth harmonic) is
[23]
ALTERATION 'AMBROSIAN CHANT
tralto [see *Ako]. In connection with Lit.: G. E. Stubbs, The Adult
instruments (Alttyarinctte, Altsaxo- Alto or Countertenor (1908); A. H. D.
phon), the term denotes the second high- Prendergast, "The Man's Alto in Eng-
est member of the family (alto clarinet, lish Music" (ZIM i); J. Hough, "The
alto saxophone). See the various instru- Historical Significance of the Counter-
ments. Altgeige is the viola alta [see tenor" (PMA Ixiv).
Violin family (d)], rarely the ordinary
viola.
Alto clef. See *Clefs.
[24]
AMBROSIAN HYMNS AME
chenmusi^ 20; H. Gastoue, Cours du Regarding the early history, see *Hymn
chant gregorien y 67, 128, 149]. Vocaliza- I, II.
tions including up to 200 notes are not II. Music. About a dozen melodies of
rare. On the other hand, the Ambrosian Ambrosian hymns are preserved in
psalm tones are simpler and lack the sources none of which is earlier than the
methodical arrangement to be found with 1 2th century (an exception is the melody
the Gregorian psalm tones [cf. v, GD for the Aeterne Christi munera, given in
267]. The Ambrosian rite occasionally *Daseian notation in the *Musica en-
differs from the Gregorian, for instance, GS i, 154 and
chiriadis, c. 850; cf. RiHM
in the names given to the chants: in- i.2, 17). Under
these circumstances the
gressa for introitus, psalmellus for grad- question as to whether these melodies are
ual, transitorium for communion, etc. compositions of Ambrose or as has
The use of the term "Ambrosian modes" been surmised "early Christian folk
for the four authentic church modes (in songs," or products of a later period, re-
distinction from the "Gregorian," i.e., mains entirely open, the more so since in
plagal, modes) is without any historical a number of cases different melodies are
For more details see
justification. given for the same hymn. The melodies
*Church modes II. The earliest sources are syllabic, with occasional groups of two
of Ambrosian chant (nth century) con- or three notes; the latter are usually
tain chants in the plagal as well as in the omitted in modern transcriptions which
authentic modes. try to give the melodies in what is believed
Lit.: P. Wagner, Einfuhrung in die to be their "original form." No less prob-
Gregorianischen Melodien
(1911-21), lematic is the question as to the true
i and iii;
vols. G. Bas, Manuale di canto rhythm of these hymns, i.e., whether they
Ambrosiano (Torino, 1929; bibl.); ^An- are to be interpreted in duple or in triple
ten and possibly composed by St. Am- ample shows a hymn (a) in its 9th-cen-
brose. tury form and (b) in its hypothetical
Text. original state [cf. also HAM, no. 9],
I.
Formerly all the hymns (c.
120) of the Antiphonarium were ascribed
to Ambrose, under the generic name of
hymns are written in the simple scheme brogio (1862); G. M. Dreves, "Aurelius
of eight stanzas; each consisting of four Ambrosius . ." (Stimmen aus Maria
.
gregation (or recited by the choir) as a Indian's unseene, a good care might easily
confirming answer to the lection or the mistake their untaught voyce for the war-
prayer of the priest 35*]. Espe-
[cf. AR, bling of a well tuned instrument. Such
ciallyimportant is its occurrence at the command have they of their voices."
end of the minor *doxology, in the con- Travelers and explorers occasionally re-
nection ". . . seculorum. Amen" [see ported that the Indians were musical,
*Evovae] and, in the Mass, at the end of among them the Frenchman F. G. Sagard
the Gloria (". gloria dei patris.
. , in in his Le grand Voyage du Pays dcs Hu-
tainly, if Western culture is considered tribe. It could then be sung only by the
predominant among the inhabitants of purchaser.
the nation, American Indian music is ex- Many of the Indian songs, like those of
otic and far different in conception from primitive races generally, are character-
that which has been influenced by the ized by a descending melodic line. The
[27]
AMERICAN INDIAN MUSIC AMERICAN MUSIC
descent may be interrupted, but it con- composers, Dvordk, with his symphony
tinues to the end. According to a tabu- "From the New World," and Busoni,
lation of 820 songs by Frances Densmore, with his Indianisches Tagebuch, may be
67 per cent begin with a downward pro- mentioned.
gression, andin 87 per cent the last tone Lit.: F. R. Burton, American Primitive
is the lowest of the entire melody. Al- Music (1909); Natalie Curtis, The Indi-
though many of the melodies cannot be an's BooJ^ (1907); Frances Densmore,
accurately represented in diatonic nota- Chippewa Music, Nos. i and 2 (1910 and
tion, many of them approximate the pen- 1913), Man dan and Hidatsa Music
tatonic major or minor modes. Densmore (1923), Northern Ute Music (1922),
found also that 67 per cent of
340 Chip- Teton Sioux Music ( 1918) A. C. Fletcher,
;
pewa songs end on tones which provide Indian Story and Song from North Amer-
the' ear with satisfactory keynotes. Rhyth- ica (1900); F. Densmore, "The Study of
mically, Indian music is complex and ir- Indian Music" (MQ i); id., in xvii, MQ
regular. The Indian
capable of per-
is xx; F. W. Galpin, "Aztec Influence on
forming involved polyrhythms, although American Indian Instruments" (SIM iv);
Burton believed that the performers are M. Barbeau, "Asiatic Survivals in Indian
unaware that their songs and the accom- Songs" (MQ xx) ; J. Tiersot, "La musique
panying drum beats are cast in conflicting chez les peuples indigenes de I'Amerique
rhythms. See the examples under *Primi- du nord. . . ." (SIM xi; bibl.). An ex-
tive music. tensive bibliography is found in G. Her-
The musical instruments of the various
zog, Research in Primitive and FolJ^
tribes are flutes, whistles, rattles, and Music in the United States (1936).
drums. Although flutes are commonly J.T.H.
pictured as aiding in courtship, they are
as frequently used for warning against the American music. This term is gener-
approach of an enemy. Whistles are part ally accepted as applying to music which
of the medicine man's equipment for is composed or has its origin in the United
treating the sick. Rattles are often re- States, Similarly, an American composer
garded as sacred articles, for use in wor- is one who is either a native of the United
ship. Some of them are merely notched States or has adopted the nation prior to
sticks, rubbed over a second stick, while his or her mature production. For other
others are receptacles holding loose ob- musical cultures of the American hemi-
* American Indian
jects. The
drums are essential to Indian sphere see music;
music, some tribes cannot sing without *Latin American music; *Negro music;
them. They are made in various sizes, ^Canadian music.
from hand drums to immense kegs partly I. ijth and i8th Centuries. The his-
filledwith water. tory of American music begins in the
Theeffect of Indian music on the art early i7th century, with the arrival of the
music of the United States has been ex- firstwhite settlers and colonists: James-
tensive, but limited. Edward MacDowell town, Virginia, in 1607, and Plymouth,
used Indian melodies in his Second Or- Massachusetts, in 1620. Little is known
chestral ("Indian") Suite of 1890; C. S. about the musical habits of the Virginia
Skilton in his Indian Dances and Suite settlers, but a number of records exist to
Primeval; C. W. Cadman in Thunderbird show the part music played in the lives
Suite and
other works; Frederick Jacobi of the New England colonists: the Pil-
in his Indian Dances; C. T. Griffes in grims at Plymouth and the English Puri-
Two Sketches for String Quartet; Victor tans who came to Massachusetts Bay
Herbert in the opera, Natoma; while (Boston), starting in 1630. Until the close
H. W. Loomis, Arthur Farwell, Thurlow of the century, musical activity was con-
Lieurance, Carlos Troycr, Henry F. Gil- fined almost exclusively to psalm-singing.
bert, and others have made many settings The only printed music used was con-
of tribal material. Among non-American tained in the psalters the Puritans brought
28]
AMERICAN MUSIC AMERICAN MUSIC
with them (Sternhold & Hopkins, Ains- in Three Parts (1755); James Lyon's
worth, Raven scroft, etc.), for the *Bay Urania (1761, containing six original
Psalm Boo\ (Cambridge, 1640) contained works by Lyon); and Josiah Flagg's
no music until a few tunes were added to A Collection of the Best Psalm Tunes
a later edition at the end of the century. (1764). In 1770 appeared the first of six
Two factors were chiefly responsible for books by William Billings (1746-1800),
the small amount of music before 1700: entitled The New England Psalm Singer.
one of them was the lack of opportunity Billings is important in American music
in pioneer surroundings, and the other, history because he was something of a
the Puritan attitude towards music. The radical. A number of his anthems, which
latter phase of early New England life has he called "fuguing pieces" [see *Fugue-
been the subject of considerable contro- tune], were attempts at imitative coun-
versy in recent years. Percy Scholes, in terpoint, and while he was largely un-
his book The Puritans and Music (1934), tutored musically, his work had a rugged
claims that the Puritans in England, and which reflected vividly the back-
vitality
those who came to America, were not hos- ground of pioneer surroundings.
tile to music and that the tradition that The controversies over music that
they did not tolerate musical activity in troubled the Puritan denominations did
the American colonies is fallacious. How- not disturb the Anglican churches. Or-
ever, the available evidence shows that gans were used in the Episcopal services
while musical activity did become more from an early date (the first was installed
general at the beginning of the i8th cen- in King's Chapel, Boston, shortly after
tury, it was almost negligible in the iyth; 1713), and such men as William Selby,
and that while there are references in con- who came to Boston from London about
temporary records to a few musical instru- 1771 and became organist of King's
ments, the Puritan colonists viewed with Chapel, and William Tuckey, who came
suspicion and distrust secular amusements to New York from Bristol Cathedral in
and pleasures, which they considered un- 1753 to become organist and choirmaster
godly and sinful. at Trinity Church, not only devoted their
At the beginning of the i8th century, skill and energies to their church duties
psalm-singing in the churches had become but were also active as composers and pro-
a haphazard practice. The lack of printed moters and conductors of choral concerts.
tunes had forced the worshipers to sing Tuckey directed the first American per-
from memory, led by a deacon or elder. formance of excerpts from Handel's Mes-
There was so little standardization of the siah in 1770.
few tunes in use that when several con- Some of the settlements to the south of
gregations met together the musical re- New England were from their beginnings
sults were bedlam. This condition led to more musically inclined. In 1694 a group
reforms as well as to controversy. Several of German pietists founded a colony be-
instruction books for singing appeared: side the Wissahickon River, near Phila-
John Tufts's A very plain and easy intro- delphia. These people had musical in-
duction to the whole Art of Singing Psalm struments, and acquired a reputation for
Tunes, in 1720, and Thomas Walter's their singing. The Swedish Gloria Dei
Grounds and Rules of Music Explained, church, also near Philadelphia, had an
in 1721, which at first met strong opposi- organ as early as 1703, possibly earlier,
tion. Gradually the opposition was over- and its
pastor, Julius Falckner, was the
come, and singing schools were estab- author of several hymns.
lished to teach the rudiments of singing The first known composer on American
from note. Toward the latter part of the soil,according to present knowledge, was
century there was considerable publication Conrad Beissel (1690-1768), a German
of tune and instruction books. Among mystic and founder of the "Seventh Day
the early ones were an American edition Dunkers." He was successively a baker,
of William Tans'ur's A Complete Melody a violinist, and a theologian, and in 1720
[29]
AMERICAN MUSIC AMERICAN MUSIC
he was banished for holding pietistic kinson's songs, and his musical activities,
views. He
emigrated to America and were characteristic of the taste and the
settled first in Germantown, Pennsyl- customs of the period. He was one of a
vania, where he founded the Dunker sect, group of musical amateurs who met regu-
and in 1735 established the "Order of the larly in each other's homes to play to-
Solitary" and a communistic settlement at gether, and who joined with the profes-
Ephrata, Pennsylvania, which became sional musicians who were beginning to
known as the Ephrata Cloister. Here the emigrate from abroad in giving public
worshipers sang hymns and chorals in 4, concerts.
and 7 parts, and it is said that Beissel
5, 6, The War of the Revolution interrupted
composed over 1000 of them. Benjamin musical activities for a number of years,
Franklin published an Ephrata Hymn but at its conclusion they began again,
Collection in 1730. and more intensively. In the last fifteen
At Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, a Mo- years of the century the nation experi-
ravian colony was established in 1741. enced a wholesale immigration from
These people were intense music lovers. Europe, bringing musicians from Eng-
They brought instruments with them, and French Revolution,
land, and, after the
chamber music groups,
their orchestra, from France. These men were generally
and choruses performed the best music well trained, and they accordingly took
from Europe works by Haydn, Mozart, over the musical life of the new nation
etc. A number of composers among the and became its principal concert-artists
Moravians wrote for various chamber and teachers. The names of the few
music combinations. When George native composers who had been active up
Washington visited Bethlehem in 1782 to this time (Hopkinson, James Lyon,
he was serenaded by the trombone Billings, etc.) disappeared almost com-
pletely from the concert programs which
choir.
Conceit life in the American colonial were printed in the newspapers, and were
cities commenced in the i8th century. replaced by those of the newcomers
According to newspaper announcements, Benjamin Carr, Alexander Reinagle,
the first concert of record was held in Bos- James Hewitt, Raynor Taylor, Gottlieb
ton in 1731; the second in Charleston,
Graupner, and dozens of others. Ameri-
South Carolina, in 1732; the third in New can music doubtless benefited from the
York, 1736; and the fourth in Philadel- infiltration of better-trained musicians,
phia, 1757. From these dates on, each of but its growth as a native expression was
these cities enjoyed an
increasing number arrested.
of concerts, at which the
programs were II. igth Century. By the early years of
similar in content to those abroad, the
par- 1
9th century these foreigners had be-
ticularly in London, from which the city come Americans, and gradually native-
latest published music was sent regularly born composers began once more to come
to America [see into prominence. The most
*Concert]. widely known
Philadelphia has the credit for produc- of them was Lowell Mason
(1792-1872),
ing the first native-born American com- a composer of hymn-tunes and a pioneer
poser of music, according to known rec- in music education. Mason succeeded in
ords, in the person of Francis Hopkinson
persuading the Boston school board to
OyST-iTP 1 )* a signer of the Declaration make the study of music a regular part of
of Independence,
Judge of the Admiralty the curriculum (1836) and he established
from Pennsylvania, and a talented ama- "musical conventions" in various parts of
teur musician. Hopkinson composed a the country where teachers could have
number of songs in the current English
training. Another native composer was
style of Arnold, Shield, Storace, and Oliver Shaw (1779-1848), who,
although
others. The manuscript of the first of blind from early manhood, was active as
them, Have Been So Won- a teacher and organist in Providence,
"My^Days
drous Free," bears the date 1759. Hop- Rhode Island. He was a composer of
[30:
AMERICAN MUSIC AMERICAN MUSIC
anthems, songs, and a number of instru- of Germans, many of them musicians, to
mental pieces which were widely used. seek a new home in the United States.
By the middle of the century another As in the closing years of the i8th
century,
type of foreigner had gained a foothold these newcomers were better trained than
visiting virtuoso who
in America, the the native musicians, for they had enjoyed
dazzled large audiences with his reputa- wider advantages in Continental Europe.
tion as well as his skill, and was rewarded They settled notonly in the seaboard
with huge monetary returns. Ole Bull cities, but went inland to settle also in
paid his first visit to America in 1843, and Milwaukee, St. Louis, Cincinnati, and
followed this visit with many others. other interior towns, and hundreds of
Jenny Lind came in 1850, and under the them became the principal orchestral mu-
management of P. T. Barnum enjoyed sicians, teachers, and composers of the
triumphs in every American city. One of nation. Thus, for a full half-century, if
the virtuosi, the pianist-composer Louis not longer, the roster of the principal
Moreau Gottschalk (1829-1869), was ac- American organizations, orchestras, cham-
tually a native of New Orleans, but his ber music groups, and often choral socie-
Parisian training and reputation lent him ties,contained a high percentage of names
a foreign atmosphere which helped mate- of German origin. Carl Bergmann, Otto
rially towards his success. He made his Dresel, Carl Zerrahn, the Mollenhauer
American debut in New York in 1853, brothers, and others of like origin were
and from that year until he left the United the leaders of American musical life.
States for the last time in 1865 (he died Even Theodore Thomas, who became the
in Rio de Janeiro), his recitals in large leading musical missionary of the nation
cities and on tours all the way to Cali-
by taking his orchestra all over the coun-
fornia drew large and admiring crowds. try, was born in Germany.
As a composer he had a flair for a lightly This influx of Germans saturated the
sentimental type of piece which became entire American viewpoint with German
enormously popular. His works were ideas and idioms, so that the German com-
marked by a French elegance and a cer- posers became the principal models upon
tain American flavor which resulted from which music was composed in the United
his use of Creole melodies. His "Banjo" States. Native students studied at home
is based on a Negro-like tune which is with teachers of German origin, and to
closely akin to the spiritual, "Roll, Jordan, complete their studies, journeyed to
Roll." The glamor of such virtuosi led Europe to work with German masters.
to the idol-worship which has been char- The result was the stultifying of native
acteristic of American musical life from character and spirit, and the postpone-
the i9th century to the present day, and ment of anything approaching an Ameri-
which has often made it difficult for resi- can expression. The prevalence of the
dent musicians who have not had the German influence did, however, result in
benefit of European reputations to secure the awakening of a national consciousness
the place to which the abilities of some on the partof a few Americans who felt
entitled them. keenly that they and their works were
Even before 1800 musical societies were neglected.
founded, and after 1800 several were es- One of the first of these was a Bohemian
tablished which have continued to the by birth, Anthony (Anton) Philip Hein-
present: the Handel & Haydn Society of rich (1781-1861), who first came to
Boston (1815); the Musical Fund Society America shortly before 1820, and after a
of Philadelphia (1820); and the Philhar- few months in Philadelphia migrated to
monic Society of New York (1842). In Kentucky, where he lived for a while in
the mid-century another foreign immigra- the comparative wilderness of Bardstown.
It was there that he composed his collec-
tion began which had a profound effect
on musical life in America. The Central tion of instrumental pieces and works,
[31]
AMERICAN MUSIC AMERICAN MUSIC
to which he appended a statement that he were the songs of Stephen
ucts of this field
would be proud indeed to be called an Foster (1826-64),whose "Old Folks at
"American musician." He died leaving Home," "Oh! Susanna," and dozens of
a whole trunkf ul of manuscripts gran- others have become literally American
diose orchestral works dealing pro- folk songs. In Foster's time, however,
including the American Indian and such more than popular songs of the day, even
scenic marvels as Niagara Falls. A num- though they embodied a far more typically
ber of his smaller pieces were published, American expression than the ambitious
but he and his admirers felt that he was efforts of other composers to write sym-
never accorded the place to which he was phonies in the manner of the German
entitled. Romanticists.
Another to protest violently against al- In the latter ipth century an increasing
leged discrimination in favor of foreigners number of native-born composers of art
was William Henry Fry (1813-64), a music appeared, and their works began
music and composer who lived first
critic to be included on the programs of major
in Philadelphia and later in New York. concert organizations. The come
first to
Fry composed the first American grand into lasting prominence was John
opera to be produced, Leonora (Phila- Knowles Paine (1839-1906) whose first
delphia, 1845, and New York, 1858), and symphony was performed by the Theo-
a second opera, Notre Dame de Paris dore Thomas Orchestra in 1876, and who
(1864), as well as a Santa Glaus sym- by 1899 had seen eighteen performances
phony and numerous other works. He of his compositions by the Boston Sym-
was militant in his struggle for recogni- phony Orchestra alone. Paine studied at
tion of American talent and declared that home, and in Germany with Haupt, and
"until the American public shall learn to his works bear the German stamp and a
support American artists, Art will not be- solid, academic workmanship which may
come indigenous to this country" (1852). have lacked individuality, but which ren-
One of Fry's companions in arms was dered them technically far in advance of
George F. Bristow (1825-98), also the anything that had been composed in
composer of an opera (Rip van Winkle, America earlier. His major published
1855 an d revived in 1870), and a number works included two symphonies, two
of orchestral works. He was also a vio- symphonic poems, and an opera. Of equal
linist and a member of the New York importance to his work as a composer,
Philharmonic, who resigned temporarily was Paine's influence as a teacher. In
from that organization in protest against 1862 he was appointed instructor of music
its
neglect of American works. at Harvard and in 1873 was made a full
Concurrent with this early and some- professor, a chairhe held for thirty years.
what premature awakening of a national His pupils included men who took their
consciousness in the realm of art music place among America's leading compos-
was another movement which was largely ers: Arthur Foote (1853-1937), Freder-
overlooked by serious musicians. This ick S. Converse (1871-1940), John Alden
was the development of a lighter type of Carpenter (b. 1876), Daniel Gregory
entertainment which was typically Ameri- Mason (b. 1873), and many others. In
can: the minstrel show which caricatured addition tolaunching his own pupils
the humor and sentiment of the American on successful careers, Paine was the artis-
Negro. The songs which the minstrel tic parent of a coterie of composers which
shows produced were not Negro songs became known as the "Boston," or "New
nor were they connected primarily with England Group," so called because its
the Negro's own folk music, but they did members either derived from New Eng-
embody a carefree attitude, and a nostalgic land by birth or residence, or because they
sentiment which had their basis in the had the same ideals in common. They
Negro character. The most lasting prod- were academic in the German tradition.
[32]
AMERICAN MUSIC AMERICAN MUSIC
but 3!! of them had solid training and actual melodies, into severalworks of his
something definite to say musically. Be- own, notably the "New World" Sym-
sides Foote, the group included George phony and the American Quartet. It is
W. Chadwick
(1854-1931), Horatio true that Dvorak did not achieve an
Parker (1863-1919), Arthur Whiting American expression in these works, he
(1861-1936), Mrs. H. H. A. Beach was too much of a Bohemian for that,
(1867-1944), Edgar Stillman Kelley but he did succeed in firing the imagina-
(1857-1944), and others. Chadwick and tion of American composers, and
by his
Parker were perhaps the most distin- example persuaded many of them to look
guished of the set. Chadwick's work was to their own soil for a national expres-
marked by expert craftsmanship and had sion.
also a Yankee humor which gave it some- III. 20th
Century. The 20th century
thing of an American flavor. Musically, has witnessed a marked change in Ameri-
Parker's opera Mona, produced at the can music. Where there were dozens of
Metropolitan in New York in 1912, was composers in the latter i9th century, there
the most effective of any American opera are hundreds now. American composers
to date,and his oratorio, Hora Novissima> have also had increasing opportunity for
became standard in the repertoire of performance and publication of their
choral societies in America and in Eng- major works, owing to considerable prop-
land. aganda urging program-makers to pro-
Contemporary with the Boston group, mote native music and the public to de-
but set apart from them because of his mand it. It is, of course, not only the
striking individuality, was Edward Mac- propaganda that has led to this change;
Dowell (1861-1908), who, with the pos- it is also the tremendously increasing
sible exception of Gottschalk, was the first quantity and vastly improved quality of
American composer to achieve a foreign American compositions. Not only are
reputation. In spite of his Germanic there thousands of available compositions
training under Raff, MacDowell had a where a half, or even a quarter, of a cen-
style that was distinctly his own, a Celtic tury ago there were merely hundreds; the
boldness which derived, perhaps, from music itself is composed with craftsman-
his Scotch ancestry. Like Grieg, he had ship and polished technique, and in count-
his individual melodic and harmonic has something to say which
less cases it
idiom, which imposed its own limitations has not already been said by older com-
when it became a mannerism. Although posers from abroad.
he is heard today chiefly through his piano It is difficult to classify American com-
pieces, his larger works are still
per- posers into groups, for many of them
formed, particularly the second Piano have attempted work in a number of
Concerto and the Second, "Indian," Suite fields, and their styles and idioms have
for orchestra. MacDowell is still
regarded changed as they themselves have devel-
by many as the outstanding American oped and progressed. There are compos-
ers who have remained conservative, and
composer, because of his marked individ-
uality and because of the vogue his music some who are looked upon by the radicals
has enjoyed. The national consciousness, as conservative but who have nevertheless
which had its origin in the middle of the shown contemporary tendencies and
received an added impetus
last century, seem modernistic to the layman who is
from the extended visit of the Bohemian accustomed only to traditional music.
Antonin Dvorak, who taught at the Na- Among those who have never departed
tional Conservatory in New York from appreciably from 19th-century idioms are
1892 to 1895. Dvorak was deeply im- the late Henry Hadley (1871-1937), who
to make use of it. He incorporated the by a facility that was felicitous and stimu-
spirit of Negro and Indian songs, if not lating; Deems Taylor (b. 1885), prob-
33]
AMERICAN MUSIC AMERICAN MUSIC
ably the best known of all American com- Luening (b. 1900); and Ernst Bacon
posers to the layman, whose operas, The (b. 1898).
Kings Henchman and Peter Ibbetson, en- America has also its share of experi-
joyed a large number of performances for mentalists. Among them are Charles Ives
several seasons at the Metropolitan in (b. 1876), for many years unrecognized
New York; Charles Wakefield Cadman by all but a few, and recently come into
(b. 1881) who has written ballad-songs prominence through the performance of
which have ranked with Broadway hits his Concord Sonata for piano. Ives de-
in popularity, and has also been active lights in polytonal combinations and in
in the larger forms: several operas (in- complex rhythms, and has also experi-
cluding Shane wis), and a considerable mented in quarter-tones. Henry Cowcll
list of orchestral works; the late Rubin (b. 1897) has sought a scientific basis in
Goldmark (1872-1936), a teacher of com- overtones for "tone-clusters."
Adolph
posers as well as a composer himself; and Weiss and Wallingford Ricggcr
(b. 1891)
Walter Damrosch (b. 1862), who is more (b. 1885) are avowed atonalists. Less
important as a conductor and musical radical, perhaps,than the others is Carl
missionary. Ruggles (b. 1876), but the quality in his
A number of composers have adopted music that Lawrence Gilman character-
contemporary methods in part, but have ized as "torrential and disturbing" places
not departed far enough from accepted him in the experimental group.
idioms to encounter resistance from the Recent additions to the list of American
public. Among them are Carpenter, D. G. composers include younger men of con-
Mason, and Converse (already men- siderable talent and individuality, notably
tioned as pupils of J. K. Paine), Edward Samuel Barber (b. 1910),Leonard Bern-
Burlingame Hill (b. 1872), Howard Han- stein (b. 1918), Paul Bowles (b. 1911),
son (b. 1896), director of the Eastman Paul Creston (b. 1906), David Diamond
School of Music at Rochester, David (b. 1915),Bernard Herrmann (b. 1911),
Stanley Smith (b. 1877), Douglas Moore Gail T. Kubik (b. 1914), Gian-Carlo
(b. 1893), an d Randall Thompson (b. Menotti (b. 1911), Paul Nordoff (b.
1899). 1909), Gardner Read (b. 1913), and Wil-
Slightly further to the left, in that they liam Schumann (b. 1910).
have written in styles which have been a IV. National Elements. The move-
littlemore advanced than the average ment toward using folk music which
audience was ready to accept, are the late DvoMk instigated at the turn of the cen-
Charles Martin LoefHer (1861-1935), an tury had its inevitable reaction. Compos-
Alsatian-born violinist-composer whose ers, and the public, found that a conscious
"Pagan Poem" is one of the most striking and wholesale adoption of folk material
works composed in this country; Charles did not in bring a national expres-
itself
T. Griffes (1884-1920); Roy Harris (b. sion, when the composers
particularly
1898), an Oklahoman by birth whose themselves were not of the same race as
works represent an altogether national those who produced the folk songs orig-
expression in seeming to derive from the inally. There have, however, been many
vast spaces of the Southwest; Aaron Cop- excellent works based on native material,
land (b. 1900), more sophisticated and and a number of composers have been
practical than Harris but inherently a closely identifiedwith its use. Charles
valid American product; Roger Sessions Sanford Skilton (1868-1941) composed
(b. 1896) and Walter Piston (b. 1894), some strikingly effective Indian dances
both champions of the "international" based on tribal melodies; John Powell's
school of thought [see *Nationalism]; (b. 1882) Rhapsodic Ngre not only uses
Quincy Porter (b. 1897); the Holland- actual Negro melodies but reflects certain
born Bernard Wagenaar (b. 1894) and phases of the Negro's temperament. Pow-
the German-born Werner Josten (b. ellhas also used Anglo-Saxon material
1888); Arthur Shepherd (b. 1880); Otto from the Appalachians. Percy Grainger
34]
AMERICAN MUSIC AMERICAN MUSIC
(Australia, b. 1882) has not only made tive of excellent results. Carpenter, Cop-
exquisite settings of British folk songs, land, Louis Gruenberg (b. 1884), an(^
but has turned to American material since dozens of others have found it a reward-
making his home in this country. Lamar ing field, even though they have come to
Stringfield (b. 1897), a native of North turn away from it because of its rather
Carolina, has made distinctive use of rigid limitations. In Europe, too, a num-
Southern material, from the Negroes and ber of composers have tried their hand at
from the white mountaineers. American jazz: Stravinsky, Kfenek, Mil-
There are also many Negro composers haud, Hindemith, Honegger, and many
who have been eloquent interpreters of others [see *Jazz VI],
their race. Among the older ones are The other result of jazz has been that a
Harry T. Burleigh (b. 1866) who was one numbei of composers who started their
of the first to make effective concert-set- careers as composers of dance music and
tings of Negro spirituals, R. Nathaniel musical comedy scores have extended
Dett (1882-1943), and Clarence C. White their efforts to the concert and grand-
(b. 1880). Somewhat younger than these opera field. The outstanding member of
men are William Levi Dawson (b. 1895), this group is
George Gershwin
the late
and William Grant Still (b. 1895). See (1898-1937), who first became a most
*Negro music. successful composer for Broadway shows
Americans are now coming to realize and then drew the attention of critics and
that their less pretentious music, the so- the music public with his Rhapsody in
called popular songs and dance music, has Blue, for piano and orchestra. This was
distinctive qualities which have given it followed by a Piano Concerto and a tone-
a vogue throughout the world; in its best poem, An American in Paris, and finally
phases this music represents a typically by the opera, Porgy and Bess. A number
national expression. From an earlier cen- of our serious composers have derived
tury the songs of Stephen Foster typified from the popular field by acting as orches-
several features of American life its trators of musical comedy and motion pic-
humor, its sentiment, and the flavor of its ture scores Robert Russell Bennett (b.
Southern plantations. The marches of 1894), William Grant Still, and Otto
John Philip Sousa (1854-1932) had a Cesana (b. 1899). Morton Gould (b.
verve and sparkle which set them apart 1913) has been associated with Broadway
from the common run of such pieces, and the radio as a conductor, and has pro-
while the quasi- Viennese melodies of the duced a long list of major works, which,
Victor Herbert (1859-1924) operettas Chorale and Fugue in Jazz, apply
like his
rhythmic patterns, but have also evolved product, independent of Europe, and it
instrumentations which are often used by provides American composers with a
concert orchestras as well as by dance vehicle which represents a number of the
bands. The effect of this jazz vogue has highly intricate and varied phases of the
been twofold. First, it has offered serious American temperament. It is not, of
composers of art music a field for experi- course, the only type of music which is
mentation which has often been produc- inherently American, nor does it cover all
35]
AMERICAN MUSICOLOGICAL SOCIETY ANDANTE
of the manifold facets of American life. rent methods is the one-sided application
Nevertheless, the adoption of popular ele- of only one point of view, for instance,
ments which are in some ways a folk- that of form (D. F. Tovey, Beethoven's
spirit which characterizes Americans Pianoforte Sonatas) or of phrasing (H.
everywhere, rather than a single race or Riemann, Analyse von Beethoven's Kla-
group, is a highly significant step in the viersonaten). In present-day education
evolution of a distinctively American special emphasis is
placed on analysis of
music. harmony *Harmonic analysis] and
[see
Lit.: J. T. Howard, Our American of form [see *Form]; melodic analysis,
Music (1931); id., Our Contemporary however, perhaps the most important and
Composers (1941); Henry Cowell, Amer- most informative of all, is usually neg-
ican Composers on American Music lected *
Melody].
[see
0933); Clare Reis, Composers in Amer- Lit.: A. J. Goodrich, Complete Musical
ica (1938); W. T. Upton, Art-Song in Analysis (1887); K. Westphal, in DM
America (1930-1938); W. Saunders, xxiv, 5.
"The American Opera" (ML xiii, no. 2);
Anapaest. See *Poetic meter I.
O. G. Sonneck, "Early American Operas'*
(SIM vi); C. Lindstrom, "Wm. Billings Anche [F.], Ancia [It.]. *Reed.
and His Time" (MQ
xxv); O. G. Son- Anche battante, reed; anche
beating
neck, "Francis Hopkinson" (SIM v). See double, double reed; anche libre, free reed.
also under *Jazz, *Negro music.
[36]
ANDANTINO ANGLICAN CHANT
section is, of course, quicker, not slower, French ballets of the late iyth century,
than that of the preceding andante espres- whence it was introduced into the op-
sivo. Other composers however (perhaps tional group of the suite [cf. J. K. F.
the majority) use molto andante to mean Fischer, Musifalischer Parnassus (c.
a tempo still slower than andante. See 1690); J. S. Bach, French Suite no. 3].
*Andantino. It is in quick duple time, without
upbeat.
The name was also used for other dances
Andantino. Diminutive of andante, of English origin or character,
e.g., for the
used mainly to characterize a short piece
(syncopated) *hornpipe and, around
of andante tempo or character. If used
1800, for the *country dance and the
it means a
as a tempo mark, slight modi- *ecossaise. See *Dance music III.
fication ofandante the direction of which
is, unfortunately, a matter of divergent
* Anglican chant. The method em-
opinion [see Andante], Beethoven was ployed in the Anglican Church for the
puzzled by the question whether andan- singing of the psalms, canticles, and other
tino was to be understood as meaning unmetrical texts. It is based on the recita-
faster or slower than andante, as appears
tion principle of the *psalm tones of the
from a letter he wrote to George Thomson Roman Catholic Church but differs from
[cf. A. W. Thayer, The Life of Bee- these aside from the English text in
thoven, ed. by Krehbiel, 1921, 246].
ii, the use of four-part harmony and of a
Most modern musicians apparently use more strictly metrical rhythm.
the term as indicating quicker tempo than The practice of using harmonized ver-
andante. sions of the psalm tones, known as */a/jo-
such as a-ne-na. This method tings, although sacrificing the primal sim-
syllables
plicity of the monophonic chant, did not
was known as chomonie. A similar
method used in the Byzantine chant of impair its validity as a rhythmically free
agent for the conveyance of the text be-
the same period is known as teretism, ow-
cause they did not alter the free oratoric
ing to the use of such syllables as te-re-rem
for the same purpose. The Russian syl- rhythm of the plainsong.
It was in the late iyth century that
lables are probably related to the early
enechamata rhythm, in the categorical sense, began to
Byzantine [see *Echos].
condition the free and expressive delivery
They appear in a manuscript as early as of the words in chanting. Bar-lines em-
the 1 2th century [cf. the reference in
phasized the metrical quality of the rendi-
ReMMA, 99] See also *Noeane.
.
Chant. Third, many Anglican chants MA ii, iii; W. Barclay-Squire, in SIM viii;
contain equal notes of smaller value, and Ch. W. "The
Pearce, Futility of Anglican
these, sung in strict time, further distort Chant" (Mvi). A.T.D.
the flow of the text. And fourth, the in-
variable ending of the chant on a strong Anglican church music. See Angli-
beat often leads to downright misaccentu- can chant; Anthem; Cathedral music;
ation. Hymn IV; Litany; Psalter; Response;
Service. Cf. The Church Service Boo^
Anglican chant represents a relatively
unsuccessful effort to carry over into a ed. by G. Edward Stubbs (1906).
workable congregational method the ideal con angore
Angosciamente ; [It.].
conditions belonging to plainsong; and With anxiety.
in spite of devoted and skillful efforts at
Ansatz [G.]. (i) In singing, the proper cludes parts for solo singers it is called
verse anthem; otherwise, full anthem.
adjustment of the vocal apparatus. (2)
In the playing of wind instruments, the The history of the anthem begins with
*Em- the Reformation and the consequent es-
proper adjustment of the lips [see
tablishment of English as the liturgical
bouchure (2)]. (3) *Crook or shank
of brass instruments. (4) In violin play- language. Although the anthem devel-
ing, *attack. oped from the Latin motet, the first an-
thems, written by Tye and Tallis (c.
Anschlag [G.]. (i) In piano playing, 1560), show a marked difference in style
touch. (2) Of a pianoforte, action from the previous and contemporary
(heavy or light). (3) An ornament ex- motets. They are rhythmically square,
plained by K. P. E. Bach [see *Appoggia- more harmonically conceived, more syl-
tura, Double III]. labic and in shorter phrases, features all
of which result from the greater consider-
Anschwellend [G.]. Crescendo.
ation given to matters of text and pronun-
Anstrich [G.]. Up-bow. ciation. Towards the end of the i6th
dialogue character of the melody is em- Walter Porter (c. 1595-1659; cf. Ark-
phasized by its distribution between two wright, in MA iv, 247) and, particularly,
instruments *Durchbrochcnc Ar- of William Child (1606-97; cf. the list of
[see
[39]
ANTICIPATION ANTIPHON
his anthems in GD i, 623; example in OH tiphonal psalmody [see below, History].
206). The Restoration anthem is rep-
iiiy (1) Short texts from the Scriptures or
resented by Henry Aldrich (1647-1710), elsewhere, set to music in a simple, syllabic
Pelham Humphrey (1647-74), Michael style, and sung
before and after a psalm or
Wise (1648-87), John Blow (1649-1708; canticle. On greater feasts the antiphon
cf. GD
i, 396), Henry Purcell (1659-95), is sung entire both before and after the
and Jeremiah Clarke (1659-1707). Blow psalm; at other times the first word or two
and Purcell introduced instruments into only (*Incipit) are sung before, and the
the anthem, an innovation by which the whole after. For more details, see under
multi-sectional anthem came to resemble *Psalm tones. The present repertory of
a cantata. Another characteristic feature Gregorian chant includes more than 1000
of the Restoration anthem, adopted in such antiphons. The melodies are not all
numerous later works, is a concluding different, and can be classified in about 40
hallelujah chorus in fugal style. The use groups of closely allied chants [cf. F. A.
of two choruses, called Dec(ani) and Gevaert, La Melopee antique dans le chant
Can(toris) prevails in the anthem as well de I'eglise latine (1895) ] Aside from the
.
as in the Service music [sec *Polychoral], antiphons for the psalms, there are similar
The Baroque anthem reached its high- enframing melodies for the *canticles, par-
point in the grandiose anthems of Handel, ticularly the *Magnificat and the Bene-
nearly all of which were written for special dictus Deus Dominus. These are some-
festive occasions where an unusual dis- what more elaborate textually as well as
play otmeans was possible and proper musically [cf., e.g., AR, 54iff].
(Chandos Anthems, 1716-18; Coronation (2) The name antiphon is also used for
Anthems, 1727; Dettingen Anthem, two other types of chants which are not
1743). Other composers of this period strictly antiphons, since they do not, as a
are William Croft (16781727), John rule, embrace a psalm or canticle but are
Weldon (1676-1736), and Maurice independent songs of considerable length
Greene (1695-1755). Their anthems, as and elaboration. The first of these types
well as those of William Boyce (1710-79; includes the antiphons which at certain
cf. GD i, 441), are modeled after the feasts (e.g., Palm Sunday) are sung pre-
somewhat simpler style of PurcelL The paratory to the Mass (Mass antiphon)*
outstanding figure of the I9th century They are usually of a narrative character,
was S. S. Wesley (1810-76) whose two containing reports from the New Testa-
volumes of anthems, published in 1853, ment referring to the occasion, e.g.: "Cum
contain such standard works as "Blessed appropinquaret Dominus Jerosolymam..."
be the God and Father" and "The Wil- for Palm Sunday [cf. GR, 159^]. The
derness." the more recent com-
Among second class of pseudo-antiphons is the
posers Ch. V. Stanford (18521924), B. four antiphons B.M.V. (Beatae Mariae
Harwood (b. 1859), and Martin Shaw Virginis) or B.V.M. (Blessed Virgin
(b. 1875) must be mentioned. Mary), namely: Alma redemptoris mater\
Lit.: W. Davies, \The Church Anthem Ave regina coelorum\ Regina coeli lac-
Boo{ (1933); M. B. Foster, Anthem and tarc; * Salve regina [cf AR, 65-69] These
. .
Anthem Composers (1901); H. W. Shaw, are more in the style of early hymns in
"John Blow's Anthems" (ML xix. no. 4). free meter. They are sung during four
different seasons of the year, at the offices
Anticipation. See *Nonharmonic tones of Lauds and Compline, by alternating
I; also *Nachschlag. choirs [see *Salve regina]. In the i5th
* and 1 6th centuries they were frequently
Antiennc [F.]. (i) Antiphon. (2)
*Anthem. composed polyphonically, for voices or
for organ [cf. HAM,nos. 65, 100, 139].
Antiphon. A term denoting various cat- (3) While the chants mentioned above
egories of Gregorian chant, all of which are the only ones called antiphons in the
are remnants of the early method of an- liturgical books of the present day, the
40]
ANTIPHONAL SINGING APPOGGIATURA
name is also
applied in historical studies *Notre Dame (c. 1200). See *Magnus
to certain chants of the Mass liber organi.
itself, namely,
the *Introit (introit
antiphon, antiphona
ad introitum), the
*Offertory (antiphona
Antiphonia. In Greek theory, the oc-
ad offerendum), and the *Communion tave. See *Antiphon,
history.
(communion antiphon, antiphona ad com- Antwort [G.]. Answer, in fugues.
munioncm). The justification for this
terminology in the fact that these
lies Anvil. Small steel bars, struck with a
chants originally
sprang from the same hard wooden or metal beater, which have
method of antiphonal psalmody which sometimes been used as a percussion in-
also survives, in a different strument in operas, usually as a stage
form, in the
antiphons embracing a psalm or a canticle property (Auber, Le Ma$on, 1825; Verdi,
[see *Psalmody]. //Trovatore\ Wagner, Rheingold).
History. In Greek theory, antiphonia
Anwachsend [G.]. Crescendo.
(literally counter-sound) means the oc-
tave, in contradistinction to *symphonia,
Apiacere [It.]. Sameas*abeneplacito.
the unison, and *paraphonia, the fifth. In
the early Christian rites,
antiphonia came Apollo Club. A
name given to Ameri-
to denote the can male singing organizations, generally
singing of the successive
verses of apsalm by alternating choruses. amateur, corresponding to the French
This meaning of the term probably origi- *Orpheon and the German *Mannerge-
nated in the fact that the second chorus sangverein. Remarkable for their higher
originally consisted of women or boys who ambitions are the Apollo Clubs of Boston
repeated the melody at the higher octave. (founded in 1871), of Brooklyn (1878),
Very early antiphonal psalm-singing was ofChicago (1872), of Cincinnati (1882),
enriched by the addition of a short sen- and of St. Louis ( 1 893) Some of the clubs
.
tence sung by the whole choir and re- were expanded into a mixed chorus.
peated after each verse or pair of verses as
a refrain. It was this additional text and Apollonicon. See *Mechanical instru-
ments III.
melody which finally came to adopt and
retain the name antiphon. For a survey of See *Neumes I.
Apostropha.
the various formswhich sprang from the
antiphonal psalmody, see *PsaImody III; Apotome. See *Pythagorean scale.
also *Gregorian chant IV(c).
Appassionata, or Sonata appassio-
Antiphonal singing. Singing (or play- nata [It., impassioned]. The name cus-
ing) in alternating choruses. The term, tomarily given to Beethoven's Piano So-
which nata op. 57, in F minor. The title was not
originally belongs to the parlance
of plainsong [see * Antiphon, history], is his,but was added by some publisher.
also used with reference to polyphonic The is "Grande Senate
original tide pour
music composed in two choruses. See Piano" (1806).
*polychoral style. Regarding the use of
antiphonal singing in Gregorian chant
Appena [It.]. Hardly, scarcely.
see *Responsorial.
Applicatur. Eighteenth-century Ger-
man term for fingering.
Antiphonal, antiphoner, antipho-
nary [L. Antiphonale, Antiphonarium}. Appoggiando [It.]. "Leaning," i.e.,
See *Liturgical books. The name Anti-
emphasized, also full legato.
phonarium Mediceum is erroneously ap-
plied to the MS
Florence, Bibl. Laur. plut. Appoggiatura [from It. appoggiarc, to
29, / which actually is not a book of plain- lean on J .
( i) In modern parlance, an im-
song, but the most extensive collection of portant type of nonharmonic tones [see
the polyphonic repertory of the School of *Nonharmonic tones II].
[41]
APPOGGIATURA APPOGGIATURA
(2) Originally, appoggiatura [F. port music by J. S. Bach, Handel, Purcell, D.
de voix\ E. forefall, backfall, half-fall; G. Scarlatti, etc. Ex. 2 illustrates the appli-
Vorschlag] is an ornamental note, usually cation of these principles to the music of
a second, that is melodically connected J. S. Bach (a: Kleine zweistimmige Fuge
with the main note that follows it (i.e., the c-moll; b: Goldberg Variations, aria; c: St.
appoggiatura is sung in the same breath Matthew Passion, Bass aria no. 66; d: Sin-
or played with the same stroke of the bow fonia no. 3). See also *Appuy; *Port de
or articulation of the tongue or, in the case voix.
of keyboard instruments, slurred to that After 1750 the performance of the
II.
They are valid for the performance of trated by from the works of
quotations
t 42]
APPOGGIATURA APPOGGIATURA, DOUBLE
Mozart and Beethoven (a: Mozart, Piano of the beat. The latter possibility had al-
Sonata K.V. 311; Beethoven, Piano So- ready been admitted by some of the late
nata op. no.
Menuetto; b: Mozart,
2, i, 18th-century authorities (who referred to
Piano Sonata K.V. 332; c: Mozart, Piano itas a durchgehender Vorschlag, distinct
Sonata K.V. 332; d: Beethoven, Ade- from both the langer and the \urtzer Vor-
laide). schlag) for certain exceptional circum-
The
short appoggiatura should be per- stances. After 1800 this execution becomes
formed as a short note, regardless of the decidedly more popular; it seems to be
duration of the main note. It is to be used indicated for most of the grace notes in
only in the following circumstances: (a) the works of Chopin, Schumann, Brahms,
when the main note is itself an appoggia- etc. (Schumann often prescribes it, by
tura (i.e., a non-harmonic note occurring placing the grace note before the bar-line),
on the beat); (b) when the main note ac- but lack of material evidence leaves the
companies a suspension or syncopation; matter open to controversy in many cases.
(c) when the appoggiatura fills up the in-
In modern music it is customary to snap
tervals in a series of the grace note sharply onto the following
descending thirds; (d)
when main note is a short note that is
the note, so that it slightly anticipates the beat
followed by more notes of the same value; and imparts a decided accent to the main
note. See *Ornamentation; *Ornaments.
(c) when the main note is one of a series
of reiterated notes [see Ex. 4 (a: C. P. E. P. A.
absorbed in the ordinary notation. The junct appoggiaturas approaching the main
short appoggiatura is now invariably in- note from the interval of a third above or
dicated by a small note with a single stroke below it; III. two disjunct appoggiaturas,
across its stem, called a grace note or (er- one being placed below the main note, the
roneously) an *acciaccatura.
The question other above it.
now arises whether this grace note should I. Little need be said of the simultane-
be performed on the beat or in anticipation ous double appoggiatura save that each of
t 43]
APPOGGIATURA, DOUBLE APPRECIATION OF MUSIC
itscomponents is performed as though the popular with the Rococo composers, be-
other were not present, as in Ex. i (Bach, tween 1750 and 1780. Its performance is
French Suite in Eb, Sarabande). shown in Ex. 5 (by C. P. E. Bach). An-
The conjunct double appoggiatura,
II. other special form of slide, peculiar to
or was a common *agrement in the
slide, keyboard music, is that in which the first
note is held throughout. Introduced by
lyth and i8th centuries. The 17th-century
the French clavecinistes, who called it
English lutenists and viol players referred
to the ascending slide as an elevation or coule sur une tierce, this agrement is indi-
whole fall and called the descending slide cated and performed as shown in Ex. 6. It
a double bacltfalL The signs and execu- was adopted by Purcell and other English
tion of these ornaments are illustrated in composers, who used the same notation
but called it a slur. In Romantic and mod-
Examples 2 and 3. Their German equiva-
lent is the Schleifer, which is indicated, in ern music this execution of the slide is in-
dicated with a tie, as in Ex. 7 (Schubert,
Moments musicaux op. 94, no. 3). The
performance of the slide, in general, has
changed very little since the i8th century;
it is still begun on the beat, as in Ex. 8
!44l
APPUY ARABIAN MUSIC
the idea of providing a special type of sic, the 'ud (a short lute), and the *tanbur
training for the average music lover is (a long lute; see below). Prior to Al-
sound and more deserving of constructive Farabi's time, the strings of the tanbur
cooperation than of adverse criticism on were divided into forty equal parts the
the part of professional musicians. first five of which were indicated
by frets
Lit.: M. Bernstein, An Introduction to and used in playing. The result of this
Music (1937); M. D. Calvocoressi, Musi- procedure a small series of (unequal)
is
(1925); D. S. Moore, Listening to Music The 'ud as well as the tanbur were tuned
(1932); D. Welch, The Appreciation of in fourths (e.g., a-d'-g'-c") and were pro-
Music (1927); A. H. Fox-Strangways, in vided with frets which gave a number of
ML viii, 395. middle tones between the open string and
its upper fourth's. Al-Farabi himself in-
Appuy [F.]. French iSth-century term
terpolated three such tones, namely, two
for a note having the quality of an *appog-
successive (Pythagorean) whole-tones
giatura. Usually refers to the appoggiatura
which constitutes the first note of the ( % = 204 *cents)
above the fundamental
tremblement or cadence [see *Trill]. (open string) and one whole-tone below
the fourth. Thus the tetrachord c-f in-
P. A.
cluded five tones which are almost identi-
Appuye [F.]. See *Appoggiando. cal with the tones c-d-eb-e-f of the modern
scale (0-204-294-408498, instead of
Apres-midi d'un faune, L' (The
0-200-300-400-500 cents). Later on, the
Afternoon of a Faun). See ^Symphonic second whole-tone below the fourth was
poem IV.
added, a tone which is very near to the
Apsidenchore [G., from L. apsis, apse] .
modern db (294-204 = 90 cents; see *Lim-
Same as *cori spezzati. ma). The addition of a similar tetrachord
f-bb and of an extra tone b above it re-
Apt, Codex. See ^Sources, no. 19. sulted in a scale of twelve tones which dif-
fers very little from the modern well-
Arabesque [F., properly an ornamenta-
tion in Arabic architecture]. A fanciful tempered scale, except for the slightly low
used by R. Schumann and others for
db and gb. In the i3th century this scale
title
Oriental nations, our knowledge of the has been wrongly interpreted by Villoteau
history of Arabian music is restricted (c. 1820) and by Kiesewetter [Die MusiJ^
largely to the theoretical field. consid- A der Araber (1842)] as a scale of equal
erable number of early treatises exist, e.g., third-tones. Besides this division of the
Al-Kindi (9th century); Al-Farabi (c. tetrachord, many others were in use, e.g.,
900-950); Avicenna (nth century); Safi- one named after the Bagdad lutenist Zal-
ud Din 3th century) ; Abd-el Kadr zal (8th century) which used the tones
( 1 ( I5th
century). The most important informa- 0-168-355-408-498 cents.
tion to be gained from these manuscripts A special
point of Arabic theory which
concerns the scale, as given by the frets of has attracted much attention is that of
the two main instruments of Arabian mu- consonance and dissonance. It has been
[45]
ARABIAN MUSIC ARABIAN MUSIC
claimed that, as early as the loth century % of a whole-tone [cf. Zalzal's tuning]
ory does not make any distinction between (Kiesewettcr) considered the Oriental
consonance and dissonance, but knows counterpart of the Western *church
only decreasing degrees of consonance, modes. Actually, a maqam is character-
namely those which are expressed by the ized not only by features such as center
following scries of fractions: %,%,%,%, tone and range, but especially by the pref-
%>%>% Here the major and minor third erence of characteristic progressions, me-
(%,%) range after the octave, the fifth, lodic formulae, rhythmic patterns, orna-
and the fourth, but are followed in turn mentations, etc. A
maqam, therefore, is
by the intervals, %
(fifth below the sev- a *melody-type, and a composition in a
enth harmonic) and 8/7 (inversion of the given maqam is written not only "in a
seventh harmonic), neither of which exists given key," but also "in a given style or
in Western theory, so that they must cer- tradition." Some of these maqam go back
Ursprung], It would appear that Euro- ragas of *Hindu music]. However, the
pean music is indebted to the Arabs in the relationship of a composition to its maqam
field ofinstruments (lute, drum), of the- is difficult for the non-Oriental listener to
saying that the above-described scales with bian music (chiefly instrumental) consist
twelve or more tones represent what the of a prelude in free rhapsodic style which
chromatic scale represents in, say, the serves to establish the maqam in the mind
classical period of our music, the the-
m
i.e., Voice
oretical tonal material from which selec-
tionswere made for the purpose of prac-
UtUl
tical
performance. In musical practice, Drum.-
j J J J J>
[46]
ARCATA ARCICEMBALO
a suite, with all the dances being In the Archet [F.], archetto [It.]. *Bow(of
same key. the violin).
The rhythm of Arabic melodies is sim-
Architectural acoustics. The study
ilar to that of Hindu
music. Typical is an
of the acoustic properties of a room (par-
% meter with the rhythm of the measure
ticularly, of concert halls, radio-studios)
alternating between the "European" ar-
as to ^resonance, reflection, echo, etc. Re-
rangement 2+2+2+2 and the "Orien- cent investigations have raised this field of
tal" arrangement 2+3+3. The drums
study from the former stage of experi-
frequently provide a rhythmical counter- mentation to an important branch of
point [see Ex. on p. 46] . science.
The main instruments of Arabian mu-
Lit.: H. Bagenal, Planning for Good
sic are the short-necked lute with four or
Acoustics (1931); A. H. Davis, The Acou-
five strings, tuned in fourths and called
stics of Buildings (1927); P. R. Heyl,
'ud, from which the European lute de-
Architectural Acoustics (1930); V. O.
rived both its form and its name (al 'ud,
Knudsen, Architectural Acoustics ( 1932) ;
lud, lute), and the long-necked lute called P. E. Sabine, Acoustics and Architecture,
tan bur (originally pan-fur, Sumerian
(1932); F. R. Watson, Acoustics of Build-
"bow-small," Greek *pandura), usually PMA
ings (1930); H. H. Statham, in
with two strings, tuned in minor seconds
[see *Lute The family of the bowed
II].
xxxviii; A. Elson, in vii.MQ
instruments represented by the *rebab
is Archives des Maitres de POrgue.
and the femantche, consisting of a long See *Editions, Historical, I.
(Diss. Berlin 1931); English translation tones c# and db, d# and eb, ftf and gb,
of Al Farabi (Farmer); D. Stoll, "Music g# and ab, bb, e#, and bJ. This instru-
in Mediaeval Bagdad" (MR i); A. Z. Idel- ment, called Universal-clavicymbel (M.
sohn, "Die Maqamen der arabischen Mu- Praetorius, in his Syntagma musicum,
sik" (SIM xv); R. Lachmann, in Wolf 1624, praises it as "instrumentum perfec-
Festschrift (1929) and inAMW v; H. G. tum si non pcrfectissimum"), permitted
Farmer, in PMA O. Urspning, in
lii; enharmonic change and modulation in all
ZMW xvi; B. Bartok, in ZMW
ii; J. Roua- the keys, without the compromise of equal
net, in RM v, viii; R. P. Thibault, in temperament. Compositions such as John
BSIMvii (1911). Bull's Fantasia on the Hexachord (Fitz-
william Virginal Boo^ 1, 183) [sec Hexa-
Arcata [It.]. See *Bowing (a); arcato, chord IV] are evidently written for this
bowed. instrument.
[471
ARCO ARGENTINA
Lit.: A. Koczirz, in SIM ix; Shohe* positions. The works dating from this
Tanaka, in VMW
vi; W. Dupont, G<?- period were published by his family at
schlchte der musi{alischen Temperatur Paris in two volumes (1869, '83), com-
prising chamber music, piano pieces, and
songs.
Arco [It.]. Bow (of violins, etc.). See Esnaola, a native of Buenos Aires, stud-
Coll' arco. ied at the conservatories of Paris and Ma-
drid and became an accomplished pianist.
Arditamente [It.]. Boldly.
Upon returning to Buenos Aires in 1822
A re, Are. See *Hexachord III.
he founded there the Academia de Musica.
He composed orchestral works, church
Argentina. The beginnings of musical music, songs, and piano pieces, mostly
life in Argentina, as in other parts of unpublished. Alberti, born in Tucuman,
Latin America, are associated with the had a distinguished career as a man of
efforts of the early missionaries to teach lettersand composed music simply as a
the arts and crafts of Europe to the native pastime. Most of his compositions have
population. In the La Plata region, espe- been lost, but some were published in a
cially, important missions were estab- periodical called La Moda, founded by
lished, with music playing a prominent Alberdi himself (1837-38). His works
role in their organization. The most are mostly for piano, and in 1 832 he pub-
gifted and zealous of these missionaries lished a piano method for amateurs.
as regards the teaching of music was the The dean of contemporary Argentine
JesuitFather Luis Berger (1588-1641), composers is Alberto Williams (b. Buenos
under whose guidance the Indians be- Aires, 1862), grandson of Amancio Al-
came adept at playing many kinds of corta, of English descent on his father's
European musical instruments. His ac- Buenos Aires
side. After initial studies in
tivities extended throughout the prov- he attended the Paris Conservatory, study-
inces, and even into Chile. ing piano and composition. In 1893 he
It is not until the period of Independ- founded the Conservatory of Buenos
ence that we find other names which need Aires, which now has many branches
claim our attention. First of all may be throughout the country, and of which he
mentioned the composer of the Argentine was still director in 1940. A prolific com-
National Hymn (1813), Bias Parera, a poser, he has written nine symphonies and
rather obscure teacher of piano and violin, several symphonic poems, concert over-
of whose life little is known. In 1817 he tures and
suites for orchestra, many piano
was in Spain, where he died. His Hymn, pieces,songs (to his own texts), choral
officially adopted by government decree, works, chamber music, and technical trea-
has firmly entrenched itself in the affec- tises. Although his technique is entirely
tion of the Argentine people. The out- European and academic, he has essayed
standing composers of the ipth century a national style in his Argentine Suites for
were amateurs who cultivated music in strings, his Aires de la Pampa for piano,
the midst of various kinds of public activ- etc.
ity. They were Amancio Alcorta (1805- The contemporary Argentine school is
62), Juan Pedro Esnaola (180878), and vigorous and varied. Juan Jose Castro (b.
Juan Bautista Alberdi (1810-84). All 1895), pupil of d'Indy at the Schola Can-
three were of Basque descent. Their mu- torum in Paris, is active as conductor and
sic shows scarcely any local influence, be- as composer (Sinfonia Argentina, Sin jo-
ing largely dominated by Italian tenden- nia Biblica, etc.). In 1941 he appeared as
cies. All the works composed by Alcorta guest conductor of the NBC Orchestra in
from 1822 to 1830 his most prolific New York. His brother, Jose* Maria Cas-
period have been lost. From 1832 he tro (b. 1892), is a member of the "Grupo
lived in Buenos Aires and continued to Renovacion," which includes also Hono-
compose while holding various official rio Siccardi (b. 1897), Luis Gianneo (b.
[48]
ARGENTINA ARIA
1897), and Jacobo Ficher (b. Odessa, Arghool, arghul. See *Arabian
1896). The radicalJuan Carlos Paz (b. music II.
pera), and especially Felipe Boero, who banish the aria from the stage; Gluck, for
scored a marked success with his folk instance, replaced it by the simpler Lied,
opera El Matrero, dealing with life on the and Wagner substituted his dramatic
Argentine pampas. On the whole, Italian recitative. By and
large such criticism
influence predominates in Argentine op- cannot be justified. Although at certain
era. periods (especially c. 1750 with Piccinni
Other contemporary composers are and c. 1850 with Meyerbeer) the aria style
Juan A. Garcia Estrada (b. 1895), Gilardo has been characterized by conventional-
Gilardi (b. 1889), Athos Palma (b. 1891), ism and exaggeration, the great majority
Arturo Luzzati (b. Turin, 1875), and of arias represent a treasure of great musi-
Carlos Lopez Buchardo. Musicians who cal value. Moreover, in opera the aria has
have devoted themselves primarily to col- a definite and important function, in rep-
lecting, arranging, and performing folk resenting lyric episodes which temporar-
music are Andres Beltrame, Andres Cha- ily relieve the dramatic tension of the
zarreta, Vicente Forte, and Carlos Vega. action.
The composer and pedagogue Josue T. II. The term aria occurs first as a title
Wilkes has also done interesting work in of wordless canzones ("Arie di canzon
this field, notably with his arrangement francese") in the second book of madri-
of Doce Canciones Coloniales. gals by Ingegneri (1579). Its first use to
The
folk songs and dances of Argen- indicate a monodic song occurs in Cac-
tina are largely of Spanish (or at least cini's Nuove Musiche (1602). Here, how-
European) origin, with only a slight In- ever, contrary to its later meaning, it is
dian influence in certain songs such as the used to denote shorter, strophic songs
vidala (or vidalita) and the *tri$te, which, [cf. HAM, no. 183; SchGMB, no. 191],
as its name implies, is a rather sad love while the longer, through-composed
song. See also *Milonga; *Tango. pieces which are more allied to the later
Alvarez, Origenes de la mtisica
Lit.: J. aria are still called madrigals. The Cac-
argentina (1908); A. Schianca, Historia cini sense of the word aria was adopted
de la musica argentina (1933); C. Vega, by German composers such as Johann
Danzas y canciones argentinas (1933); Staden (1581-1634; cf. DTB j.i and 8.i);
A. Williams, -\Antologia de compositores Heinrich Albert (1604-51; cf. DdT
argentinos. Cuaderno I: Los precursores 12/13; HAM, no. 205; SchGMB, no.
(1941); C. Vega, La mtisica popular ar- 193), Adam Krieger (1634-66; cf. DdT
gentina (1941)- G. C. 19; HAM, no. 228; SchGMB, no. 209),
49]
ARIA ARIA
and Job.
Philipp Kricger (1649-1725; to the ternary scheme ABA.
Early ex-
cf. DdT 53/54). Those of Adam Krieger amples of this form occur in Monteverdi's
[sec *Ritornell (2)] especially are impor- Orfeo and Poppea [cf. RiHM ii.2, 197,
tant forerunners of the German strophic 205, 238]. The form is more fully devel-
Lied of the i8th and ipth centuries [cf. oped with Luigi Rossi (1598-1653; cf.
D T R DB R
Scheme of the Da-capo Aria
T = tonic; D = dominant; R = relative key
ing in tempo, meter, etc.; (c) the basso- ments (a'), then by the voice (a"), before
ostinato aria in which the melody is the main statement in the voice (a). Ger-
formed above a repeated ground. Arias man writers call this announcement De-
of these types occur in: J. Peri, Varic vise (device), hence the name *Devisen-
musichc (1609); Alessandro Grandi, arie (Riemann). Each of the three sec-
Cantade et arie a voce sola (1620; cf. tions employs a three-part modulating
RiHM ii.2, 38); Steffano Landi, Arie a scheme, B usually in the relative key (R).
una voce (1620; cf. RiHM ii.2, 50); Bene- The B is generally different
material of
detto Ferrari, Musiche vane (1633-41; from that of A, but not of a highly con-
cf. RiHM ii.2, 55). While in the ostinato- trasting character.
aria of Peri, Grande, and Landi the re- V. During the i8th century the da-capo
peated bass is a well-rounded musical aria became the vehicle of great virtuoso
sentence of considerable length, so that display and of a conventionalism which
the resulting form might well be consid- led to a codification and classification in
ered a strophic aria with a varied melody various types prescribed by typical oper-
[see *Strophic bass], Ferrari was one of atic situations, such as aria cantabile, di
the first to use short, characteristic mo- bravura, parlante, di carattere (air de cha-
tivesof the ostinato-type proper. This ractere), di mezzo caraltere> etc. [cf. GD
form, actually a "vocal passacaglia" [see i, 1 10 ] . The desire on the part of the great
*Chaconne and passacaglia], was fre- singers to show their ability in various
quently used by Italian, English, and musical styles led, about 1750, to a form
French composers of the second half of consisting of two separate arias of con-
the 1
7th century (Carissimi, Purcell, trasting character, usually the first dra-
Couperin; cf. the Crucifixus of Bach's matic, the second lyrical. Most of the op-
B minor Mass). eratic arias by Mozart are of this type,
IV. The second stage (c. 1650-1750) e.g., the famous "Register"-aria of Lepo-
is characterized
by the establishment of rello in Don Giovanni (ist Act). In the
the da-capo aria as the typical form. In operas of the later Neapolitan School
this form the first section (A) is repeated (Leo, Porpora, Vinci, Jommelli) the use
in toto after the second (B), thus leading of the aria was so extended that the whole
[50]
ARIETTA ARLfiSIENNE, L'
[51]
ARMENIAN MUSIC ARPEGGIO
Daudet's play L'ArUsiennc ("The ence (i5th century). The purest source
Woman of Aries"). It is usually played of Armenian church music is undoubt-
in the form of two orchestral suites [see edly the music in use at Edjmiadzin,
*Suite V], arranged by Bizet in 1872. which is also used at Tiflis and Eriwan.
The by European and
collections issued
Armenian music. Since Armenia was American communities differ widely from
the first country officially to adopt the the traditional forms, chiefly owing to the
Christian faith ( A.D. 303), the history of use of cheap modern harmonizations.
Armenian sacred literature and music has Lit.: P. Bianchini, Les Chants litur-
attracted much attention. The Armenian giques de I'tglise armtnienne (1877);
liturgy, like that of
Byzantium, consists M. Ekmalian, Les Chants de la sainte li-
chiefly of hymns. The most ancient of turgie (1896);A. Abgar, Melodies of the
these hymns were in prose. Later versi- Holy Apostolic Church of Armenia (Cal-
fied hymns became prominent, especially cutta, 1897); Nerses Ter-Mikaelian, Das
through the activity of the great poet armenische Hymnarium (1905); P. Au-
Nerses Schnorhali (nth century). The bry, Le Rhythme tonique ( 1903); A. Gas-
official book of hymns, called sharafon, toue, in LavE i.i, 541; P. Aubry, in TG
contains 1166 songs. The earliest pre- vii, viii, ix; E. Wellesz, in AdHM i, 139
served liturgical manuscripts containing and in fPM xxvii; K. Keworkian, in SIM
musical signs date from the i4th century. i; A. Gastoue, in RdM, no. 31; GD, Suppl.
The notation is a highly developed system Vol., 176.
of neumes (Armenian neumes) which Secular music: K. Keworkian, Musique
certainly was the result of a long evolution populaire armtniennc
(1931); R. P.
[examples in LavE i.i, 552; Thibaut, Komitas, Musique populaire armenlenne
Notation neumatique de I'eglise latinc (1925 and later); F. Macler, La Musique
(1907), plate 4], but the lack of treatises
en Armtnie (1917); F. H. Paelian, The
explaining this notation renders the Ar- Music of Armenia (1939; bibl.); R. Pesce,
menian neumes undecipherable. In the La Musica armena (1935); S. Poladian,
early I9th century a new system of musi-
Armenian Folt( Songs (1942).
cal notation, similar to that of the present-
Armonioso Harmoniously.
day Greek church music, was introduced
[It.].
[5*1
ARPEGGIO ARPEGGIO
the last note of the arpeggio must then be of arpegements figures, or
arpeggios in
made to coincide with the beat [Ex. 4, which unwritten notes are introduced
Mendelssohn]. The latter performance is [see Ex. 10, n
and 12]. It will be ob-
served that in performance of these arpe-
gements figures all the notes are held ex-
cept those that are foreign to the chord,
latter is (or should be) indicated by a long found written at the beginning of a se-
arpeggio sign, joining the two staves. For quence of chords. The player, in this
the violin arpeggio, see *Bowing (i). case, is at liberty to break the chords up
In the music of the i7th and i8th cen- and down several times, to extend them,
turies the execution of the arpeggio varied and to interpolate foreign notes as he sees
considerably (often at the discretion of
Handel's own notation of the last
fit [cf.
the individual performer) in respect to four bars of the Prelude to his keyboard
direction and number of notes. The Suite in D
minor]. The note-values, and
French clavecinistes used the signs shown even the tempo of such passages, are en-
in Ex. 8 to indicate the arpegement en tirely at the player's discretion. These
montant (ascending arpeggio) and those chords (e.g., those
in Bach*s Chromatic
in Ex. 9 for the arpegement en descendant Fantasia) are written in measured time
(descending arpeggio). Other special only to facilitate reading, the style of per-
signs were used to indicate various kinds
formance being derived from the unmcas-
[53]
ARPEGG1ONE ARS ANTIQUA
ured preludes of the lutenists and early by Vivaldi and others for the harpsichord
French clavecinistes (Louis Couperin, and the organ, or of the fugue from his
d' Anglcbcrt, etc.; see 'Prelude II) P. A. . solo-violin sonata in G
minor (no. i) for
the organ (D minor; B.-G. xv, 148);
also called guitar violon-
Arpeggione, Haydn's Die Sieben Worte am Kreuz
cello,guitarre d'amour. A
stringed in- which appeared as an orchestral composi-
strument of the size of a violoncello, but tion, as a string quartet, and as choral
with a guitar-like body, and with six music [cf. A. Sandberger, in JMP x];
strings tuned in E, A, d, g, b, e', invented Liszt's concert arrangements of Schubert's
in 1823 by G. Staufer. It is played with a
songs and of scenes from Wagnerian
bow. Franz Schubert wrote the only ex- Brahms's arrangement for two
operas;
isting composition for a sonata for the on
pianofortes of his orchestral variations
it,
arpeggione and piano (1824; see the col- a theme by Haydn (op. 56), etc.
lected edition [B. and H.], Series viii). In the last score of years there has been
an extraordinary activity in transcribing
Arpicordo. Italian 16th-century name Bach's organ works for the piano and the
for a harpsichord which differed in some
orchestra. Although this must be wel-
unknown detail from the clavicembalo
comed as a token of the ever growing in-
[see *Harpsichord II]. Cf. the title of a
terest in the work of the great master, yet
publication from 1551: Intabulatura nova
di vane sorte di balli da sonare per Arpi-
the development has taken on forms
which have recently led to a sharp reaction
chordiy Clavicembali, Spine tte e Mona-
against the "business of arrangement."
chordi; also G. Picchi, Intabolatura di This opposition, however, is justifiable
balli d'arpicordo (1620) [see *Editions
only with regard to certain methods of
III, 2]. Cf. the article in SaRM. Several transcribers (e.g.,
transcription.
Arrache [F.]. Forceful pizzicato. Respighi), instigated by the display of
modern orchestration or pianoforte-tech-
Arrangement. The adaptation of a nique, have tried and certainly with
composition for instruments other than success to bestow upon Bach's organ
those for which it was originally written piecesan impressionistic lushness or a Ro-
(thus, in a way, the musical counterpart mantic emotionalism which is inconsistent
of a literary translation). One may distin- with the intrinsic clarity of his style.
guish between arrangements which are Lt.: K. Grunsky, Die
Techni^
des
made chiefly for study purposes and others Klavierauszugs (1911); E. Friedlander,
which are for public performance. In the Wagner-Liszt und die Kunst der Klavier-
former class we find all the customary bearbeitung (1922); E. Howard- Jones in
piano arrangements of operas, sympho- ML xvi, no. 4.
nies, quartets, etc. Here, strict adherence
Arrescu [Sp.]. See *Aurrescu.
to the original text is rightly considered
the foremost duty of the editor, who is Ars antiqua [L., the ancient art].
permitted only to detract from, not to add I. The term Ars antiqua (Ars veterum)
to, the original. In the second category, was used by writers of the early I4th cen-
which involves the creative participation tury (e.g., Speculum Musicae, c. 1325; cf.
of the arranger, various procedures have CS ii, 429) to distinguish the late 13th-
been followed at different periods, rang- century school (Franco, c. 1260; Petrus
ing from simple transcriptions in which de Cruce, c. 1290) from that of their own
the musical substance remains the same day which was called *Ars nova (or Ars
but is transferred to a new medium, to the modernorum). Today, both terms are
complete reworking of a piece with addi- usuallyemployed in a wider sense, denot-
tions and modifications. Noteworthy ex- ing music of the i3th and I4th centuries
amples of this category are: the *lntabu- respectively. The Ars antiqua, then, in-
lierung of the i5th and i6th centuries; cludes the School of Notre Dame with its
Bach's arrangements of violin-concertos two masters, Leoninus (second half of the
[54]
ARS ANTIQUA ARS ANTIQUA
i2th century) and Perotinus (c. 1160- repertory of the School of Notre Dame
1220), and the ensuing period, which, for also includes a large number of *con-
want of other names, may be divided into ductus, i.e., Latin songs in one to four
the school of Franco (middle i3th cen- parts, mostly to devotional texts, but with-
tury) and that of Petrus de Cruce (late out plainsong cantus firmus, such as oc-
1 3th
century). The School of Notre curs with all the
organa, clausulae, and
Dame was preceded by the School of *St. motets.
Martial (c. 1100-50). The 13th-century technique of com-
II.
[55]
ARSIS AND THESIS ARS NOVA
based on wrong principles); ReMMA, Ars nova. [L., the new I. Gen-
art].
272-330 (bibl. pp. 445-456); AdHM eral. Generic name music of the
for the
i, 214-265 (bibl. p. 294); BeMMR, 113- 1
4th century, in contradistinction to *Ars
135 (bibl. p. 180); ApNPM, 215-337; antiqua, i.e., music of the i3th century.
-\HAM, nos. 28-42; \SchGMB, nos. 16- Properly, the name should be restricted,
20; H. Gleason, ^Examples of Music be- as it
originally was, to the music of the
fore 1400 (1942), pp. 36-75; R. Picker, first half of the i4th century (represented
"lifting" [G. Hebung], thesis means the Ars nova began as a novel movement
dancing) or of the hand (as in conduct- primarily with the notational rather than
ing). Consequently, arsis meant weak ac- the musical innovations of the period
cent or lack of accent or weak beat, while [CS iii, 13; transl. by P. Bohn, in MfM
thesis meant strong accent, strong beat: xx ]. More illuminating from a general
a t a t a t point of view are the discussions in the
i i .. i Speculum musicae, whose author (Jaco-
bus of Liege; see *Theory II) gives ex-
Unfortunately, Roman and medieval
writers reversed the meaning of the terms, tremely interesting information regarding
the stylistic contrast between the Ars an-
by interpreting them as referring to the and the Ars nova, although he
tiqua
raising and lowering not of the foot, but from a decidedly anti-modern
of the voice. Since with a pair of tones speaks
the higher one is usually accented more point of view [book vii, chapters 43-46:
"Collatio veteris artis ad novam"; cf. CS
than the lower one, the term arsis (high)
ii, 384; 427433]. On the other hand,
was identified with accent, and thesis
Johannes de Muris, who was formerly
(low), with lack of accent:
thought to have written the Speculum
a a a
musicae, actually was another leader of
t t t
I I I
by contrary motion (e.g., Bach, The Art French Ars Nova. From the point
II.
[56]
ARS NOVA ARS NOVA
ments of the early French Ars nova lie in ence of "points of magnetic attraction"
the direction of secularization, refinement, at which the parts start and converge
expressiveness, and, one might even say, in perfect consonances, mainly octaves,
Romanticism. In striking contrast to the fourths, and fifths, while in between the
Ars antiqua, the music of
rigidity of the lines move with a remarkable
degree of
G. de Machaut (1300-77) shows free con- individuality and independence from
trapuntal texture, supple rhythm, curved harmonic considerations.
lines, and generally bears the stamp of The rhythmic treatment also is remark-
high refinement, delicacy, individuality, ably advanced and "modern," owing par-
and creative imagination. Whereas in his ticularly to the introduction and bold use
motets Machaut continued the tradition of *syncopation which results in frequent
of the past [see *Isorhythmic], he estab- displacements of the beat or, in other
lished a completely new style in his secu- words, in a free change of measures
lar works, the polyphonic *ballades, *ron- (mixture of %, %, %, %, etc.). In
deaux, and *virelais, by abandoning the late i4th century, especially, the
cantus-firmus treatment as well as "suc- rhythmic structure adopts a complexity
cessive counterpoint" [see *Ars antiqua], which is unparalleled in the entire his-
and by creating the musical style known tory of European music [cf. ApNPM,
as "melody with accompaniment." Ma- 4 3 fl].
chaut is practically the only French com- III. Italian Ars Nova. In the tradition
poser of his time known to us, although a of Italian 14th-century music two schools
few motets of Philippe de Vitry survive can be distinguished, the earlier of which
[cf. H. Besseler in AMW
viii, 245!?] The . is represented chiefly by Jacopo da Bo-
ensuing period of French music, that is, logna and Giovanni da Cascia (c. 1300-
the period between Machaut and Dufay, 50), the later by Francesco Landini
is,at present, the least explored period in (132597), Paolo Tenorista, Ghirardello
the entire history of polyphonic music. da Firenze, and others. Musical as well
This is chiefly due to the great difficulties as notational features indicate that Italian
presented by the notation of composi- polyphonic music branched off from the
tions from the end of the i4th century French tradition of the late I3th century,
[cf. the chapter "Mannered Notation" in particularly from the style of Petrus de
ApNPM, 4031!]. Very few compositions Cruce. However, in the half-century from
of this period have as yet been transcribed. 1275 till 1325 it developed special traits
A general judgment on the merits and which led to a style of a decidedly na-
demerits of composers such as Johannes tional character. The forms of the earlier
Cesaris, Baude Cordier, Cunelier, Gri- school are the *madrigal and the *caccia,
mace, Solage, Suzoy, must be postponed while in the later school the *ballata (the
until further studies are available [see French *virelai) prevails. The style of
Lit., Dannemann]. To some extent the the earlier compositions may best be de-
gap between Machaut and Dufay is filled scribed as an "ornamented conductus
in by the recent publication of the Manu- style." The voices, usually two, move
script d'Apt [see ^Sources, no. 19] and simultaneously from measure to measure,
of some pieces in Ch. van den Borren, but the upper part makes ample use of
Polyphonia sacra [^Sources, no. 24], quick figures (frequently in sequential
The harmonic style of the Ars nova patterns) leading from one main note to
shows some advance over that of the Ars the next. With Landini, a good deal of
antiqua, in so far as thirds are admitted the elaborate polyrhythmic style of the
more frequently. More interesting is the French (Machaut) appears in Italian
extremely bold treatment of dissonances, music. He adds to the French polyphonic
which frequently reminds one of the dis- texture an Italian charm of melody which
sonant counterpoint of modern composers makes him the outstanding master of the
(e.g., Hindemith). The polyphonic tex- Trecento and one who foreshadows the
ture stands, as it were, under the influ- transparent beauty of Dunstable and
[57]
ART BALLAD ART OF FUGUE, THE
Dufay. For lists of 14th-century sources cently the Art of Fugue was considered
see under *Sources. chiefly a magnificent manual of advanced
Related articles: Ballata; Ballade; Cac- counterpoint, but during the last two dec-
cia; Estampie; Isorhythmic; Madrigal ades it has become universally recognized
(i); Rondeau (i); Syncopation; Virelai. as one of the greatest creations of musical
Lit.: ReMMA (bibl.); AdHM i, 265-
294 (bibl.); BeMMR, 136-180 (bibl. p.
1 80); ApNPM, 337-435; M. Schneider,
Die Ars Nova in Franfyeich und Italicn
in coloraturas without full text. See also physical speculations and mathematical
abstractions have been advanced without
*Phrasing.
leading to a final answer [see Lit., Haupt-
Art of Fugue, The. Die Kunst der mann, Rust, David, Tovey,
Graeser,
Fuge, the last work of J. S. Bach, written Apel]. A special
problem is presented by
in 1749 and published
posthumously, in the last (unfinished) fugue, which has
a rather careless manner,
by his sons in frequently been considered extraneous to
1752. It contains some 20 fugues and the work, since none of its three
subjects
canons, called "contrapuncti," all based (the last of which is *B-A-C-H) is the
on the same theme [Ex. i], in which the
principal subject of the Art of Fugue [cf.
various devices of imitative A. Schweitzer, Bach, I, 424]. H. Notte-
counterpoint
such as inversion, stretto, augmentation, bohm (1817-82), however, showed that
diminution, canon, double fugue, triple this subject can be contrapuntally com-
fugue, etc., are exploited in the most bined with those of the last fugue [Ex. 2;
elaborate and ingenious manner. The cf. W.
Apel, in DM
xxii.4, 274]. This is
number of pieces varies in the different sufficientreason for assuming that the
editions, some of which combine two re- unfinished "triple fugue" was planned
lated pieces under one number. Until rc- as a gigantic
quadruple fugue, a fitting
[58]
ART OF FUGUE, THE ATONALITY
climax of the whole work. The chorale Apel, in DM xxii-4; H. Husmann, in BJ
Wcnn wir in hochsten Noten sein which xxxv.
was added by the editors "as a recom-
As, asas [G.]. See*Notes.
pense for the incomplete fugue'* does not
belong to the work; yet, if played after Aspiratamente [It.]. Aspiringly.
the abrupt breaking off of the preceding
Aspiration [F.]. See under *Nach-
fugue, it takes on a symbolic significance
which may outweigh historical scruples. schlag.
pendent upon specified medium or sound, A tempo [I.]. Indicates return to nor-
a work which is rooted in the contrapuntal
mal tempo after deviations such as rite-
tradition of the Flemish School rather
nuto, piu lento, ad libitum, etc.
than in the ideas of the Baroque period.
Therefore any kind of performance must Atonality, atonal music. Atonality,
be considered justifiable which is in con- literally "absence of tonality," is a term
formity with the austere spirit of the com- which is frequently but loosely and con-
position. On the other hand, the fact fusingly applied to compositions of the
should not be overlooked that all the 20th century [see *New music], and one
pieces, with the exception of the mirror- upon which writers and composers have
fugues (nos. XII and XIII of the Peters voiced the most contradictory opinions.
ed.), are within the reach of the hands of Obviously, it is impossible to clarify the
a keyboard player. Evidently, in compos- meaning of atonality without a previous
ing the work, Bach was thinking con- agreement regarding the term *tonality.
stantly of keyboard performance, if only In fact, the chief trouble seems to lie with
for instructive purposes. F. Busoni, in his the latter term rather than with its op-
Fantasia contrappuntistica (1910), has posite. If, frequently the case, the
as is
sive group have repeatedly resented being atonality, Schonberg's Drei Klavier-
referred to as atonal and have emphasized stucfaop. ii (1908) [see Ex.] and Seeks
the existence of tonal centers in their
nimsky, Music Since 1900 (1937), p. 575), Aubade [F., Sp. alborada, from L.
as they seem
to originate largely in the dawn]. Morning music, in contradistinc-
understandable desire to avoid a denomi- tion to ^serenade, evening music. In the
nation which, unfortunately but wholly i7th and i8th centuries aubades were
without justification, has frequently been played in honor of royal or princely per-
identified with "amusical." sonages, at the levee. The term has been
To vindicate atonality from any such used by various composers (e.g., Bizet,
stigma and to accept the term as a proper Rimsky-Korsakov), to denote a sort of
denomination for an important current idyllic overture. The beginning of Bee-
in New Music, does not, of course, imply thoven's Pastoral Symphony and Wag-
any statement regarding the artistic ner's Siegfried-idyll may be considered as
merits and possibilities of this idiom. The idealized aubades. See *Alba.
[60]
AUDITION AUFLOSUNG
Audition [F.]. (i) Faculty of hearing. the same, regardless of how it was real-
(2) Rehearsal; performance (particu- ized.
larly by students). In the 1 6th and lyth centuries the prob-
lems are relatively simpler.
Important
Auffiihrungspraxis [G., practice of points are the correct execution of thor-
performance] This term has been widely
. ough-bass, the performance of *orna-
adopted by German and non-German mentations, either improvised or abbrevi-
writers to refer to the manner in which ated, the size of the orchestra, the specifi-
earlymusic was performed and should be cations of tempo and dynamics. Most of
these questions have been rather satisfac-
performed. In particular, it refers to the
many problems connected with the at- torily clarified by musicologists [see, e.g.,
tion. In music prior to 1550, the foremost what contrary to the aesthetic standards
is that of vocal or instrumental and principles of 19th-century music, par-
question
performance and participation, a question ticularly of Romantic music. According
which arises from the fact that instru- to the principles of Auffiihrungspraxis a
ments are never specified in the sources, work such as Bach's St. Matthew Passion
that the text is often carelessly underlaid, should be performed by an orchestra of
or, that long passages or even entire voices
about 20 players (flutes, oboes, strings,
of an apparently vocal character are organ, harpsichord) and a chorus of
found without text [see * Vocalization]. about the same number of singers; it
Another serious difficulty results from the should be played at a moderate speed,
fact that the instruments of these periods, ranging from allegro to adagio, and with
such as the psaltery, rotta, vielle, rebec of a clear distinction of forte and piano
the rather than with constant crescendos and
1
4th century, the viols, cornettos,
theorboes of the i5th and i6th centuries, decrescendos. In the period after Bach
are all obsolete. It is only by long and the problems of Auffiihrungspraxis prac-
patient experiments with modern repro- tically disappear, owing to the greater
ductions of these instruments that one care on the part of the composer to indi-
cate clearly his intentions.See also *En-
may hope to gain a clearer idea of the in-
tended sound of ancient music and to semble (3).
solve some of the problems indicated Lit.: R. Haas, Die musi^alische Auf-
comitant of the
intrinsically anti-ra- H. Mersmann, "Beitrage zur Auffiih-
tional viewpoint of the Middle Ages and rungspraxis der vorklassischen Kammer-
the Renaissance. The idea of writing musik" (AMW ii); cf. BcMMR, 319
music for a specific instrument was just (bibl.).
[61]
AUFSATZ AULOS
Aufsatz [G.]. Tube of an organ reed (dotted quarter-notes) [cf. ApNPM,
pipe. 253]. In the I4th century, diminution
is explained in detail by theoretical writ-
Aufschnitt [G.]. The mouth of an
ers (Job. de Muris, Prosdocimus de Bel-
organ pipe.
demandis) and is used almost regularly
Aufstrich [G.]. Up-bow. in the motets of G. de Machaut, the tenor
having the cantus firmus twice, the sec-
Auftakt [G.]. Up-beat. For Aujta\- ond time in halved values [see ^so-
tigfeit see under *Phrasing. With the beginning of the
rhythmic].
Auftritt [G.]. Scene of an opera. 1 5th century, augmentation and diminu-
tion become notational devices, since the
Aufzug [G.]. Act of an opera. change of note values is no longer indi-
cated by longer or shorter notes, but by
Augmentation and diminution., The or
proportional signs [see "Proportions]
presentation of a subject in doubled (aug- verbal such as per aug-
by instructions,
mentation) and in halved (diminution)
mentationem, or often by enigmatic in-
values, e.g., with the quarter-note re- A
scriptions [see *Canon II]. last ex-
placed by a half-note or an eighth-note this method appears in Bach's
ample of
respectively. These devices are an impor- ^Musical Offering. of the *ricer-
tant element of variety in fugal writing.
Many
cars of the i6th century use augmentation
They are usually introduced towards the or diminution, e.g., A. Gabrieli's Ricer-
end of the fugue; thus used, diminution
bestows a character of stretto; augmenta-
care del primo tono [repr. in *Editions
II, 7] in which each voice states the sub-
tion, one of grandeur. Examples are:
jectonce in quadruple augmentation
Bach, Wt. Cl. no. 8 (augmentation),
i,
exactly as in the Contrapunctus 7 of
Wt. Cl. ii, no. 9 (diminution), *Art of
Bach's Art of Fugue.
Fugue, nos. 6 and 7 (simultaneous ap-
Augmented intervals. See inter-
pearance of the normal form, diminution,
vals; the augmented fourth the *tritone.
augmentation, and double augmenta- is
tion); Beethoven, Piano Sonata op. no, Augmented sixth chord [see *Sixth
last movement (similar combinations; chord]. Augmented triad [sec *Triad].
see Ex.). Augmentation and diminution See also *Harmonic analysis V.
[631
AYRE B-A-C-H
hymn from Purification until Easter by H. Lawes, W. Webb, John Blow, Pur-
(text and plainsong in AR,
66). The cell, and others. Cf. A. Dolmetsch, Eng-
melody is
interesting because of its well- lishSongs and Dialogues of the XVI and
defined C major tonality (except for the XVII Centuries (1912); P. Warlock, The
plagal B-flat of the beginning). English Ayre (1926). W. A.
(2) English writers of the i7th century
Ay re. (i) A
Iate-i6th-century type of use the term ayre (aire) in the meaning
English song, similar to the Italian Can- of key or mode, e.g., Th. Morley: "these
zonet or *balletto. The ayre is a strophic aireswhich the antiquity termed Modi"
song in simple homophonic style, the (Plaine and Easy Introduction, p. 147);
melody being supported either by voices or Th. Mace: "every shake is to be made
or by instruments or by both. For the in the Aire" (Mustek's Monument, p.
early publications and their modern re- 104); also Butler,The Principles of Music
prints sec *Editions X, XL
Later publi- (1636), pp. 72, 80, 82; Locke, Melothesia
cations are: Select Ayres and Dialogues (1673), Rule 6; Simpson, Compen- A
(1652) and New Ayres and Dialogues dium to Practical Music^ (5th ed., 1714),
(1678); these include songs with the ac- p. 36. See also under *Fancy. H. J. S.
companiment of lute, theorboe, bass viol,
B
B. See *Pitch names; *Letter notation; position and became more and more
Hexachord; also *Accidentals (history). hedonistic and voluptuous, particularly
In *part-books of the i6th century, B through the incorporation of elements of
stands for bassus (bass). contemporary Egyptian music. The at-
Baborak. A Bohemian
national dance,
tempt made by C. Sachs vii] to [AMW
interpret certain signs on a Babylonian
including alternating sections in duple clay tablet dating from about 800 B.C. as
and in triple time.
harp notation, and his consequent recon-
struction of a Babylonian hymn, have
Babylonian (Sumerian, Assyrian)
music. Our knowledge of the musical been withdrawn by him in an article
culture of the ancient inhabitants of Mes- [MQ xxvi] in which he also refutes an-
other interpretation given by F. W. Gal-
opotamia is restricted chiefly to informa-
tion about their musical instruments pin.
full enough to permit the reconstruction syrians (1937); LavE i.i, 35ff; C. Sachs,
of a fairly adequate picture of the general Musi\ des Altertums (1924); id., in
trends in the musical evolution which AMW vii and MQ xxvi, xxvii; ReMMA,
took place there from about 3500 to 500 4ff (bibl. p. 426); GD, Suppl. Vol., p. 14
B.C. The chief instrument of the Sume-
rian period (c. 3500-2000) was the harp, Bacchetta [It.]. *Drumstick ( di
usually without fore-pillar [see *Harp wooden; di
legno, spugna, sponge-
III ] . It existed in a great variety of shapes
headed).
and sizes. During the Babylonian rule
(200010^0) we find lutes, flutes, oboes, B-A-C-H. The letters which form
and drums, instruments which point to Bach's name have, in German, a musical
a greater refinement of musical culture. significance,namely: bb-a-c-b [see *Pitch
During the Assyrian rule (1000-500) names]. This interesting musical motive
music gradually lost its ancient cosmo- was first used by Bach himself in the last
logical character and strictly liturgical (unfinished) fugue of his *Art of Fugue.
[64]
BACH-GESELLSCHAFT BACH-GESELLSCHAFT
Another fugue on the same subject fre- ungen: 13.!. (For a complete collection
quently ascribed to him [see ed. Peters, of Bach's Chorales cf. C. S.
Terry, Bach's
xxv ] is definitely spurious. Various later Four-Part Chorals.)
composers have used the famous motive IX. Songs. 39.
in fugues or fantasias, e.g., Albrechts- X. Orchestral Worlds (cl. = clavier;
berger [cf. DTOe i6.ii]; Schumann vl. = violin; cont. = continue). Four
(6 Fugen uber Bach, op. 60); Liszt (Fan- Overtures, i Sinfonia: 31.*. Ouverturc
tasia and Fugue on B.A.C.H., for piano- C moll: 45.i. 6 Brandenburg concertos:
forte and for organ); M. Reger (op. 46); 19. Triple concerto for flute, cl. and vl.:
W. Piston (Chromatic Fantasy on Bach). 17. 7 Concertos for one cl.: 17. 3
It also plays an important part in Busoni's Concertos for 2 cl.: 21.11. 2 Concertos
Fantasia contrappuntistica (1910). for 3 cl.: 3i.iii. Concerto for 4 cl.: 43.1.
2 Concertos for vl.: 21.1 (also 45.1).-^
Bach-Gesellschaft. See*SocietiesII,2. Sinfonia for vl.: 21.1. Concerto for 2
Here follows a conspectus of the con- vl.: 21.1.
tents of the edition of the Bach-Gesell- XI. Chamber Music. Sonata for flute,
schaft, arranged according to subject mat- vl. and cont.: 9. Trio, Canon for flute,
ter. vl. and cont. (from the Musical Offer-
I. Sacred Cantatas, i-io: vol. i. ing): 3i.ii. Instrumentalsatz fur vl.,
11-20: vol. 2. 21-30: vol. 5.i. 31-40: Hoboe und Cont.: 29. 7 Sonatas for cl.
vol. 7. 41-50: vol. 10. 51-60: vol. and vl. (one doubtful): 9. Suite for
i2.ii. 61-70: vol. 16. 71-80: vol. 18. cl. and vl.: 9. Sonata, Fugue for vl. and
81-90: vol. 2O.i. 91-100: vol. 22. cont.: 43.1. Sonata for two vl. and
101-110: vol. 23. 111-120: vol. 24. cont.: 9. 4 Inventions for vl. and cl.:
121-130: vol. 26. 131-140: vol. 28. 45.i. Sonata in G
for vl. and cont.:
141-150: vol. 30. 151-160: vol. 32. Neue B.-G. 30, Lf. i.
3 Sonatas, 3 Par-
161-170: vol. 33. 171-180: vol. 35. titas for vl. solo: 27.i. 6 Suites for cello
181-190: vol. 37. 191-193: vol. 41. solo: 27.}. 3 Sonatas for gamba and cl.:
194: vol. 29. 195-197 (Wedding Can- 9. 3 Sonatas for cl. and flute: 9. 3 So-
tatas): vol. 13.1. 198 (Trauer Ode): natas for flute and cont.: 43.5.
vol. 13-iii. Unnumbered (doubtful or XII. Clavier Music. Six English Suites:
unfinished) vol. 41. [For the numbering
:
i3.ii (new ed. in 45.1). 6 French
of the cantatas 19 iff cf. C. S. Terry, Suites: i3.ii (new ed. in 45.i; fragments
Bach's Cantata Texts (1926), 642.] in 36). 6 Partitas: 3. French Over-
II. Cantatas. 201-205: vol.
Secular ture: 3. Miscellaneous suites (frag-
n.ii. 206-207: vol. 20.ii (also 34). ments): 36, 42, 45.i. Overture: 36.
208-212: vol. 29. 213: vol. 34. Un- Inventions, 2- and 3-part: 3. Well-tem-
numbered: vols. 34, 20.ii. pered Clavier: 14 (Variants: 36; Auto-
III. Oratorios. Weihnachts-Orato- graph: 45.i). 7 Toccatas: 3 and 36.
rium: 5.ii. Oster-Oratorium: 2i.iii. Sonatas: 36, 42, 45.}. Italian Concerto:
Himmelfahrts-Oratorium: 2 (= Can- 3. 1 6 Concertos
(Vivaldi) 42. Gold- :
len (op. 33, op. 119, op. 126) mark the ReMMA, 222]. In the British Isles the
beginning of the extensive literature of bagpipes have played, for many centuries,
a prominent role in folk music and in
19th-century *character pieces.
military music. Their continental history
Bagpipe [F. musette] G. Dudelsac\, is less interesting, except for a late lyth-
Sacftffeife; It.
zampogna}. Generic
piva, century movement in France which, for
name for a number of instruments which a short time, raised the instrument to a
have one or (usually) several reed-pipes standing in society and in art music [see
attached to a windbag from which the air *Musette]. See also *Pibroch.
is blown into the pipes; also, specifically, Lit.: Wm. H. Grattan-Flood, The
the name for the Irish and Scottish varie- Story of the Bagpipe (1907); W. L. Man-
ties of this family. [See the illustration son, The Highland Bagpipe (1901);
on 152 (Clarinets ).] One or two of the
p. G. Askew, A Bibliography of the Bagpipe
pipes, called chanter (chaunter), are pro-
vided wit^ soundholes and are used for
melodies, while the other, larger ones, Baguette [F., stick]. Drumstick (
called drones, produce one tone each and dehois, wooden drumstick; d'iponge,
are used for the accompaniment. In the sponge-headed drumstick). Also the ba-
;66]
BAJAZZO BALLADE
ton of the conductor and the stick of the of cheap modern song. For art ballad,
violin bow. see*Ballade [G.].
The word ballad is also used as an
Bajazzo, Der [G.]. See *Pagliacci, Gli.
Anglicized form of ballade [F.], ballata
Balalaika. A popular Russian instru- [It.], or Ballade [G.]. Such usage, how-
ment of the guitar family, characterized
ever, is
misleading in view of the fact that
by a triangular body, a long fretted neck, these terms denote entirely different
and (usually) three gut strings tuned in
things.
fourths. It played with a plectrum and
is Lit.: S. Foster Damon, ^Series of Old
is made in six sizes which constitute a American Songs (1936); C. Sandburg,
balalaika band. [Illustration on p. 314.]
^The American Songbag (1927); Cecil J.
The forerunner of the balalaika was the Sharp, English Foll^ Songs from the
*domra [cf. SaRM]. Cf. A. S. Rose, in Southern Appalachians, 2 vols. (1932);
PMA xxvii.i; W. v. Kwetzinsky, in DM John A. Lomax, Our Singing Country
xxii.i2.
(1941); R. Smith, South Carolina Ballads
Balancement [F.]. Eighteenth-century (1928); A. K. Davis, Traditional Ballads
name for the *tremolo. Sometimes used M. O. Eddy, Ballads
of Virginia (1929);
and Songs from Ohio (1939); M. E.
synonymously with *Bebung.
Henry, A Bibliography for the Study of
Balg [G.]. Bellows of an organ. American Folksongs (1937); J. W. Hen-
Balinese music. See Javanese music. dren, A Study of Ballad Rhythm (1936);
Cf. C. McPhee, in BAMS vi. C. A. Smith, "Ballads Surviving in the
A name U. S." (MQ ii).
Ballabile. given occasionally
to dance-like pieces (ballets) in ipth-cen-
Ballade [F.]. A form of trouvre po-
tury operas.
etry and music. The poem usually has
Ballad [fromL. ballare, to dance]. The three stanzas, each of seven or eight lines,
term derives from medieval words such the last one or two of which are identical
*
as * chanson ballade, ballade [F.], *bal- in all the stanzas, thus forming a *refrain.
lata, all of which originally denoted danc- The musical form of the stanza is: aba
ing songs but lost their dance connota- bcdEorababcdEF [capital letters
tion as early as the I3th century and be- indicate the refrain], a scheme which, as
came stylized forms of solo song. In Eng- far as the music is concerned, can be sim-
land this process of change went still plified as follows: B (A = ab; B
AA =
farther, and eventually (i6th century) the remaining lines). This form is identi-
"ballad" came to mean a simple tale told cal with that of the Provencal (trouba-
in simple verse. There may have been a dour) *canzo and of the German (Min-
transitional period during which the reci- nesinger) Bar [see *Barform], which,
tation of the poems was still accompanied however, lack the refrain. Sometimes the
by some sort of dancing. Most ballads form is enlarged to A A B B, usually in
are narrative, and many deal with fabu- connection with enlarged stanzas of 12 or
lous, miraculous, or gruesome deeds. more lines.
Ballad singers made
a living by singing The songs of the trouveres include a
their newest productions in the streets considerable number of monophonic bal-
and at country fairs and by selling the lades [see Lit., Gennrich i, nos. 356, 357,
t67 i
BALLADE BALLAD OPERA
with whom
the polyphonic ballade be- [complete ed. by M. Runze] include a
came theprincipal form of music, treated
number of truly great songs ("Archibald
with the highest degree of elaboration Douglas," "Erlkonig," "Der Pilgrim von
and St. Just," etc.). Loewe's form is a free
occasionally with affectation [exam-
ples in WoGM ii, iii, nos. 55, 56, etc.; combination of the strophic and the
ApNPM, 419, 421, 423], The form was through-composed type. Schubert's songs
also cultivated by Dufay and, occasion- include a number of Balladen, e.g., "Erl-
Enrique reproduced in RiMB, no. 12, is a Character piece. Here the highly dra-
ballata (or *villancico), not a ballade. matic character of A and the lyrical char-
Examples in HAM, nos. 193, 45, 47; acter ofB seem to portray heroic deeds
SchGMBy nos. 26, 40; ApNPM, 352, 355, and knightly love, thus justifying the tide
etc.; RiMB, nos. 4, 8. Ballade.
F. Gennrich, ^Rondeaux, Virelais
Lit.: Lit.: A. B. Bach, The Art Ballad
und Balladen^ 2 vols. (1921); F. Brosch, (1891); Ph. Spitta, "Ballade" (Musi^
Die Balladen im Kodex von Turin (Diss. geschichtliche Aufsatze, 1894); H. J.
Vienna 1931). Moser, fD/> Ballade (Martens, ^Musifo-
lische Formenin historischen Reihen iii,
Ballade [G.]. In German usage the 1930); R. Batka, Martin Pluddemann
word Ballade denotes poems derived from und seine Balladen (1895); A. Konig,
the English ballads, but of greater artistic Die Ballade in der Musi^ (1904).
elaboration and poetic refinement. They
usually deal with medieval matters, either Ballad opera. A
popular type of i8th-
historical or fancied (e.g., Goethe's "Bal- century stage entertainment, consisting
lade vom vertriebenen und zuriickkeh- of spoken dialogue and musical numbers
renden Grafen"), or with romantic tales not newly composed, but taken from
(e.g., Goethe's "Erlkonig"). Such Bal- folk songs or from famous tunes of con-
laden were frequently set to music, usu- temporary composers. The ballad opera
ally as through-composed songs of great flourished in London from 1725 (A. Ram-
length. Probably the earliest examples of say's The Gentle Shepherd) throughout
true Balladen-style are the interesting set- the end of the century [cf. the list in GD
tings of Gellert's moralizing and dry i, 207, also in Tufts], The Beggars
Pabeln by Valentin Herbing (1759; DdT Opera (1728) by John Gay with music ar-
42), written in a continuous recitative ranged by Joh. Pepusch (1667-1752) was
with a highly dramatic accompaniment. the most successful of all. Two plays by
Later examples are written in the form of Charles Coffey, The Devil to Pay (1728)
cantatas, i.e., in various movements of and The Merry Cobbler (1735), played a
contrasting character [Joh. Andre, 1741- decisive role in the development of the
99; Joh. Zumsteeg, 1760-1802]. A Fan- German *Singspiel. The music of the bal-
tasie op. 109 by Beethoven's pupil Ferdi- lad operas included songs and arias from
nand Ries (1784-1838) for piano alone, Locke, Purcell, Handel, Geminiani, Co-
written to Schiller's poem "Resignation," relli, Scarlatti, and others; Playford's
is an interesting example of what might Dancing Master (numerous editions from
be ohne Worte" [repr. 1650 to 1728) and similar collections were
callcd^Ballade
in The classical master of the chief source for the popular tunes cm-
TaA%jjxiv].
the vocal Ballade (sometimes referred to ployed in these operas. The style of the
as "art ballad") is Carl Loewe (1796- ballad opera has been imitated in
Vaughan
1869) whose fifteen volumes of Balladen Williams' Hugh the Drover (1924) and
68]
BALLATA BALLET
in Kurt Weill's Dreigroschen Ofer lata (or virelai) persists in the songs of
(1928), a highly successful imitation of the *Cancionero musical [see *Villan-
John Gay's Beggar's Of era. cico] and, in a simplified form, in the
Lit.: E. M. Gagey, Ballad Opera *frottole of the early i6th century. Ex-
(1937); F. Kidson, The Beggar's Opera amples in L. Ellinwood, ^Francesco Lan-
(1922); W. E. Schultz, Gays Beggars dini( 1939) ; HAM,
nos. 51, 53; SchGMB,
peated for the others as follows: Margaret of Lorraine to the Duke of Joy-
R S R euse, Versailles, 1581). It is the earliest
for which the music is preserved, and is
i
5 especially remarkable on account of its
A A inclusion of two monodic songs (new ed.,
(the figures to 5 represent double-lines,
i see *Editions IV; cf. also AdHM ii, 642r
i.e., 10 single lines), i (and 5) are called and L. Celler, Les Origines de l opera et
ripresa (refrain); 2 and 3, piedi; 4, le ballet de la Royne, 1868). The culmi-
volta. Like the virelai, the ballata origi- nation point of the ballet was reached
nally was a song accompanying round under Louis XIV (1643-1715), who him-
dances, and was performed alternately by self was a great dancer and who liked to
the whole group (ripresa) and a solo appear in ballet performances. With the
singer (piedi and volta). However, none ballet-masterBeauchamp and the musi-
of the surviving examples shows evidence cians Cambefort (160561) and Lully
of dance-like rhythm or style. Mono- (1632-87), the French ballet attained the
phonic examples of the ballata structure highest cultural importance as well as
are to be found in the religious *laude of great musical significance. It became the
the 1 3th century. In the i4th century the origin of a great number of new courtly
form was treated polyphonically, espe- dance types, such as the gavotte, the pas-
ciallyby Francesco Landini of whom 87 sepied, the bourree, the rigaudon, which
two-voiced and 49 three-voiced ballatas were later introduced into the optional
are preserved (mostly with only one group of the *suite. Of particular impor-
stanza; no. 148 of Ellinwood's collection tance among these was the *minuet.
has three stanzas). An example is repro- Lully's activity in the ballet of the French
duced (under the erroneous title "madri- court (ballet de cour) began in 1653
gal" and with incorrect underlaying of ("Ballet de la Nuit") and came to a
the text) in J. Wolf's ^Sing- und Spiel- climax in 1664 when he and Molie're
musi{ aus dlterer Zeit [for the correct ver- joined forces to produce a unification of
sion sec Ellinwood] , The form of the bal- play and ballet, the comedic-ballet. "Lc
BALLET BALLET IN OPERA
Bourgeois Gentilhomme" (1670) is the monde" (1923); Francis Poulenc with
most famous example of this type [see "Les Biches" (1923); Bela Bart6k with
*Entr'acte], Lully also introduced the "The W
oden Pnnce" (1922); Hinde-
ballet into his operas, as did also his suc- mith with "The Demon" (1924); Bax
cessors Campra and Rameau. Rameau's with "The Truth about the Russian
ballets are particularly interesting on ac- Dancers" (1920), and others. In Amer-
count of their exotic background, Mexi- ica, the vogue of the ballet has produced
can, Persian, Chinese, etc. [see also *Bal- such works as John A. Carpenter's
let in opera] . A
special type of ballet was "Krazy-Kat" (1921) and "Skyscrapers"
cultivated hi England, under the name (1926); Copland's "Grogh" (1932) and
of *masque. In the second half of the "Hear ye, hear ye" (1934); Marc Blitz-
1
7th century Vienna was a center of ballet stein's "Checkmate" (1937); Walter Pis-
presentations (Johann Heinrich Schmel- ton's "The Incredible Flutist" (1938), etc.
zer and others; cf. DTOe 28.ii). Lit.: W. Beaumont, Complete BooJ{ of
II. From 1700 till the end of the i9th Ballets (1937; sup. 1942); G. Goode, The
century the history of the ballet includes Boof( of Ballets (1939); V. Arvey, Cho-
a galaxy of famous dancers, such as Ca- reographic Music (1941); H. Prunieres,
margo (1710-70), Noverre (1727-1810), Le Ballet de cour en France ( 1914) DToe ;
(1876), "The Sleeping Beauty" (1889), well as dancing. They are therefore most
and "Casse-Noisette" ("The Nutcrack- appropriate in large-scale, serious, formal
er," 1892). The great period of modern opera, and historically they are found
ballet music, however, did not start until chiefly in operas of the French school or
the early 20th century, when the Russian works written under the influence of
ballet of Diaghileff and Fokine began its French taste. Ballets in comic opera are
triumphal career and attracted the inter- simpler and less formal than those in seri-
est of many prominent composers, e.g., ous works, as for example the dances in
Stravinsky, with "Firebird" (1910), the finale of the first act of Mozart's Don
"Petrouchka" (1912), "Le Sacre du Prin- Giovanni.
temps" (1913), "Les Noces" (completed Although Lully is commonly credited
1923), "Apollo Musagetes" (1927), "Card with having introduced the ballet into
Party" (1936)* and others; Ravel with opera, it was not unknown in operas be-
"Daphnis afkTChloe" (1906, 1912); Man- fore his time. Without reckoning the
uel de Falli With "The Three-Cornered choral dances of Greek tragedy, the gen-
Hat" (1919); Darius Milhaud with "Le eral dances which frequently took place
Train bleu" (1924) and "La Creation du at the end of the medieval *mystery-plays,
BALLET IN OPERA BALLET IN OPERA
or the ballet portions of the 16th-century duced by foreign composers (C. Pallavi-
^intermezzi, we find closing dances in cino's Gerusalemme liberata, Dresden,
Peri's and Caccini's Euridice (both 1600), 1687), and, under French influence, by
a "Ballo" at the end of Gagliano's Dafne native composers as well (Joh. Sigismund
(1608), and a "Moresca" danced by the Kusser's Erindo, Hamburg, 1693). The
shepherds in the finale of Monteverdi's ballets in the original version of Reiser's
Orfeo (1607). There are likewise ballets, Croesus (1711) were omitted in the re-
that before the end of the i7th century a 1835; Wagner's Rienzi, 1842; Berlioz's
new form, the "opera-ballet," was created Les Troyens, 1856-58; Gounod's Faust,
(Campra, L'Europc galante, 1697), in 1859/69). It will be noted that all the
which the dramatic content was reduced above-named works except Rienzi were
to a minimum in order to make room for firstperformed (or intended to be per-
practically continuous dancing, choral, formed) at Paris, where a ballet was still
and scenic elements (Rameau, Les Indes considered to be an indispensable part of
galantes, 1735). The dances of Lully's any large serious operatic work. Wag-
and Rameau's operas and opera-ballets ner's addition of the "Bacchanal" music
furnish some of the finest examples of for the Paris performance of Tannhauser
French instrumental music of their pe- (1861) is a striking evidence of the power
riod. of this French tradition. Wagner in his
*masque and partly under French influ- as did Verdi in Aida (1871). There arc
ence. There are ballets in Blow's Venus also important ballet scenes in Borodin's
and Adonis (c. 1685) and Purcell's Dido Prince Igor (performed 1890), but on the
and Aeneas (c. 1689), as well as in Pur- whole the decline of "grand opera" has
cell's other dramatic music (e.g., the Cha- led to a diminution of the importance of
conne in King Arthur, 1691). ballet in opera since the middle of the
In Germany ballet in opera was intro- 1
9th century, and this has been accom-
BALLETTO BARBIERE DI SIVIGLIA, IL
century, e.g., Joh. Hermann Schein, Ban- Bar. (i) In English, bar-line or, more
chetto musicale (1617; complete ed. by usually, measure (included between two
A. Priifer, vol. ii), Paul Peurl, Melchior bar-lines). (2) In German, see *Bar-
Franck, Valentin Haussmann, etc. Fres- form.
cobaldi wrote ballettos for keyboard [cf.
Barber of Seville, The. See *Bar-
TaAMv].
biere di Siviglia, II.
Band
tral
[F. bande\
instruments.
It.
banda].
group composed principally of wind
Different types are: *brass
An orches-
PW
band (brass only), wind band (winds
band (chiefly brass), jazz
only), military
band (various combinations; see *}azz),
symphonic band (predominantly wood
T
M #
wind, with the addition of cello or double- Diminished seventh chords,
part-singing.
bass). Other types are the balalaika-band,
augmented sixths, and similar combina-
marimba band, etc. In modern Italian
tions prevail. Cf. S. Spaeth, Barber Shop
orchestra of brass and
percus-
the^oup Ballads (1940); also *}azz II.
sion is ca\leQ$l$nda. In earlier periods the
name was applied to orchestral groups of Barbiere di Siviglia, II ("The Bar-
1
highest distinction, e.g., to the "24 violons ber of Seville'Opera buffa by Gioachino
).
du roy" under Lully (La grande bande), Rossini (1792-1868), based on Beaumar-
[7*1
BARBITOS BARD
chais' comedy Le Barbier dc Seville bards were fixed by King Howel Dha, in
(1775), first performance in Rome, 1816 940, and revised by Gruffyd ap Conan, in
(New York, 1819). The scene is 17th- 1040. The first persecution (on political
century Seville where Count Almaviva grounds) occurred after the conquest of
(Tenor) and Dr. Bartolo (Bass) are rivals Wales by Edward I, in 1284. The bards
for the love of Rosina (Soprano), with continued to exist, though far below their
the former winning out by die aid of the former standard and reputation, in Ireland
resourceful barber Figaro (Baritone). till
1690 (battle of the Boyne), in Scot-
Mozart's Le Nozzedi Figaro centers land till 1748. The congregations of the
around a later adventure of the amorous Welsh bards, called Eisteddfod, were re-
Count. vived in the early I9th century, after an
The Barbiere is one of the last examples interruption of about 150 years. Their
of the 18th-century type of Italian opera standard, which was extremely low, has
and, in particular, the last to use the recently been considerably raised. See
recitativo secco.Figaro's aria "Largo al *Penillion.
factotum" one of the most outstanding
is The music of the Welsh bards has been
examples of buffo aria in rapid declama- the subject of much discussion and contro-
tion [see *Parlando; *Patter song]. versy. Many exaggerated claims have
been made, chiefly on the basis of certain
Barbitos. An ancient Greek instrument
music manuscripts, one of which, called
of the *lyre type.
Musica neu Beroriaeth (Penllyn MS;
Barcarole [from It.
barca, boat]. A Brit.Mus. Add. 14905; facsimile ed. by
Cardiff University, 1936), bears the in-
boat-song of the Venetian gondolieri, or
an instrumental or vocal composition scription, made by an iSth-century
written in imitation thereof. Well-known owner: "The music of Britain, as settled
examples for the piano are to be found in by the congress of chief musicians, by
Mendelssohn's "Songs without Words" order of Gruffydd ap Cynan, about A.D.
[op. 19, no. 6; op. 30, no. 6; op. 62, no. 5] ; 1040, with some of the most ancient pieces
others were written by Chopin (op. 60) of the Britons, supposed to have been
and Faure. Vocal barcaroles occur in handed down to us from the British Dru-
various operas with Italian settings, e.g., ids." Actually, this manuscript dates from
in Herold's Zampa (1831), in Auber's the yth century and shows nothing to
i
Fra Diavolo (1830), in Offenbach's Tales substantiate any such claims or similar
ones voiced by modern supporters of the
of Hoffmann (1831); cf. also Schubert's
"Auf dem Wasser zu singen." "Mediaeval Bardic music" movement
song
Barcaroles are always in moderate 6/8 (e.g., A. Dolmetsch). The notation is but
or 12/8 time and use a monotonous ac- a modification of the German organ
tablature of the late i6th century [see
companiment suggestive of the uniform
movement of the waves and the boat. WoHN ii, 294] The transcriptions given
.
early Middle Ages they exercised great sible to interpret the style of these pieces
as the pre-Christian era by Greek writers in the strongest possible opposition to the
such as Diodorus Siculus (ist century statement that "from internal evidence
B.C.), who makes reference to the tradi- such music could not have been made
tional instrument of the bards, i.e., the later than the sixth century, and was
*crwth. The privileges of the Welsh probably much earlier" (A. Dolmetsch,
[73]
BARFORM BARFORM
in The Consort, no. 4, p. 14). The ac- stanzas); "ein Gesatz" . . . consists of
companying example, transcribed from . . . "z ween en (two) Stollen" . . . and
.
"Abgesang"; also Act III, 2, Hans
. .
by the figure i or o, a method commonly ballade of the i4th century), the Germans,
used in 17th-century guitar tablatures [cf. restricting themselves to the monophonic
WoHNii, ijiS]. type, exploited its formal aspect. A fre-
Lit.: Joseph Cooper Walker, Historical quent feature, already found in the canzo
Memoirs of the Irish Bards (1786); Ed- [cf. BeMMR, 107], is the use of identical
ward Jones, Musical and Poetical Relicts endings for the Stollen and the Abgesang
of the Welsh Bards (4th ed., 1825); Ch. so that the form: ||: a x b x re-|| + :
+
de la Borde, Essai sur les Bardes, 3 vols. suits, as, e.g., in Walther v. d. Vogelweide's
(1840); G. Borrow, Celtic Bards, Chiefs "Palestine Song" [see Ex. i], in Hans
and Kings (1928); W. Evans, The Bards Sachs's "Silberweise" [SchGMB, no. 78],
of the Isles of Britain (1930); A. Dol- and in many chorales of the i6th century,
mctsch, ^Translations from the Pennlynn
Manuscript of Ancient Harp Music
(1937); id., in The Consort (i93off);
P. Crossley-Holland, "Secular Homo- J. 41- Let- cot Ube i^K mtr werde 1 $ t t nun. $u*-<iic
3 Dai hire Urvt unL oucK cUe CT- <Le A Jem. man vtl <Ur
phonic Music in Wales in the Middle- 7- D
relationship between the medieval Bar and Baritone horn. See *Brass instruments
the classical sonata, the similarity is note-
III(c).
worthy, all the more as the Abgesang of
the early songs frequently shows certain Bar-line [Fr. barrel G. Tafystrick} . The
elementary development features, such as vertical line used to indicate the begin-
higher range, *Fortspinnung, and greater ning and the end of a measure. The con-
intensity in general, as appears, e.g., in the sistent use of the bar-line is of relatively
"PalestineSong" and in Hans Sachs's recent date. Original bar-lines appear first
"Morgenweise" [EiBM, no. 9]. It may in the German organ tablatures of the
be noted that in pieces such as the first i5th century (Ileborgh, 1448; Paumann,
movement of Bach's cantata mentioned 1452). In the 1 6th century they were al-
above the Barform of the chorale ("Wa- most universally employed for the writing
chet auf") leads to a structure which is down of keyboard and lute music. Their
quite similar to that of sonata-form. See use frequently differed considerably from
also *Binary and ternary form. that of the present day, however, as ap-
A. Lorenz has tried to show (with ques- pears from the accompanying Example i
tionable success) that the Barform is the (Pisador, Libro de musica de vihucla,
in R. Wag- 1552: "Pavana myllana"), in which the
leading principle of structure
[75]
BAROQUE MUSIC BAROQUE MUSIC
original barring is given on the staff, the The term baroque (probably from Port.
modern barring below the staff. [For a barrocco, a pearl of irregular form) was
similar example cf. ApMZ ii, 21; cf. also used formerly, and still is today, in a de-
y 653.] In ensemble (vocal) mu- cidedly depreciatory sense, as meaning
"grotesque," "in corrupt taste" [cf. Web-
ster], "overladen with scroll-work," etc.
Fine Arts was based
Its application to the
on the opinion (Jacob Burckhardt) that
17th-century style in architecture and
paintings was a debased Renaissance style.
This opinion, however, was thoroughly
revised about 1900 by Heinrich Wolfflin,
who was the first to point out the positive
contributions and the great artistic quali-
itPisador; 2: Josquin ties of Baroque art, and to vindicate the
sic the bar-line was not introduced until term Baroque from any implication of in-
toward the end of the i6th century, when feriority. More recently, musical historians
the notation in single parts gave way to have followed suit and have adopted the
notation in score arrangement. The arias term alongside others such as *Renais-
of the jyth century frequently show the sance, *Gothic, *Rococo [see *History of
anomalous use of the bar-line referred to Music]. In view of this situation, the re-
sistance which the term "Baroque music"
above, i.e., the disregard of upbeat or of
accent [cf. the explanations and examples important and well-defined period of mu-
in RiHM ii.2, 12, etc.].
sic history within the
general frame of cul-
Modern editors of polyphonic music of tural development, and of avoiding the
the 1
5th and i6th centuries have increas- emphasis on a special feature of somewhat
ingly resented the "tyranny of the bar- secondary importance which is implied
line" and have tried to make this indis- in the term "thorough-bass period" a
term which, by the way, does not prop-
pensable device of modern notation less
conspicuous by replacing it by apostro- erly include one of the most important
branches of 17th-century music, namely,
phes: ', by punctuated lines: [, or by the
that for organ and harpsichord.
Mensurstrich, i.e., a line drawn between,
not through, the staves [Ex. 2, from Jos- Both the beginning and the end of the
music are rather
quin, Ave Christe, immolate]. Unfortu- Baroque period in clearly
nately, the Mensurstrich is impracticable defined, much more so than those of most
if different meters other the Renais-
(mensurations) are periods, particularly
used in different parts, e.g., %
against %,
sance.
with the
Baroque music starts about 1600,
a practice which is not infrequent in the rise of monody, opera, oratorio,
period of Obrecht and Josquin, and still cantata, recitative, and closes 150 years
more frequent in the compositions of the later, with the death of Bach and Handel.
late *Ars nova. Preparatory phenomena are, on the one
Lit.: W. H. Cummings, "Bar-lines" hand, the *ballettos and *villanellas with
their reaction against the Flemish
(Musical Times, 1904, p. 574); Th.Wieh- po-
mayer, in ZMW
vii; H. Keller, in ZMW lyphony, and on the other hand, the style
vii; WoHN1^27; ApNPM, passim.
of the *Venetian School
(G. Gabrieli),
the pomp and splendor of which exceed
Baroque po^pic.
The music of the pe- the limitations of true Renaissance art
riod following upon that of
c. 1 600^1750, and foreshadow the aesthetic basis of
the *Renaissance. It is also frequently re- Baroque style. It may be noticed that
ferred to as the "thorough-bass period." throughout the i7th century the tradition
[76]
BAROQUE MUSIC BAROQUE MUSIC
persisted to some the early *canzona as well as in the solo-
of Renaissance music
extent in the *Roman School, and that, tutti alternation of the *concerto
grosso
on the other hand, a new period, the and in the *echo-effects of vocal and of
*Rococo, had already begun when Bach organ music. Other basic conceptions of
and Handel were writing their greatest Baroque music are *improvisation and
masterpieces, the true culmination points "ornamentation. Lastly, mention must
of Baroque music. be made of the final establishment of tonic
Generally speaking, the Baroque period and dominant as the principal chords of
is an era of ecstasy and exuberance, of harmony and, about 1650 (Carissimi), of
dynamic tensions and of sweeping ges- four-measure phrases [see *Vierhebig-
tures, an era of longing and of self-denial, keit].
much in contrast to the assuredness and At the beginning ofthe iyth century
self-reliance of the Renaissance. It is the we find three great figures still rooted in
period in which men liked to consider the tradition of the Renaissance but in-
this life as the "vale of tears," in which augurating the novel trends of Baroque
the statues of the Saints look rapturously music, namely, Monteverdi, G. Gabrieli,
toward heaven, in which the clouds and and Sweelinck. They may be considered
the infinite landscape were discovered. as the sources of three main streams run-
Much of this attitude is reflected in the ning through Baroque music, that is,
expressive melodies of the lyth century, vocal, instrumental, and organ music, to
in its long coloraturas, in its pathetic reci- which, in turn, the three styles mentioned
tative, its frequent use of chromaticism, above can be roughly coordinated, name-
its capricious rhythms. Particularly the ly, accompanied melody, concerto style,
true polyphony not only persisted but Oper und Oratorium im Barocl^ (1933);
reached, in Bach, its very acme of perfec- P. Nettl, Musil(batoc\ in Bohmen und
tion and greatness. Athird principle of Mahren ( 1927) E. Wellesz, Die Anfange
;
[77]
BARPYKNON BASSE DANSE
Begriff und Wesen des musikalischen Base viol. Same as bass viol. See *Viol
Barock" (ZMW xvii); E. Wellesz, "Ren- II.
aissance Barock" (Z/M xi); Th.
^und Basis. Fifteenth- and 16th-century hu-
Kroyer, "Zwischen Renaissance und Ba-
rock" (IMP xxxiv); C. Sachs, in JMP
manistic name for bass.
xxvi; A. della Corte, in LRM vi; id., in Bass [Gr. basis, foundation], (i) The
*Editions XXIV B, 3/4. lowest of men's voices [see * Voices, range
mer agrees to give up his right to Mar- Bass-bar. In violins, etc., a strip of
henka's hand for a sum of money, under wood glued inside the table, about n in.
the condition that she, marry "the son of
long and diminishing at either end. Its
Micha" whomeverybody believes to be function to support the left foot of the
is
the stuttering Vazhe^ (Wenzel, Tenor).
bridge and to spread over the table the
In the last scene, however, Yenyik is re- vibrations of the bridge produced by those
vealed as Micha's eldest son, so the "sales- of the strings.
contract" is fulfilled to everyone's satis-
faction.
Bass clef. See *Clefs.
walking movement of the feet, in contrast preserved in the lute books of Petrucci
to the jumping movements in dances (1507/9). Some of the dances in Kotter's
such as the gaillarde (danse haute, dansc tablature of 1515 evidently belong to the
sautee). Various sources from c. 1480 to same class, e.g., his "Spanieler" [see Me-
1580, theoretical, choreographic, and mu- rian's Der Tanz . . .]. Certain of the
basse danses (1530); and for ensemble in Basse d'harmonie [F.]. *Ophicleide.
his Neuf basse danses, deux branles. . .
Basset horn. See *Clarinet family III.
en musique en quatre parties (1530).
Frequently the basse danse is followed by Bassetto, bassett, bassettl. Eight-
a recoupe and a tordion, thus forming an eenth-century name for the violoncello.
favored in Italy since several dances in Bass lute, Basslaute [G.]. The *chi-
slow triple meter called bassa danza are tarrone, or the *theorboe.
[79]
BASSO B.C.
Basso [It.]. Bass. Basso continue, i.e., are of a rather limited artistic value, the
thorough-bass; basso seguente is an instru- quality is even lower in the numerous
mental bass (organ, etc.), which merely battle pieces (mostly English) of the i8th
duplicates the lowest vocal part [cf. RiHM century, some of which actually prescribed
11,2,75f]; basso profondo, cantante, see the firing of guns at certain moments.
*Voices, range of. Franz Kotzwara's Battle of Prague ( 1788)
is still known today. Beethoven made a
Basson [F.]. Bassoon. Basson quinte contribution to this repertory in his "Bat-
isa smaller bassoon, also called tenoroon.
tle Symphony," Wellington's Sieg oder
Basson russe, *Russian bassoon.
die Schlacht bei Vittoria (op. 91, 1813,
Bassoon. See *Oboe family I, C. publ. 1816). Cf. R. Glasel, Zur Geschich-
tc der Battaglia (Diss. Leipzig 1931); E.
Basso ostinato. See *Ground. Also Bienenfeld, in Z1M viii; K. G. Fellerer,
under *Ostinato. in DM xxxii.7.
Basso ripieno [It.]. In iSth-century
Battement [F.]. French 17th-century
orchestral works, a bass part for the tutti-
term for any ornament consisting of an
(*ripieno-) passages only, i.e., not for the
alternation of two adjacent tones, e.g.,
solo sections.
mordent, trill, vibrato.
Bassschltissel [G.]. TheF-clef.
Batterie [F.]. (i) The percussion
Bass viol. Properly (i7th century) the group of the orchestra. (2) A drum
viola da gamba [see *Viol II], Today, roll. (3) Eighteenth-century name for
name for the double bass, a descendant of arpeggio, broken-chord figures, *Alberti-
the old double-bass viol [see *Viol IV, i] .
basses, etc. (4) A
way of playing the
guitar by striking the strings.
Bathyphone. *See Clarinet family III.
Marignano, 1515 [repr. in *Editions XVI North America). It had numerous later
were writtdBw Adriano Banchieri [cf. BBb bass. See *Tuba (2).
ApMZ i], by jfohann Kaspar Kerll [DTB
2.ii], and others. Although these pieces B.C. Short for *basso continuo.
[so]
BE BEBUNG
Be [G.]. The sign b. will disappear if the two strings are in
perfect unison [sec the illustration Inter-
Beak flute. *Recorder.
ference, p. 14], This phenomenon is,
therefore, of fundamental importance in
Bearbeitung [G.]. Arrangement.
*tuning. Slow beats such as two to four
Beat [F. temps\ G. Zahlzeit, Schlag\ It. to the second are not unpleasant to the car.
In certain organ stops (Voix celeste and
battuta]. (i) The temporal unit of a
composition, as is indicated by the (real
Unda maris; see *Vox coelestis) beats arc
or imaginary) up-and-down movements deliberately introduced by using two
of a conductor's hand. In modern prac- pipes slightly out of tune, in order to give
the combined tone an undulating quality.
tice, the duration of such a beat varies
from M.M. 50 to M.M. 140, with M.M. 80 Beats of 5 or 6 per second produce a dis-
being a middle speed. In moderate tempo, tinctly less pleasant result, and the dis-
the % measure includes four beats, beat agreeableness of the effect increases until
the number of beats is c. 30. From there
one and beat three being strong, the oth-
ers weak, while the %
measure has three on the unpleasantness diminishes because
beats, only the first of which is strong. In
the beats rapidly become too quick to be
quick tempo, there will be only two or distinguished. This phenomenon is the
even only one beat to the measure. In basis of Helmholtz* theory of *consonance
music prior to 1600, the beat was of much and dissonance. See also Combination
less variable duration [see *Tactus, *Tem- tones.
placed before or over the written note) or allows for a repeated pressure motion of
a shaded beat (indicated by a wavy line the finger without releasing the key, a
resembling the French sign for the trill). motion which causes the tangent mo-
The plain beat is an inferior appoggia- mentarily to increase the tension of the
tura performed on the beat and of flexible string and which thus leads to slight vari-
duration. The shaked beat consists of ations of pitch. C. P. E. Bach, in his Ver-
several rapid repetitions of the appoggia- such uber die wahrc Art das Clavier zu
tura and its resolution, beginning with spielen (1753), considers the Bebung as a
the former, so that it resembles an in- great advantage of the clavichord over the
verted trill. In the i8th century the name harpsichord and the pianoforte, both of
beat is often applied to the ornament which lack this effect. It is indicated by
commonly known as the *mordent. P. A. the sign shown in Example i. [Cf. C. P. E.
(3) See *Beats.
4-54-3
Beats [F. battemcnts\ G. Schwcbungen]. r
An acoustical phenomenon, resulting from
the interference [see * Acoustics VI] of Bach's ProbestucJtfy published as Seeks
two sound-waves of slightly differing fre- Sonaten by E. Doflein, Ed. Schott, no.
quencies. It is heard as minute, yet
clear- 2353]. The Bebung is mentioned in the
of the sound theoretical writings of Printz (1668),
ly audible, intensifications
at regular intervals. The number per Mattheson (1735), Marpurg (1750),
second of these intensifications, or beats, C. P. E. Bach, and many later authors. The
is equal to the difference of frequency of sign, however, does not occur in, the litera-
the two tones. Thus, a tone of 440 cycles ture for the clavichord 'before' Bach.
will make four beats per second with a The reference in many musical books
tone of 444; three, with a tone of 443; two, to certain passages in Beethoven and
with 442; one, with 441; and the beats Chopin as Bebung is misleading. An
81]
BEG BELGIAN MUSIC
effectsuch as illustrated in Example 2 Bel canto [It., beautiful singing]. The
(Beethoven, Piano Sonatas opp. 106 and term denotes the Italian vocal technique
no; also op. 69, op. 59, no. 2, op. 133 for of the 1 8th century with its emphasis on
violin) a (slow) *tremolo (ondule),
is beauty of sound and brilliancy of perform-
not a vibrato. See *Tie. ance, rather than dramatic expression or
Romantic emotion. In spite of the re-
Bee [F.] . The mouthpiece of the clarinet
peated reactions against the bel canto
or recorder [see *Mouthpiece (b), (d)].
(Gluck, Wagner) and in spite of the fre-
BScarre [F.]. See *Accidentals. quent exaggeration of its virtuoso ele-
ment (coloraturas), it must be considered
Becken [G.]. *Cymbals 1 as a highly artistic technique and as the
parable to that of Moussorgsky, namely, varies inversely with the cubic root of its
that of the initiator of national music, weight. Therefore, if a bell weighing
freed from German as well as French in- 100 pounds sounds c'" (the actual tone
fluence. He is particularly important in is nearer b"), a bell of 800 pounds
the field of the oratorio and of the cantata. ( \ 8 = 2) will be needed for the tone of
Among his successors Jan Blockx (1851- the half frequency, c", one of 6,400 for c',
1912) and Edgar Tinel (18541912) of 51,200 pounds for c, and of 409,600
must be mentioned especially. Paul Gil- pounds for C. The largest bell ever
son (b. 1865) adopted some elements of founded was the Tsar Kolokol of the
Russian music and is particularly known Kremlin of Moscow (1734, destroyed by
for his symphonic poem La Mer (1892). fire in 1737) which, after the best estima-
A composer who in a very short life wrote tion,weighed c. 500,000 pounds, and
several works of great promise was Guil- measured over 20 feet in diameter. The
laume Lekeu (1870-94). Joseph Jongen largest bell in existence is the Trotzkoi,
(b. 1873) was active mainly in the field also in Moscow, weighing c. 350,000
of symphonic and of chamber music. The pounds. Old bells in France and in Ger-
novel trends of 20th-century music have many weigh from 20,000 to 40,000
found little response in Belgium. Paul de pounds. Large modern bells usually
Maleingreau (b. 1887) is the main repre- weigh from 5,000 to 15,000 pounds. The
sentative of neo-classical tendencies based use of bells in churches can be traced back
on Bach. to the 6th century (Gregory of Tours,
Belgium has produced a number of c. 560); the earliest record of large bells
it is likely to cause the bell to crack. Bemol [F.], bemolle [It.]. Flat. Sec
Whereas in continental Europe church *Pitch names; "Accidentals.
sounded in such a way as to pro-
bells are
duce a confused musical noise, the Eng- Benedicamus Domino. A salutation
known as "change ringing. See also *Ca- at the end of all Offices. For the latter
Bell harp. A sort of psaltery invented Benedictus (qui venit). Second part
of the Sanctus of the Mass. In Mass com-
c.1700 by John Simcock. It took its name
from the bell-shaped form of its frame. positions it is usually treated as a separate
Cf. SaRM, movement [see *Mass III],
44.
herd], (i) An 18th-century type of tor of Berlinische Odcn t&J fyedcr^ 1756;
French lyric poetry with a pastoral or numerous theoretical Tbooks); Johann
amorous subject. Cf. J.-B. Weckerlin, Kirnberger (1721-83; songs, Jiarpsichord
Bergercttes (Engl. ed. 1913). (2) In pieces, theoretical books); and Jonann Fr.
the 1 5th century, bergerette denotes a Agricola (1720-74; songs).
BERSAG HORN BINARY AND TERNARY FORM
While in the field of instrumental Bible regal [G. Bibelregal]. See
music these men, particularly C. P. E. *Regal.
Bach, made significant contributions,
their activity in the field of the *Lied
Biblioteca di Rarita Musicali. See
*Editions III.
(Berliner Liederschule) was largely frus-
trated by the spirit of rationalism and Bicinium [L. bis, twice, and canere, to
the Enlightenment to which Frederick
sing]. A
16th-century name
chiefly used
the Great, a close friend of Voltaire, had in German for vocal compositions in two
given ready admittance. The situation parts.
The Greek synonym diphona oc-
changed when a younger generation, curs also. The bicinia, which form a de-
known as Zweite Berliner Liederschule, lightful contrast to the rich texture
of the
turned from the dry moralism of Gellert late- 16th-century motet, madrigal, etc.,
to the inspiring poems of Klopstock and
represent a little-known treasure of great
the young Goethe. Johann P. A. Schulz artistic value and educational significance.
1814), and Karl F. Zelter (1758-1832) G. Rhaw, Bicinia Gallica, Latina et Ger-
are the most important members of this manica (1545; partly republished by K.
group. See *Lied IV; also *Singspiel. Ameln, Barenreiter-Verlag; by Reichen-
The name Berliner Schule is sometimes bach, Verlag Kallmeyer); Kaspar Oth-
restricted to this group.
mayr, Bicinia Sacra (1547; partly republ.
Lit.: AdHM, 6998; M. Friedlander, by Lipphardt, Bar. V.); Erasmus Roten-
Das deutsche Lied im 2
18. Jahrhundert, bucher, Diphona amoena et florida
vols. (1902); Flueler, Die norddeutsche (1549); Seth Calvisius, Biciniorum libri
Sinfonie (Diss. Berlin 1910); H. Hoff- duo (1599, 1612); E. Bodenschatz, Bi-
mann, Die norddeutsche Triosonate . . .
cinia XC
selectissima ... (1615; cf.
(Diss. Kiel 1924); E. Stiltz, Die Berliner SchGMB, no. 163). Outstanding exam-
Klaviersonate zur Zeit Friedrichs des ples are found among the works of Lud-
Grossen (Diss. Berlin 1930); A. Mayer- wig Orlando di Lasso (complete
Senfl,
Reinach, "K. H. Graun als Opernkom- works, vol. i), and Michael Praetor ius
ponist (cpl. works, vol. ix, and passim, cf. HAM,
no. i67b). An Italian publication of
Bersag horn. See *Brass instruments
IV.
bicinia is Pietro Vinci, //
primo libro della
musica a due voci (1560). Throughout
Beruhigend [G.]. Calming down. the 1
7th century numerous two-part
Bes [G.]. B-double flat. pieces were written in Italy, under the
name *ricercare [see also invention].
Beschleunigt [G.]. Accelerando. S. Scheidt, in his Tabulatura nova
Beseelt [G.]. (1624), uses the term Bicinium for organ
Soulfully.
verses and variations in two voice-parts.
Bestimmt [G.]. With decision.
See *Tricinium.
Betont [G.]. Stressed, accented. Bina. Same as vina [see *Hindu music
Beweglich [G.]. In an agile manner. II].
Beethoven, Piano Sonata op. 7; op. 10, no. notes, is too much of a "listener's simpli-
Scherzo with Trio, and in prac- fication" to be accepted in serious studies.
3), in the
tically all the ^character pieces of the The main objection against it lies in the
Romantic composers, such as Schu- fact that it does not take into account the
mann's Noveliettes, Chopin's Nocturnes, repetition of the exposition which is al-
[87]
BIND BLANCHE
(in toto or partially) of the first section at Much attention has been given to the
the end of the second [see Ex. 1-3]. The question as to the relationship between
latter is structurally identical with the bird song and our music. Certainly no
earlier type of sonata-form (Haydn, Mo- most ani-
biological relationship exists, as
zart) in which both sections are repeated. mals do not sing. Whether or not our
The same scheme exists in many dance music developed in imitation of bird song,
movements and other pieces of Bach (e.g., as has been frequently maintained, is a
in the Anglaise from his French Suite no. matter of mere speculation. Although it
3 and in the Prelude in D
of Wt. Cl. ii) is true that bird song has many features
as well as in practically all the minuets in common with primitive folk song (ir-
(scherzos) and trios of the classical pe- regularity, wavering of pitch, microtome
riod. In fact, any of these pieces may well deviations from our scale, improvisation),
serve as an example of sonata-form, show- it should be noticed that this type of folk
ing its main sections in a condensed shape. song exists chiefly in the exotic countries
Regarding a medieval type of binary form (Africa, Asia) where there are no singing
in which the first section only is repeated birds.
(as in the later examples of sonata-form), Lit.: S. P. Cheney, Wood Notes Wild
see *Barform. (1891); F. Schuyler Mathews, Field bool(
III. The principle of ternary structure of Wild Birds and Their Music (1904);
appeared first inthe French chansons of W. Garstang, Songs of the Birds (1922);
the 1 6th century (Jannequin; cf. RiHM A. R. Brand, Songs of Wild Birds (1936;
ii.i, 367). The idea of a contrasting mid- with records); E. M. Nicholson, Songs of
dle section is quite clearly expressed in the Wild Birds (1936; with records); A. A.
shepherd's solo of Monteverdi's Orfeo, Saunders, A Guide to Bird Songs of
1607 [cf. also his famous duet "Pur- North-eastern United States (1935), W.
ti miro" from LTncoronazione, 1642; B. Olds, in MQ
viii. Cf. also William
SchGMB, no. 178]. Ternary form be- Gardiner, The Music of Nature (1832),
came clearly established in the *da-capo chapter XII.
aria, c. 1700. Another realization of the
Bis [F., twice], (i) Same as *encore.
ternary construction exists in the alterna-
(2) Indication that notes or passages
tive use of two dances, the first being re-
* Alterna- should be repeated.
peated after the second [see
tive]. In 19th-century music, the ternary Biscroma [It.]. See *Notes.
form was frequently broadened into a
bass clarinet.
nature," has been the subject of innumer-
able studies. Interesting facts are that only Black-bottom. See *Jazz III.
small birds sing, that the best singers
(nightingale, I^fjL thrush, blackbird) are Blackening. Same as *coloration [see
* Mensural notation
unobtrusively*"cragged, that they prefer to
V].
sing in soHtucje aer than in flocks, that
Bladder pipe [G. Platerspiel]. See
only male BVC loud musical voices, under *Bagpipe.
and that goocT singers are found only in
moderate climates. Blanche [F.]. See *Notes.
8]
BLASINSTRUMENT BOEHM SYSTEM
Blasinstrument [G.]. *Wind instru- suiting formations (blues scale) are a
ment Blasmusi^ music for wind instru- characteristic of the *blues.
ments.
Blues. See *Jazz II; *Negro music III;
Blasquinte "blown fifth"]. A
[G., *Blue notes. Cf W. C.
Handy, The Blues
.
theory of the circle of blown fifths has Bockstriller [G., from Boc\, he-goat].
been contested. See *Tremolo (3).
Lit.: E. M. v. Hornbostel, "Die Mass-
norm kulturgeschichtliches Forsch-
als Boehm clarinet (flute). See *Boehm
ungsmittel" (in Festschrift fur P. W. system; *Clarinet (*Flute).
Schmidt, 1928); id., "Musikalische Ton- Boehm system. A system of keying a
systeme" (in H. Geiger, Handbuch der wood-wind instrument which allows the
PhysiJ^, viii, 1928); R. Lachmann, Musi^ holes to be cut in the proper acoustical
des Orients (1929); M. Bukofzer, in
position and size, and yet to be within the
Zeitschrift fur Physit(, 99 (1936) and in
spread of the average hand. It was in-
Anthropos, 32 (1937). vented around 1830 by the flutist Theo-
Blatt [G.]. Reed. bald Boehm of Munich (1794-1881) to
supersede earlier methods of keying in
Blattspiel ("playing from the sheet"). which the holes were not placed exactly
Sight-reading. from the acoustical point of view, but
in a sort of compromise-position, with
Blechinstrument [G.]. Brass instru-
greater regard to the hand than to the ear.
ment; also called simply Blech.
In spite of its complicated mechanism and
[90]
BOMBARDE BOUCHE FERMfiE
bravura style of the later Baroque (Vi- Bordun [G.], bordone [It.]. See
valdi, Tartini, Handel). *Bourdon.
The most illustrious proponent of the
Boris Godunov. Opera by Modest
Bologna although not a member
style,
proper of the school,was Arcangelo Co- Moussorgsky (1839-81), produced in
1874; orchestral revision by N. Rimsky-
relli (1653-1713), who studied and
worked at Bologna from 1666 till 1671, Korsakov, 1896. The setting is Moscow
of c. 1600,where Boris Godunov (Bass),
becoming a member of the famous Ac-
cademia Filarmonica of Bologna [see
after having murdered Dmitri, the right-
ful heir to the throne, rules over Russia,
*Accademia] in 1670. His identification
with the Bologna School is evident from but, suffering from a sense of guilt (in
the Prologue he is in a convent in order
the restrained classicism of his style as
to gain expiation), and frightened by the
well as from the title "detto il bolognese"
which appears in his op. i (1681), op. 2 appearance of a "false Dmitri" (the young
monk Gregory, Tenor), finally prays for
(1685), and op. 3 (1689).
Much of the activity of the Bologna forgiveness of his sin and, bequeathing
the crown to his young son Feodor
School centered around the chapel of San
(Mezzo-soprano), dead. falls
Petronio, which was organized by Caz-
Boris Godunov the outstanding mas-
is
zati in 1657. The reorganization of this
terpiece of Russian national opera. Its
institution, in 1701, in conformity with
musical style is remarkably advanced for
the new Neapolitan taste, probably
the time it was written, and although its
marked the end of the Bologna School.
unconventional boldness aroused great
Lit.: G. Gaspari, La Musica in San Pe-
resentment in professional circles, many
tronio (1868/70); id., Musicisti bolognesi
innovations of a more recent date have
(1875/80); F. Vatielli, Arte e vita mu-
been traced back to this work, e.g., the use
sicalea Bologna (1927); id., ^Antichi
maestri Bolognesi, vol. ii; L. Frati, in
of *parallel chords, of *modality, and
other unorthodox devices. Particularly
RMl xxi, xxiv, xxvi, xxxii. Musical exam-
nos. 228, 241, 257; striking is the prominence of the chorus,
ples in "\SchGMB,
HAM, nos. 219, 244-246; Torchi, "\L Arte
r
representing the Russian people who, it
has been said, are the real protagonist of
musicale in Italia, vol. vii; J. W. Wasie-
the opera, rather than Boris himself.
Icwski, Die Violine im Jahrhundert
77.
(Instrumentalsdtze, 1905). H. G. Mish- Borre, borry, borea [It.]. See *Bour-
kin, "The Solo Violin Sonata of the Bo- ree.
logna School" (MQ xxix, Jan.). H. G. M.
Boston, valse Boston. An American
Bombarde, bombarda. (i) French ballroom dance which was in vogue
(Italian) name for the *shawm, particu- around 1915. It is in the character of a
larly the bass size of this instrument. In slow waltz, with a more subtle rhythm
Germany, the perverted names Bomhart, and a more sophisticated accompaniment
Pomhart, Pumhart, Pommer, occur. See than the ordinary waltz. In post-war Ger-
*Oboe family III. (2). Same as *bom- many it acquired a prominent position as
Bomhart [G.]. See *Bombarde (i). 1925); Conrad Beck (jg$$*J TanzstucJ(e).
ptra*omjj}itS#jiW*fais (1914);
L. Reichen- Bow [F. archet\ G. Bogen\ It. archetto].
berg, Contribution a I historic de la "Que-
This implement of violin playing takes its
9*1
BOW BOWING
name (in all
languages) from the fact that The bow its classical and final
received
it had originally the form of a bow similar form hands of Francois Tourte
at the
to that used in archery. Chinese and (1747-1833). The most important char-
Arabian fiddles are still played with bows acteristics of his bow [Fig. 5] are the
of such shape, as were stringed instru- long, tapering, and slightly inward curv-
ments in Europe until about the I5th cen- ing stick, the use of metal or ivory
tury. During the i6th and i7th centuries plates for the tip, of Pernambuco wood
various shapes of bows were used, some of for the stick, the exact measurements for
which are reproduced here. Fig. 3 shows perfect balance, probably also the metal
ferrule of the frog through which the hair
passes evenly spread (this latter invention
isalso credited to Tourte's contemporary
JohnDodd).
The bows used for the viola, cello, and
double-bass are of the same design as the
violin bow, but successively heavier and,
with the two last-named instruments,
shorter.
Lit.: H. Saint-George, The Bow (3d
ed., 1922); H. Drager, Die Entwictyung
des Streichbogens ( 1937) ; LavE ii.3, 1744.
[93]
BOWING BOWING
(b) Dttacht. A
broad vigorous stroke under (8). It can be played in a highly
in which the notes of equal time value arc expressive manner and is
capable of nota-
bowed ble emotional intensity.
singly with a slight articulation
(g) Staccato. This is a solo effect and
theoretically consists of a number of
martele notes taken in the same stroke.
It can be executed with dazzling brilliance
eitherup-bow or down-bow, but the lat-
ter more difficult. When the bow is al-
is
Brace [F. accolade; G. Klammer}. The Branle, bransle [F., from branler, to
perpendicular line combined with a fling, to sway; It. brando}. A very popu-
bracket that joins the different staves in lar group dance of the i6th century. It
piano music or in scores. Hence, the en- was executed in a great number of local
tirety of the (two or more) staves to be varieties (Arbeau's * Orche so graphic enu-
read simultaneously. merates 26 species) many of which
were of the "follow-the-leader" type, sim-
Braille music notation. The method ilar tothe *farandole and the *cotillon.
of writing music according to the princi- It was accompanied by singing and ap-
ples of the Braille system for the blind. parently included some "swaying" move-
In this system, as is well known, raised ments of the body or of the hands. The
dots are used in various configurations all branle simple was in duple meter, the
of which are derived from an elementary branle gay in triple meter. The branle a
configuration of six dots: :.
Following
:
mener survived in the *amener of the
are the signs for the C major scale and a i
yth century and, very likely, in the Min-
few other symbols. uet. In England the dance was known
under the name "brangill" or "brawl"
[cf. Shakespeare, Love's Labour's Lost
f g a b * b iii, i]. A
17th-century Italian name is
"brando" [cf. Carlo Farina, Pavane, gag-
The rhythmic value of the note signs liarde, brandi (1626-28) ] See *Dancc
. . . .
companying example. The octave position the Saxhorn family ar^lcarned, a brass
is indicated by
special signs which nor- band is easier to establisfy and maintain.
mally appear at the beginning of each The brass band movement is
particularly
measure. Other signs indicate rests, time popular in the United States and in Eng-
[95]
BRASSED BRASS INSTRUMENTS
land,where such bands are frequently overlapping. For the general acoustical
found attached to high schools and col- properties of the brass instruments, see
leges, religious groups (Salvation Army), under *Wind instruments.
factories, etc. See *Brass instruments III; II. Orchestral Instruments. The brass
'Military band. W. D. D. section of the modern orchestra consists
of wood [see V] and, on the other hand, III.Band Instruments. Under this cat-
the "wood-wind family" includes instru- egory we group all those brass instruments
ments made of metal, e.g., the flute and the which are used chiefly in the brass band
saxophone. A
more characteristic feature and in other bands, primarily for open-air
of the family in question is the mouth- performance of marches and of other pop-
piece, which nearly always has the shape ular music. Some of them, however, have
of a cup, hence the name "cupped-mouth- occasionally been used in the orchestral
piece family" which can be accepted for scores of composers, mainly the cornet.
all practical purposes as a basis of classifi- Most of these instruments can be consid-
cation. If even this definition is
rejected ered as hybrids between the horn and the
on the ground that in certain obsolete trumpet in that they combine features of
or Oriental instruments the mouthpiece the horn (e.g., conical bore) with other
can hardly be said to have the shape of a features of the trumpet (e.g., cup-shaped
cup the instruments in question must mouthpiece). A
methodical survey of
be defined as "lip-vibrated aerophones," these instruments is
extremely difficult,
i.e., wind instruments with which the lips owing to the large variety of types and
of the player serve as a reed [see *Reed]. sizes as well as, particularly, to the utterly
The "brass instruments" as we may confusing terminology. The subsequent
call them with due reservation form survey of the most important types fol-
an extremely large group, including not lows in principle the description given in
only numerous ancient instruments but N. BessarabofF, Ancient European Musi-
also many of a more recent date which cal Instruments (1941), pp. I5off, which
were invented in the i8th and i9th cen- may be consulted for more details.
turies for military purposes, for bands, (a) Cornet [F. cornet-a-pistons', G.
and as improvements of older orchestral Kornett', It. cornetta] An instrument sim-
.
types. The subsequent grouping is in- ilar in shape to the trumpet, but shorter
tended to place the various instruments and with a relatively longer conical part.
in certain general categories which show It ispitched in Bb (sometimes in A), and
their historical or other position, a group- has a written range from f J to c'", sound-
ing which, needless to say, admits of some ing a whole-tone (or three semitones)
[96]
BRASS INSTRUMENTS I
[97]
JO
BRASS INSTRUMENTS II
T. Chinese Lapa. 2.Lur. 3.Lituus. 4. Buccina. 5. Buysmc. 6. Straight Cornctt. 7. Tenor Cornett.
8. Serpent. 9. Natural Horn. 10. Hand Horn. n. Key Bugle. 12. Bass Horn. 13. Ophicleide.
[98]
BRASS INSTRUMENTS BRASS INSTRUMENTS
lower. The cornet possesses a timbre sim- (f) Saxhorn. This is an entire family
ilar to that of the trumpet. Owing to its of instruments invented by
Adolphe Sax
shorter tube it has a considerably greater and designed on a uniform model. Their
agility and has, therefore, been used a bore is somewhat narrower than that of
good deal by French and Italian compos- the above-described instruments, result-
ers (Berlioz, Bizet, Rossini). Its tone has ing in a more brilliant timbre. They are
been described as coarse and vulgar, and all upright, with the
pipe starting hori-
has been compared unfavorably with the zontally from the mouthpiece (as in the
brilliant tone of the trumpet. This differ- tubas, etc.), and the pistons stand on top
ence, however, is largely due to a bad style of the upper horizontal part of the tube.
of playing and to the music commonly It should be noticed that the Saxhorns
associated with the instrument. made today frequently differ in details
(b) Flugelhorn [F. bugle] It. flicorno]. (width of bore, etc.) from Sax's original
An instrument similar in design and size design and therefore approach the class of
to the cornet, but with a wider bore. It is the Fliigelhorns. Most authorities maintain
usually built in Bb, more rarely in C. Its that practically impossible to make a
it is
sound is somewhat similar to that of the clear distinction between the Saxhorns
horn, but lacks the latter's mellowness. and the Fliigelhorns. Usually, the latter
The instruments named subsequently are term is restricted to the one size described
larger sizes constructed after the princi- under (b). All agree that there is an in-
ples of the Flugelhorn. They might be extricable confusion of nomenclature in
considered as forming a family for which thisgroup. The most important types of
the generic name "bugles" is often used. Saxhorns are: (i) in Eb or F (Sopranino
The largest members of the family are Saxhorn, Soprano Saxhorn, Soprano Flu-
the *tubas and these are the only ones gelhorn, etc.); (2) in Bb or C (Soprano
used in the orchestra. See also below, Saxhorn, Alto Saxhorn, Alto Flugelhorn) ;
under (f). in low Eb or F (Alto Saxhorn, simply
(c) Baritone [F. bugle t&nor\ G. Tenor- Saxhorn, Althorn, Tenor Saxhorn, etc.);
horn; It. flicorno tenore]. This is a larger in low Bb or C (Baritone Saxhorn, Alt-
instrument pitched C or Bb, and built in horn, Tenor horn, etc.). See *Saxtromba.
two shapes, either in the usual shape of IV. Military Instruments. Under this
the trumpets with the bell pointing up- heading brief mention may be made of
wards, or oval with the bell facing back- instruments used for the purpose of sig-
wards. The range is from E to b'b. naling. They are all natural instruments,
(d) Euphonium [F. basse a pistons; G. restricted to the tones 2 to 6 of the har-
Baryton; It. Eufonio]. Its shape, pitch, monic series, e.g., g-d'-g'-b'-d" for an in-
and range are the same as those of the strument built in G. The most common
baritone. A
larger bore, however, gives it of theseis the bugle [F. clalron\ G. Sig-
a broader, mellower timbre and favors the nalhorn\ It. cornetta segnale] built in G
lower notes. French and other composers or Bb and occasionally in F. Bugles have
have used it in
place of the tuba, e.g., been furnished with a single valve lower-
Stravinsky in Petrouchfa. ing the pitch a fourth, and these are
(e) Helicon. These are bass and con- known under the name Bersag horn.
trabass tubas in a circular form (similar V. History, (a) Trumpets and horns,
to the shape of the horn) instead of the though existing in many ancient cultures,
upright form of the tubas. The circle is were very late in acquiring those proper-
wide enough to allow the player to carry ties which made them useful as musical
the instrument over the shoulder. An instruments in the proper sense of the
American variety, characterized by a spe- word. Only a few tones of the harmonic
bell, is the sousaphone series were available on the primitive in-
cially designed
(named after lohn Philip Sousa who sug- struments, a fact which restricted their
gested it). In Germany similar instru- use to the purpose of signaling, either in
ments are called Bombardon. religious ceremonies or in military serv-
[99]
BRASS INSTRUMENTS BRASS INSTRUMENTS
ice. Moreover, the trumpets and horns of folded trumpet. The same principle was
the Jews, Greeks, Romans, etc., possessed also applied to the larger buisine , which
a sound which was far from agreeable but by the i^th century had acquired the dis-
rather terrifying, as are to the present day tinguishing feature of the modern trom-
the trumpets of China, Tibet, India. Plu- bone, i.e., the slides [see *Trombone II],
tarch likens the sound of the Egyptian In the i5th and i6th centuries trumpets
trumpet to the bray of an ass, and the became associated with heraldry [see
Jewish ceremonial horn, *shofar y even ^Trumpet II], while the wooden *cornett
today fills the congregation with awe and [G. Zinf(] acquired a prominent place in
fright. The Jews also had a long straight the chamber music of the i6th century.
trumpet made of silver, the hasosra [see Its was built in a clumsy serpen-
bass size
*
Jewish music]. The Greek straight tine shape and, therefore, called serpent.
trumpet, called salpinx, was taken over All these instruments had side-holes cov-
from the Orient. The same shape occurs ered by the fingers [see *Wind instru-
with the Roman tuba, a straight instru- ments IV(d)]. Later a few keys were
ment made of bronze, about four feet in added in order to facilitate playing, par-
length. The Romans also had a trumpet ticularlywith the large serpent which, in
which curved upwards at the end in the an improved form, doubled up on itself
shape of a J, called lituus, while the buc- like the bassoon, became known under
cina or cornu was entirely curved in the the name of bass horn or Russian bassoon
shape of a G
and was provided with a [see*Cornett],
wooden crossbar, forming the diameter, (c) About 1650 begins the development
by which it was carried over the shoulder. of the modern horn and trumpet which is
Among the most interesting examples of briefly described under *Horn II and
ancient trumpets are the Nordic *lurer *Trumpet II. Here it will suffice to men-
which, although of pre-historic age, show tion a group of instruments which devel-
a high degree of perfection in bronze oped about 1800 and are characterized by
founding. the use of side-holes (as in the much older
Horns were originally made from ani- cornetts), operated by keys. This princi-
mals' horns as, e.g., the shofar, which is ple was applied, not only to horns and
made from a ram's horn, or Babylonian trumpets, but also to bugles [see IV] with
ox-horns which, we are informed, were which proved more successful (Joseph
it
covered with gold and studded with pre- Halliday, 1810). The {ey bugle or Kent
cious stones.Metal horns, S-shaped and bugle (Kent horn), as it was named in
widening as the animal's horn, are much honor of the Duke of Kent [F. bugle a
rarer in ancient cultures than the more clts\ G. Klappcnhorn], remained in use
cylindrical trumpets (whether straight or until the second half of the i()th century.
curved, as the cornu, which, in spite of its Later a larger size was constructed under
name, must be classified as a trumpet), the name
ophicleide, which had the dou-
probably owing to the greater difficulty of bled-up shape of the Russian bassoon.
founding. They are also relatively rare Spontini prescribed it in his opera Olym-
among the Oriental nations, pia (1819), and Mendelssohn in his over-
(b) In Europe, also, trumpets appear ture to A
Midsummer-Night's Dream
much earlier than horns. With the Ro- (1826). Although soon replaced by the
man armies their various trumpets spread tuba in the orchestra, the ophicleide was
over Europe. After A.D. 1000 the straight used in Italian, French, Spanish, and
tuba acquired the shape of a long and slim South American bands up to this cen-
pipe with a rather large funnel-shaped tury.
bell. This instrument was called buisine Lit.: A. Carse, "Brass Instruments in
(from Lat. buccina, which, however, was the Orchestra" (ML iii); J. M. Barbour,
circular), while smaller sizes were called "The Use of Brass Instruments in Early
trombetta. From the early part of the i5th Scores" (BAMS iv) See also under
we have the first evidence of a *Wind # Turmsonaten.
century instruments;
[100]
BRATSCHE BRAZIL
Bratsche * of a Brazilian Rhapsody for piano and
[G., from It. viola da brae-
do}. The German name for the viola. orchestra. Alberto Nepomuceno (1864-
Bratschist, viola player. 1920) was the precursor of the modern
National school through his utilization
Brautlied [G.]. Bridal song. of Brazilian elements in such works as
Bravoure [F.], bravura fit., literally his orchestral "Brazilian Suite" and prel-
ude to Garatuja. He also composed many
"courage"], denotes greatest ease in con-
quering technical difficulties. Hence, the songs which laid the basis for the modern
term aria di bravura [G. Bravur-ane\ Brazilian lied. Another pioneer of na-
for an aria in a brilliant, virtuoso-like tionalism in music was Brasilio Itibere
style. (1846-1913), whose orchestral fantasia,
"Sertaneja," is based on Brazilian folk
Brawl. Old English perversion for
themes. In the popular field, the most
*branle.
noteworthy composer was Ernesto Naza-
Brazil. The first music school in Brazil, reth ( 1863-1934), creator of the Brazilian
the Conservatorio da Fazenda Nacional tango and author of nearly 500 pieces in
de Santa Cruz, was founded by the Jesuits, popular style.
who were the educate the natives
first to Dean of contemporary Brazilian com-
of this country in European ways. Asso- posers is Francisco Braga (b. 1868), who
ciated with this school was the greatest has also distinguished himself as a con-
Brazilian composer of the Colonial pe- ductor. He has written symphonic and
riod, Jose Mauricio Nunes Garcia (1767- dramatic works, chamber music, etc. The
1830), a priest who wrote mostly religious Brazilian art song has been carried to a
music, including an admirable Requiem high degree of perfection by Oscar Lo-
in D
minor, showing the influence of renzo Fernandez (b. 1897), who is also the
Mozart and Haydn. He was followed by composer of a successful opera, Malazarte
Francisco Manoel (1795-1865), compos- (Rio, 1941), and of several symphonic
er of the Brazilian National Anthem, and works imbued with Brazilian color, such
founder, in 1841, of the Conservatory in as "Reisado do Pastoreio," "Imbapara,"
Rio de Janeiro which later became the and "Batuque." In his chamber-music
Escola Nacional de Musica. The prestige output, a trio for piano, violin, and cello is
of Brazilian music was greatly enhanced notable. An exact contemporary of Fer-
abroad by the success of Carlos Gomes nandez Francisco Mignone, professor
is
operas, including // Guarany (1870), were them three Brazilian Fantasias for piano
received with acclaim at La Scala of Mi- and orchestra, and "Maracatu do Chico
lan. The overture to // Guarany is doubt- Rei." Other contemporaries who should
less the best-known orchestral composi- be mentioned are Barrozo Netto (1881-
tion to come out of South America. Oth- 1941), Fructuoso Vianna, and, among
er operas by Gomes include Fosca, Maria the younger men, Radames Gnattali, Luiz
Tudor, Lo Schiavo, and Condor. A pio- Cosme,and especially Camargo Guarnieri,
neer symphonic composer was Leopoldo composer of a splendid Concerto for piano
Miguez (1850-1902), who wrote the first and orchestra and other works revealing
symphonic poems composed in Brazil; he a powerful creative temperament.
also wrote an opera of Wagnerian tenden- A place apart must be reserved for the
cies, Saldunes, and a notable Sonata for greatest of contemporary Brazilian com-
violin and piano. The Romantic tradi- posers and probably the most outstand-
tion was represented by Henrique Oswald ing composer of all Latin America
(1852-1931), noteworthy especially for Heitor Villa-Lobos (b. 1881), amazingly
his chamber music, and by Alexandre prolific and original creator of some 1400
Levy (1864-92), a brilliant pianist, author works, including many characteristic
101 ]
BRAZIL BRIS
piano pieces that mark a new style of Breit [G.]. Broad. Brett gestrichen,
writing for the instrument. Among his broadly bowed.
larger works, especially notable are the
Breve, Brevis. An old note value,
Chores No. 8 for orchestra, Choros No.
ft or ty, and equal to two whole-
written
10 for orchestra and chorus, the sym-
notes. See *Notes; * Mensural notation.
phonic poem "Amazonas," "Dansas
Also *Alla breve.
Africanas" for orchestra, and "Momo
Precoce" for piano and orchestra. Among Breviary, Breviarium. See '"Liturgi-
his most recent works are 5 cal books I
(b).
suites, for
various instrumental combinations, en-
Bridge [F. chevalet, G. Steg- It. pontt-
titled "Bachianas Brasileiras," being com-
cello}.(i) In stringed instruments, the
positions in which the spirit of Brazilian wooden support atop the table across
folk music is fused with that of J. S. Bach.
which the strings are stretched. Its shape
Although Villa-Lobos' production is un- and size difler in the various instruments.
even in quality, and though he lacks a
The bridge of the double-bass has "legs."
finished technique and a sense of organic
In spite of its symmetrical appearance,
form, at his best he creates works which the two halves of the bridge serve some-
are entirely sui generis and which, more
what different purposes. The right
than any others, seem to represent the
(treble) foot rests firmly upon the table,
music of the New World. Villa-Lobos
very nearly above the sound post, while
has been very active in promoting musi-
the other, having no such support, trans-
cal education in Brazil and at present he
mits the vibrations of the string to the
is director of public school music in Rio
body of the instrument. The present-day
de Janeiro.
shape of the violin bridge was developed
Most of the modern Brazilian com-
in the time of Antonio and Gerolamo
posers have drawn freely upon the rich Amati (c. 1550-1630)
and colorful folk music of Brazil, which
(2) Short for *bridge passage.
is
composed of Portuguese (some Span-
ish), African, and Indian elements. Of Bridge passage. In musical composi-
these the African element perhaps the
is tions a passage of subordinate importance
most potent. A
pioneer in the study and serving as a connection between two
collecting of Brazilian folk music was Lu- themes. It consists of figurations, se-
ciano Gallet, whose work in this field has quences, or other subsidiary material.
been continued by such notable folklorists Frequently it effects the modulation of
as Mario de Andrade and Luiz Heitor key, e.g., from the first to the second
Correa de Azevedo, the latter professor theme in *sonata-form.
of national folk music at the Escola Na Brillenbass from Brille, spec-
[G.,
cional de Musica. Many Brazilian com-
tacle].Derogatory nickname for stereo-
posers have written *modinhas, the char-
acteristic love song of Brazil, of Portu-
typed accompanying figures in the man-
ner of the * Alberti bass the abbreviated
guese origin, usually of a rather melan- *
writing of which [see Abbreviations,
choly and sentimental nature. Popular Ex. 4, 5] suggests a pair of spectacles.
dances are the *Maxixe and the * samba.
Lit.: G. Pereira de Mello, A Musica no Brindisi [It.]. Drinking song, such as
Brasil (Bahia, 1908); R. Almeida, His- occurs in operas, e.g.,
in Verdi's Traviata
toria da Musica Brasileira (Rio de Janeiro, ("Libiamo"), Mascagni's Cavalier ia rus-
1926); M. de Andrade, Ensaio sobre Mu- ticana ("Viva il
vino").
sica Brasileira (Sao Paulo, 1928); L. Gal- Con With
Brio, [It.]. vigor and spirit.
let, Estudos do Folclore (Rio de Janeiro,
i934);f Musique Brtsilienne Moderne, Brise [F.]. French iSth-century name
preface byAndrade Murky (Rio de Ja- for the *turn. In modern terminology,
neiro, 1937); A. T. Luper, The Music of indication for arpeggio playing, or for de-
Brazil (1943). G.C. tached bowing.
BROADCASTING BUFFO
Broadcasting. See *Radio broadcast- in 1703, 1704, and 1709. Some of these
ing of music. songs occur in the harpsichord pieces by
Chambonniere and d'Anglebert, e.g., the
Broderie [F.]. (i) French term for
Sarabande de Jeunes Zcphirs, and the
coloratura; also found in German writ-
Gavotte Ou estes vous allez. Others were
ings, not so much for "virtuoso passages,"
but for carefully designed "embroideries," adopted later into the comic opera. Cf.
P. M. Masson, in SIM xii.
such as occur in the polyphonic music of
the 1 5th century [Ockeghem; cf., e.g., Bruscamente [It.]. Brusquely.
SchGMB, no. 52]. (2) Same as aux-
tone [see *Nonharmonic tones 1, 5] .
Bruststimme [G.]. Chest voice.
iliary
Broken octave. Sec under *Short Buccina [L.]. An ancient Roman brass
octave. instrument [see *Brass instruments V
(a)]. The name reappears in the medi-
Browning. A
type of i6th- and lyth- eval *buisine, in the German word Po-
century English instrumental music, sim- saune (i.e., trombone), and in the French
ilar to the *Jnnomine, but with the cantus
buccin. The lastwas a pseudo-antique
firmus taken from a secular song: "The trombone used during the
variety of the
leaves be greene, the nuts be browne" or, French revolution for festive occasions,
perhaps, from other popular melodies. with the bell shaped into a dragon's head.
Examples by Byrd, Bevin, Woodcock, Cf. LavE ii.3, 1449.
Stoninge, Coperario (?), and Jenkins (?)
are preserved. Cf. E. H. Meyer, Die Buchstabenschrift. *Letter notation.
mehrstimmige Spielmusil^ des 17. Jahr- Buckwheat notation. See under *Fa-
hunderts (1934), pp. 13^
sola.
lections of Brunettes ou petits tendre airs basso buffo (e.g., Leporello in Mozart's
BUGLE BURGUNDIAN SCHOOL
Don Giovanni). Hence, a singer for Burgundian cadence. See under
comic parts. See *Comic opera. Buffon- *Landini cadence.
istenstreit, see *Bouffons (2).
Burgundian School. The leading
Bugle. A military instrument [see
music school of the early I5th century,
*Brass instruments IV]. The term is also represented chiefly by Guillaume Dufay
used as generic name for the entire group (c. 1400-74) and Gilles Binchois (c.
of brass instruments described under 1400-67). It forms the Hnk between the
*Brass instruments III (b)-(e). For the *Ars nova (i4th century) and the *Flem-
ish Schools(1450-1600) [see ^History of
key bugle (Kent bugle) see *Brass in-
struments V
(c). music]. In older writings, the Burgun-
dian School is called First Netherlands
Buisine. See *Buysine. School [see ^Netherlands Schools]. To-
day, the term Burgundian School is pre-
Bulgarian music. The history of Bul- ferred because the musical activity of this
garian music is closely linked with that period centered in the cultural sphere of
of Russia. The folk song as well as the the kingdom of Burgundy which, under
liturgical music of the Bulgarians has Philip the Good (1419-67) and Charles
been much less exposed to Western influ- the Bold (1467-77), included the whole
ence than, e.g., that of the Czechs. The of eastern France as well as Belgium and
Bulgarians possess a large repertory of the Netherlands. Its court at Dijon was
traditional songs, mostly heroic, which the leading center of culture for all Eu-
they consider one of their greatest treas- rope, a culture which manifested itself
ures. Most of their folk music is dance- in the paintings of the brothers Van Eyck
like, though irregular meters are frequent. as well as in the fantastic fashion of peaked
A few examples of very early folk music shoes, long cone-shaped hats, and extrava-
in rhapsodicrhythm, uncertain intervals, gant colors which still survives in the
microtonic ornaments (glissando), etc.,
"once-upon-a-time" setting of our fairy
still survive in some provinces. The chief tales.
instruments are the gaida, a bagpipe, and The music of the Burgundian School
the *gusla, a primitive bowed instrument
represents a reaction against the complex-
with one string. The liturgical music of
ity and mannerism of the late Ars nova.
the Bulgarian Church was largely that of
Strongly influenced by the English Dun-
the Russian Church, until the adoption
stable, Dufay and Binchois developed a
of the Greek rites, in the i9th century. musical language whose beauty and ten-
The music did not begin
activity in art der sweetness is just as lively today as it
until 1900. Pancho Vladigerov (b. 1899) was 500 years ago. Perhaps their most
is the leading
composer of the present. important contribution was the establish-
Lit.: P. Panoff, Die altslavische Volfa- ment of the third as a principal interval
und Kirchenmusi\ (Bikken's and hue h, H of melodic design. Many melodies of
1930); id., "Die Volksmusik der Bul- Dufay and Binchois (particularly those
garen" (Melos iv, H. i); Ch. Obresch- from their later period) are "orna-
koff, Das bulgansche VolJ^slied (1937); mented triads" [see Ex.; Dufay, Grain dre
AdHM, ii69 f; cf. MoML, 104.
particularly one consisting of syllables gundian cadence, which, with its two
without meaning, as, e.g., "Hey troly lo," leading-tones, contributes largely to the
or "Fa la la." Such burdens are common transcendental sensuousness of Burgun-
in the *ballettos of the dian music, as do also the high range of
i6th/i7th centu-
ries [see also the men's voices (high tenors, *falsetto),
*Fa-la].
[104]
BURLA BYZANTINE CHANT
and the simultaneous use of strongly dis- Busspsalmen [G.] *Penitential psalms.
.
apply chiefly to the latest members of the language of the Byzantine Church was
it has become more and more
Burgundian School. Examples in HAM, Greek, ap-
nos. 6572. parent that the Byzantine music as
Lit.: W. Ambros, Geschichte der Musi\ well as the whole of Byzantine culture
iii
(1891); E. Dannemann, Die spatgo- was not a continuation of that of the an-
tische Musityradition in FranJyeich und cientGreeks (as has long been assumed)
Burgund vor dem Aujtreten Dufay's but constituted a new tradition based to
(1936); J. Wolf, "Dufay und seine Zeit" some extent on Oriental (Jewish) models
(StM i) ;
Ch. van den Borren, "\Polyphonia [see Tillyard, Wellesz]. The Byzantine
sacra (1932); J. F. R. and C. Stainer, system of modes (*echoi), for example,
differs sharply from that of the so-called
f Dufay and his Contemporaries (1898);
K. Dezes, "fMessen- und Motettensatze Greek modes (tonoi) but is quite similar
des 75. Jahrhunderts (1927); W. Gurlitt, to that of the Western Church [see
^Gilles Binchois, 16 welrliche Liedcr *Church modes],
(1927); H. Besseler, "\Guillaume Dujay,
II. The Byzantine chant has many
12 geistliche und weltliche Wert{e ( 1932); features in common with Gregorian
J. Marix, "fLcs Musiciens de
la cour de chant, being monophonic, unaccompa-
Bourgogne au XV e siecle, 1420-67 and devoid of strict
nied, chiefly diatonic,
meter. A fundamental difference between
(1937). See also *Chansonnier.
the two bodies of chant, however, is that
Burla, burlesca, burletta [It., jest]. of their textual basis. While the Western
A composition in a jesting mood. Bach's tradition adopted the Jewish psalms as
A minor Partita has a Burlesca; Schu- the basis of their texts, the liturgical texts
mann's Albumbldlter include a Burla. of the Eastern Church are all free poetry
ning of a new era, that of the fontafyon, cance of the neumatic signs, on the basis
with Romanus (c. 500) and Sergios (c. of information contained in certain theo-
600) as the leading figures. kontakion A retical manuals called papadife. The
is an ode consisting of a short principal feature of this notation is that
prooemium
(introduction) and a great number (20- its signs do not indicate
pitches (as do,
30) of stanzas of uniform structure which more or less exactly, the Western
end with a refrain (either a single word neumes), but intervals to be taken from
such as . time," or a
". .
complete line) the tone reached previously. The starting
and which, by their initial letters, form an note was indicated by a special sign (the
acrostic. The most famous example of martyrion), which signified the echos of
this species is the *acathistos.
Troparia the melody. Thus, in Byzantine notation,
and kontakia were superseded around the melody deggafgd
would be no-
700 by the \anon (Andrew of Crete, tated as a succession of intervals according
c. 650-720; John of Damascus; and Kos- to the following scheme: (d)stust_
mas of Jerusalem, c. 750). The kanons s f_ (s
= second, u unison, t = third,
chant, the early Byzantine "neumes" First Ode of a Canon for Saturday
(c.950-1200) cannot be deciphered. in Holy Week
Only a few melodies from some of the
latest MSS of this period, written in the Kukuzelian notation; see also *Teretism).
so-called Coislin system^ have been tran- In the 1 8th century, Turkish and Arabian
scribed with the help of parallel versions elements were introduced into the chant
the notation of
existing in later sources, (Lampadarios, c. 1730-70), thus leading
[106]
CACOPHONY
to a complete destruction of the tradition. publication was taken over in 1942 by the
At the beginning of the ipth century the Byzantine Institute (American Branch,
Greek archimandrite Chrysanthos devel- *
Boston). See *Acathistus; Acclamation;
oped a notation which utilizes the prin- *Akoluthia; *Automela; *Echos; *Sti-
ciples and some of the details of the By- cheron.
zantine notation and which is still used Lit.: H. J. W. Tillyard, Byzantine
today for the chants of the Greek Church. Music and Hymnography (1923); E.
From our present-day state of knowl- Wellesz, Byzantinische Musi\ (1927);
edge, the MSS of the i2th and I3th cen- O. Tiby, La Musica bizantina (1938);
turies represent the classical tradition of L. Tardo, L'antica mdurgia bizantina
Byzantine chant. The example on p. 106 (1938); ReMMA, i, i26ff;
75ff; AdHM
[cf. MQ 208] illustrates the style
xxiii, GD i, 514^; H. Tillyard, in
J. W. MQ
which prevails in the chants of this period xxiii and in ML
iv; E. Weliesz, in i; PMA
[cf. alsoH^fM, no. 8]. O. Strunk, "The Tonal System of Byzan-
In 1935 C. Hoeg, H. J. W. Tillyard, tine Music" (MQ
xxxviii); O. Gombosi,
and E. Wellesz started a complete edition in AM For additional bibliog-
x, xi, xii.
of medieval Byzantine Musical MSS, raphy, cf ReMMA, 4328: and O. Tiby, in
under the title Monumenta Musicae By- RMl xli, xlii.
C. (i) See *Letter notation; *Pitch half of that century (Giovanni da Cascia,
names; *Hexachord. (2) C, as an ab- Jacopo da Bologna; see *Ars nova). The
breviation, may stand for: con (colla, text deals with hunting and fishing scenes
coll'), i.e., with [see C.a.; *C.b.; *C.o.; (peseta) or with similar subjects of a
*C.s.]; cantus [see *C.f.]; capo [see strongly marked naturalistic character
*D.c.]. In modern part songs C means (fire, cries of street vendors, etc.). The
contralto^ in 16th-century part books, musical form is a strict canon in two parts
cantus. at the distance of eight or more measures.
These "chasing" voices are usually sup-
C.a. Abbreviation for [It.] coif arco,
ported by a free tenor in longer note val-
with the bow.
i.e.,
ues. The form originated in France
Cabaletta [It., possibly from cobola 9
around 1300 (chace\ cf. BcMMR, 131),
but developed in Italy. For a Spanish
cobla, couplet; the derivation from
i.e.,
examples is "La bella imagine" in Gluck's iii, nos. 42, 56; HAM,
no. 52; J. Wolf,
Paride e Elena ( 1770). In the later Italian IfSing- und Spielmusi\ aus alterer Zeit,
no. 7.
opera (Verdi) the term was applied to
the final stretto close of arias or duets in Cachucha. An Andalusian dance simi-
which elaborate treatment usually gives lar to the *bolero. It was introduced to
way to quick, uniform rhythm. the opera by Fanny Elssler in the ballet of
Le Diable boiteux (1836).
Caccia [It., chase, hunt] . An important
form of 14th-century Italian poetry and Cacophony [from Gr. \a\os, bad].
music which was chiefly used in the first Bad sound, discord. Richard Strauss's
CADENCE CADENCE
tone-poems were decried as cacophony at penultimate chord, there is a choice be-
the time of their first performance. tween the dominant (V) and the sub-
dominant (IV), both in root position.
Cadence [from L. cadere, to fall; G. The combination V-I is called authentic
Kadenz; It. cadenza]. I. A melodic or cadence [Ex. ij, the progression I V-I,
harmonic formula which occurs at the
end of a composition, a section, or a plagal cadence [Ex. 2]. The authentic
cadence occurs usually in the fuller form
phrase, conveying the impression of a IV-V-I
or permanent conclusion. In (IIMM) [Ex. 3 1 or, still more
momentary IV-I-V-I 8
each period of music there exist a rather complete, (II -I-V-I) [Ex.
limited number of such formulae or, at 4]. All four of these last are sometimes
limited number of types of which called mixed cadences.
least, a
The remaining cadences fall into two
allclosing passages are but variations or
modifications. Those which were in cur- classes,imperfect, and deceptive (or inter-
rent use during the i8th and i9th centu- rupted) cadences. The imperfect cadences
ries have been studied in great detail. are the same as the two elementary perfect
Unfortunately, the classification and ter- cadences, except that they have the tonic
in this field are greatly lacking chord in another arrangement, e.g., with
minology
in uniformity and frequently also in clar- the third or fifth in the soprano [Ex. 5! ;
The following presentation is made or have the penultimate chord in inver-
ity.
with a view, not to completeness of the sion [Ex. 6] these are called inverted
enumeration of terms, but to clarification or medial cadence, as opposed to a radical
of the essential points [cf. the chapter on [L. radix, root] cadence; or occur in
"Cadences" in W. Piston, Harmony transposition to the dominant or (more
(1941)]. rarely, the subdominant) [Ex. 710],
A
cadence is called perfect (final, full) These "transposed" cadences occur almost
if it can be
satisfactorily and normally regularly at the end of the first half of a
used as the close of a composition. Ac- musical phrase and are therefore termed
108]
CADENCE CADENZA
cadence]. After 1400 another modifica- schmidt, Studien zur Geschichte der
tion of the II-I cadence
appears in which italienischen Oper (1901), i, 212],
the contra-tenor jumps up an octave from III. The cadences of the classical and
the lower fifth to the higher fifth [Ex. 20] . romantic periods offer little historical in-
terest since they usually conform with the
standard types outlined in I. Toward the
end of the i9th century, however, the
amplification of the harmonic vocabu-
lary brought with it numerous novelties
in the writing of cadences, such as the use
of modal cadences [Ex. 25; Moussorgsky,
Boris Godunov, 1869], the use of a dis-
sonant final chord [Ex. 26; Ravel, Les
grands vents], of polytonal formations
[Ex. 27; Busoni, Sonatina Seconda, 1912]
and, more recently, the return to a "con-
trapuntal" type of cadence reminiscent of
medieval cadences in the stepwise motion
of the bass and in their "plagal" feeling
[Ex. 28; Hindemith, Sonate fur Klavier,
1936].
Lit.: A. Casella, The Evolution of
Music, through the History of the Perfect
Cadence (1924); E. M. Lee, "Cadences
and Closes" (PMA xxxi); H. J. Moser,
"Das Schicksal clcr Penultima" (JMP xli);
H Moscr, "Die harmonischen Funk-
J.
tionen in der tonalen Kadenz" i); (ZMW
C. Artorn, "Cadenze e pseudocadenze"
This cadence is interesting because it (RMI xxxiv); R. Tenschert, "Die Ka-
foreshadows the authentic cadence with denzbehandlung bei Richard Strauss"
its V I movement in the lowest part (ZMW vii).
[Ex. 21 This as well as the plagal
J.
cadence was introduced around 1450, as Cadence [F.]. French ryth-century
a result of the addition of a true bass to name for the trill.
musical texture (Ockeghcm, Obrecht; see
^Flemish Schools), The earlier type (II Cadent. See under *NachschIag.
I) survived only in the so-called Phrygian
cadence [Ex. 22]. It should be noticed Cadenza. An extended section in free,
that, until 1500, the third is practically improvisatory style inserted usually near
always omitted in the final chord of the the end of a composition where it serves
authentic as well as of the plagal cadence as a retarding element, giving the player
[still in Purcell!; see *Picardy third]. In or singer a welcome chance to exhibit his
the 1 6th century the "suspension"-for- technical brilliance shortly before the
mula [Ex. 21] was universally accepted, piece closes. Its traditional place is in the
while in the lyth century the "anticipa- concerto, between the six-four chord
tion"-formula [Ex. 23] is very common. (marked with a fermata) and the domi-
Composers of the i7th century frequently nant chord of the final cadence [see Ex.].
use both formulae simultaneously in two Such cadenzas make ample use of highly
parts (violins) in a strikingly dissonant virtuoso passage work, but also draw from
combination known as Corclli-clash [Ex. the thematic substance of the movement,
24; for an early instance, in Stefano presenting its subjects in artfully devised
Landi's San Alessio (1634), cf. H. Gold- modifications or combinations. They usu-
[ 109]
CADENZA CALLIOPE
with an extended on the the final chord of a cadence occur in the
ally close trill
[no]
CALMATO CANCIONERO
adopted for an instrument which its un- piano adaptation of the former) in which
known inventor probably expected to the sound of small bells is imitated.
have divine powers of persuasion, as it
consisted of a number of steam-blown Can. In English Service music, abbrevi-
whistles (played from a keyboard) which ation for cantons. See *Polychoral
style.
could be heard over a distance of ten
miles. It was used at American fairs to Canadian music. Cf. M. Barbeau and
attract people from far and wide. Edw. Sapir, Fol{ Songs of French Canada
(1925); J. M. Gibbon, Canadian Fol^
Calmato [It.]. Calmed.
Songs (1927); Soeurs de Sainte-Anne,
Dictionnaire biographique des musiciens
Galore, Con [It.]. With warmth.
Canadiens (1935); E. Gagnon, Chansons
Cambiata [It., from cambiare, to populaires du Canada (7th ed., 1940); M.
change]. See *Nonharmonic tones I. Barbeau, in ML
xiii, no. 2.
[in]
CANCRIZANS CANON
Cancrizans [from L. cancer, crab]. In saron (the comes begins at the higher
crab-wise motion; see *Retrogracle. fourth), etc. According to special devices:
(c) canon by ^augmentation or diminu-
Canntaireachd. See under *Pibroch, tion (the comes has the melody in doubled
I.
Types. The following types of canon ent-day type of canon occurs under names
are commonly distinguished, (a) Ac- such as *rota or *rondellus (*round, e.g.,
proceed full and return half). This means parts [cf. GD iii, 642^. Pier Francesco
that the tenor should be read first back- Valentini (d. 1654) wrote a canon which
wards (a crab "proceeds" backwards) in boasts of more than 2000 solutions. At
the full note-values, then forward from the same time, the English provided a
the beginning, but in halved note-values. great number of popular canons in their
Even more oracular are inscriptions such *catches. It was chiefly through Bach's
as "Ne recorderis" (literally "Don't re- genius that the canon again obtained an
member") which must be read "Ne re important position in musical art, a posi-
corderis," i.e., "Don't remember re" tion which it has maintained to the pres-
"Don't sing re" "Omit all the notes re" ent day. Particularly noteworthy are
i.e., "D." Riddle canons of particular Bach's Kanonische Variationen uber das
complication occur in the English 15th- Weihnachtslicd and the canons in his
century Missa O quam suavis [new ed. Goldberg Variations. Haydn, Mozart,
by H. B. Collins (1927)]. For more de- Beethoven, contributed many charming
tails see WoHN
i, 427; GD
ii, 713 ("In- examples to the popular repertory, but
scriptions"); RiHM ii.i, 83-95; dpNPM, also used canon technique in their sonatas
but proceed differently, owing to the dif- (1899); C. H. Kitson, Invertible Counter-
point and Canon (1927);
ferent value of the longer notes (tonga, E. Prout,
brevis) under the various signs of men- Double Counterpoint and Canon\ B.
CANONICAL HOURS CANTATA
Ziehn, Canonical Studies (1912); L. Fein- (1609), written in the form of strophic
des Kanons bis with the same bass used for every
inger, Die Friihgeschichte
arias
Josquin (1937); F. Jode, ^Der Kanon stanza, but with different melodies for
the name of the monochord which served low the same scheme of the "strophic-bass
to demonstrate the "laws" of acoustics. cantata," as do also the majority of can-
See *Kanun. tatas written before 1650 [cf. RiHM ii.2,
(3) In Byzantine chant, a special type 20, 31; AdHM i, 437]. On the other
of poetry, more correctly spelled kanon; hand, a piece such as Peri's "Se tu parti"
see Byzantine chant II. more clearly foreshadows the later can-
(4) In the Roman liturgy, canon is the tata, since its three stanzas (written to
central and most solemn of the the same bass) contain contrasting sec-
part
*Mass, said by the officiating priest after and recitativo, separated by
tions, arioso,
the Sanctus. It begins with the words Te instrumental ritornellos, and thus antici-
1. A
composite vocal form of the Baroque RiHM, 383^, and Marc'Antonio Cesti
period, consisting usually of a number of (1623-69; cf. AdHM ii, 439). This form
movements such as arias, recitatives, was taken over by the masters of the Nea-
duets, choruses which are based upon a politan School (Provenzale, Stradclla, Al.
continuous narrative text, lyrical, dra- Scarlatti) who, however, standardized
matic, or religious. Owing to the activity its structure into a form consisting of two
ofJ. S. Bach, the church cantata (cantata
arias of contrasting character, each intro-
da Mesa), i.e., a cantata of devotional duced by a recitative. It is interesting to
subject matter, is particularly well known
notice that an almost identical process of
and clearly defined. However, the secular
standardization took place simultane-
cantata (cantata da camera), was not only ously in the instrumental field, leading
the earlier, but also the more frequent from the canzona to the sonata da chiesa
and da camera. Stradella wrote more
type throughout the iyth century, espe-
cially in Italy. The cantata appeared than 190, Al. Scarlatti more than 600 can-
shortly after 1600 as the third offspring of tatas, mostly of the type described above,
the *monodic style [see *Opera, *Orato- which was almost exclusively adopted in
rio], replacing the 16th-century madrigal. the 1 8th century as a convenient and con-
In its experimental, stage (till
early, ventionalized scheme for virtuoso display
1630) occurred under different names
it and sentimentality (Leonardo Leo, Leo-
and in a great variety of forms and styles. nardo Vinci, Niccolo Jommelli, Johann
Certain pieces in Caccini's Nuove musiche Hasse).
(1602) and in Peri's Varic musiche II. In France the first cantatas were
CANTATA CANTATA
written by Antoine Charpentier (1634- meister began publishing annual sets of
1704), a pupil of Carissimi. It was, how- cantata texts from his own pen, mostly
ever, not until after his death that the poetic paraphrases of scriptural passages
Italian cantata became popular among proper for the various feasts of the church
French composers. A great number of year. Some of these sets were written ex-
cantatas, mostly to French texts, appeared presslyfor certain composers,
e.g., for
between 1705 and 1730, written by Andre Krieger (Set i, 1704), for Philipp Erie-
Campra (1660-1744), Nicolas Bernier bach (Set ii, 1708), and Georg Philipp
(1664-1734), Michel Monteclair (1666- Telemann (Sets iii, iv, 1711, 1714). How-
1737), Jean-Bapt. Morin (1677-1745), ever, many other musicians also were
Nicolas Clerambault (1678-1749), J. J. eager to seize upon these extremely timely
Mouret (1682-1738), and Jean-Philippe and popular texts, above all J. S. Bach
Rameau (1683-1764). The latter 's can- who, by the artistic greatness and religious
tatas (complete ed., vol. iii) are all secular, dignity of his music, sanctioned Neu-
mostly for one voice, and consist usually meister's "theatrical" poetry as well as the
of three recitatives, each followed by an "operatic" form of the da-capo aria.
aria. Cf.LavE 1.3, 15571!. Bach's cantatas (195 are preserved out
III. The development of the cantata in of a total number of probably close to 300)
Germany, although strongly influenced usually open with a chorus in fugal style
by the Italians, presents an entirely differ- which sometimes assumes great propor-
ent picture, chiefly on account of the em- tions, continue with a number of reci-
phasis on the church cantata (Kaspar tatives and arias, one for each of the two
Kittel's Arien und Kantaten of 1638 are or three soloists, and close with a har-
practically the only secular cantatas of the monized chorale. See *Chorale cantata.
1
7th century; cf. RJIIM, 349). Schiitz's After Bach, the cantata merged with the
Symphoniae sacrae (1629) contain sev- oratorio of which it represents the dimin-
eral compositions which, although based utive and more casual type. Most of these
on Latin texts, must be regarded as can- cantatas were written for special occa-
tatas, being similar in form and style to Haydn's Birthday Cantata for
sions, e.g.,
those of Grandi or Rossi. However, the Prince Nikolaus Eszterhazy (1763), or
cantatas of Tunder (1614-67), Weck- Mozart's cantata Die Maurerfreude (The
mann (1621-74; DdT 6), Rudolf Ahle Joy of the Masons, 1785), or Beethoven's
(1625-73; DdT 5), Buxtehude (1637- Der Augenblic\ (op. 136,
glorreiche
1707; DdT 14), and J. S. Bach's uncle 1814). Numerous
later composers (Schu-
composers. The tendency from the cho- nam, Notes on the Church Cantatas of
rale to free texts (and, as a consequence, J. S. Bach (1928); W. G. Whittacker,
from cantus-firmus pieces to entirely free Fugitive Notes on Church Cantatas and
composition) found a strong nourish- Motets of J. S. Bach (1923); E. J. Dent,
ment about 1700 when the pastor E. Neu- "Italian Chamber Cantatas" (MA ii);
["5]
CANTE FLAMENCO CANTIGA
H. Prunieres, "The Italian Cantata of ticum Moysis /), "Audite verbum" (can-
the i7th Century" (ML i); vii, no. ticum Jeremiae), "Bcnedicite omnia
E. Schmitz, "Zur Geschichte des italien- opera Domini" (canticum puerorum)\ to
ischen Kammerduets im 17. Jahrhun- the latter: "Magnificat anima mea" (can-
derts" (IMP xxiii); E. B. Helm, in BAMS ticum Mariae or canticum B.V.M.] see
vi;H. Goldschmidt, in ZMW ii; H. Rie- ^Magnificat), "Benedictus Dominus
mann, in SIM xiii; A. Heuss, in Z1M x; Deus Israel" (canticum Zachariae),
F. Treiber, in AMP ii. "Nunc dimittis" (canticum Simeonis).
Musical publications: DdT 3 (Tun- The chants of the latter class form the
der); DdT 6 (Bernhard, Weckmann); climax of Vespers, Lauds, and Compline
DdT 14 (Buxtehude); DdT 21/22 respectively. Canticum canticorum is the
(Zachow); DdT 51/52 (Graupner); Song of Solomon, selections from which
DdT 53/54 (Kricgcr); DdT 58/59 have been frequently composed as motets
(Kuhnau, Schelle); DTB 6.i (Nurnberg (e.g., "Quam pulchra es," by Dunstable;
SchGMB, no. 34), most completely by
masters); cantatas by Buxtehude (ed. by cf.
W. Gurlitt), Georg Bohm (ed. by J. Wol- Palestrina (29 motets; cf. compl. ed. vol.
Nikolaus Bruhns (ed. by F. Stein); iv). See ^Service; *Byzantine chant
gast),
H. Riemann, Kantatenjruhling, 4 vols.; (fanon).
SchGMB, nos. 212, 213, 260, 284; HAM, Cantiga. Spanish monophonic songs of
nos. 214, 227, 235, 258, 279. the 1
3th century, mostly in honor of the
Cante flamenco, cante Hondo. See Virgin Mary (C. de Santa Maria), which
are preserved in great number (over
*Flamenco.
400) in four MSS of the Bibl. Nazionale
Canti carnascialeschi [It., carnival and the Bibl. Escoriale, in Madrid. They
were collected for the king Alfonso el
songs]. Early- 16th-century part songs in
the styles of the *frottola, the *villanella, Sabio ("the Wise," 1252-84) who was a
the *canzonetta, the *balletto, etc., de- great lover of poetry and music and who
signed for the elaborate carnival festivities probably himself contributed a good part
which took place at the court of the Med- of the contents. The pictorial reproduc-
icis and of other Italian sovereigns. Hein- tions of instruments and players con-
rich Isaac wrote a number of such songs tained in the MSS arc of the highest im-
during his stay at the court of Lorenzo portance [cf. GD ii, 482; iii, 260; iv, 184].
de Medici, c. 1480. Unfortunately these The chief form of the cantigas is that of
are lost. Numerous anonymous examples the *virelai. Regarding their textual as
exist in several Italian MSS of the i6th well as musical form the cantigas are very
similar to the Italian *laudas of about the
century. Example in HAM, no. 123.
Lit.: F. Ghisi, / canti carnascialeschi same However, the strict virelai
period.
"Carnival Songs" (MQ xxv); form more frequently used in the Span-
is
(1937); id.,
P. M. Masson, f Chants de Carnaval flo- ish pieces. Examples in HAM, no. 22;
rentins (1913); *Editions V, 43. ReMMA, 274; OH
ii, 297; BcMMR, 166.
The
cantigas have been the subject of
Canticum [E. canticle; F. cantique]. studies by various scholars the first of
In the Catholic liturgy, biblical songs whom, J. Ribera, made sensational claims
similar to a psalm but occurring elsewhere as to theArabic origin of the songs and
in the Scriptures than in the Psalter of gave transcriptions in what he believed
David. They are classified as: (a) cantica to be "Arabic rhythms," providing some
minora those which
(lesser canticles), i.e., of the songs with a 19th-century dance
occur in the Old Testament, and (b) can- accompaniment. Actually, the cantigas
tica majora (major canticles, Gospel can- are an outgrowth of the Provencal trouba-
ticles), i.e., those from
the New Testa- dour movement and must, therefore, be
ment. To the former class belong: rendered, as these, in modal rhythm, less
"Audite caeli quae loquor" (canticum strictly applied, however, than in the case
Moysis //), "Cantemus Domino" (can- of the trouvere songs.
[116]
CANTILENA CANTUS FIRMUS
Lit., H. Angles, Las Cantigas (1927); the breaking up (fractus) of a long note
G. Chase, History of Spanish Music value into smaller parts. Hence, they des-
(1942); ReMMA, 245 (bibl. p. 450); P. ignate polyphonic music, as opposed to
Aubry, Iter Hispanicum (1908), 37$ plainsong (cantus choralis, cantus planus)
(facsimiles). with its notes of (supposedly) equal
duration.
Cantilena, (i) A vocal melody of a lyri-
cal rather than a dramatic or virtuoso Cantus firmus [L., fixed melody], A
character; also an instrumental passage of pre-existcnt melody which is made the
the same nature. (2) In medieval writ- basis of a polyphonic composition by the
ings the term is loosely used to denote addition of contrapuntal voices. As re-
secular vocal compositions, homophonic gards their origin, the cantus (or cantt)
as well as polyphonic (ballades, rondeaux, firmi usually belong to one of the four fol-
etc.) [cf. ReMMA, 294, 322]. Cantilena lowing groups: (a) plainsong melodies;
romana is the Roman (i.e., Gregorian) (b) Protestant chorales; (c) secular melo-
chant. dies; (d) abstract subjects. To group (a),
which is
by far the most numerous, be-
Cantillation. Chanting in plainsong
long all the *organa and *clausulae, prac-
style, especially that of the Jewish service.
tically all the motets of the I3th and I4th
Cantino [It.,F. chanterelle]. The high- centuries, a number of masses of the I5th
est string of lutes, viols, etc. A i6th-cen- and i6th centuries [see *Mass B, II (b)]
German term is as well as the numerous organ verses
tury Sangsaite.
(*verset), organ hymns, etc., of the i6th
Cantio sacra. Latin name for the
Cabezon, Redford,
century (Schlick,
motet. Many collections of motets bear The
Titelouze). latter pave the way to
the title: Cantiones Sacrae (Tallis, Byrd,
group (b) which includes the *organ
G. Gabrieli, Schiitz). An Italian syno- chorales (*chorale preludes) of Buxte-
nym is Canzoni spirituals hude, Pachclbel, Bach, Brahms, etc., as
well as the chorale choruses in cantatas,
Canto [It.].Song; soprano; melody;
subject. Canto fermo, *cantus firmus. passions (for instance, the first chorus of
Bach's St. Matthew Passion). Group (c)
Canto pianOy plainsong.
contrast to florid design of the other parts Cantus visibilis [L., visible song]. A
[Ex. Cabezon, Ave maris Stella]. In
i; misleading translation given by John
many cases, however, the c.f. was sub- Hothby (d. 1487) of the English term
jected to considerable ornamentation and "sight," which was used in the i4th cen-
melodic elaboration, a process by which
tury in connection with improvised "Eng-
the original melody became more or less lish discant"; see Fauxbourdon (2).
completely disguised [cf. the analyses in
DTOe i9.i; also BeMMR, 202]. Particu-
Canun. See *Kanun.
larly complex examples of this type exist Canzo, canso [Provencal for chanson].
in certain masses in which the discant is
A form of troubadour music and poetry,
a free elaboration of the c.f. [see *Dis-
also referred to in modern writing as
cant mass]. Less "scholarly" than these
canzone, Kanzone, chanson. It consisted
methods is the treatment encountered in of various stanzas of 6 to 7 lines each with
hymns of Dunstable, Dufay, and Ockeg- music provided according to the follow-
hem in which the c.f. is used in the so-
ing scheme:
prano, skillfully changed from a plain-
song into a graceful melody in triple
meter, and supported by two or three
L^
a
^ a
V
5 6
b
(7),
lower parts [Ex. 2: Dufay, Ave maris This is the Provencal (troubadour)
Stella; cf. *Editions V, 49]. Examples in
counterpart of the northern French
HAM, nos. 28-32, 44, 65, 67, etc. See
(trouvere)
*
ballade and of the German
*In seculum; *L'homme arme; *Felix
(Minnesinger) Bar [see *Barform|. Ex-
namque; *Innomine. amples in HAM, nos. i8b, c; ReMMA,
Lit.: P. Aubry, Recherche s sur les RiHM
2i 4 f; BeMMA, 107; i.2, 25if.
tenors fran fats (latins) dans les motets du
(1907); id., in TG xiii; F. H.
xiiie siecle Canzona or canzone (pi. canzone or
Sawyer, "The Use of Cantus Firmus
. . .
canzoni). (i) In Italian poetry of the
by the Netherland Schools" (PMA 1
3th through the I7th centuries, name for
Ixiii). serious lyrical poems, usually in four or
five stanzas of eight lines each. (2) In
Cantus lateralis f L., song written side 1 8th- and 19th-century music, name for
by side]. Fifteenth- and 16th-century lyrical songs (e.g., the canzone "Voi che
term for the large *choir books in which sapete" in Mozart's Figaro) or for instru-
the parts of a polyphonic composition mental pieces of a similar character (e.g.,
were written "side by side" on the double the slow movement of Tchaikovsky's
page, in distinction from the *part books. Symphony no. 4,designated "in modo di
[118]
CANZONA CANZONA
Villanesche" (Nola, 1541; Cimello, 1545) of half-notes and marked by the frequent
and "Canzoni alia
Napolitana" (Ferretti, appearance of repeated notes at the begin-
1573; Conversi, 1572). In the latter dec- ning of the subjects [see Ex.]. At first
ades of the century, the *canzonetta be- there were relatively few differences be-
came popular (Horazio Vecchi, 1580 and tween keyboard and ensemble canzonas
later years; Hassler, 1590). Cf. E, Helm, (those of Claudio Merulo, for example,
The Early Italian
Madrigal (unpubi. diss. appear to have been performed by both
Harvard 1939); E. Hertzmann, Adrian media). During the i7th century, how-
Willaert in der weltlichen Vo1(almusi\ ever, the keyboard canzona became grad-
seiner Zeit ( 1
93 1 ) .
ually more concentrated in its form, lead-
(5) An important instrumental form ing to the fugue, while that for ensembles
of the 1 6th and
i7th centuries. It devel- became more sectional and finally identi-
oped from the Franco-Flemish chansons fied itself with the sonata.
of Jannequin, Crecquillon, Clemens non I.
Keyboard Canzona. The first steps
Papa, and others [see *Chanson (3)] in the development of independent can-
which were reprinted in Italy in great zonas were taken by Girolamo Cavazzoni
numbers, under the name "Canzon fran- (Intavolatura doe ricercari, canzoni, ,
. . .
francese per I'organo, 1571). Composers While Andrea Gabrieli's canzonas are
furthermore wrote, in the style and form mostly ornamented arrangements [see
of certain vocal chansons, original instru- *Intabulierung] of vocal chansons, origi-
mental pieces which were known as "Can- nal organ canzonas were published by
zoni alia francese" or "Canzoni da so- Merulo (1592, 1606, 1611), Pellegrini
nare." procedure which became
It is this (1599), Mayone (1603, 1609), Cima
the point of departure of a long and inter- (1606), Trabaci (1603, 1615), Cifra
esting development which in the instru- (1619), and others. These pieces are im-
mental eventually led to the sonata
field portant as forerunners of the fugue; in
of the 7th century [see *Sonata B, I],
1 fact, the name Fuge was used in Germany
while in the field of keyboard music it as synonymous with canzona (B. Schmid,
paved the way for the *fugue. As early 1607: "Fugen, ode: wie es die Italiener
as the 1 6th century, canzones were desig- nennen, canzoni alia francese"; Mursch-
nated either for keyboard (primarily or- hauser, 1707: "canzona sive fuga"). Fres-
cobaldi (1615, 1628, 1635, and 1645) es-
gan) or for instrumental ensemble. They
were characterized, like their chanson tablished the variation-canzona consisting
models, by clarity and balance of form of various fugal sections, each based on a
temporary ricercar, they possessed a posers, including Bach (B.-G. vol. 38, no.
20).
Canzonas for Instrumental Ensem-
II.
nale) of the sort found in the variation Lit.: J. M. Knapp, The Canzone Fran-
canzonas for keyboard written by Fresco- cese and its Vocal Models (unpubl. mas-
baldi [cf. above]. A third
type, repre-
ter's thesis, Columbia 1941); E. Crocker,
sented by the brilliant polychoric canzonas An Introductory Study of the Italian Can-
of Giovanni Gabrieli and his followers zona for Instrumental Ensembles (unpubl.
(1597, Raverii Collection 1608, 1615), diss., Radcliffe 1943); A. Schlossberg, Die
was freer in structure, consisting of an italienische Sonate fur mehrere Instru-
alternation between sections in lively imi- mente im ij. Jahrhundert (1935); RiHM
tation and four-four time, and homophonic ii.2, passim. Examples in HAM, nos. 88,
sections in triple time. Occasionally these 118, 136, 175, 191, 194, 209, 210. E. C.
sections were very short and fragmentary
in character [see *Flick-kanzone].
Canzona francese. See *Canzona (5).
tending gradually to be reduced in num- dirge of ancient tradition. Cf. the article
ber, are also more highly developed, and
in GD. See also *Coronach.
more sharply contrasted
stylistically
to
Capelle, Capellmeister [G.]. Old
one another. At the same time, vestiges of
spelling for *Kapelle, Kapellmeister.
the old canzona, such as the ABA struc-
ture typical of the original chanson and Capotasto [It., master fret; perverted
the long introductory fugal section, re- forms are: capodastro, capo taster, Kapo-
main for a long time. These characteris- daster, F. barre]. A mechanical contriv-
tics may be observed in certain canzonas ance used with guitars, lutes, etc., to
of Marini (1626), Buonamente (1636), shorten the vibrating length of all the
Merula (1615, 1637, 1639, and 1651), strings simultaneously. It consists of a
Neri (1644, 1651), and Cazzati (1642, small piecemade from hard wood or metal
1648, and later years). By c. 1650, the which can be fixed across the finger board.
CAPPELLA CARILLON
By setting the capotasto across, e.g., the sets of bells were operated mechanically.
first fret, a piece in C-sharp can be played The use of a keyboard in connection with
with the same fingering as if it were in C. bells can be traced back to the early i6th
See *Barrer. century (Audenarde, 1510). Carillons be-
came extremely popular and achieved
Cappella [It.]. Chapel. See *A cap-
high perfection in the Netherlands, Bel-
pella.
gium, and Northern France from the I5th
Capriccio. [It.; F. caprice; from L. ca- through the i8th centuries. In the I9th
pra, goatj. (i) A term used by various century they spread to England and, more
19th-century composers, for instance Men- recently, to America. A
modern carillon
delssohn and Brahms, for short piano consists of 30 to 50 bells with a clapper
quently involves certain peculiarities, such delphia, offers instruction in carillon play-
as the use of special themes. This is espe- ing. Modern carillon players make ample
Frescobaldi (Ca- use of tremolos, full chords, rapid pas-
cially true in the case of
cucu; Capriccio sopra Jt
il sages,and other effective devices. There
priccio sopra
re mi fa sol la; Capriccio sopra la Bcrga- is,however, in certain circles, a tendency
towards a more reserved style of playing
masca). Frobergcr's 18 capriccios are
which worthy of support.
scarcely different from his canzonas, both
is certainly
being based upon the principle of Fresco- Early composers of carillon music were
baldi's variation-canzona [cf. i, AdHM Matthias van der Ghcyn (1721-85), and
Earlier examples of fugal capriccios Potthoff (b. 1726). Pieces by the former
543 ].
for instruments (I) or for keyboard (K) were published in 1 862 by X. van Elewyck
are found in the publications of Lodovico (ed. Schott). Old organ pieces called
Balbi (1586; I), Francesco Stivori (1594; "Carillon" are found in O. Chilesotti, Mu-
Giovanni Maria Trabaci ( 1603; K), siciJ del passato, and in Louis
I), Couperin,
Ocuvrcs completes (ed. P. Brunold, 1936).
Biagio M.irini (1626; I), etc. Later pieces,
such as Johann Kaspar KcrlTs Capriccio Probably these were played by means of
an organ glockenspiel such as is used also
sopra il Cucco (c. 1680) and Bach's Ca-
in Bach's cantata "Schlage doch, gewun-
priccio sopra la lontananza sel suo jratcllo
dilettissimo (c. 1705), are of the nature of schte Stunde." For a lute piece "Carillon
free fantasias, the latter being a piece of d'Anvers" cf. DTOe xxvi.2, 64; also *Edi-
tions III, 8. Recent composers of pieces
program music picturing "the departure
of his beloved brother." for carillons are Josef Denijn (b. 1862)
and J. A. F. Wagenaar.
Carcelera [Sp.]. A type of *cante hon- Lit.: J. Blavignac, La Cloche (1877);
do y describing prison scenes. X, van Elcwijk, \Anciens Clavecinistes
four]. A set of bells (originally four) (1933); J" Rizzardi, Les Carillons de
mechanism. As early as the i3th century Starmer, in PMA xxxi; id., in Z/M vi;
[121]
CARMAGNOLE CAROL
E. Buhle, "Das Glockenspiel in den Mi- Carnaval. A piano composition by Ro-
niaturen des friihen Mittelalters" (Fest- bert Schumann (op. 9, 1834) consisting
schrift fur Liliencron, 1910). of 20 short pieces which describe various
scenes and characters of a masked ball.
Carmagnole. A song of the French The subtitle: "Scenes mignonnes sur qua-
Revolution (1792), of unknown author-
tre notes" (Tiny Scenes Based on Four
ship. It was sung to a rather vigorous
Notes), refers to the use of the word Asch
dance of the same name.
(a Bohemian town where a lady friend of
Carmen [L., pi. carmina\ song], (i) A Schumann's lived) as a musical motive,
1 and 15th-century name, chiefly used
4th- the "translation" into notes being A-S-
by theorists, for the upper part (*cantus) (i.e., Es, Gernian for E-flat) C-H (Ger-
of accompanied songs. (2) Around man for B). These four notes, A-Eb-C-B,
1500, name for instrumental polyphonic occur in theinitial subjects of most of the
[122]
CAROLE CATCH
Century (1891); H. J.Mass*, "Old Carols" castanets of themodern orchestra (e.g., in
(A/Lii, no. i). Bizet's Carmen) are provided with con-
trivances such as springs or handles which
Carole. Medieval French name for round
greatly facilitate the playing, but take
dances, danced in a closed circle. The
name is derived from L. chorea, dance, away much from the fascination of true
castanet playing.
which was transformed into choreola,
car ola> carole [cf. the explanation: "cho- Castrate. The castration of singing boys
rea, gallice charole" given in the 13th- was frequently practiced in Italy from the
century Dictionarius Johannes de Gar- 1 6th through the i8th centuries, in order
landia; cf. Collection des documents in- to preserve the boyish character of the
edits sur I'histoire de France, i. 603]. No voice. The singing apparatus of the cas-
specific music for such dances has sur- trato (also called evirato) combines the
vived. Possibly the *virelai in its original larynx of a youth with the chest and lungs
monophonic form was sung in connec- of an adult. Hence, it combines an un-
tion with the carole. See *Dance Music usually wide range with a sound of great
II. Cf. T. Lacroix-Novaro, "La Carole"
power and of a special timbre which ex-
ercised great fascination upon the hearers.
Famous castrati were F. Senesino (1680-
Carree [F.]. The double whole note, or
c. 1750), G. Caffarelli (1703-83), and
breve.
Carlo Farinelli (properly Carlo Broschi,
Carrure [F.]. The
symmetrical con- 1705-82).
struction of musical phrases in measures Lit.: F. Habb'ck, Die Kastraten und
of 2, 4, 8, etc., as occurs particularly in ihre Gesangsfyinst (1927); id., Carlo
dances. See *Vierhebigkeit. Broschi (1923); G. Monaldi, Cantati
Drum.
evirati celebri (1921); id., in RMl xxvi;
Cassa fit.]. See *Percussion in-
struments B 2, 3.
F. Rogers, in v;MQ AdHM,
1221.
symphony as well as of the suite; hence, Catch. English *rounds of the i7th and
identical with the *divert> The
practically i8th centuries. first publication, the
mento and the *serenade. Mozart wrote Pammelia (1609), was followed by a long
three cassations (K.V. nos. 62, 63, 99). series of collections, among which Hilton's
Catch That Catch Can (1652-58) is the
Casse-Noisette. Original title of
most famous. Catches were most in vogue
Tchaikovsky's ballet The Nutcracker. See
in the reign of Charles II, and it was
*Nutcracker Suite.
mainly in this period that the catches
Castanets [F. castagnettes\ G. Kastag- acquired that peculiarity which has rele-
netten ] . Clappers consisting of two pieces gated them to the "poison chest" of mu-
of hard wood in the shape of a shell, sical literature, namely, the indecent char-
hinged together by a string which passes acter of their texts. Numerous catches of
over the thumb and first finger of the the Restoration, including some of Pur-
player. They are used by Spanish dancers cell's, arc so clearly obscene that their texts
as an accompaniment for the bolero, fan- had to be altered or completely replaced
dango* etc., usually in pairs (one in each in modern editions. A number of catches
hand). Similar instruments were used in are so constructed that, to the pres-
owin^
ancient Rome and appear on pictorial ence of lengthy rests in their melody, a
representations contained in medieval *hocket-like effect of alternation is
pro-
manuscripts [see under Cantigas]. The duced by the voices singing in canon, as is
CATHEDRAL MUSIC CAUDA
illustrated by our example (from Pam- Catholica. A name given by Glareanus
melia). Occasionally this device was used [Dode^achordon, 1552] to contrapuntal
to bring about a special meaning, indecent pieces which are so designed that they
or comical, resulting from the interlacing may be sung in various church modes.
The most famous example is Ockeghem's
Missa cujusvis torn (Mass in Any Mode).
'
IS
perhaps too much attention has been giv-
en by numerous scholars. At any rate, it
*Y WttV; a
'^S t ^"y* dogj
is most unfortunate that this piece should
Cathedral music. Music written for irregular wide steps in ascending motion
such as might have been produced by a
the choirs of the English cathedrals, con-
cat stepping over the keyboard.
sisting chiefly of *Services*and *anthems.
Important early collections are: J. Bar- Cauda [L., tail], (i) In mensural nota-
nard, The First Eoo\ of Selected Church tion, the vertical dash attached to certain
Music (1641; contents cf. GD i, 226); notes (maxima, longa, minima, etc.) or to
W. Boyce and J. Kent, Cathedral Music ligatures.
(3 vols., 1760-78; new ed. by Novello;
contents cf. GD
i, 441); Samuel Arnold, fb
Cathedral Music (4 vols., 1790; reprinted
by Rimbault in 1847; contents cf. GD i, With *ligatures, the presence or absence
117). The present-day cathedral choirs of the cauda determines the proprietas,
still draw on the repertory of these books i.e., the value of the initial note. In the
which include among their authors prac- early i4th century numerous note forms,
tically every English composer from Tye called semibrcvcs caudatae (or signatae),
and Tallis to Samuel Arnold and his con- were derived from the semibrevis by up-
temporaries. However, numerous new ward and downward dashes, with or with-
compositions have been added by more out flags, etc. They form the basis of the
recent composers, such as S. S.Wesley Italian notation of the i4th century [cf.
sponsible for a mushroom crop of one-act patron saint of music. The movement
operas. aimed at the reinstallment of Palestrina's
a cappella music instead of the pompous
Cavata [from L. cavare, to hollow out,
and rather worldly church music for choir
to engrave]. An inscription or an epi- and instruments that had come into use
grammatic sentence in which an impor- during the i8th century (e.g., Haydn's
tant thought concisely expressed. In
is
and Mozart's masses). It led, in 1867, to
18th-century music the term is used occa- the foundation of the Allgemeiner Deut-
sionally for short epigrammatic ariosos to scher Caecilienverein (F. X. Witte, 1834-
be found at the end of a lengthy recitative
88), which was sanctioned by the Holy
(recitativo con cavatd). Many examples See in 1870. The term Cecilianism is used
of this method occur in Bach's choral
to denote the puristic and generally rather
works, e.g., in the recitativo no. 3 of his
reactionary tendencies of this society.
cantata "Ein feste Burg" [see * Arioso].
The cavatas in Traetta's operas [cf. DTE Cefaut, ce fa ut. See *Hexachord III.
larity of the sound of the instrument to* The various tones of the chromatic scale
that of bells, but to the plucking of the are represented by the multiples of 100,
strings. as follows:
o 100 200 300 400 500 600
Centitone. See under ^Intervals, Cal- c c* d dtf e f ft
culation of, V.
700 800 900 1000 1 100 I2OO
Cento [L.], centone [It., a patchwork g g# a a# b c
quilt j. The term and its derivatives "cen- This scale can be conveniently used for
tonization," "to centonize" are used with diagrams showing the exact position of
reference to literary and musical works other intervals, e.g., those of the Pythag-
formed by from other works.
selections orean scale, of just intonation, of exotic
The liturgical book compiled by St. Greg- scales, etc. [see
*
Javanese music]. For
ory (c. 670) was as early as the 9th century readers familiar with the elements of
called "antiphonarius cento," on account arithmetic be remarked that cents
it
may
of the theory (probably erroneous) that it are a logarithmic measurement; see *In-
was a combination of three earlier books tervals, Calculation of, IV.
Pope Gelasius fcf. P. Wagner,
written by
Einfuhrung in die Gregorianischen Me- Cephalicus. See *Neumes.
lodien, i, 199-214; O. Ursprung, Katho-
Cercar la nota [It., to seek the note]
lische Kirchenmusit(, 21 ]. In poetry, cento
indicates in vocal
technique a slight
denotes a poem consisting only of refrains
The term also applies to anticipation of the following note, e.g.,
[see *Refrain].
musical melodies pieced together from d-(c)-c. It may also occur in the form of
a passing note, e.g., e-(d)-c.
pre-existent fragments (a procedure not
infrequent Gregorian chant and in
in
Ces, ceses [G.]. See *Pitch names.
Oriental music) as well as to operas of the
1 8th
century put together by several com- Cesolfa(ut), ce sol fa (ut). See
posers. See *Ballad opera and, in par- *Hexachord III.
ticular, *Pasticcio; also *Quod libet.
cetra [It.], (i) *Zither.-
Cetera,
Central America. Lit.: J. Castillo, (2) Cittern [see *Guitar family].
"Autochthonic Music" [of Guatemala] C.f. Abbreviation for *cantus firmus.
(Bull, of the Pan American Union, vol. 62,
no. 4); F. Densmore, Music of the Tule Chace [F.]. See under *Caccia.
Indians of Panama (1926); N. Garay,
Tradiciones y Cantares de Panama (Brus- Chaconne and passacaglia. Two
sels, 1930); R. Gonzalez Sol, Datos histo- closely related forms of Baroque music,
ricos sobre el arte de la musica en El Salva- each in the character of a continuous vari-
dor (San Salvador, 1940); N. Slonimsky, ation [see * Variation I] in moderately
slow triple meter. An additional feature
"Viewing a Terra Incognita of Music"
is a slow *harmonic rhythm, changing
(Musical America, 1941). See also gen-
eral bibliography under Latin American generally with the measure. The terms
music. G. C. are interesting not only on account of the
many futile attempts that have been made
Cents. The unit of a scientific and exact to explain their derivation and original
method of measuring musical intervals meaning, but also on account of the at-
which was introduced by A. J. Ellis (1814- tempts, equally numerous and futile, to
90) and which has been widely adopted make a clear distinction between them.
in acoustics as well as in *comparative As is shown subsequently, Baroque com-
musicology. The cent is one one-hun- posers used the terms indiscriminately.
dredth of the semitone of the well-tem- This does not necessarily mean that they
CHACONNE AND PASSACAGLIA CHACONNE AND PASSACAGLIA
could not be put to better use in mod- defined above) belong the "Passacaglia"
ern terminology. Unfortunately, modern of Bach (for organ) and that of Louis Cou-
writers have been entirely unsuccessful in perin (for harpsichord) as well as "cha-
this matter, and the music histories as well connes" of Buxtehude, J. K. Kerll [TaAM
as reference books are full of contradictory vii, 104] (both for organ), and Pachelbel
and frequently arbitrary statements as to (for harpsichord; TaAM
ix, 59). To the
the distinction between a chaconne and a same belong numerous vocal com-
class
String trios (quartets, etc.) are for stringed Nacht, op. 4) tried to exploit the impres-
instruments only [see *String quartet]; sionistic and coloristic resources of cham-
if one of the strings is replaced by another ber music, there has been more recently a
instrument, names such as pianoforte trio return to a purer and more appropriate
(pianoforte and two strings) or horn style, as the result of the contemporary
revival of the contrapuntal approach to
quintet (horn and four strings) are used.
The violin (violoncello) sonata, for violin musical composition, and of the adoption
of a more objective and sober type of ex-
(violoncello) and pianoforte, is sometimes
not considered as chamber music, on ac- pression than prevailed in the late Ro-
count of the markedly solistic character of mantic and in the Impressionistic schools
the parts. In true chamber music, em- [see *Neo-classicism]. For more details,
see the entries for the different species of
phasis lies on the ensemble, not on the
single player.
chamber music, particularly *string quar-
The present-day repertoire of chamber
tet.
music begins with the late string-quartets II. History. Chamber music, in the
widest sense of the word, already existed
(written after 1780) of Haydn and Mo-
zart. In these works the basic principles in the late Middle Ages. Instrumental en-
of form and style were established to semble pieces such as occur in the Glo-
which composers of cham- gauer Liederbuch (c. 1470; see *Lieder-
practically all
ber music have adhered: the form is that buch) or the *carmina of Obrecht, Isaac,
of the *sonata in four movements; the Hofhaimer bear all the characteristic
style is characterized by
individual treat- marks of true chamber music. So do the
ment of the parts and exclusion of virtu- 16th-century ensemble ricercares [see
oso-like elements. Naturally, there exist *Ricercar I (a)] by Adrian Willaert,
examples in which these principles are not Buus, Padovano, as well as the instru-
observed, a notable exception being Bee- mental canzonas [see *Canzona (5), I]
thoven's string quartet in C-sharp minor, from the end of this century. (Regarding
free form. Yet the claim that a canzona by Allegri was
op. 131 with its extremely
[128]
CHAMBER OPERA CHANSON
the "first string quartet," see under Chamber pitch [G. Kammerton]. See
*String quartet II.) Naturally, all these Pitch.
pieces were not written for, nor restricted
to, specific instruments, but were per- Change ringing. The ringing of a set
formed on whatever instruments were (peal) of church bells by individual men
available, viols, recorders, cornettos, or and in a methodical order, the turn of the
mixed ensembles. The chief type of Ba- men being prescribed not by a musical
roque chamber music is the *trio sonata melody, but by certain schemes of arith-
in its two varieties, the sonata da chiesa metic permutation. For instance, a set of
and the sonata da camera. It developed in five bells: i, 2, 3, 4, 5 may be
played in the
Italy and spread, around 1675, to France, order: 45231 or 3514 2, etc. In actual
Germany, and England where it replaced performance, usually a limited selection of
the earlier *fancy. Around 1750 there such permutations is played in succession,
emerged a new type of chamber music, the main principle being the exchange of
the string quartet, with its associates, the two numbers. For instance, in a peal of
string quintet (Boccherini), and the string five bells, the first "change" would be
trio (Haydn); see *String quartet II. 12345, the second: 21345, tne third:
Anextended list of chamber music as- 23145, Certain standard selections
etc.
sociations is found in Pierre Key's Music are known under traditional names such
Year Boo^. as "Grandsire Triple," "Treble Bob," etc.
Lit.: W. W. Cobbett, Cyclopedic Sur- The history of change ringing goes back
vey of Chamber Music (2 vols., 1929); id., to the 6th century. An important land-
1
composers have again written for such art-songs in the i8th and I9th centuries
groups (chamber symphony). is in
striking contrast to the picture pre-
t 129 ]
CHANSON CHANSON
sented in earlier periods. In fact, the were published by Ballard, e.g., Airs sen-
early
history of the chanson (i.e., of songs with eux et a boire (16 vols., 1627-54).
French text) is more ancient, fertile, and (2) In trouvere music, chanson is the
musically important than that of any other equivalent of the Provencal (troubadour)
nation's song literature. The earliest pre- *vers (not of the *canzo), i.e., a through-
served example, a Provencal song "Hora composed song, in contradistinction to
vos die vera raizun" [cf. P. the repetition- and refrain-types (formes
Aubry, Les
plus ancients monuments de la musique fixes) :
ballade, virelais, rondeau.
Fran^aise (1905), pi. I], dates from the (3) The chanson
of the i6th century,
nth century. The i2th and i3th centuries frequently called polyphonic or French
are the era of the *troubadours and *trou-
chanson, is written in the imitative style
veres whose melodies, usually cast in one of the contemporary motet, but with such
of the formes fixes (*ballade, *rondeau, modifications as were required by the
*virelai), constitute an unparalleled treas- different nature of purpose and text, i.e.,
ure of early secular song. The i4th cen-
quicker and more pungent rhythm, a
tury sees the rise of accompanied songs, in leaning towards homophonic texture,
the same forms, under G. de Machaut and sectional construction in relatively short
his successors [see *Ars nova]. As an
phrases ending simultaneously in all the
antithesis the rhythmic and contra-
to
parts, and frequently repetition of a sec-
puntal complexity of the late i4th century tion for another line of the poem. A char-
there developed, in the *Burgundian acteristic feature of the chanson (as well
School of the i5th century (Dufay, Bin- as of its derivative, the instrumental *can-
chois, also Ockeghem, Obrecht), a new zona) isthe use of repeated notes in the
style of unsurpassed charm and beauty, initial subject, as is illustrated in the
perhaps the artistic high-point in the en- accompanying example (Jacotin, Je suis
tire history of the French
song. [For mod- desheritee\ cf. SchGMB, no. 117).
ern editions of 15th-century chansons see
under *Burgundian School and *Chan-
sonnier (2).] A limited number of popu-
lar melodies of the I5th century,
especially
the famous *L'homme arme, survive in
masses and motets for which they served
as a cantus firmus. Around 1500 we have
the beginning of another important era,
that of the so-called polyphonic chanson,
characterized by the abandoning of the
formes fixes in favor of free composition,
and by the adoption of the imitative coun-
terpoint as the basic principle of style The earlier polyphonic chansons (Oc-
(Isaac, Josquin, Jannequin). It is this keghem, Obrecht, Isaac, Josquin, La Rue)
type to which the name chanson or French show an elaboration of style and dignity
chanson usually refers in historical writ- of expression which are still in the best
ings [see below under (3)]. With the Flemish tradition [cf., e.g., Ockeghem's
early iyth century and the rise of the mo- "Ma bouce rit" in HAM, no. 75, or the
nodic style, the polyphonic chanson disap- chansons of Josquin; see ^Editions V, no.
peared and, strangely enough, the creative *Odhecaton]. With Clement
3; see also
activity in the field of art-song ceased Jannequin (d. c. 1560 ?), Claude de Ser-
abruptly. The interest turned to *vauxde- misy (c. 1490-1562), Pierro Certon (d.
villes, *pastourelles, *bergerettes, and 1572), and numerous followers, the chan-
*brunettes, i.e., to the more populartypes son changed its character from the Flem-
which dominated throughout the i8th and ish into the typically French, from re-
1
9th centuries [see also *Air de court]. served intimacy into nimble elegance and
Extensive collections of such chansons frivolity. Jannequin's chansons are re-
CHANSON DE GESTE CHANT
markable for their frequent use of ter- Chansons de geste du Xlle siecle (1932);
nary form: A B A. A
type of some special GeHM, 258F.
interest, though of very mediocre artistic
value, is the program chanson of Janne- Chanson de toile [F., spinning song].
quin [see *Program music]. The popu-
The "female counterpart" of the *chanson
de geste. The chief character is always a
larity of the new chanson found its proper
expression in a vast number of contempo- woman, an ill-mated wife or a love-sick
rary publications as well as in the many girl. The musical recitation was prob-
hundreds of *Intabulierungen of French ably similar to that of the chanson de
chansons which fill the German and geste.
Italian lute tablatures and keyboard books
of the 1 6th century. Pierre Attaingnant
Chanson mass. See *Mass B, II (b).
the poem. They were probably sung to a free rhythm. Music of this type exists in
short melodic formula which was re- many Oriental and exotic cultures. In
peated for every line of a laisse, with the particular, the term applies to the liturgi-
exception of the last, for which a new cal melodies of the Christian Churches,
melody with a more definite close was e.g., *Byzantine chant, Russian chant,
chosen (a a a a b). Only one such and the four branches of Western chant,
melody survives, in a late quotation in- namely, *Ambrosian (Milanese), *Gal-
serted in Adam de la Halle's play Le Jeu lican,*Mozarabic, and Roman chant, the
de Robin et Marion [cf. ReMMA, 204]. lastbeing usually known as *Gregorian
See *Rotrouenge; ""Chanson de toile. chant or *plainsong. More specifically,
Lit.: F. Gennrich, Der musiJ(alische the term refers to the traditional method
Vortrag der altjranzosischen Chansons of singing the psalms [see *Chanting].
de geste (1923); Raoul de Cambrai, In the * Anglican chant the monophonic
CHANTANT CHARACTER PIECE
recitations of the Gregorian psalmody are Impromptu, Moment musical, Capriccio,
replaced by settings in four-part harmony. Fantasia, etc., aside from special titles of
a more or less programmatic nature, such
Chantant [F.]. In a singing style. as: Albumblatt, Der Dichter spricht
Chanter. See *Bagpipe. (Schumann), Jeux d'eau (Ravel), The
Maiden's Prayer, etc. The last title has
Chanterelle [F.]. See *Cantino. been deliberately included here in order
to hint at the vast production of third-
Chantey. See *Shanty.
class literature which, of course, deserves
Chanting. The ecclesiastical singing of
no further mention here. However, all
the psalms and canticles in the daily offices
the great composers of the i9th century
of the Roman Catholic and, in particular,
have made contributions in this field, first
of the Anglican Church. It is character-
of all Beethoven, who opens the repertoire
ized by the use of a melody, called psalm
with his Bagatelles. Schubert followed
tone, which is repeated with every verse with his Impromptus and Moments mu-
of the psalm but which can be adapted to
sicaux (musical moments), Mendelssohn
the different lengths of the verses by the
with his Songs Without Words and Kin-
iteration of the same tone, the recitation
derstiicke (Children's Pieces), Chopin
tone. The psalm tones of the Latin, Gre-
with Nocturnes, Preludes, fitudes, Im-
his
gorian, rite are monophonic and in free
promptus, etc. While these composers usu-
rhythm. The "Anglican" chants are har- ally included a number of pieces under
monized and in strict meter. The Angli- one collective title, R. Schumann went a
can Church, however, makes frequent use
good deal further toward individualiza-
of the Gregorian chant also. See *Psalm
tion and programmatic thought by choos-
*
tones; Anglican chant.
ing separate names for each piece, for in-
stance, in his Kinderszenen op. 15 or in
Chanty. See *Shanty.
his Fantasiestikke op. 12. New
collective
Chapel [F. G. Kapellc; It.
chapclle; names introduced by him are: Noveletten,
cappella]. The term, which is derived Nachtstiicke (Night Pieces), Bunte Blat-
from It.
cappella^ i.e., cape or cloak, orig- ter (Colored Leaves), Albumblatter (Al-
inally denoted a building in which re- bum Leaves). Brahms followed with Bal-
vered cloaks or other relics of saints were laden, Inter-
Rhapsodien,
Capriccios,
housed. It was later extended to denote mezzi. Briefly, the character piece is the
private churches of sovereigns, popes, favored and characteristic form of Ro-
bishops, as well as the entire staff attached mantic piano music, where it serves as
to these churches and, in particular, the the vehicle of expression for every con-
musicians and singers employed there. ceivable mood, thought, vision, or emo-
The connotation of "private body of mu- tion.
sicians" survives in the Chapel Royal of Naturally, no general statements can
the English kings, an institution which be made with regard to so diversified and
played a valuable part in the development so markedly personal a repertory. How-
and cultivation of the English music [cf. ever, the great majority of these pieces
GD i, 606; W. H. Gratton Flood, in ML are written in the ternary form B A, a A
v]. See also *Kapelle. form which proved especially suitable for
the expression of two contrasting moods,
Characteristic note. Leading note.
the first dramatic (A), the other lyrical
73, referring to the last movement; also Cabezon, 1572 [see *Tablature II]; Jean
for his Quartet in Bb, no. 2. (2) Name Jacques Rousseau, 1742; Pierre Galin,
of instrumental pieces (sonatas, etc.) of 1817). The figures i to 7 represent the
the 1 8th and i9th centuries, written in tones of the scale (in any given key);
imitation of hunting scenes. lower or higher octaves are indicated by
a dot under or above the figures. A rest
Chaunter. See *Bagpipe. is indicated
by o. Cf. E. Cheve, Methode
clementaire de la musique vocale (1846);
Check. A part of the action of the
WoHN ii, 403.
^pianoforte.
Cheville [F.]. Peg of stringed instru-
Chefs d'Oeuvre Classiques de 1'Op-
ments. Cheviller, peg-box.
era. See ^Editions IV.
Cheng, (i) A
Chinese string instru- Chiarenzana. A rare 16th-century lute
ment, similar to the *Ch'in. (2) Incor- dance in quick triple meter. Examples
rect spelling for the Chinese mouth or- occur in Marcantonio de Pifaro, Intabu-
latura de lauto (1546).
gan *sheng.
[133]
CHIAVE CHILEAN MUSIC
Chiave [It.]. Clef. simply mean a change of clef [see Ex. 4],
Others (Kroyer) have insisted upon the
Chiavette, chiave trasportata [It.].
transposing interpretation (i.e., change
A late- 16th-century system of writing of pitch), at least as a possibility. In a
vocal music with all the clefs moved up
or down from normal way the whole question is futile since it
their position, usu-
depends entirely upon the absolute pitch
ally a third (e.g. the F-clef on the third of the 1 6th century about which nothing
or the fifth line). The chiavette might
is known, and which, for that matter,
be considered the vocal analogon to the
probably did not exist. At any rate, the
transposing instrument of the orchestra.
importance of the chiavette has been
Ex. i meant to the singer: c-e-g; how-
greatly exaggerated in scholarly studies
as well as in books for instruction.
Lit.: Th. Kroyer, Der vollfommene
Partitur'spieler(1931); id., in Adler-
Festschrijt (1930); id., in ZMW
xiii;
A. Schering, in ZMW
xiii; E. Ehrmann,
in StM ix.
Chiavette
Chiesa church]. In Baroque music,
[It.,
da Mesa instrumental pieces
indicates
ever, the conductor gave the pitch a third
lower (a, or ab), so that the actual sound (sonatas) or vocal pieces with instrumen-
was: A-c#-e, or Ab-c-eb. (It will easily tal accompaniment (cantatas) which are
be noted that ^absolute pitch would have designed for use in the church, in contra-
distinction to similar pieces for domestic
been a severe handicap to the a-cappella
use, designated da *camera. See *Sonata
singers of the Palestrina period.) The
B,II.
just mentioned notation is called "high
chiavette," because the notation is higher Chifonie [F.]. Medieval (i2th-i5th
than the actual sound. An example of
centuries) corruption of *symphonia, i.e.,
the "low chiavette" (which is much more
*hurdy-gurdy.
rarely used) would be as illustrated under
Ex. 2 (actual sound: e-g# b). The tran- Chilean music. During the colonial
scription into modern notation of pieces period music in Chile was cultivated less
written in chiavette is very simple; the as an art than as an adjunct of social, civil,
notes remain in the same position on the and religious functions. There was no
staff, the clef is moved to its normal posi- outstanding musical figure during this
tion, and the proper signature (A or A- period. In the era of Independence, the
flat high chiavette; E or E-flat for low
for first composer worthy of note was Man-
chiavette) is added [see Ex. 3]. uel Robles (1780-1837), who composed
Examples of pieces notated in the chia- the original national anthem of Chile,
vette (i.e., with all the clefs moved down the so-called Cantion National (1820).
or moved up) are frequent between 1550 Though this song enjoyed wide popular-
and 1600 (Palestrina, Missa Papae Mar- ity, was
it
displaced as the official national
celli\ Tavernor-Tye, motet O splendor; anthem by the Himno Patridtico (1828),
Josquin, De
profundis, cf. RiHM ii.i, written by the celebrated Spanish com-
258). According to the above interpreta- poser Ram6n Carnicer at the request of
tion such pieces would actually be in the the Chilean ambassador in London,
key of A or of A-flat. It should be noted, where Carnicer was then living as a po-
however, that recent scholars (Ehrmann) litical exile. This Himno Patridtico re-
have denied the transposing effect of the mains the official anthem of Chile. The
chiavette, contending that the clefs were best-known Chilean composer of the i9th
moved down only in order to avoid the
century was Jose Zapiola (1804-85), clari-
use of ledger lines. According to this in- netist and bandmaster, who in 1839 com-
terpretation, the chiavette notation would posed a highly popular patriotic song,
[134]
CHILEAN MUSIC CHIN
Himno dc Yunguay. In 1842 he founded poser in the modern vein. A pupil of
a symphony orchestra in Santiago and in Soro in Chileand of Del Campo in Spain,
1864 was appointed choirmaster of the he founded the Bach Society of Chile and
cathedral there. Other important musi- in 1933 became dean of the faculty of fine
cal were Federico Guzman
pioneers arts of the University of Chile. He is also
(1837-85), pianist and composer of over professor of composition and musicology
200 works in Romantic style; Guillermo at the National
Conservatory, and since
Frick (1813-96), amateur composer and 1940 president of the newly-created Insti-
founder of the Club Musical of Valdivia; tute of Musical Extension, which central-
and Francisco Oliva, from 1860 director izes and controls virtually the whole of
of the National Conservatory (founded Chile's concert activity (orchestra, chorus,
in 1850). chamber music, and ballet). As a com-
Chile occupies a prominent place in the poser Santa Cruz has written a Suite for
contemporary musical scene of South Strings, a string quartet, choruses, Cinco
America, thanks to a notable group of Poemas Trdgicos for piano, songs, etc.
composers born in the i88o's and '90*5. His music has depth and distinction, with
Most of these composers, while not neg- polytonal tendencies.
lecting "pure" or abstract music, have Chile's principal conductor is Armando
imbued their works with national traits Carvajal (b. 1893), director of the Na-
derived largely from Chilean folk music. tional Symphony Orchestra. Claudio
The dean of this nationalist school is Arrau (b. 1904) is the best-known Chil-
Humberto Allende (b. 1885), who stud- ean pianist, while the younger pianist
ied at the National Conservatory in San- Arnaldo Tapia-Caballero has gained
tiago and has been active as a teacher of favorable recognition.
violin and composition. Among his There is no indigenous influence in the
major compositions are the symphonic popular music of Chile, since the descend-
poems Escenas Campesinas Chilenas and ants of the aboriginal inhabitants have
La Voz de las Calles, and Tres Tonadas remained in isolation, preserving their
for soli, chorus, and orchestra. Among own arts and customs instead of mixing
hispiano works, the Tonadas de cardeter with the Spanish population.
popular chileno have been widely played. Chilean dances are the *cueca and the
He has also written a violin concerto, *esquinazo.
chamber music (inch a String Quartet, Lit.: E. Pereira Salas, Los origenes del
1926), songs, etc. His younger brother, arte musical en Chile (Santiago, 1941);
Adolfo Allende (b. 1892), is also esteemed H. Allende, "Chilean Folk Music" (Bull
as a composer. Carlos Isamitt (b. 1885), of the Pan American Union, vol. 65, no.
who is both
painter and composer, has 9); N. Slonimsky, "Chilean Composers"
written a notable orchestral work entitled (Musical America, vol. 63, no. 10); C. S.
Friso Araucano (the Araucanian Indians Smith, "The Composers of Chile" (MM
were the indigenous inhabitants of Chile), xix, no. i). G. C.
some chamber music (inch 3 string
Chimes. See *Percussion instruments
quartets), Childhood Scenes for piano,
etc. Samuel Negrete (b. 1893), Hector A, 5. The term is also loosely used for a
Melo (b. 1899), Prospero Bisquerrt (b. set of bells (gongs, etc.) and for the or-
chestral *glockenspiel. Cf. W. W. Star-
1881), Alfonso Leng (b. 1884), Carlos
Lavm (b. 1883), and Enrique Soro (b.
mer, in PMA
xxxiv, xxxvi.
1884) are other notable composers. Most Chiming. See under *Bell.
promising of the younger composers are
Jorge Urrutia (b. 1905), Rene* Amengual Ch'in. An important traditional instru-
(b. 1911), and Alfonso Letelier (b. 1912). ment of the Chinese and of the Japanese,
Vibratory Length:
8654352534568
Frequency: ,
865435 2
5
3 4568
7543^3 2
Pitch: c d*eb e f g a c' e' g' c" c" g" c'"
Actually, the high notes of this series are huang chung; therefore, to new rulers it
not sounded, since the places to the right was a matter of prime concern to regain
side of the above scheme are used only for the exact measurement of the bamboo
the production of *harmonics, similar to pipe of absolute pitch. The political and
those of the violin. Since, with this sort social importance of music was empha-
of touch, stopping at %
produces the sized particularly by Confucius (551-
same pitch as ordinary stopping at %, 478 B.C.) whose teaching anticipates in a
the tones of the right half actually dupli- striking manner the Platonic theory re-
cate those of the left half, but with a dif- garding the relationship between music
ferent timbre. The playing of the ch'in and social order [see * Aesthetics of
is a highly complicated technique, involv- music II]. Numerical symbolism (e.g.,
ing many peculiarities such as glissando, the sacred number four, or the number
vibrato, pulling of the strings toward the twelve; see below) played a prominent
player or away from him, tapping, etc. part in Chinese musical theory, as in
The koto is a similar instrument, usually Chinese culture in general. In the centu-
with 13 strings. [Illustration on p. 823.] ries afterConfucius the occupation with
Cf. R. H. von Gulick, "The Lore of the music, poetry, and other arts became so
Chinese Lute" (Monumenta Nipponica y prevalent that the Emperor Shi Huang-ti,
i, ii, iii, 1938-40); SaHMI, iSjf.
in 246 B.C., ordered all music books and
instruments to be destroyed, in order to
Chinese crescent. See *Crescent.
prevent a general neglect of practical af-
Chinese music. History. The music
I. fairs, agricultural, social,political, etc.
of China presents the singular picture of This order caused the complete loss of
a traceable history of about 4000 years. innumerable priceless manuscripts as well
Considering the no less singular tra- as a severe setback of musical activity and
ditionalism and conservatism of Chinese development. Fortunately, the Emperors
culture in general, there is no reason to of the Han Dynasty (206 B.C.-A.D. 220)
distrust reports according to which it again favored music, which reached its
reaches back into the third millennium classical period under the T'ang Dynasty
B.C., although modern research has (618-907) and the Sung Dynasty (960-
placed doubt on the legend that the sys- 1279). in this period that huge or-
It is
during the past three centuries, sinking the hour, each numbering twelve (the
from its former level as a great spiritual Chinese hour is a double-hour). More-
and political factor to a cheap and some- over, each melody belongs to one of five
what noisy entertainment for the masses "modes," according to its center tone
[see below, III]. which may be any of the five fundamental
II. Tonal System. From the principal tones.
tone huang chung, represented subse- III. Musical Practice. For a general
quently by f (the actual pitch was, accord- survey, Chinese music may be divided
ing to recent studies, between and Eb), D into four classes: sacred music, chamber
others are derived by means of bamboo music, folk music, and operatic music.
tubes, called /, the length of which is Music of the first type shows many fea-
alternately in the relation of 2:4 and 4:3 tures of an age-old tradition. number A
to that of the preceding tube. Since 2:3 of ancient hymns are preserved, all of
gives the higher fifth, 4:3 the lower which proceed in long-held tones of equal
fourth, the following series of tones (also duration, usually in large intervals of the
called lii) results [see also under *Pan- pentatonic scale [Ex. 2; cf. AdHM, 13].
pipes (p'sai hsiao)]:
oras). In the first century A.D. the goes back to the i4th century, is seri-
ous and restrained [see Lit., Kwan-chi
Pythagorean comma was discovered, and
the series of consecutive fifths was con- Wang]. Today it is largely replaced by a
[137]
CHINESE MUSIC CHIUSO
popular type of opera which originated pitch for the conveying of the proper
about 1850 and which is rather vulgar and meaning of its words or syllables. The
noisy. Aside from this, music lives in four basic inflections are a level, a rising,
China mainly as folk song and as cere- a falling,and a rising plus falling tone,
and one and the same syllable has entirely
differentmeanings according to whether
one or the other of the above inflections
is used for pronunciation [cf. G. Her-
its
zog, in MQ
xx].
Lit.: Sophia Chen Zen, Symposium on
Chinese Culture (1931; article "Music"
by Y. R. Chao); J. H. Lewis, Foundations
of Chinese Musical Art (1936); J. A. van
Music (1884,
Aalst, Chinese J
933)j P ere
Amiot, MSmoires sur . . . la musique
chinoise (Peking, 1780); L. Laloy, La
Musique chinoise (1914); G. Soulie, La
Musique en Chine (1911); E. Fischer,
Beitrage zur Erforschung der Chine si-
schen MusiJ^ (1910; also in SIM xii);
Kwan-chi Wang, Ueber die chinesische
tyassische Oper (Diss. Bern 1934); Liu
Tien Hua, ^Selections from the Reper-
toire .
of. Mei Lan-fang (1929);
.
monial music for weddings, funerals, etc. Chung Sik Keh, Koreanische Musi^
Example in HAM, i. (Diss. Basle 1934); AdHM, i3ff; LavE
IV. Instruments. Chinese musical in- i.i, 77; A. Dechevrens, "Etude sur le
struments are traditionally classified into systeme musical chinois" (SIM ii); }. Yas-
horizontal rows from a rectangular stand. Chitarra. Italian name for guitar. Chi-
The upper row tuned to the male, the
is
tarrina is a smaller type, used in Naples.
lower to the female series of tones [see
Chitarrone [It., great *chitarra]. See
the explanation under *panpipes].
V. Finally it may be mentioned that *Lute III.
the Chinese language belongs to the cate- Chiuso [It., closed]. In horn playing,
gory of "tone-languages," a language
i.e., same as stopped; see *Horn I. In 14th-
which depends on certain inflections of century music, see *Ouvert and clos*
[138]
CHOIR CHORALE
Choir. A body of church singers, as op- equivalent of the English adjective choral
posed to the secular chorus. The name is is the German noun Chor-
(united to the
also used with reference to instrumental noun which it
precedes). Thus, we have
groups of the orchestra, e.g., the brass the following equivalents: E. choral fan-
choir, the string choir, the wood- wind tasia G. Chor]antasie\ E. chorale fan-
choir. tasia G. Choralfantasie .
Similarly :
choral cantata Chorl(antate\ chorale
Choir-book [G.Chorbuch]. The large- cantata Choral^antate.
sized manuscripts of i5th-and 16th-cen-
tury polyphonic music which were placed Choral [G.]. (i) The plainsong of the
on a stand and from which the whole Catholic Church, usually called Grego-
choir (about 15 singers) sang. See the nanischer Choral [see *Gregorian chant] .
omnipotentem"), etc. The chief sources DdT 34) and Spangenberg, Kirchengc-
( 1545). The involved
for his melodies were secular folk songs senge Deudtsch . . .
nart's "Venus du und dein Kind"). gescinge, Psalmen und geistliche Lieder
The earliest sources of Protestant cho- . . .
simplicitcr gesetzt (1608)], and Sam-
rales are three publications of Luther's uel [Tabulaturbuch hundert
Scheidt
friend and
collaborator Johann Walther geistlicher Lieder (1650) ] .
(1496-1570), all from 1524: the so-called The 1 7th century shows continued ac-
"Achtliederbuch" (containing 8 poems tivity in the creation of chorale melodies
to four melodies; original title: Etlich (monophonic as well as polyphonic or
christlich lider Lobgesang . in der Kir-
. . with *figured bass), although generally
chen zu sin gen) and two volumes En- with inferior results. The tunes do not
chiridion odereyn Handbuchlein with . . .
possess the originality and forcefulness of
25 poems to 15 melodies. In these books the earlier ones, becoming more senti-
as well as in those published by Klug mental and conventionalized. Nonethe-
[140]
CHORALE CHORALE FANTASIA
less, the tradition of the chorale was suffi- Use he Kirchenlied (1927); see also the
ciently strong to prevent it from becoming books on Bach by Spitta, Schweitzer, and
subdued by the superficialities of the oper- C. S. Terry; G. R. Woodward, "German
aticmaelstrom, and composers such as Hymnody . . ." (PMA xxxii); additional
Johannes Criiger (1598-1662), Johannes bibliography in MoML, 396.
Schop (d. 1664), Johann Georg Ebeling
Chorale cantata [G. Choral^antate].
(1637-76), Jakob Hintze (1662-1702),
Johann Rudolph Able (162573), con-
A term used, usually with reference to
Bach's cantatas, to denote those in which
tributed many fine tunes to the texts of
chorale texts (and, as a rule, chorale mel-
Paul Gerhardt, Johann Rist, and others.
odies also) are used for movements other
From the artistic point of view, however,
than the final one which is
nearly always
the activity in the field of *Choralbear-
a harmonized chorale. The following
beitung attracts the chief interest. The
and types may be distinguished [cf. W. G.
cantatas, oratorios, passions of the
Whittaker, Fugitive Notes on Church
late 1
7th and
early i8th centuries (espe-
Cantatas and Motets of /. S. Bach
cially those of Bach) contain numerous
(1923)] (a) those in which chorale texts
:
successive lines of the chorale. Examples century fusion of variation and suite [see
abound in vocal music movements 'Variations I V(b)].
(first
of Bach's Cantatas nos. 16, 27, 58, 60, 73,
Chorale prelude [G. Choralvorspiel}.
95, etc.) as well as in organ music where An
the chorale motet forms one of the prin-
organ composition based on a Prot-
estant chorale and designed to be played
cipal types of organ chorale. Compositions before the chorale is sung by the congrega-
of the described kind are often referred to
tion. Because of the close historical con-
as "chorale fugue" [G. Choralfuge]. nection between the Protestant chorale
Since, however, the basic structure is that
of the 16th-century motet rather than that
prelude and the earlier organ hymns of
the Catholic service which cannot be
of the Baroque fugue, the former term
considered as "preludes" the whole
would seem to be more appropriate. Ex-
matter is treated under the heading *or-
amples of true chorale fugues based on
gan chorale.
one theme only (usually the opening mo-
tive of the chorale) occur among Bach's Chorale variation. See *Chorale par-
organ chorales (e.g., "Gottes Sohn ist tita.
['4*1
CHORBUCH CHROAI
nor, op. 125, composed in 1823/24. The Chorlied [G.]. Choral song, particular-
name refers to the use of a chorus for the ly without accompaniment (Schumann,
last movement which
begins with an in- Mendelssohn, and others).
strumental introduction leading through
a recitative: "O Freunde, nicht diese Chororgel [G.]. Choir organ.
Tone" to a gigantic composition for cho- Chorton [G.]. See *Pitch (2).
rus and orchestra of Schiller's poem:
Freude, schoner Gotterfunken. The orig-
Chorus. ( i ) A
large body of singers, not
inal title is: Sinfonie mit Schlusschor iiber
connected with a church [see *Choir].
Schiller's Ode: "An die Freude," fur
Also music for such a body. (2) Me-
dieval Latin name for the *crwth or for
grosses Orchester, 4 Solo- und 4 Chor-
the *bagpipe SaRM, 80].
stimmen. [cf.
chromatic scale. Thus, chromatic horn is part of the i4th century the full chromatic
the name of the valve horn, as distinct scale was not only discussed by theorists
from the natural horn. For chromatic (Marchettus de Padua), but also found on
harp see *Harp. (4) In the i6th cen- organs (at least in the middle octave);
the word cromatico refers occasion- actually, all these "chromatic" tones
were
tury
but to the not used for chromaticism but for "trans-
ally, not to the use of semitones,
employment of the black notes, minima, posed diatonicism." True chromaticism
semiminima, fusa (or croma), semifusa was introduced by Adrian Willaert (c.
(or semicroma), i.e., of the smallest val- 1480-1562) and his pupil Cypriano de
Rore (1516-65), who, in his madrigal
ues, corresponding to our 8th, i6th notes,
etc. The term madrigale cromatico there-
Calami sonum jerentes (1561), starts out
fore simply means: madrigal in quicker with a chromatic subject (b-c-c#-d-d#-
movement (quicker than the earlier type, e-ft-g) [cf. RiHM ii.i, 414]. Luca de
written in motet-like style). Occasionally, Marenzio (c. 1560-99) and particularly
the term refers to the use of blackened Gesualdo (c. 1560-1614) exploited the
notes instead of the normally white shapes new material harmonically (succession of
This chords such as A minor followed by F-
(brevis, semibrevis\ see *Coloration).
manner of writing was but an affectation sharp majoi ,
cf. HAM, no. 161 ; SchGMB,
nos. 165, 167), experiments which had
meant toportray in "eye-music" such
words as "night," "dark." Cf A. Einstein,
. only temporary importance. In the Ba-
in ZIM xiv. roque period chromaticism is usually me-
lodic, chromatic progressions being used
Chromaticism (from Gr. chroma, col- mainly for two purposes: (a) for fugal
or]. The use of tones extraneous to (Sweclinck, Frescobaldi, Kerll,
the subjects
diatonic scale, e.g., in C
major: c-d-d#-e and others; SchGMB, no. 158), particu-
in
or c-d-e, instead of the *diatonic pro- larly for counter-subjects (frequent
Bach: Wt. no.
gression: c-d-e. The chromatic or diatonic
Cl. ii, 18; Harpsichord
character of a tone is frequently condi- Fugue in A minor; the theme *B-A-C-H
tioned by harmonic considerations. For of the *Art of Fugue); (b) for program-
instance in the progression: c-e-ftf-g the matic and pictorial purposes to indicate
grief or lament (very frequent
tone ft is chromatic if the harmony stays in cantatas,
History. Chromaticism appeared first Fantasia [see also *Harmony, Ex. 8, 9].
in Greek music (chromatic tetrachord, After Beethoven, however, a new era of
e; see *Greek
music II(b)) prob- chromaticism began, characterized by the
[
CHROMATIC SCALE CHURCH MODES
exploitation of chromatically altered har- The chronos protos, or, as it is called by
mony. To describe this phase of chro- French scholars, "premier temps/' is also
maticism would be tantamount to writing the basis of rhythm in many Oriental
a study on Romantic harmony. The ex- cultures, particularly of the Near East
amples given under *Harmony will suf- (Arabia, India; see *Rhythm II(b)). It
fice to show to what an extent chromat- also plays a fundamental part in the dis-
icism changed the appearance of music cussions of the rhythm of
Gregorian chant
in the period from 1850 to 1900. After [see *Gregorian chant VI).
1900 chromaticism lost its former conno-
Chrotta. See under *Crwth.
tation as a "color-modification" of dia-
tonicism, and established itself as a tonal Church modes. I. The Church modes
province in its own right, based on the (ecclesiastical modes, or, simply, modes)
equivalence of the twelve tones of the are the tonal basis of the *Gregorian chant
chromatic scale. This idea is clearly ap- and of early music about 1600) in
(till
parent in Debussy's *whole-tone scale. general. A church mode is an octave-
A. Schonberg, through his *twelve-tone
segment of the diatonic (C major) scale,
technique, attempted a more radical solu- with one of its tones playing the role of a
tion by denying any pre-established rela- center tone (comparable to the tone C of
tionship between the twelve tones or, in the C major scale). The range of the
other words, by admitting any chordal or octave is called ambitus, the center tone,
melodic combination of these tones as finalis.In the complete system of modes
building material. there are six finales: d, e, f, g, a, c'. To
Around 1920, there began a reaction each of these finales belong two modes,
against the excessive chromaticism, one whose ambitus starts with the finalis
whether romantic, impressionistic, or and ends at the higher octave, and another
atonal (expressionistic). It found its most whose ambitus starts with the fourth be-
conspicuous manifestation in the *pan- low the finalis and extends to the fifth
diatonicism of composers such as Stravin-
sky, Poulenc, and others who were influ- i
enced by Satie, the whimsical antipode of ft
Chronos,
time,
or chronos protos
time]. The temporal or
"first"
^ *. H.-P
^ 2*
H. H.-M,
fering from this in the fact that it cannot
be divided into smaller values and there-
fore constitutes a "first" or smallest unit. H--I.
Crctic Meter
Dorian (finalis d; ambitus d-d'); Phryg-
ian (e; e-e'); Lydian (f; f-f); Mixo-
multiplication only, or, more properly, of lydian (g; g-g'); Aeolian (a; a-a'); Io-
addition, since irregular groupings in nian (c; c-c"); in the latter the prefix
varying numbers are possible and typical, hypo- is added: Hypodorian (d; A-a);
particularly in the Cretic meter. Hypophrygian (e; B-b); Hypolydian
CHURCH MODES CHURCH MODES
(f; c-c'); Hypomixolydian (g; d-d'); ment of the theoretical system preceded
Hypoaeolian (a; e-c'); Hypoionian (c; the actual writing of melodies, is in con-
g-g'). It must be remembered that all tradiction to thefundamental principles
these octaves are diatonic, that is, make of musical development. Very likely the
use of only the white keys of the keyboard. system of the modes did not originate
The accompanying Ex. i serves as an illus- until the 8th century, as an attempt to
tration ofDorian and Hypodorian. The codify the large repertory of chants which
bracketed notes of this example designate had accumulated during the preceding
an additional tone which was frequently centuries, and there is reason to believe
admitted, the so-called subfinalis or sub- that numerous chants were modified to
tonium modi. The fermatas indicate sec- conform with the theoretical system.
III. The above system of twelve modes
ondary center tones, called dominant. As
a rule, the dominant is a fifth above the appeared first in Glar can's *Dodet(achor-
finalis modes, a third
in the authentic don (1552). In modern writings it is
above it modes. However,
in the plagal sometimes enlarged by two more modes,
the tone b which was not used as a finalis the Locrian and Hypolocrian, based on
[see below, III] was also avoided as a the tone b as the
finalis. However, these
dominant, and was replaced by c' in the modes are entirely fictitious since they
Phrygian and in the Hypomixolydian. would involve a diminished fifth (b-f)
Another exception occurs in the Hypo- above the finalis. On the other hand, it is
Hypoaeolian Decimus t.
Ionian Undecimus t.
Hypoionian Duodccimus t.
ignation of the authentic modes as 'Magnificat, etc.), for which eight differ-
"Ambrosian" and of the plagal modes as ent formulae, one in each mode, are pro-
[i
CHURCH MODES CHURCH MODES
tation-tone, tenor, tuba) are strictly ob- transposing the descending segments into
served. In fact, there is reason to believe one and the same octave (e.g., a a 7 ), these
that in the early days of plainsong (c. "tonics" appear in an
500- ascending order, as
900) the dominant, which is frequently is shown below:
touched in the melodies, was more deci-
sive than the finalis. In order to accom- fiD P. L. M.
mode, but the combined ambitus of the For a fuller discussion of this problem
authentic and the plagal (e.g., mixed cf. ReMMA, 153$.
Dorian has the ambitus from A to d'). V. As regards the use of the modes as
the tonal basis of polyphonic composition,
In the yth century, French musicians
i
there is no evidence of methodical treat-
adopted a new terminology for the 12
modes, applying thet erms Dorian, Phryg-
ment prior to the later part of the i5th cen-
ian, etc., to the scale degrees beginning tury when the ^Flemish School brought
not with D, but with C. This practice is about a renewed interest in the Gregorian
tradition and in sacred music. Particularly
fully explained in Ch. Guillet, 24 Fantai-
the compositions of the I4th century are
sies . . .
dispose selon I'ordre dcs douze
modes (1610; new ed. in Monumenta remarkably free in their tonality, as al-
Musicae Belgicae IV, 1938). It is also ob- ready appears from their liberal use of
served in Denis Gaultier's La Rhetonque accidentals [see *Music ficta IV]. In this
des Dieux (new ed. by A. Tessier; see also
O. Fleischer, in VMW
1886). [For other
modifications of passing importance (Zar-
lino) cf. RiML, 889.]
IV. It has become customary inmodern
studies to treat the church modes together
with the "Greek modes," considering the
former as the derivatives of the latter.
Such a procedure is not to be recom-
mended. What are usually called "Greek
modes" represent a phenomenon of such
a complexity and one involving so many
historical changes (many of which are
still obscure) that summary statements
are likely to be misleading rather than
clarifying [see *Greek music II(c),(d)].
The most striking (though by no means
the essential) difference between the
Greek and the medieval systems is that in
the former the names Dorian, Phrygian,
Lydian, and Mixolydian (D,P,L,M) are respect it is interesting to note that not
until after 1500 did composers begin to
associated with descending series of
a
write polyphonic settings of, e.g., the
tones, namely, e, d, c, b, while in the latter
they occur in an ascending order (d, e, f, Magnificat in the various modes (Mag-
g). A
(somewhat simplified) explanation nificatprimi toni, etc.), and that designa-
of this change is that the Greek octave- tions such as Toccata primi toni do not
occur prior to 1550 (Andrea Gabrieli).
segments had all one and the same "ton-
ic," i.e., the tone a (mesc) and that, by No less interesting is the fact that Glare-
[i
CHURCH MUSIC CHURCH MUSIC
anus, in his brilliant analyses of the com- style of the music. During the ensuing
positions of Josquin and others (Dodefy- centuries a vast repertory of chants ac-
chordon) never investigates the mode of cumulated which, around 600, was stand-
a polyphonic composition as such, but ardized and made authoritative by St.
only those of the different voice parts [cf. Gregory [see ^Gregorian chant] Around .
W. Apel, Accidentien und Tonalitat . . . 800, we find the first attempts to enlarge
(1937), p. 63, footnote]. The table the Gregorian repertory by newly in-
on p. 147 illustrates characteristic har- vented texts and melodies, an activity
monic progressions of the six authentic which generally known as troping. This
is
v); H. E. Wooldridge, "Studies in the dies [see *motet ente] for the upper parts,
stage reached in the Middle Ages, about fifths. Itwould appear that this decree
1000. In striking contrast to this con- had far-reaching results which, although
servatism, which eventually resulted in advantageous to the aims of the Church,
deterioration, is the development of music were detrimental to music. Indeed, the
in the Roman Catholic Church which, as almost complete absence of sacred com-
early as the 9th century, began to embrace positions in the French and Italian sources
polyphonic treatment, thus laying the of the *Ars Nova may well be explained
foundation for the entire development of by the restrictions resulting from the
Western music. Following is a brief con- edict; even as late as 1408, polyphonic
spectus of the evolution of music of the music (discant) was forbidden in the Ca-
Roman Catholic, the Anglican, and the thedral of Notre Dame in Paris [see also
German Protestant Church. *fauxbourdon (i)]. The edict also in-
I. The music of the Catholic Church is terrupted the development of another
rooted in the tradition of the Jewish lit- type of Church music, namely the poly-
urgy, as already appears from the fact phonic *mass, the earliest examples of
that the oldest portions of the Catholic which, the Mass of Tournai (c. 1300) and
service were the *psalms and the Canti- that of Machaut (c. 1325?), are separated
cles. A certain influence of Greek tradi- by nearly 100 years from those following
tion appears in the hymns of St. Ambrose next.
[sec *Ambrosian hymns] which differ II. A new era of Church music began
from the psalms and canticles by the around 1425. After an interruption of
strictly metrical structure of the text and 100 years, the center of musical activity
by the syllabic rather than melismatic again shifted back to the Church. Masses
CHURCH MUSIC CHURCH MUSIC
and motets became the chief forms of *Chorale cantata]. Alongside the cantata
composers such as the English Dunstable there grew the *oratorio and the *passion,
(d. 1453), the Burgundian Dufay (1400- represented by a number of composers
74), and the long series of ^Flemish mas- from Schiitz (1585-1672) to Bach.
ters from Ockeghem (1430-95) and IV. In 17th-century Italy the tradition
Obrecht (1430-1505) to Lasso (1532- of Palestrina was continued
by the *Ro-
94). Around 1550, Italian (Andrea Ga- man school. More important than the
brieli,1510-86; Palestrina, 1525-94) and activity of this conservative group was
Spanish (Morales, c. 150053; Vittoria, the development of instrumental church
1540-1611) composers appeared in suc- music, particularly the *sonata da chiesa
cessful competition with the Flemish (Biagio Marini,
1597-1665; Legrenzi,
masters y-thus leading to an unparalleled 1626-90; 1653-1713) which,
Corelli,
acme of Catholic church music. There around 1685, spread to England, Ger-
also started,around 1500, a remarkable many, and France. Bach's singular uni-
development of ecclesiastical organ music, versality makes him the crowning high-
designed to supplant the choral perform- point of Protestant (cantata, passion, or-
ance of hymns, psalm-verses [see *Ver- gan chorale) as well as Catholic (Mass,
set], of the Ordinary of the Mass [see Magnificat) church music of the Baroque.
*Organ Mass] and of certain chants of V. In the period after 1750 the pro-
special importance, particularly the *Mag- duction of great church music became
nificat and the *antiphons B.M.V. [see more scarce, and the ensuing history is a
*Salve regina] Composers such as Arnolt
. somewhat thinly spread succession of iso-
Schlick (c. 14501527), John Redford latedmasterworks rather than a continu-
(c. 1480-?), Girolamo Cavazzoni (c. ous development. The oratorio, which
1500-?), Antonio de Cabezon (1510- found one of its greatest masters in Han-
66), made outstanding contributions in del, is perhaps the only type of religious
this field. music which can boast of an almost un-
III. At the same time, however, the interrupted line of composers, English as
universal authority of the Roman Church well as German. More and more, how-
was broken by the Reformation which, ever, it became music for the concert hall
by 1550, led to the establishment of new rather than for the church. As a comple-
bodies of church music, chiefly in Eng- tion of our survey, it suffices to mention
land [see ^Anglican chant] and in Ger- such outstanding compositions as Pergo-
many. While the English movement lesi's Stabat mater (c. 1735), Mozart's
found a somewhat limited artistic expres- Requiem (1791), Beethoven's Missa so-
sion in the *anthem and in the ^Service lemnis (1823), Rossini's Stabat mater
(Tallis, 1505-85;Byrd, 1543-1623; Pur- (1832), Brahms's Deutsche s Requiem
cell,1658-95; Handel, 1685-1759), the (1868), its stylistic antipode, the Requiem
German Reformation (Luther, 1483- by Verdi (1874), and Bruckner's Masses
1546) proved to be an event of the great- (1864-67) and Te Deum (1881). Cf.
est consequence in music, owing chiefly also the examples by Perez and Jommelli
to theestablishment of the Protestant in HAM, nos. 301, 306.
*chorale as a source of musical creation Lit.: E, Dickinson, Music in the His-
and inspiration, similar in character and tory of the Western Church (1902);
significance to the Gregorian chant. The O. Ursprung, Die \atholische Kirchen-
chorale not only brought about the great musi\ (BuHM, 1932); K. G. Fellerer,
wealth of *organ chorales (Scheldt, 1587- Geschichte der fytholischcn Kirch en-
1654; Tunder, 1614-?; Buxtehude, 1637- musi\ (1939); F. Blume, Die cvange-
1707; Pachelbel, 1653-1706; Bach, 1685- lische Kirchenmusi\ (BiiHM, 1932);
1750), but also won a lasting though A. T. Davison, Protestant Church Music
gradually decreasing influence on the in America (1933); H. W. Davies and
*cantata, the chief type of German church H. Grace, Music and Christian Worship
music in the Baroque period [sec also (1934); G. Gardner and S. Nicholson,
CHUTE CLAQUEBOIS
Manual of English Church Music (1923); sion of fifths (c-g-d' . . .) leads back
Dom A. Hughes, "i6th-Ccntury Service after 12 steps to the initial tone, if octaves
Music" (ML v, no. 2); A. Cocuroy, "Les are disregarded. Thus, the fifths can be
formes actuelles de la musique religieuse" arranged in a circle which, simultane-
(RM vi); H. B. Collins, "Byrd's Latin ously, shows the progression from one key
Church Music for Practical Use in the to the next higher one, with one more
Roman Liturgy" (ML iv, no. 3); K. G.
Fellerer, "Die vokalc Kirchenmusik des
17/18. Jahrhunderts . . ." (ZMW xi).
mann, in MQ ii.
sharp in the signature. If the circle is
Cinelli [It.]. *Cymbals. passed through in the other direction
(i.e., of descending fifths: c'-f-Bb
. .
.),
Cinfonie. See *Hurdy-gurdy. the keys follow each other with one more
flat in the signature. At one point of the
Cinque-pace [from F. cinque pas, five from the sharp keys to
circle the transition
steps]. The name, which also occurs in
the versions
the keys must be made, for instance, at
flat
Sin\-a-pacc, Sinqua-pace,
is used by writers of the Eliza- G-sharp = A-flat (*enharmonic change).
SincopaSy
bethan period for the *galliard which had
The scheme of signatures might also serve
for the minor keys, by starting from A,
five steps. Cf. GD iv, 772; suppl. vol., 123.
instead of from C. The series of fifths
"closes" only in well-tempered tuning
Ciphering. In organ building, the con-
tinued sounding of a pipe, due to some [Ex. i]. If Pythagorean (pure) fifths are
defect of the mechanism. considered, the i2th of these fifths is
higher by the *Pythagorean comma
Circle canon. See *Canon (i), I (h). (about one-eighth of a tone) than the
Circle of fifths [G. Quintcnzir%el}. starting tone. Here, a "spiral of fifths"
The term refers to the fact that a succes- would give an adequate picture of the
unending series of ascending and descend-
ing fifths [Ex. 2],
[150]
CLARINBLASEN CLARINET FAMILY
Clarinblasen [G.]. See *Clarin trum- acteristic and most troublesome portion
of their range is, to the
pet. average player, at
Clarinet family. The term is adopted the top of the first twelfth, i.e., as in Ex. 2,
here as a convenient collective designa-
tion for a large group of wind instruments
characterized by the use of a single reed
[see *Reed]. This group forms the con-
trast to the *oboe family which includes
the wind instruments with a double reed.
I. The Clarinet. The clarinet, an or- the so-called "break" or throat register.
chestral wood-wind instrument, consists The register below the break is termed
of an end-blown cylindrical pipe made of chalumeau, that above it, clarion or da-
wood or ebonite (recently also of metal) rino. All clarinets are notated as trans-
with a characteristic mouthpiece (beak), posing instruments.
which looks as if it were pinched to form II. Present Forms. The most common
a sharp edge at the top, and which has a form is the clarinet in J9b, which sounds
single reed (made from a thin piece of a whole tone lower than written. Next
cane) fixed to its back. The clarinet has in importance is the clarinet in A, the
the acoustical properties of a "stopped" part for which sounds a minor third lower
pipe, thus overblowing at the twelfth, than written. The former instrument is
i.e., the second partial the octave more brilliant than the latter without sac-
and the even-numbered partials in gen- rificing any perceptible fullness. The
eral cannot be obtained by overblowing, clarinet in A is sometimes preferred for
a fact which also has a bearing on the parts in the sharp keys which are, of
*timbre of the clarinet. At a distance the course, easier to play on this instrument
clarinet is
frequently confused with the than on the other. The bass instrument
similar-looking oboe from which, how- of the clarinet family is the bass clarinet
ever, it is
easilydistinguished by the in Z?b, the range of which is an octave
mouthpiece. While the oboe produces a lower than the clarinet in Bb, plus an ad-
"pastoral," slightly quaint and nasal ditional semitone provided by a low Eb
sound of a rather unchanging quality, key, thus rendering possible the perform-
the clarinet is not only fuller and more ance of music written for the now obso-
"creamy" in timbre, but also shows a dis- lete bass clarinet in A. To avoid a some-
tinct variation of timbre in its various what unwieldy length the lower end of
ranges (registers). It lends itself to the the instrument curved upward in a
is
expression of love and passion as well as metal bell, while the upper end, likewise
of fury and parody. On the whole, it is of metal, is curved downward, thus bring-
a much more "modern" (and, in fact, a ing the mouthpiece within reach of the
much more recent) instrument than the player's mouth. The bass clarinet has less
oboe. marked differences of register than the
Owing to the fact that only the odd- higher instruments and its top register is
numbered can be obtained by
partials relatively weak. Its lower tones are of re-
overblowing c-g'-e"), a number of
(e.g., markable richness and have the advan-
holes and, consequently, a complicated tage, as opposed to those of the bassoon,
key mechanism are necessary to obtain of a very wide dynamic range.
the tones in between. The *Boehm sys- Additional types are the clarinet in Eb,
tem popular in America, but has not
is a small instrument pitched a perfect
been universally adopted. All clarinets fourth above the clarinet in Bb; the alto
have a written range as shown in Ex, i, clarinet in Eb, pitched a fifth below the
although the higher members of the fam- clarinet in Bb; and the double-bass clari-
ily occasionally exceed this upwards, and net in Bb (pedal clarinet, contrabass
the lower members become somewhat clarinet), pitched an octave below the bass
weak in their top octave. The least char- clarinet. They are commonly found in
8
CLARINETS
I, Clarinet. 2. Bass Clarinet. 3. Heckel-clarina. 4. Holztrompcte. 5. Tarogato. 6. Old Basset Horn.
7. Modern Basset Horn. 8. Clarinet d'amour. 9. Saxophone. 10. Bagpipe.
n. Pibgorn. 12. Hornpipe. 13. Stockhorn. 14. Chalumeau.
CLARINET FAMILY CLARINET FAMILY
bands, but are occasionally demanded in IV. History and Repertory. In early
orchestral scores. Parts for the Eb clarinet periods and in exotic cultures single-reed
are found in Strauss's Ein Heldenleben, instruments are much rarer than double-
in Stravinsky's Sucre du Printcmps, and reed instruments (oboes). Double clari-
in Ravel's Chloe; for the
Daphnis et nets (in pairs) were known in ancient
double-bass clarinet in d'Indy's Fervaal, Egypt, but scarcely at all in the Far East.
in Strauss's Legend of ]oseph y and in To the present day a triple clarinet, called
Weingartner's Orestes. There are three launedda, is used in Sardinia [cf. SaHMI,
obscure modern instruments, related to 91]. Aprimitive European instrument is
the clarinet only in that they possess a the *pibgorn (also called stockhorn, horn-
single reed, which have been invented pipe), which was originally made of the
for the sole purpose of playing the solo shin bone of a sheep, with a part of a cow
English horn part in Act III of Tristan. horn attached as a bell [cf. GD
iv, 172; v,
They are the *Hec\el-clarina, the Holz- 141]. The forerunner proper of the clari-
trompete, and the *Tarogato. The music net is the chalumeau [the single-reed type;
in question is generally played by the in addition there also existed a chalu-
built, e.g., the clarinet in C, the clarinet isted a number of strangely shaped instru-
in D (called for in Liszt's "Mazeppa" ments of this type, especially for the bass
and Strauss's "Eulenspiegel"; now re- size [cf. W. Heinitz, Instrumenten1(unde
placed by the clarinet in Eb), the bass (in BiiHM), p. 57]. The change from
clarinet in C or A
(Liszt, "Mazeppa"), the chalumeau to the clarinet took place
the bathy phone (constructed by E. between c. 1690 and 1720, owing to the
Skorra, 1839), etc. More interesting is activity of Johann Chr. Denner and his
the basset horn, an alto clarinet with a son Johann Denner who added finger
narrower bore, a thinner wall, and four keys and a speaker key [cf. SaHMI ,
semitones beyond the low E (which 41 if]. These early clarinets had the
sounds A in the usual F pitch). Origi- timbre of oboes rather than of the mod-
nally (c. 1770) was crescent-shaped and
it ern clarinet, owing chiefly to the use of
in this form was used by Mozart singly small reeds. Thus, Johann Walther says
or in pairs in Clemenzo di Tito, Nozze in his Lexicon of 1732 (first mentioning
di Figaro, Zauberflote, 11 Seraglio, the of the name Clarinet): "From a distance
Requiem, and in various instrumental it sounds rather like a trumpet." This
works K.V. 411). At about 1800
(e.g., explains the name clarinet [cf. *Clarin
the shape was replaced by a
crescent trumpet; *Clairon].
model which was sharply bent at nearly Chalumeaus, whether in their primi-
right angles and, somewhat later, it was tive or improved form, were used in
given a straight form in which it is con- Reinhard Reiser's operas Croesus (1711)
structed nowadays. Beethoven used it and Serena fa (1716), and are still pre-
only Prometheus, and Mendelssohn
in scribed in Gluck's Orfeo (1767). Ra-
wrote two concerted pieces for clarinet meau, J. W. Stamitz, and Gossec are the
and basset-horn with piano (op. 113, 114). composers associated particularly with
Rare modern examples, generally played the early appearance of the real clarinet
on the alto clarinet in Eb, are to be found in the orchestra. Mozart used it in some
in Salome and Electra of Strauss, in Con- of his later symphonies, notably that in
verse's of Desire, and in the
The Pipe Eb (K.V. 543), in which prominent parts
Violin Concerto of Roger Sessions. Fi- covering a wide range are given to the
nally, the clarinetto d'amore might be pair of clarinets. From that time, two
mentioned, a larger clarinet in or Ab, G clarinets are to be found in every normal
with the pear-shaped bell of the oboe orchestra. Berlioz was among the first to
d'amore. use various sizes of clarinets for their
GLARING CLASSICISM
particular tonal quality, a practice con- Cantata 75, B.-G. xviii, 183]. The mod-
tinued by Liszt, Strauss, and Mahler. ern Bach trumpet (a short and straight
From the time of Wagner the number of 3-valve trumpet) which has been designed
clarinets in the orchestra is often increased
Salome and Electra Strauss uses one
in
clarinet in Eb, two in Bb, two in A, one
bass clarinet, and two basset horns, prac-
ticallythe entire family. Composers since
Mozart have provided the instrument
with a repertory which in quality and
variety is equaled by that of no other wind
instrument. Outstanding compositions
are: clarinet concerto by Mozart, K.V. for the rendering of such passages is only
622, Weber, op. 73, 74, Spohr, op. 26, 57,
and two in F and E minor; clarinet so-
a poor substitute,owing to its unsatisfac-
tory tone quality.
natas by Brahms, op. 120, nos. i and 2;
Lit.: N. Bessaraboff, Ancient European
clarinet quintets by Mozart (K.V. 581),
Musical Instruments (1941), 192*! and
Brahms, op. 115, Reger, op. 146; clarinet W. F. H. Blandford, in Monthly
413;
triosby Beethoven, op. n, Brahms, op. Musical Record, July, 1931 and March to
114.
June, 1935; H. Eichborn, Das alte Cla-
The clarinet family, as defined above,
also includes members the
rino-Blasen (1894); C. Sachs, in ii; AMW
among its
R. Hofmann, in BJ, 1916.
saxophones. Since, however, these instru-
ments deviate in important particulars Clarion. An ancient English trumpet
from the clarinet, they are usually treated inround form [cf. SaRM] .
century polyphonic music, usually pro- were intended to serve as substitutes (Er-
vided with (improvised) ornamental satztyausel, substitute clausula) for the
notes. An elaborate system of classifica- corresponding sections (in the above case,
tion and terminology, of little interest to- the sectionGO) in the organa of Leoni-
day, has been worked out by the i7th- and nus which form the *Magnus liber organi.
18th-century theorists [cf. GD i, 527^ see These organa consist, in alternation, of
also reference under *Glosa] .
"organal" sections in a relatively free
(2) In the repertory of the School of rhythm, and of "discant" sections [see
Notre Dame (c. 1200; see *Ars antiqua), *Discant] in strictly measured counter-
155 1
CLAVECIN * CLAVICHORD
point. It is the latter sections for which Silbermann in 1721, in which the strings
Perotinus and his collaborators provided are double the normal length. They are
substitutes, frequently shorter in length plucked in the middle so that both sec-
and more precise in rhythm [cf. HAM, tions sound the same tone, with a highly
nos. 28 and 30]. Occasionally, the origi- desirable result of increased volume of
nal discant sections of the Leoninus or- tone.Accordingly, this instrument had
gana are also spoken of as clausulae. no damping-cloth woven between the
Although the clausulae were originally strings such as are indispensable in the
designed as alternative sections of the or- ordinary clavichord in order to dampen
gana, they were also (possibly at a some- the shorter section of the string. In spite
what later period) used independently, of its various advantages, the instrument
though, of course, always in connection did not gain popularity. It is described in
with plainsong. The following scheme Mattheson's Critica musica (1722-25),
for the Easter Alleluia [cf. GR, 223] illus- and in Adlung's Musica mechanica
trates such a method of performance (1768), III, 123. Cf. E. van der Straeten,
which could well be revived by a modern in Musical Times, Jan., 1924.
choir [capital letters indicate clausulae
Clavicembalo [It.]. *Harpsichord.
(in two parts), ordinary letters plain-
song] : Clavichord [G. Klavichord\ It. clavi-
NOSTRUM cordo\ earlier names are manichord, mani-
NOSTRUM cordion, monachord}. The earliest type
Alleluia,alleluia.(y) Pascha
of stringed keyboard instrument. It prob-
LATUS
ably developed in the I2th century from
immo- LATUS est Christus.
the *monochord (or the *psalterium) by
[See also *Motet A, I.] It may be noticed the addition of a keyboard. The clavi-
that such a clausula-execution takes only chord consists of a wooden oblong box,
a fraction of the time required for an or- varying in length from two to five feet,
ganum-execution in which the entire vers and resting on legs (earlier instruments
would be sung polyphonically. were frequently without legs, being put
No less important than the backward on a table). The
strings as well as the
reaching connection of the clausulae with keyboard run parallel to the long side.
organum and plainsong is another one, The strings are put in vibration by small
pointing towards the later development, brass wedges, called tangents [from L.
that is, with the *motet. In fact, most of tangere> to touch], which are fastened to
the early motets are directly derived from the rear of the lever. The tangents, by a
clausulae by retaining their music, but sort of pressure-stroke from below, not
underlaying a full text to the melisma of only cause the string to vibrate, but also
the upper part. For the identification of a terminate their vibrating length, by divid-
clausula (such as GO, *IN SECULUM, ing them in two parts the smaller of which
NOSTRUM, LATUS) the complete list is damped by a piece of cloth woven
given in F. Ludwig, Repertorium orga- through the strings [see, however, *Clave-
norum rccentloris et motetorum vetustis- cin d'amour]. The production of sound
simi (1910), pp. 25-29 and, particu-
stilt is therefore similar to that of a violinist
tion is made of clavicimbalum^ monocor- new ed. by E. Doflein, Ed. Schott) is per-
dium, clavichordium, and *schachtbret. haps the most idiomatic clavichord music
In 1477 William Horwood taught the ever written, and contains practically the
"clavychord" at Lincoln Cathedral. Oth- only pieces in which the *Bebung is clear-
er records from the late i5th century are Not without interest is the
ly indicated.
mentioned in GD i, 661. The first clear attempt made by F. W. Rust in a sonata
description occurs in Virdung's Musica from 1792 [see *Editions XII B (n)] to
getutscht of 1511. The French name exploit still other resources of the clavi-
manicordion appears on the tide of At- chord. See also *Keyboard music.
taingnant's publications: Magnificat avcc Lit.: F. A. Goehlinger, Geschichte des
te deum et deux preludes, le tout mis en Klavichords (Diss. Basle 1930); C. Auer-
tabulature des orgues, espinettes et mani- bach, Die deutsche Clavichordtyinst des
cordions .
(1530) or: Dix-neuf chansons
. . 18. Jahrhundcrts (1910); G. Le Cerf,
musicales reduictes en la tabulature des "Notes sur le clavicorde et le dulce mclos
orgues espinettes manicordions et telz du ms. lat. 7295" (RdM, nos. 37, 38); E.
semblables instruments musicaux . . .
Harich-Schneider, Fray Tomds de Santa
(1530). An Italian publication referring Maria, Anmut und Kunst beim Clavi-
to the instrument is: Intabulatura nova di chordspiel (1937; transl. from L'Arte de
varie sorte di balli, da sonare per arpichor- taner fantasia, 1565); id., in AMP
ii; C.
Virdung's Musica getutscht (1511). Cf. used on the fourth line; it indicates that
SaRM, 217; N. Bessaraboff, Ancient Eu- the note written on the fourth line is f.
ropean Musical Instruments (1941), pp. The C-clef is used in two positions, on the
325f. third line (alto clef or viola clef), or on
the fourth line (tenor clef) (see b). The
Clavier, (i) Pronounced kla'-vi-er, i.e.,
G-clef used for the upper staff of piano-
is
keyboard. (2) Pron. kla-ver', i.e., any forte music and forall high instruments
stringed keyboard instrument, in modern
(violin, flute); the F-clef is used for the
times usually the pianoforte. (3) For lower staff of pianoforte music and for
the German word, see *Klavier. (4) all low instruments (cello, double bass).
The French word clavier has the meaning The alto clef is used for the viola and in-
indicated under (i).
struments of a similar range; the tenor
Clavier Hans. See *Keyboard III. clef for the high range of the cello, the
bassoon, the tenor trombone, etc.
Clavieriibung [G., Study for key- History. The above signs are evolution-
board] . A title used by J. S. Bach for four ary modifications of the letters they stand
publications of keyboard music. Clavier- for. Example c shows early shapes, illus-
iibung i (1731) contains the six *partitas; trating the gradual corruption of the let-
ii
(1735), the Italian Concerto and the ters c, f, and
In music prior to 1750
g.
French Overture; iii (1739), a number of each of these signs occurs in various posi-
organ chorales preceded by the Prelude in tions. See Example d which also shows
Eb, and closed by the Fugue in Eb (*St. the position of middle C (c') in each clef.
Anne's Fugue); iv (1742), the *Goldberg
Variations. See remark under *Klavier.
The was adopted by Bach from for-
title
KM 9'
As a matter of fact, this transposed clef is climax, frequently combined with quick-
Clocking. See under *Bell. pianoforte Sonata op. 2, no. 3 may be rec-
ommended for a study of the coda in its
Clock Symphony. Haydn's Symphony various manifestations. Here even the
no. 101 (4) in D
major, composed 1794
Scherzo ends with a coda to be played aft-
in London. The name refers to the tick- er the repetition of the Scherzo ("Scherzo
semi-public. An important step of the 1910 to 1933 he was director of the Na-
German movement was the introduction tional Conservatory at Bogota; he was also
of old instruments, such as recorders, viols, founder and conductor of the Sociedad de
Gurlitt, University of Frei-
Conciertos Sinf6nicos del Conservatorio.
gambas (W.
burg, 1920). See M. Gondolatsch, in Possessing a solid technical equipment, he
ZMW iii; M. Sciffcrt, in SIM ii.
has produced numerous works in many
forms, including a quantity of chamber
Col legno [It., with the wood]. In vio- music. Among his orchestral works are
lin playing, the striking of the strings a Symphony in F minor, Sinfonia del Te-
with the bow-stick, instead of with the
rruno, and Tres Danzas. He has written
hair. a Requiem, a Te Deum, and other church
music. From the viewpoint of musical
Coll' ottava [It.]. With the octave.
nationalism, his most significant composi-
Colombia. The following were the out- tions are the 300 Trozos en el sentimiento
standing musicians of Colombia during popular, for piano. Other noteworthy
the 1 9th century:
Enrique Price (1819- contemporary composers are Jesus Ber-
63), of English birth, who lived in New mudez-Silva (b. 1884), Emilio Murillo
York for a time and then settled in Bogota*, (1880-1942), Jose Rozo Contreras (b.
where in 1846 he founded the Sociedad 1894), Carlos Posada Amador (b. 1908),
Filarm6nica, out of which all subsequent Adolfo Mejia (b. 1909), and Guillermo
musical organizations in Colombia de- Espinosa (b. 1905), conductor of the Or-
veloped. In 1847 he founded a School of questa Sinf6nica Nacional, which he
Music in conjunction with the Philhar- founded in 1936.
monic Society. Juan Cris6stomo Osorio y Lit.: Perdomo Escobar, "Historia
J. I.
Ricaurte (1863-87) composed *zarzuelas de la musica en Colombia" (Boletin latino-
(comic operas) and other light stage- americano de musica, IV); F. C. Lange,
works. Julio Quevedo Arvelo (1829-97) "Guillermo Uribc-Holgum" (op. tit.).
was primarily a composer of church music, G,C.
[160]
COLOPHANE COLOR AND MUSIC
Colophane, colophony. See *Rosin. of the musical *octave, i.e., the
identity or,
at least, similarity, of its lower and
Color [L.]. (i) In ^th-century theory upper
the term color signified various special
end. (d) In general, the laws relating to
colors (e.g.,
devices of composition and complementary colors, such
performance, as orange and blue, red and
such as the repetition of a melodic phrase, green) are of
an entirely different nature from those
its imitation (in *Stimmtausch) quota- 9
tions from other sources [see * Refrain], governing the sounds (consonance and
dissonance). The chief studies in the
or embellishments, especially the vocal
above field were made by I. Newton
*vibrato [cf. Joh. de Garlandia, CS i,
(1700), W. von Goethe (1810), and H.
115/116]. The first meaning survived in Helmholtz (numerous
the color of the *isorhythmic motet; the essays, 1860-80).
Among musicians the psychological or
last, in the present-day term *coloratura.
synaesthetic approach to the question of
(2) For color temporis, color prolatio- color and sound has been more popular
nisy see *Mensural notation V.
than the physical. It seems that a number
Color and music. The physical and of musicians, particularly among Russians
psychological relationships between the and Englishmen, possess a peculiar mental
colors and the sounds have been the sub- faculty which produces in their minds a
ject of numerous studies. From
the physi- coordination between sounds and colors.
cal point of view a fundamental analogy This faculty appears to be of a highly sub-
between the two phenomena exists in the jective nature, as the various schemes of
fact that the various pitches of the musical coordination differ widely. For instance,
scale as well as the colors of the optical Rimsky-Korsakov interpreted the keys of
spectrum are conditioned by waves and C, D, A, F and F-sharp (all major) as
can be determined by frequencies of aerial white, yellow, rosy, green, and grayish-
and ethereal vibrations respectively. The green, respectively, while according to
frequencies of (audible) sound range from Scriabin they represent red, yellow, green,
about 1 6 to 40,000 per second; those of red, and bright blue.
(visible) light, from about 450 to 780 Colors have also been associated with
billions per second. Since the latter two entire works e.g., Tannhduser: blue;
figures are nearly in the relation of 1:2 it The Flying Dutchman: green (the "blue
would seem reasonable to compare the cave" of Venus and the "green sea"?)
visible spectrum from red to violet, not to and even with composers (Mozart: blue;
the entire audible musical scale, but only Chopin: green; Beethoven: black). An
to an octave or, more nearly, to a seventh, example of a composition based on color
e.g., to the tones 450 to 780 (approximately impressions is Arthur Bliss's Colour Sym-
a' to g"). This analogy seems to be sup- phony (1922) each movement of which
ported by the fact that the number of col- represents the associations of a special col-
ors in the spectrum is the same as that of or (e.g., purple: royalty, pageantry, and
the diatonic tones, that is, seven. How- death). Oviously the whole matter of
ever, various incongruities of this analogy color-sound-synaesthesia is a largely sub-
can easily be pointed out: (a) Newton's jective experience, comparable to personal
distinction of seven colors is arbitrary; in likes and dislikes of smells and flavors.
fact, his scheme was partly influenced by More important are the synaesthetic
the preconceived analogy with the mu- analogies between the optical colors and
sical scale, (b) In reality, there are infi- the timbres (tone-"colors," G. Klang-
"
nitely more spectrum than
colors in the jar ben") of instruments. The terms
there are tones in the musical octave, since "orchestral colors" or "orchestral palette"
the former is a continuous, the latter, a are widely used to signify a musical tech-
Only the violin porta-
discrete multitude. nique reminiscent of, and largely derived
mento could be compared to the optical from, methods used in modern painting
spectrum, (c) The most serious objection [see ^Impressionism]. However, it ap-
is that the spectrum lacks the phenomenon pears that these terms signify only the
[161]
COLORATION COLORISTS
general technique of modern orchestra- Colorists [G. Koloristen]. A name in-
tion,without implying any specific anal- troduced by A. G. Ritter [see Lit.] and
ogy between special colors and special widely adopted to signify a group of Ger-
instruments. In fact, any such specific co- man organ composers of the late i6th
ordination is of a no less subjective nature
century, including Elias Nicolaus Am-
than that of color-key relationship. It is merbach (1530-97), Bernhard Schmid the
doubtful how many musicians would sub- older (c. 1520-90), Jacob Paix (1556-
scribe to the statement, made by Bosan- 1617), B. Schmid the younger (1548-?),
quet in 1876, that there exists a "remark- and others. Although the name serves as
able agreement amongst musicians re- a convenient designation, it is rather mis-
garding the 'color of instruments/ that is, leading in its literal interpretation as well
black for strings and voices(I), red for as in its implied pejorative side meaning.
brass and drums, blue for wood." There It is true that the musicians of this group
is
perhaps only one such association which made abundant use of stereotyped and
is
likely to meet with fairly general con- meaningless *coloraturas, particularly in
sent, that indicated by the expression the:
their *lntabulierungen of motets and
silvery tone of the harpsichord. It is ob- chansons. However, this method was
vious, however, that in this expression internationally used by organists and lu-
reference is made, not to the "color silver," tenists throughout the i6th century; it
but to the "sound silver" (dropping of a occurs in the keyboard and lute books of
silver coin). Color associations are fre-
Attaingnant (c. 1530) and in the lute
quent in Oriental musical cultures, China, books of Hans and Melchior Neusidler
India, Egypt, etc. Here they are part
(1535, '75), as well as in A. Gabrieli's key-
and parcel of a cosmologic symbolism board arrangements of French chansons
which is far removed from the subjec-
(c. 1550) and in those of the Fitzwilliam
tive and psychological approach of West-
Virginal Boo\ (c. 1600). The harsh
ern music [see Lit., Wellek]. See *Color
judgment imposed on the "colorists" by
organ. Ritter is all the more unjust since these
A. B. Klein, Colour Music
Lit.: the
composers actually made outstanding
Art of Light (1926; bibl.); O. Ortmann,
contributions in another field, i.e., dance
Theories of Synesthesia in the Light of a
music. It should also be noted that B.
Case of Color-Hearing (1933); A. W.
Schmid the older in his publication of
Rimington, Colour Music (1912); T. F.
Karwosli and H. S^Odbert, Color-Music 1577 expressly says that he would prefer
to leave the "art of the composer un-
(1938); F. Suarez de Mendoza, L' Audi-
tion color6 (1899; bibl.); G. Anschiitz, changed," and that his "modest" colora-
turas are added only for the benefit of the
Kurze Einfuhrung in die Farbe-Ton-
WoHNii, 460; L.
young and inexperienced players [cf.
Forschung (1927);
Sabaneew, in MLx, no. 3; E. Whomes,
Frotscher 154]. To include Johannes
i,
A famous example is the aria of the Queen Orgelspiels (1884); G. Frotscher, Ge-
of Night in Mozart's Magic Flute. Also schichte des Orgelspiels und der Orgel-
used for the stereotyped ornamentation composition (1935); W. Apel, "Early
formulae of 16th-century keyboard and German Keyboard Music" [MQ xxiii,
lute music [sec *Colorists]. 231]; W. Merian, ^Der Tanz in den
COLOR ORGAN COMBINATION TONE
deutschen Tabulaturbuchern undertook to demonstrate the affinity,
(1927; tran-
scriptions). scientific and spiritual, that he believed to
exist between tone and color. He
pre-
Color organ. The keyboard of the or- scribed a special instrument for it, a "cla-
gan, harpsichord, pianoforte, has been vier a lumiere" invented
by Rimington.
frequently used as a medium of coordi- The only recorded performance of the
nating sound and color [see *Color and composition with color accompaniment
music]. In 1720 a Jesuit priest, L. B. took place in Carnegie Hall, in For 1914.
Castel (1688-1757), constructed a "Clave- literature, see under *Color and music.
cin oculaire" in which the keys were me-
chanically connected with colored tapes; Colpo d'arco [It.]. Stroke of the bow
similar contrivances were devised fre- (of violins, etc.).
quently during the i8th and ipth cen- Combination pedal,
turies.While these apparatus were based
. . .
stops. See
of an exact correspondence
*Organ IV.
upon the idea
between a single sound and a single color, Combination tone [resultant tone; G.
thus producing what might be called an Kombinationston]. In musical acoustics,
"optical translation of a composition," a a tone of different pitch which is heard
more liberal attitude has been taken re- when two loud tones are sounded simul-
cently. Literal translation has been re- taneously. Its frequency is the difference
placed by "general coordination" between (differential tones) or the sum (summa-
musical and optical impressions. Exam- tion tones) of the frequencies of the two
ples are the color organ of Mrs. M. H. primary tones or of their multiples. For
Green wait (exhibited in New York, 1921) instance, if the two primary tones have the
and the Musichrome of G. L. Hall (Bos- frequencies 1200 and 700, the following
ton, 1930), which was designed "to create differential tones (D) and summation
a color accompaniment which coordinates tones (S) can be heard: DI: 1200 700 =
with the music and helps to enhance the 500; DZ- 2 1200X 700 = 1700; DS:
mood and spirit of the
composition." Still 2 700X 1200 = 200; Si*. 1200+700 =
farther away from the idea of strict sound- 1900; S 2 2 : 1200X 700 = 3100; S 3
+ :
color analogy is the Clavilux of Th. Wil- 2 700 -f 1200 = 2600, etc. The combi-
X
frid, which was exhibited in New York nation tones are frequently referred to
in 1922 and which, so far, has proved the as an acoustical phenomenon. Actually,
most successful color organ, probably ow- however, they are a physiological phenom-
ing to the fact that it altogether renounces enon. If the vibrations 1200 and 700 are
the coordination of sound and light, and produced, none of the vibrations 500,
merely bestows upon optical phenomena 1700, etc., actually exist in the air; it is the
the essential musical factors of time, inner ear (cochlea) which, owing to its
rhythm, and changing combinations. It "non-linear" organization, produces the
has no sound-producing apparatus and is aural sensations corresponding to the
designed only as a medium for a new art additive or subtractive frequencies. The
of color, in which optical phenomena term "non-linear," roughly explained,
(colored circles, squares, spirals, etc., pro- means that the combination of two sounds
jected on a screen) move rhythmically in with the intensities a and b is not deter-
"crescendo," "decresccndo," "acceleran- mined by the "linear" formula a b, but +
do," "ritardando," etc. Mr. Wilfrid has by more complicated formulae, involving
created a number of "compositions," e.g., squares, etc. The "linear" formula is
a "Triangular Etude." Performances of valid only for small intensities; as a matter
this type are occasionally shown in motion of fact, combination tones are heard only
the original tones are sufficiently loud.
pictures, to the accompaniment of music.
if
Among composers, Scriabin was the The differential tones (which are more
most outspoken protagonist of color mu- easily recognized than the summation
sic. In his Prometheus (op. 60, 1910) he tones) were discovered by G. Tartini in
i6 3 i
COME COMIC OPERA
1714, and described in his Trattato dci stk> as it stands, i.e., without improvised
prindpii dell' armonia musicals of 1754 additions.
(an earlier description appeared in a book Comedie. A name occasionally used for
of G. A. Sorge: Vorgemach der musi-
operas in a light and slightly comical vein.
\alischen Composition, 1745). The tone For come'die-ballet, see under *Ballet, also
frequently referred to as "Tartini's tone" Entr'acte.
[It. terzo suono, "third tone"] is the first
of the above combination tones, deter-
Comes [L.]. See *Fugue; *Canon (i).
mined by the difference of the original Comic opera. I. Definition. General
frequencies. The accompanying table name for an opera or other dramatic work
shows this tone for various intervals (c' with a large admixture of music, on a
arbitrarily
= 300). light or sentimental subject, with a happy
ending, and in which the comic element
plays a certain part. The term thus com-
prises a number of types, such as the
operetta, *vaudeville, opera-bouffe, mu-
sicalcomedy, etc., the distinctions between
which are not always clearly marked. Un-
100
** b^60 til the middle of the I9th century comic
il bene
(1654), both to librettos by Giulio ning before 1715 with popular farces and
Ruspigliosi (later Pope Clement IX). The satires mingling spoken dialogue with
last-mentioned work is notable for its use songs to familiar airs ("vaudevilles"),
of parlando-recitative and for its ensemble was given a new direction by the example
finales, both of which features are promi- of the Italian buffo opera [see Guerre des
nent in the later comic opera style. An- *Bouffons] and developed a type known
other early example is Melani's La Tancia as "Comedie melee d'ariettes," i.e., a
(Florence, 1657), which contains a par- "spoken comedy mingled with [original-
ody of the famous "Incantation scene" of ly-composed] songs," of which the chief
Cavalli's Giasone. In the second half of composers were J. J. Rousseau (Le Devin
the century Venice was the center of
1 7th du village, 1752), Gluck (La Rencontre
a considerable school of comic opera which imprevue, Vienna, 1764), Philidor (Tom
has not yet been fully studied [cf. H. C. Jones, Monsigny (Le Deserteur,
1765),
Wolf, "Die venezianische Oper," in 1769), and Gretry (Zemire et Azor, 1771;
ZMPFxvi]. Richard Coeur-de-Lion, 1784). The ro-
b. With the abolition of comic episodes mantic quality of the librettos of many of
in the "reformed" opera librettos of Zeno these works, and the frequent touching
and Metastasio, the comic opera as a sep- upon political and social problems, show
arate genre took on renewed importance. the influence of Rousseau and the Ency-
Comic opera in the i8th century shows clopedists.
well-defined national types. The Italian d. The typical English iSth-century
form was the * Ballad which was
opera buffa began early in the century to opera,
evolve out of *intermezzi performed be- succeeded by similar works using original
tween the acts of serious operas. The fully music by such composers as Dr. Thomas
developed independent form, of which the Arne (Love in a Village, 1762), Charles
most famous early example is Pergolesi's Dibdin (The Waterman, 1774), William
Serva padrona (1733), retained traces of Shield (Rosina, 1783), and Stephen Stor-
its
origin in the designation "intermezzo" ace (The Haunted Tower, 1789). With
and in the customary division into two respect to subject matter and treatment
acts (as opposed to the three-act arrange- the course of English comic opera in this
ment of the opera seria). The
Italian buffo period is parallel to that of the French
operas are remarkable for the liveliness opra-comique.
and humor of their action, for the high The corresponding form for this period
165]
COMIC OPERA COMMA
posers were Georg Benda (Der Jahrmarfy, di's *Falstaff (1893), R. Strauss's *Rosen-
1775; in DdT 64), Chr. Neefe, and J. An- ^avalier (1911), and Hindemith's Neues
dre. In Vienna a different type of Sing- vom Tage (1929). See also *Operetta.
spiel, strongly influenced by the Italian Lit.: A. della Corte, 'Opera comica L
buffo style, developed. The chief com- italiana (1923); M. Scherillo,
nel '700
posers were Umlauf (Die Berg\nappen y Storia letteraria dell' opera buffa napoli-
1778; in DTOc i8.i), Mozart (Die Ent- tana (1918); G. Cucuel, Les Createurs de
fuhrung aus dem Serail, 1782), Ditters- I'opera-comique franfais (1913); D. J.
dorf (Doctor und Afothe\ery 1786), and Grout, The Origins of the Comic Opera
Joh. Schenk (Der Dorfbarbier, 1796; in (unpubl. diss. Harvard 1939); K. Liithge,
DTOe 34). Die deutsche Spieloper (1924); R. Vene,
f. In the ipth century the comic opera "The Origin of Opera Buffa" (MQ xxi);
lost some of its earlier distinctive char- M. Cauchie, "The High-Lights of French
acter, approaching on the one hand the Opera Comique" (MQ xxv); N. D'Ari-
style, form, and subject matter of serious enzo, "Origini dell' opera comica" (RM1
opera or on the other hand tending to- ii, iv, vi, vii); G. E. Bonnet, "Andre Phi-
type such as the *vaudeville, *operetta, (RM ii); Special Number, xiv; L. RM
*zarzuela, etc. In Italy the opera buffa is Holzer, "Die komischen Opern Glucks"
continued by Simon Mayr, F. Paer, Ros- (StM xiii); H. Abert, "Paisiello's Buffo-
sini,and Donizetti. The French opera- kunst und ihre Beziehung zu Mozart"
comique is
represented by Boieldieu (La (AMWi). D.J.G.
Dame blanche, 1825), Auber (Fra Dia-
volo 1830), Harold (Le Pr6 aux clercs,
Comma. A scientific term for the minute
9
differences which exist between the
1832), Adam (Le Postilion de Longju-
pitches of the same tone in different sys-
meau, 1836), and Victor Masse (Les Noces tems of tuning or calculation. The two
de Jcanette, 1853). English comic operas
most important ones are: (a) the Pythag-
were composed by Sir Henry R. Bishop
orean comma. This indicates the inaccu-
(works 1804-40), but the best English of the so-called *circle of fifths
works in the comic vein arc Sullivan's racy
which, if based on pure fifths, actually is
operettas (H.M.S. Pinafore, 1878; The a "spiral of fifths." Starting from c =
i,
Pirates of Penzance, 1880; The Mikado,
the frequency of the i2th fifth, i.e., of b#,
1885). The best-known German comic 12 7
oper) are
Granada
K. KreutzeYs
(1
*
operas of this period (known as Spiel-
Nachtlager von
834), Lortzing's Zar und Zim-
is
power
W W
(A) x
indicates the
(JL)
= 33M4i
524288
number
(thefirst
v
of ascending
mermann (1839) and Der Wildschiitz fifths;the second reduces this extremely
(1842), O. Nicolai's Lustigen Weiber von high tone into the normal octave), a tone
Windsor (1847), Flotow's Martha (1847), which is slightly higher than the tone c
and P. Cornelius* Bar bier von Bagdad (frequency i). The difference, of 24
(1858). One of the most popular comic cents, is the Pythagorean comma, (b)
operas of the i9th century was Smctana's The Didymic (Didymos, Greek theorist,
^Bartered Bride (1866). b. 63 B.C.) or syntonic comma which in-
Since the middle of the century, comic dicates the difference between E as the
opera of various sorts has been cultivated fourth tone of the circle of fifth (Pythago-
in all countries, chiefly by composers not v
rcan system): I
/3V X f'Y =
8l
distinguished in any other field. These N 2 '
I I
^ 2 '
)
-7
64
works are very numerous, but for the and the E of *just intonation (fifth har-
most part ephemeral. A few comic operas
of lasting merit and on a large scale have monic): . The value of this comma is:
been produced, of which four may be 4
81 4 81
particularly mentioned: Wagner's *Meis- -~
X = = 22 cents.
T
It
,
shows
tersinger von Nurnbcrg (perf. 1868), Ver- 64 5 80
[166]
COMMODO COMPARATIVE MUSICOLOGY
that the final tone of the series c-g-d'- Common time. Name for 4/4-metcr.
a'-e" (pure fifths) is than
slightly higher Commune Sanctorum. See under
that of the series c-c'-g'-c"-e" (par-
The third of equal *Gregorian chant I.
tials). temperament
lies almost midway between these two Communion [L. communio]. In the
other thirds, thus forming a comma with Roman Catholic service, the last of the
each: E (pyth.) = 408 cents; E (equ. five items of the Proper of the *Mass,
temp.) = 400 cents; E (just inton.)
= sung after (originally during) the dis-
386 cents. The Didymic comma also in- tribution of the Host. Originally it was
dicates the difference between the two an antiphon with the psalm verse Gustate
n and see) from Ps. 33
ct videtc (Taste ye
whole-tones of just intonation, and
o or with other psalm verses [see * Anti-
phon (3)]. However, these verses dis-
.
"
Lv = appeared soon so that only an antiphon
9 8 ID 80*
(antiphona ad communionem) remained.
Yet another comma
the schisma, i.e.,
is
The communion antiphons are moder-
the difference between c and the (pure)
ately melismatic melodies, sung chorally
third of the eighth Pythagorean fifth,
with a solistic *incipit.
i.e., the third above gtf. Its value is
8
Comparative musicology. The term
(f ) X (-) X
-
(the which is a translation of G. Vergleichende
reduces the accumulated intervals into the Musi1(wissenschajt denotes a special field
of musicological research, that is, the
... N = 32805
=
original octave) 2 cents study of *exotic music. Early studies in
32768 this field were made by P. du Halde
(/loo f a whole-tone). This is one of (Chinese music, 1736), by P. Amiot
the smallest intervals encountered in
(Chinese music, 1779), by Andres (Ara-
mathematical acoustics and is entirely bian music, 1787), and by R. G. Kiese-
negligible for all practical purposes. A wetter (Arabian music, 1842). However,
simple calculation shows that the schisma the systematic exploration of the field and
also indicates the difference between the the establishment of an organized activ-
Pythagorean and the syntonic comma: ity along scientific lines is of a much more
,12 4 8
5X2 3 X5 recent date (after 1900). Perhaps the
X ,15 most momentous step was the introduc-
tion of the phonograph as the only reli-
It
very nearly equals the difference be-
tween the Pythagorean fifth andjthe
7
% able means for the recording of exotic
melodies which, regarding pitch as well
fifth of equal temperament: (\/2) .
This comma (1.629 cents ) * s therefore as rhythm, usually defy the writing down
Common meter. See Poetic meter II. gleichende Musil(wissenschajt (1922) and
in Zeitschrijt fur vergleichende Musif(-
Common of the Mass. See *Ordinary wissenschajt i, ii (1933/35). E. v. Horn-
and Proper. bostel, "Die Problemc der vergleichcnden
COMPASS COMPOSITION
[ZIM vii]; G. Schu-
Musikwisscnschaft" expected to show some skill in handling
nemann, "Uebcr die Bcziehungcn der his materials (technique) and some de-
comparee" [AMiv,no.$]. See also under has a basic minimum of musical ability.
*Musicology; *Primitive music. This branch of music is called Theory and
includes harmony, counterpoint, orches-
Compass. The range of notes obtain- tration, etc. The second, the requirement
able from an instrument or voice. of originality, can scarcely be learned,
though it
may be developed and culti-
Competitions. For a list see Pierre
vated.
Key's Music Year Boo\. is
Technique usually developed through
Compiacevole [It.]. Pleasing. the imitation of existing models, the
student striving to make his works as
Complement. The difference between
perfect as those he imitates. Paradoxically
the octave and any interval, therefore
enough, such imitation may also be a
identical with inverted interval [see in- means of stimulating originality; for the
version (i)]. For instance, the comple- student may rearrange the given mate-
ment of the fifth is the fourth, that of the rials, or may add something that is dis-
sixth is the third.
tinctly his own; and he may well pass
from imitation to originality. Perhaps
Compline. See *Office hours.
when imitation ceases, composition may
Composition. I. This article will not be said to begin. This is not to say that
recommend methods or studies by which the composer must write something en-
one may learn to compose. Neither will new. The originality may lie in the
tirely
it number and discuss the various so- way he employs older procedures and
called elements of composition,harmony, older idioms. Only there must be enough
rhythm, melody, counterpoint, etc. For of himself in the result regardless of
composition means "putting together" how this originality manifests itself
and not "taking apart"; and while these to give his work the conviction and
elements may be studied separately, as strength which purely imitative works
various branches of theory, they should cannot convey. An apt parallel may be
be studied as a whole xvhen the subject is drawn from the field of painting. The
composition. Finally, the present article least highly regarded canvases are those
will say little about "inspiration" and its which are the closest to photography,
place in composition. The subject has those which merely imitate; the most
already been be-labored, without anything highly prized paintings display original-
very definite having ever been said. This ity of treatment, even when portraying
article is concerned
almost exclusively the most ordinary subject.
with teaching (consequently, the
the Musical theory is not greatly concerned
learning) of composition, with the rela- with aesthetic problems of originality or
tion of theory to composition, and with even of beauty (an elusive word, which
certain other problems arising from such in music might be translated "strength").
an inquiry. It is concerned with correctness, with the
In a sense, anyone who writes a piece manner of procedure, with the means and
of music is a composer, regardless of the the materials of composition, without too
length, originality, or artistic achievement much regard to the effect. In composition
of the piece. In the same way, anyone the reverse is true. The means is unim-
who daubs on a canvas may call
oil portant; correctness means nothing in it-
himself a painter. But the world, fortu- self; the effect is everything. Considered
nately, does not admit of such a lax view. from this standpoint, musical theory and
The composer (as well as the painter) is composition present no contradictions,
[168]
COMPOSITION COMPOSITION
since they these are puerile and of little value; others
belong in different spheres.
Since composition is concerned exclu- are comparatively sound and contain in-
sively with effect, the task of the compo- formation which is valid and useful to
sition teacher is
ways to suggest in which the student. The best books of the latter
the student may improve the effect sort, however, fall rather in the sphere of
i.e., make more beautiful. And
the piece theory harmony, counterpoint, form,
as few can agree on what is beautiful in and analysis and their best pages are
contemporary art, the teacher's position concerned with these theoretical subjects.
is often difficult. Yet there are certain As such, they tell little about composition,
qualities which, all musicians would which is the combination of these various
agree, are fundamental to a successful elements. A
real book on composition
result, many modern composers have re- The difficulty of writing about com-
ceived inspiration from the music of re- position is strikingly evident in the variety
mote times, creating in old forms and em- of material contained in books bearing the
ploying archaic idioms (e.g., Malipiero, word in their title. Some (e.g., the little
Debussy, Ravel, Hindemith; see *Modal- Stainer) are little more than musical
ity; *Neo-classicism; *New Music). primers, treating of elementary harmoni-
Many teachers of composition refer their zation and giving a few notions about
students to old music for models; Pales- melody, rhythm, accompaniments, etc.
trina, Bach, Mozart, and Beethoven are Some are even designed as textbooks,
used with particular frequency. An ex- having questions and drills for the stu-
treme instance is to be seen in d'Indy's dent (e.g., Hamilton: Composition for
book Cours dc Composition, in which the Beginners). Others discuss various as-
student is taken successively through the pects of music in an empirical way, treat-
various stages of music history. It may ing of Rhythm, Melodies, Form, Color,
be rightly questioned whether such back- etc. (e.g., Stanford: Musical Composi-
ward-looking preoccupation with the past tion). Still others are concerned chiefly
is a healthy phenomenon in the realm of with the forms in which music is written
creative music. In previous ages, the (e.g., Kitson: The Elements of Musical
composer was concerned chiefly with the Composition). Various books exist which
music of his own time and that of his im- deal with composition in a limited sphere
mediate predecessors, upon which he (e.g., Newton: How to Compose a Song;
built or against which he revolted. It may Evans: How to Compose within the Lyric
be that modern dependence on, and bor- Form). An interesting study of melody
rowing from, the past may betray the iscontained in Patterson's to Write How
weakness and creative impotence of the a Good Tune. Certain books on "com-
present. position" are primarily harmony texts
III. Various books exist which purport (e.g.,Weber: Composition; Goetschius:
to teach the art of composition. Some of The Materials Used in Musical Composi-
COMPOSITION PEDALS CONCERT
//on). The book by d'Indy has been men- hear well-prepared performances of good
tioned; it is in
many respects unique, music. The first step toward public per-
both in its approach and in its treatment formance was made in opera, by the
of some of the fundamental problems of foundation of the Teatro San Cassiano in
composition. Riemann's Handbuch dcr Venice, 1637 [see *Opera]. The first
wisely, the author did not use the word chant Th. Britton which took place in
composition in the title to his book. Nev- a loft over his coal-house, continuing
ertheless it is much more a book on com- weekly for thirty-six years. Later fol-
position than many in whose titles the lowed: the Concerts of Ancient Music
word appears. E. B. H. (1776-1848), which were largely devoted
to the works of Handel; the Salomon
Composition pedals (stops). See Concerts (1791-95), for which Haydn
*Organ IV. wrote his famous twelve symphonies
Compound binary form. Name for (*London Symphonies); the Crystal Pal-
ace Concerts (1855-1901), conducted by
*sonata form. It expresses the fact that
sonata form is originally and historically
August Manns every Saturday afternoon.
II. In France concert activity started
a binary form, but of great dimensions
with the foundation, by Philidor, of the
and of a composite structure. See also
Concerts spirituels, which continued from
*Binary and ternary form.
1725 to the beginning of the French Revo-
Compound interval. See under In- lution (1791). They took place only
terval. around Easter time, and were largely de-
voted to sacred music. They became the
Compound meter, time. See under model of similar institutions in Leipzig,
*Mcter.
Berlin, Vienna, Stockholm. Although re-
of which lends itself well to the display octave-playing over the other aspects of
of brilliance andto the expression of a piano technique. Grieg contributed an
"happy ending"; (d) a peculiarity of the effectiveand very popular concerto in A
concerto the soloist *cadenza which ap-
is minor (1868). A new peak of artistic
pears regularly in the first movement, perfection was reached by Brahms, in his
near the end of the recapitulation but may piano concertos in D minor, op. 15 ( 1 854)
occur also, less elaborately, in the other and major (1887). There followed
B-flat
movements. The solo part of a concerto concertos by Franck (Variations sym~
isalways written in a highly virtuoso style phomques, 1885); MacDowell (D minor,
designed to show the equality, if not su- op. 23, 1890); Scriabin (op. 20, 1897);
periority, of the single player over the en- Rachmaninov (op. i, 1890; op. 18, 1901;
tire orchestra. According to the solo in-
op. 30, 1909; op. 40, 1927, revised 1938);
strument, concertos are classified as piano, Reger (op. 114); Prokofiev (op. 10, 1911;
violin, cello concertos. Concertos in a free op. 16, 1913; op. 26, 1917; op. 53, for the
one-movement form are called *con- left hand alone, 1931; op. 55, 1932);
certino or Konzertsttic^. Ravel (one for piano, one for the left hand
II. Present Repertory. The pres-
The alone, both 1930-31); Stravinsky (for
ent-day repertory of the piano concerto piano and wind instruments, 1924);
opens with the latest concertos by Mozart, Hindemith (op. 36, one for piano and
composed between 1785 and 1791 (K.V. twelve solo instruments); Gershwin
466 in D
minor; K.V. 467 in C major; (1925); Copland (1926); and Vaughan
K.V. 482 in E-flat major; K.V. 488 in A Williams (1933). Some of the more re-
major; K.V. 491 in C minor; K.V. 503 in cent works approach the idiom of the
C major; K.V. 537- in D
major (Corona- Baroque *concerto grosso, in conformity
tion Concerto); K.V. 595 in B-flat major). with the general trend towards *neo-
In these compositions Mozart established classicism [see below, Concerto for or-
the classical form and style of the con- chestra].
certo. Beethoven's five piano concertos, The repertory of the violin concerto is
particularly in the first period, the pres- *Bologna School, Cazzati, Bonon-
e.g.,
ence or absence of the name concerto, con- cini, Aldrovandini, Torelli, later by Albi-
[173]
CONCERTO CONCERTO
castro (12 Concerti9 c. and the soloist It should be noted that
1703), dall'Abaco
(Concert! da chiesa, c. 1712), and pieces such as the introduction to his Eng-
others. lish Suites nos.
3 and 5 are also "Italian
Of greater importance is the concerto concertos," at least, first movements
grosso, which must be considered the thereof.
classical type of the Baroque concerto, Bach also wrote the first concertos for
and which is characterized by the use of
harpsichord and orchestra, starting with
a small group of solo players (concertino) of violin concertos
transcriptions (by
in contrast to the full orchestra
(concerto) himself, Vivaldi, and others). Among
[see *Concerto grosso]. his 1 8 concertos for one to four
harpsi-
The
solo concerto, i.e., the concerto for chords (with orchestra) only the one in
a single soloist, is the latest of the three C major for two harpsichords and the
types. Although solo-technique was ex- two for three harpsichords are original
tensively used in the concerto-can zonas, compositions. Handel's 18 organ con-
the first examples showing this style certos (publ. 1738, '40, *6o) belong to the
ap-
plied to the form of the Baroque sonata last examples of the
Baroque solo con-
are contained in the Sinjonie e concerti certo. Here, as also in his harpsichord
.
op. 2 (1700?) by Tomaso Albinoni.
. .
suites,he mixes sonata movements with
His concerti (also in his opp. 5, 7, 9) are others of a dance character (minuet, mu-
usually in three movements and contain sette, siciliano). In Italy the violin con-
short solo passages, mostly in the char- certo remained the favored type, and vio-
acter of figurative transitions. An impor- linists such as Francesco Maria Veracini
tant progress was made by the great mas- (c. 1685-1750^), Carlo Tessarini (b.
ter Giuseppe Torelli (d. 1708) who holds 1690), Pietro Locatelli (1693-1764), and
a central position in the development of
Giuseppe Tartini (1692-1770) gradually
all the various' worked away from the true Baroque style
types of Baroque concerto.
In his op. 6 (Concerti musicali a 4, 1698) of the Vivaldi concerto and towards a
and still more in his op. 8 (Concerti new type characterized by more melodi-
grossi , 1709; cf.
. . . no. 246; HAM, ous, though frequently sentimental,
SchGMB, no. 257) the solo violin obtains themes, by a clearly homophonic struc-
equal importance with the orchestra. To- ture, and by forms foreshadowing that
relli's idea was continued
by Alessandro of the classical concerto.
Scarlatti(1659-1725; cf. HAM, no. 260) (c). 1750-80. In this period of transi-
and particularly by Antonio Vivaldi (c. tion from the Baroque concerto to the
1680-1743) whose numerous violin con- classical concerto the initiative falls to
certos (Estro armonico op. 3, op. 4, op. German composers, mainly to the three
6, op. 7) became quickly famous owing sons of J. S. Bach. Ph. Em. Bach's con-
to the solistic exploitation of the instru- certos follow in their first movements a
ment and to a new style of rhythmic pre- scheme which clearly shows the trisection
cision which pervades
his compositions. exposition development recapitula-
Practically all his concertos are in three tion,with the exposition played twice,
movements, quick, slow, quick, a scheme by the orchestra, then by the soloist,
first
which became the standard form of the and with the recapitulation being short-
concerto to the present day. His ened. While his exposition still lacks a
style,
soon became the model of concerto second theme, this
style. usually found in the
is
Bach (together with J. G. Walther) tran- concertos by Johann Christian Bach
scribed a number of Vivaldi's concertos (173582) which, more than any other,
For the
organ (or harpsichord) alone, and are the true predecessors of Mozart's piano
Bach also made, in his famous Italian concertos. Haydn's numerous concertos
Concerto (1735), an original contribution (20 for piano, 9 for violin, 6 for cellos, and
to the somewhat
self-contradictory type others) seldom rise above the average
Df theconcerto for a single player only level, and lack the inspiration which per-
who, in turns, represents the orchestra vades his quartets and symphonies. Only
CONCERTO GROSSO CONCERTO GROSSO
one piano concerto and one or two cello 1680. They contain
suite-like move-
concertos arc ever heard today. ments Sonata-Corrente-Gravc-
(e.g.,
Lit.: A. Veinus, The Concerto (New Gavotta-Rondeau) and show relatively
York, 1944); A. Schering, Geschichte dcs little contrast between the concertino and
*ripieni. The concertino usually consists classical form of the quick movements,
of two violins and a thorough-bass (vio- i.e., a rondo-like alternation of a tutti-
loncello plus harpsichord), i.e., the same ritornello with varying episodes for the
ensemble which constitutes the *trio- concertino. The concerti grossi of Pietro
sonata of the Baroque. The ripieni are a Locatelli (1693-1764) are direct imita-
small string orchestra, later occasionally tions of Vivaldi's, as are also, on a much
with the addition of wind instruments higher artistic level, Bach's *Branden-
(trumpets, oboes, flutes, horns). burg Concertos of 1721. Handel, in his
The earliest known examples
of the Grand Concertos op. 6 (1740), although
concerto grosso principle occur in two incorporating elements of Vivaldi's style,
"Sinfonie a piu instrument!" by Alessan- retained the larger number of move-
dro Stradella (c. 1645-82). Some con- ments, as found in Corelli.
certi grossi by Corelli (1653-1713), al- The neo-classical movement of the 2Oth
though published much later, would century has brought about a remarkable
seem to be of a date close to that of Stra- revival of the concerto grosso, chiefly as
della's, because they show the patchwork a reaction against the virtuoso-like solo
structure of the earlier canzona, with concerto of the i9th century. See *Con-
quick changes of a considerable number certo I.
grossi, published 1701 [DTOe n.ii], certo grosso in Deutschland (Diss. Berlin
Conducteur [F.]. In French usage, singers regarding technique and text in-
not a conductor, but an abridged orches- terpretation than a baton may do. Perhaps
it is because the chorus is not so dependent
tral score, as distinct from the grandc par-
full score.
as the orchestra on a traditional method of
tition, i.e.,
time-beating that choral conductors have
Conducting. I.
Conducting, in the often beenwont to cultivate expressive but
simplest sense, means the direction of a undisciplined motions which are neither
number of performers in a unified musi- musicianly nor specific in their implica-
by means of manual and bodily
cal effort, tions. Such methods, plus the fact that
motions, facial expressions, etc. Its most the training of a chorus appears to require
elementary manifestation is time-beating, so much less of the conductor than does
the motions of which are now embodied the training of an orchestra, have led to
in a common practice. It is commonly the popular acceptance of choral conduct-
assumed that a clear and decisive down-
ing as a stepsister of the more taxing and
stroke will fall on the first beat of each certainly more glamorous branch of the
measure, and that the last beat is an up- art. There is, however, a choral technique
stroke, while a secondary accent of the quite as detailed as that of the orchestra.
measure is indicated by a stroke outward The choral conductor whose ambitions
to the right. With the right hand the lead him beyond the attainment of mere
conductor indicates the beat, the tempo, "mass" tone and conversational pronun-
strong accents, entrances of instruments ciation, may produce a result as evocative
or voices, while on the left hand falls the and technically refined as that which is
indication of subtler nuances of dynamics possible for the orchestra.
and agogics. It is true, of course, that II. Brief mention may be made of cer-
within a general understanding, con- tain recent methods which indicate a
ductors, especially those in charge of vir- rather radical departure from the accepted
tuoso organizations, deal idiomatically standards of conducting. Attempts have
and often freely with this matter. Mod- been made by orchestras to operate on a
ern orchestras are obliged to adapt them- conductorless basis. In Russia, where for
selves to the particular methods of visit- obvious political reasons such an experi-
ing conductors, but however elastic these ment would find favor, these attempts
may be, certain elementary principles are have aroused much interest. Aside from
taken for granted. (Diagrams of the the fact that the field of music open to such
commonly accepted time-beating gestures a venture is necessarily limited, the basic
may be found in the books of Boult, Stoes- difficulty lies in the distribution of respon-
the 18th century could doubtless well be called "metronomic conducting," i.e., an
met by combining the offices of perform- up-and-down movement of the hand in-
er and conductor; today the opportunity dicating the normal pulse [see *Tactus]
for such a procedure would seem to exist without any attempt to convey accents or
only in the case of iSth-century music, phrases, all of which must be left to the
such as Bach's Concerti, performed by a players or singers of the individual parts.
small ensemble. In the case of choral music of the late i6th
History. III. A
review of the history of century (Palestrina, Byrd) the rhythm is
conducting must take into account not generally less complex, but the absence of
only the diflerence in size between the regular accent remains to present a prob-
small groups of earlier times and the giant lem to the modern conductor. Due to the
orchestras of the present day, but, first of fact that most modern editions resort to
all, the different principles of rhythm arbitrary barring in equal measures, or at
embodied in the various phases of music best employ the expedient of unequal
history. As explained under *rhythm,
is measures, the essential independence of
three radically different concepts of each voice is often destroyed; and as the
rhythm might be distinguished: free proper accent may conceivably fall on
rhythm, metrical rhythm, and measured successive beats in the separate parts, false
rhythm. It is with the third type that the accentuation and phrasing is bound to
modern conductor is mainly concerned, take place. Some modern editions of
although the rhythmic complexities of 16th-century choral music are irregularly
much contemporary music result in a de- barred so that the inevitable after-bar ac-
gree of accentual irregularity which makes cent in singing is made to coincide with
necessary a time-beating procedure much the word or syllable which, according to
more elastic than that which applies, for good sense, should be stressed. Sir Don-
instance, to the music of the i8th and i9th ald Tovey's Kir^hofe Choir Magazine
centuries. The first type is represented by and editions like the Polymetric are based
Gregorian chant, and for its conducting a on this idea, and Tovey's own method
method cheironomy has been tradi-
called when conducting this music was to in-
During that period in which the harp- important participant and becomes the
sichord was an important member of the dominating figure. Upon him the spot-
orchestra, small instrumental groups could light of modern musical attention is now
doubtless depend on its incisive tone for fixed. He has become the personification
whatever unifying direction was neces- of virtuosity, surrrounded by adulators to
sary; and it was, indeed, recognized as whom all other conductors are inferior.
valuable in preserving a steady beat. The His "readings" are authoritative and
conductor could carry out his direction many a concert goer, it must be feared, is
from the harpsichord or the organ, some- more interested in the attitudes and inter-
times removing his hands from the keys pretations of his favorite than in the music
for this purpose. itself. Not since the days of the celebrated
V. By the i8th century the first violin "song birds" of the i8th century has such
had acquired so much authority that the partisanship over the relative merits of
responsibility for direction shifted from performance been rife. Obviously, the
the keyboard to the violin. During Hay- temptation to the spectacular, to the occa-
dn's visits to London in 1791 and 1794 sional sacrifice of musical truth, is not to
control of the orchestra was divided be- be invariably resisted. But to one who
tween Haydn at the piano and Salomon listens objectively, discounting over-praise
with his violin. In 1787 Deldevez wrote and occasional lapses from good taste, and
a textbook with details about the practice who bears in mind
the slow physical de-
of the violin-conductor, a type of which velopment of the orchestra as a flexible
Habeneck (1781-1849) was the last rep- and a sensitive instrument, and the long
resentative. In England the concert- submergence of the conductor as the
master is still referred to as the "leader," unique controlling force, the modern or-
[ITS]
CONDUCTOR'S PART CONDUCTUS
and the command of its resources
chestra A
large collection of monophonic con-
by more than one living conductor must ductus are preserved in the codex Florence,
appear as one of the artistic miracles of Laur. plut. 29, / [see *Magnus liber or-
our time. See also *Concert; ^Orchestras gani; examples in HAM, no. xyb; AdHM
and Concert halls. i, 185]. More interesting musically are
Lit.: B. Grosbayne, A Bibliography of the polyphonic conductus which represent
Wor\s and Articles on Conductors . . . one of the chief types of i3-century po-
(1934); R. Wagner, On Conducting lyphony. As distinct from the other forms
(transl., 1919); F. Weingartner, On Con- of the period [see *Ars antiqua], the *or-
ducting (transl., 1925); A. Carse, Or- gana, *clausulae, and *motets, the con-
chestral Conducting, A
Text boo ^ (1929); ductus are not based on liturgical chants
V. BakaleinikofT, Elementary Rules of but on freely invented melodies, for in-
Conducting; C. Schroeder, Handbook of stance, on those of the monophonic con-
Conducting (191-?); A. Stoessel, The ductus. Above these tenor-melodies one,
Technique of the Baton (1920, '28); H. two, or (rarely) three parts are added in
strict note-against-note style, a technique
Scherchen, Handbook of Conducting
(1933); A. Boult, A Handboo^ on the which forms a sharp contrast to the rhyth-
Technique of Conducting (1932); A. T.
Davison, Choral Conducting (1941); G.
Schtinemann, Geschichte des Dirigierens
(1913); AdHM
i, I2o8ff; B. Grosbayne,
repertory which forms the Latin counter- opening and close is actually *vocaliza-
[179]
CONFINALIS CONSONANCE
widely adopted by musicologists to denote the disagreeable effect produced by others
note-against-note style [see *Familiar (dissonant intervals, e.g., second, sev-
style], particularly with reference to early enth), or similar effects produced by
14th-century Italian compositions ^mad- chords.
rigals), which are written in what may Consonance and dissonance are the very
be called "ornamented conductus style." foundation of harmonic music, in which
Lit.: E. Groninger, Repertoire-Unter- the former represents the element of nor-
suchungen zum mehrstimmigen Notre- malcy and repose, the latter the no less
Dame Conductus (1939); i, 245-318; OH important element of irregularity and
ReMMA, 3075; L. Ellinwood, in MQ disturbance.
xxvii; J. Handschin, in KIM, 1925 and In spite of numerous efforts no wholly
ZMW vi. satisfactory explanation and definition of
consonance and dissonance has yet been
Confinalis. In the theory of church
found. The shortcoming of the explana-
modes, a secondary final, usually the up- tion given in the initial sentence of this
per fifth of the finalis (e.g., a in the Dorian article lies not so much in the fact that it is
mode); therefore, practically identical
based entirely upon subjective impres-
with the dominant of the mode [see
sions, but chiefly in its failure to account
*Church modes]. for the consonant quality of the fourth
A modern dance which and fifth. Indeed, from the point of view
Conga. origi-
nated in Cuba where it is used during of musical composition of all eras, these
the Carnival festivities. It is characterized two intervals must be regarded as con-
sonances second only to the unison and
by the use of brief melodic phrases and of
normal rhythmic accents alternating with octave; however, according to the above
measures in syncopation. The texts are definition they would certainly range
after the third and sixth, and might per-
frequently political or satirical.
haps be termed dissonant (especially the
Conjunct, disjunct. Notes are called fourth makes a decidedly unpleasant ef-
conjunct if they are successive degrees of fect upon an unbiased observer). It is
the scale disjunct if they form intervals chiefly for this reason that the "pleasant-
larger than a second [see *Motion; *Mel- unpleasant-theory" cannot be considered
ody; *Primitive music II]. For conjunct, satisfactory. Following are the most im-
disjunct tetrachord, see *Greek music. portant theories of consonance and dis-
sonance.
Conjunctura. See *Square notation;
also *Currentes.
I.
(a) According to the Pythagorean
theory, intervals are the more consonant
Consecutives. See *Parallel fifths and the smaller the numbers which express
octaves. the ratio of their frequencies (or of the
lengths of the corresponding strings).
Consequent. See *Antecedent and con-
This theory leads to an order of the inter-
sequent.
vals which conforms rather well with
Conservatory. See *Music education musical practice:
V, IX; also ^Profession; *Degrees.
unis. 8ve 5th 4th 6th 3d
c-c c-c' c-g c-f c-a c-c
Console. The case which encloses the
1:1 1:2 2:3 3:4 3:5 4:5
keyboard, stops, etc., of an organ. For-
3d 6th 2d 7th 7th
merly placed in front of the organ, it is c-eb c-ab c-d c-b c-bb
now often detached, the sole connection 5:6 8:9 9:16
5:8 8:15
being by electric cable.
The chief objection raised against this
Consonance, Dissonance. The terms theory is its failure to account for the fact
are used to describe the agreeable effect that a minute modification of a consonant
produced by certain intervals (consonant interval too slight to be noticed by the
intervals, e.g., octave, third) as against ear brings about highly complicated
[180]
CONSONANCE CONSONANCE
ratios of frequencies. For instance, the point of view, is more desirable than the
well-tempered fifth which cannot be distin- "gradual decline of consonance" resulting
guished by the ear from the Pythagorean from the other theories. Its only blemish
(pure) (approximately) character-
fifth, is lies in the fact that the "dissonant" har-
293 monics, e.g., the seventh, have to be arti-
ized by the fraction - See also under
.
ficially eliminated (otherwise D, with the
* Arabian music seventh harmonic c, would be consonant
I.
to C). Thus
the definition presupposes
(b) Helmholtz' theory of beats [cf.
the term to be defined. One could, how-
Helmholtz-Ellis, Sensations of Tone
ever, argue that the seventh harmonic
(1912), p. 1 86, etc.] explains intervals as
63
consonant if no disturbing *beats are pro- of D is noticeably lower than C (-r- as
duced by the two tones or by their har- 64
monics; otherwise, they are dissonant against i).
[beats are most disturbing if they number (d)C. Stumpf's theory of Tonver-
33 per second, least disturbing if they are schmelzung (amalgamation of sounds).
less than 6 per second, or more than 120 This is a psychological explanation based
per second]. The chief disadvantage of on large-scale experimentation. The con-
this theory is that the dissonant or conso- sonant nature of an interval is measured
nant character of an interval varies with by the degree to which the sound pro-
the octave in which it lies, as appears from duced by the two simultaneous tones
the following table: evokes; in the mind of musically untrained
c-e 33 beats c-d 16 beats listeners, the impression of one unified
" "
c'-V 66 c'-d' 32 sound instead of two different tones.
" "
c"-e" 132 c"-<r 64
" Thus, 'the percentage of listeners judging
c'"-d'" 128
(wrongly) in favor of "one tone" (Ver-
It appears that the third c-e would be schmelzung) gives a measurement of the
as "dissonant" as the second c'-d', and
degree of consonance or dissonance. Fol-
that the second c'" d'" would be as "con- the result of
lowing is
Stumpfs experi-
sonant" as the third c"-e". ment:
(c) Helmholtz' theory of Klangver- octave fifth fourth third tritone second
wandtschajt (relationship of sounds). 75% 50% 33% 25% 20% 10%
Two tones are defined as consonant if should be noticed that in this series
It
their harmonics (excluding the yth, 9th, the fifth and the fourth appear as better
etc.) have one or more tones in common. consonances than the third. The chief
From the accompanying table it
appears shortcoming of this theory lies in the fact
that consonance and dissonance are no
sonances, none in the case of dissonances. II. Chords can be classified as conso-
This definition is more satisfactory and nant or dissonant on the basis of the fol-
useful than any other, particularly since lowing definition: A consonant chord is
it establishes a clear line of demarcation one in wm'ch only consonant intervals
between consonant and dissonant inter- (octave, perfect fifth, perfect fourth,
vals, a result which, from the musical third, sixth) are found; a dissonant chord
[181]
CONSORT CONTINUO
isone which includes at least one disso- (consort of viols, of recorders; see *Chest
nant interval (second, seventh, etc.). This of viols), whereas a group consisting of
places the triads and their inversions (ex- various types was called "broken consort."
cept for the diminished and augmented Morley's Consort Lessons of 1599, written
triad) in the former category, all the other for treble lute, pandora, cittern, bass viol,
chords (seventh chords, ninth chords) in flute, and treble viol, afford a good exam-
the latter, in full conformity with musical ple of the broken consort. Later publica-
experience and practice. tions are: Philipp Rossetor, Lessons for
III. The ideas as to which intervals are Consort (1609); John Cooper (Coprario),
consonant, which dissonant, have changed Royal Consort of Viols (1612?); William
considerably during the course of music Lawes (d. 1645), The Royal Consort and
history. Apparently the fourth was the Great Consorte (MS; cf. GD iii, 118);
firstinterval to be considered as a conso- Matthew Locke, Little Consort of Three
nance, with the fifth replacing it at a Parts (1656) and Consort of Foure Parts
somewhat later date [9th, loth centuries; (MS; cf. GD
iii, 224). The compositions
tory of harmonic music might be divided 3 acts with prologue and epilogue, by
into three main epochs: that of pre-tertian, Jacques Offenbach (1819-80), based on
of tertian, and of post-tertian harmony. stories by E. T. A. Hoffmann (1776-
The latter term, of course, refers to the 1822), composed 1880. In the prologue
modern practice (beginning c. 1900) in Hoffmann (Tenor) is shown drinking
which, after an ever-increasing use of dis- with his friends in an inn and relating
sonances, the triad begins to lose its posi- the tales of three love episodes of his life,
tion as the cornerstone of harmony [see each ending tragically owing to the magic
*Harmony II]. influence of some evil spirit. These epi-
K. Jeppesen, The Style of Pales-
Lit.: sodes are shown in the three acts (Act I:
trina and the Dissonance ( 1927) E. Hart- ; Olympia; Act II: Giulietta; Act III: An-
mann, Konsonanz und Dissonanz (Diss. tonia; all Sopranos), while in the epilogue
Marburg 1922); R. Lenzen, Geschichte the scene is the same as at the end of the
des Konsonanzbegriffs im 19. Jahrhun* prologue, the friends applauding and leav-
den (Diss. Bonn 1931); S. Krehl, "Die ing Hoffmann alone with his thoughts.
Dissonanz als musikalisches Ausdrucks- In its musical style the opera approximates
mittel" (ZMW i); A. Machabey, "Dis- the operetta, which Offenbach had culti-
sonance, polytonalite*, atonalite" (RM xii). vated in all his earlier works. Within this
class, however, it belongs to the most am-
Consort (erroneous spelling of concert). bitious and successful examples.
A 17th-century term for instrumental en-
sembles of chamber music and for com- Continuo [short for basso continue; see
positions written for such ensembles. A *Thorough-bass]. In the scores of Ba-
group including only instruments of the roque composers (Bach, Handel), the bass
same family was called "whole consort" partwhich was performed by the harpsi-
182]
CONTRA CONTRATENOR
chord or organ, together with a viola da
implies caricaturing (except in the case of
gamba or cello. the 16th-century *parody mass), while
the term contra-octave for the octave be- Contralto [It.], (i) Same as *alto voice
low the great octave and, consequently, to (female). (2) See *Violin family (c).
terms such as contrabasso [G. Kontra-
Contra-octave. See under *Pitch
bass}> contra-bassoon, contrabass-clarinet names.
which denote instruments of the lowest
range. Contrappunto [It.; L. contrapunctus}.
183]
CONTRA-VIOLIN COPYRIGHT
bassus (low c.) or, simply, bassus (bass). sage marked (d)]. Walter Odington
This process explains the name *alto [CS i, 247] also describes a similar type
(high) for a part which, from the mod- of copula in two or three parts [for an ex-
ern point of view, can hardly be consid- ample cf. ApNPM, facs. 48, passage (i)].
ered a "high" part, as well as the use of As a "species of organum" [Joh. de Gar-
the term counter-tenor for the male alto. landia, CS i, 114 and 175; Franco, ibid.,
133], copula designates a style midway
Contra-violin. See * Violin family (b).
between the free organal style and the
Contrebasse [F.]. Double-bass. Con- strict discant style. See also *Cauda.
trebasson, double-bassoon.
Copyright, Musical. I. The Constitu-
Contredanse [F; G. Contratanz]. tion of the United States gives Congress
A dance which attained great popularity the power to "promote the progress of
in France and elsewhere during the later science and useful arts by securing for
part of the i8th century. As a dance, it is limited times to authors and inventors the
characterized by the placement of two exclusive right to their respective writings
couples facing each other and moving and discoveries." [Art. I, Sec. 8.] In 1790
against each other in a great variety of the first copyright act of the United States
steps and movements. The music consists received the approval of the President.
of a long series of eight-measure phrases and numerous
Several general revisions
which may be repeated over and over amendments were enacted within the
again. It is now generally accepted that next century. The Act of 1831 granted a
the contredanse developed and took its musical copyright but only within narrow
name from the English *Country dance limits. The Act of 1897 granted for the
which resembles in various respects. In
it first time the right of public performance.
this connection it may be noted that as The present law is based on the third gen-
early as 1699 we find "Contredanses an- eral revision of March 4, 1909, which went
glaises" in Ballard's Suites de danses. . . . into effect on July i, 1909. Some amend-
The contredanse developed later into the ments followed, the last on September 25,
*franc aise and the *quadrille. Beethoven
i 1941 Solberg, Copyright Miscellany
[cf.
wrote 12 Contredanses for the orchestra, (1939), nos. 5 and 15; and United States
one of which he used in the final move- Code Annotated, Title 17, "Copyright"
ment of the Eroica Symphony. See also (1927), with Cumulative Annual Pocket
*Cotillon. Part of November, 1941 ] .
(4) Copyright may also be secured for produced the composition mechanically
unpublished musical and dramatic works or has licensed someone else to do so. In
by deposit of copies and registration under such case any other person may make
Sec. ii. similar use of the copyrighted work and
(5) All books, including the copies de- reproduce mechanically upon the pay-
it
posited at the Copyright Office, have to be ment of a royalty of two cents on each
printed from type set within the limits of such part manufactured (so called "com-
U. S. A. [cf. Sec. 15 for details]. This re- pulsory license provision"). The repro-
quirement does not apply to books of for- duction or rendition of a musical compo-
sition by or upon coin-operated machines
eign origin in a language or languages
other than English. It does not apply to is not regarded as a public performance
musical or dramatic works. for profit unless a fee is charged for ad-
(6) These formalities prevent the ad- mission to the place where such reproduc-
herence of U. S. A. to the Berne Conven- tion or rendition occurs. For details cf.
tion, whose leading principles involve the Toiner and Evans in the second and
enjoyment and exercise of the rights of the third annual of Nathan Bur fan Memorial
Convention without being subject to any Competition] also the general rule of the
[Art. 4, par. 2 of the revised revised Berne Convention, Art. 13.
formality
text of Rome] About a mitigation of the
. Recent developments in musical activ-
formal requirements in relation to the ity, particularly technical achievements of
partners of the fourth Pan-American Con- moving pictures and of broadcasting, led
vention, cf. Solberg, Misc., No. 15, p. 26. to some fundamental judicial decisions.
III. As soon as the formal requirements The most important are: Herbert v. Shan-
are fulfilled, the authorized person, in- ley Co., 1917, about performances in
composers fought these decisions, while 125$; the general rule of the Berne
cf.
every infringing performance [Sec. 25]; tection of literary and artistic works went
but in no case shall such damages be less into operation September 9, 1886. Three
than $250. conferences followed, one at Paris (1896),
The copyright secured by the Act of one at Berlin (1908), the third at Rome
March 4, 1909 shall endure for 28 years (1928). The revised text of the Rome
from the date of first publication, but usu- conference was signed by delegates of 28
ally within one year prior to the expira- countries [cf. Solberg, Miscellany, No. 7] .
tion of the original term the proprietor The United States has not as yet joined
of the copyright, or the composer and his thisCopyright Union although many at-
heirs, can apply for extension for a further tempts in that direction have been made
28 years [Sec. 23]. The revised Berne in recent years. (About recent bills of
Convention Art. 7 suggests the legal pro- 1925, 1930, 1935, 1937 cf. Solberg, Miscel-
tection of the author for his lifetime and lany, nos. 7 and 15.)
50 years further. The British Copyright (2) A special series of agreements has
Act of 1911, effective since July i, 1912, been entered into by the United States
follows this suggestion. and South- and Central-American coun-
After the First World War an act was tries, known under the designation of
degree to copyright. Several international zens of the United States the benefit of
[186]
COPYRIGHT CORNETT
copyright on substantially the same basis Literary and Artistic Property, 2 vols.
as to its own
citizens or copyright protec- (1938); R. C. deWolfe, "Copyright in
tion substantially equal to American law. Music" (Music Library Association^
In this case the existence of reciprocal con- Notes, December, 1943). H. A.
ditions determined by a proclamation
is
and the limited legal protection as exist- Coranto See under *Courante.
[It.].
ing before 1909, The law of 1909 in-
troduced decisive reforms, particularly Corda [It.]; corde [F.]. String. In
within the realm of musical copyright piano compositions, una corda (abbr.
u. c.) calls for the use of the left pedal
[cf. supra III]. Therefore supplementary
proclamation had to be issued in order to (soft pedal) by which the entire keyboard
is moved a little to the
guarantee the reciprocity under the new right so that the
law (thus: Austria, Belgium, Chile, Cuba, hammers strike only one string, instead
Denmark, France, Germany, Great Brit- of two or three. This muting effect is
ain and her possessions, Italy, Nether- canceled by tutte le corde (t. c.) or tre
lands and possessions, Norway, Spain, corde. In the slow movement of his So-
nata op. 106 Beethoven demands the al-
Switzerland);
most impossible finesse: poco a poco due
(b) Some countries asked for the guar-
antee of reciprocity only under the Act e poi tre corde ("gradually two and three
of 1909. The proclamations issued accord- strings"). Corde a vide, corde a jour,
ing to these requests included: Luxem-
corda vuota mean open string (of the
bourg, Tunis, New
Zealand, Australia violin).
and the territories of Papua and Norfolk,
Corelli clash. See under *Cadence II
Canada, Union of South Africa, Poland,
[Ex. 24].
Czechoslovakia, Rumania, Finland, Irish
Free State, Greece, Palestine except Trans- Coriolanus Overture. Beethoven's
jordania, Free City of Danzig, Argentine op. 62 (1807), an orchestral composition
(about Sweden cf. Solberg, Misc., No. 15, written as an overture to a play by H. }.
P-32); Collins.
(c) Some states do not enjoy the reci-
Cori spezzati [It.]. The "separated"
procity of the law of 1909: China, Japan,
and alternating choruses of the Venetian
which are governed by prior treaty.
details about these interna- *polychoral style.
(Minute
tional relations are to be found in the Corista [It.]. Orchestral pitch; tuning
United States Code, Title 17, historical fork. C. di camera, chamber pitch.
notes to 8 and Annotated Pocket Part
1941, p. 17, as well as in Copyright Pro-
Cornamusa [It.]; Cornemuse [F.].
tection throughout the World edited by See *Bagpipe.
the United States Department of Com-
Cornet [F. cornet-a-pistons; G. Kornett\
merce, Bureau of Foreign and Domestic cornetto]. See *Brass instruments III.
It.
Commerce.) Not to be confused with the *cornett.
Lit.: Herbert A. Ho well, The Copy- See the illustrations on p. 97 and on p. 98.
right Law (1942); R. C. de Wolfe, An
Outline of Copyright Law (1925); A. Cornett [F. cornet-a-bouquin\ G. Zin\;
Shafter, Musical Copyright (1939); St. P. It. cornetto]. A
5th/ 16th-century in-
1
[i 87]
CORNETT CORRENTE
slightly bent tube made of wood (or, oc- shape of a bassoon and in this form it
casionally, of ivory), with a surface oc- became known as Russian bassoon. An
tagonal in cross section, with six finger- improved variety of this instrument was
holes, and provided with a cup-shaped the basshorn, invented about 1800, also
mouthpiece. (Illustration on p. 98.) Al- called English basshorn [F. basse-cor].
though in many books this instrument is All these instruments retained the six
referred to under the name of *cornet, fingerholes of the ancient cornetts. The
thus leading to confusion with a ipth- addition of more fingerholes operated by
century instrument of an entirely differ- keys led to the chromatic basshorn and
ent kind, the practice of using a different to the *ophicleide. Illustrations on p. 98.
spelling for these two types is now be- Cf G. Karstadt, in
. AMP
ii.
8]
CORREPETITOR COUNTERPOINT
Correpetitor [G.]. In German opera Palestrina "saved music" by
composing
houses, the coach of the solo-singers who his Missa Papae Marcelli which, we arc
assists them in studying their parts. told, so greatly impressed the cardinals
that they desisted from their plan. Actu-
Corrido. A
Mexican type of narrative
ally, Palestrina 's role in the Council was
folk ballad, accompanied by guitars,
rather inconspicuous, and much slighter
harps, etc. It is on the direct line from the than that of lacobus de Kerlle and others.
Spanish romance. Cf. Vicente T. Men- Cf. O. Ursprung, in the preface to DTB
doza, Romance y Corrido (1939). *Mass B, II (d). Cf. H. Leich-
26. See also
Cortege Compositions
[F., procession]. tentritt, in MQ xxx, no. 3.
written in the manner of a solemn or tri-
Counter exposition. A name some-
umphal procession, or march. times given to the second exposition of a
Cortholt, cortol. Same as *curtall. fugue.
played an important part in the develop- present more than a single unaccompa-
ment of Byzantine Church music. It nied melody [see *monophonic], a musi-
abolished the use of instruments and the cal texture exists which can be regarded
from two points of view, the horizontal
participation of the congregation in the
and the vertical; such a musical fabric is
performance of the Chant, in order to pre-
vent it from deteriorating. not dissimilar to a textile material with
its warp and woof. The
study of the verti-
Council of Trent, held in 1543-63, cal or chordal aspect of such music is
played a decisive part in the development ordinarily the object of harmony, while
of Catholic Church music. It abolished counterpoint is the study of the horizontal
all the *tropes, and the ^sequences with strands of melody and the various com-
the exception of five. The determination binations that can be made with them
of the cardinals to restore the dignity of without their losing their individuality
the service, after the growing corruption as melodies. The singing or playing of
and secularization of the previous centu- voices or instruments in unisons or oc-
ries, became an acute danger for the con- taves is not contrapuntal since only one
tinued development of polyphonic music melodic line is present; nor are composi-
when they considered the complete abol- which one voice as-
tions contrapuntal in
ishing in the service of all music other sumes all the melodic interest and in
than plainsong. There is, however, no which the accompanying voices or instru-
truth to the frequently repeated story that ments have no distinctive melodies of
COUNTERPOINT COUNTERPOINT
theirown, but merely serve as blocks of and octave.
intervals in addition to unison
harmonic color to enhance the beauty of Itwent through various stages of devel-
the predominating melody, and conse- opment, in the course of which the upper
quently are completely subordinated to it voice gained increasing independence
[see *Homophonic]. On the other hand, from the cantus firmus. Around 1200
music which is made up of individual (*School of Notre Dame) the number of
melodic strands woven together is *con- parts was increased to three and, occasion-
trapuntal or ^polyphonic. Contrasting ex- ally, four.
generally understood, is the rhythmic in- littlecultivation during this period of the
dependence of the different parts. In fact, euphonious interval of the third between
itis through their rhythmic life no less voices, and the use of the complete triad
than through their melodic independence is not at all
frequent, but seems almost
that the voices of a contrapuntal fabric accidental [see *Third; *Harmony].
acquire that character of individuality The *Ars Nova of the i4th century
which is the very essence of counterpoint displays no sudden change in technique
[see *Texture]. of contrapuntal writing. Composers of
II. History. Counterpoint has had a the late i3th century, like Petrus de
history of about a thousand years. A Cruce, had already begun to differentiate
study of this history shows that at no the rhythmic character of the different
time has there been a complete disregard voices. The triplum in particular became
of the vertical aspect of view. There has more animated, almost in the character
been, however, a good deal of change in of a rapid *parlando, while the duplum
this aspect, so much, indeed, that the remained rhythmically quieter, and the
consideration of this point serves as a con- tenor, with the cantus firmus, became
venient means of evolutionary classifica- less important as a melody and more im-
tion in the history of counterpoint. This portant as a bass. Among the French com-
does not mean to imply that the other posers of the 1 4th century (Machaut) the
points of view evolution of the melodic two main developments in contrapuntal
lines and of their rhythmic coordination writing were greater richness and eu-
are less important, but only that, ow- phony in voice combination, which is
ing to their more complex nature, they shown by greater use of parallel thirds
do not lend themselves to the purpose of and triadic forms, and the incorporation
short description andsurvey. of all the voices into one organism of
The earliest type of counterpoint was great melodic subtlety and rhythmic flexi-
*organum in two parts, based on the bility.
fourth and fifth as the only consonant The most important contribution of the
[190]
COUNTERPOINT COUNTERPOINT
I5th century is the establishment of imi- From time on practically all com-
this
tation as a contrapuntal device. After continued as always to undergo
posers
Dufay imitation is increasingly used by contrapuntal instruction as part of their
Ockeghem, Obrecht, Josquin, and others; musical training. However, its problems
it is
exploited and more regulated by the throughout the i8th and ipth centuries
generation of Gombert and Willaert, and were subsidiary to those in architectural
its full
significance realized by the com- construction and to the exploitation of the
posers of the last half of the i6th century harmonic aspect of music. Indeed, with
(Orlando di Lasso, Palestrina). In the the exception of a handful of men like
half of the i5th century the knowl-
first Beethoven and Brahms, composers of the
edge and use of *fauxbourdon resulted 1
9th century cannot be said to have had
in the decline of haphazard parallel inter- any fundamental interest in counterpoint.
vals among moving voices and led to an With the coming of the 20th century a
appreciation of the triad and its inver- distinct renaissance of counterpoint has
sions; moreover, it tended to cause greater taken place. Among the first composers
attention to solid cadences and to
empha- to adopt it as the basis of new music was
size the significance of non-harmonic Schonberg [see *Twelve-tone techniquel,
melodic tones, such as the suspension, although it can be said that practically all
passing tone, and so on. forward-looking composers of today con-
Although the importance of the har- sider it in some of its manifold forms as
monic aspect of music was increasingly basic.
realized through the I5th and i6th cen- III. Teaching. During the early centu-
turies, the plasticity and melodic equality ries of polyphonic music, the art of writ-
of the different lines were carried to un- ing counterpoint was taught by specifying
surpassed heights in the second half of the intervals which the other voices
the 1 6th century, this period being re- should make with the notes of the given
ferred to often as the Golden Age of cantus firmus. The theoretical writings
counterpoint. of the I3th and i4th centuries [see *The-
Great contrapuntists were active in the orists] usually included detailed explana-
1
7th century, particularly in the field of tions on this subject. An
interesting land-
sacred music. During this period a pro- mark is Conrad Paumann's *Fundamen~
found change in point of view gradually turn organisandi of 1452, because practi-
took place, the seeds of which had been cal examples were given in the place of
planted at least two centuries earlier: verbal instruction. By the i6th century
more attention came to be given to tonal imitation was being taught as a method
organization in music. Tonal organization [Buchner's Fundamentum of c. 1520],
did not spell the doom of counterpoint and the instruction gradually became
as a method, but it did result in a funda- more methodical. N. Vicentino, in his
mental change in the manner of its con- L'antica musica rtdotta alia moderna prat-
ception; now the harmonic flow of music tica (1555), and Zarlino, in his Istitutioni
was so organized that compositions were armoniche (1558), gave detailed explana-
in major or minor keys were tonal tions of the various types of double coun-
and although a composition might consist terpoint and of canon.
is known about the
wholly of distinct melodic lines of great Little teaching of
individual beauty, these lines had to con- counterpoint during the iyth century. By
form basically to the underlying harmonic the 1 8th century the different manners of
skeleton of the composition. The impor- writing to a cantus firmus were codified,
tance of the architecture as a whole super- notably by J. J. Fux \Gradus ad Parnas-
seded that of beauty of detail, out of sum, 1725], into the five "species." Each
which compositions had grown in the species was based on a ten-to-fifteen note
days of modality. The new
type is com- cantus, above and below which other
monly known as harmonic or tonal coun- voices were added: the first species con-
sisted of inventing a new melody each
terpoint.
[191]
COUNTERPOINT COUNTRY DANCE
note of which should sound with the cor- [cf. Jeppesen, in MQ xxi]. See also
responding note of the cantus; the second *Fugue; *Canon; *Discantus; *Linear
species consisted of two notes against each counterpoint; *Poly phony; *Texture.
one of the cantus; the third species was Lit.: L. Cherubini, Counterpoint and
built of four notes against each one; the Fugue (1854); P. Goetschius, Elementary
fourth species consisted of syncopation; Counterpoint (1910); id., Applied Coun-
and the fifthwhich was called
species, terpoint (1902); K. Jeppesen, Counter-
florid or "free," consisted mostly of com- point (1939); C. H. Kitson, Art of Coun-
binations of the first four [see the accom- terpoint (1924), and other books; A. T.
panying example] . The species as a train- Merritt, Sixteenth-Century Polyphony
(1939) ; E. Prout, Counterpoint, Strict and
C? .S ^^ . Free (1890-96), and other books; H. Rie-
^
. .
the name Courante for some or all of the tings of the Credo therefore begin with
sorrentes. See *Dance music III. the latter phrase, and are usually indexed
under Patrem in modern musicological
Course editions. The Credo was the last of the
[F. ordre; G. (Saiten)chor\. In
stringed instruments, chiefly those of the
five chants of theOrdinary to be intro-
lute type, a number of strings which are duced into the Mass (shortly after 1000).
tuned in unison or in the octave, and Even today the Credo-melodies (four, and
which are plucked simultaneously in or- two more "ad libitum"; the oldest, no. i
der to obtain an increased volume of of the Gradual, dating from the nth cen-
sound. Unison-courses, numbering two tury) are grouped separately from the
or three strings, are used for the higher other items (GR 59*, 89*).
In polyphonic mass compositions the
ranges of the pianoforte and of the harp.
On the 16th-century lutes double-courses Credo is usually treated in a majestic and
were used for the lower strings, as fol- forceful style, designed to bring about the
lows: G-g c~c' f-f a-a d'-d' g". In feeling of unshaking belief in the Creed
order to facilitate the terminology, the of the Church. A
contrasting expression,
single string g" isalso spoken of as a however, is given to the sections Et in-
course, so that the 16th-century lute carnatus est and *Crucifixus [see *Mass
would have u strings in 6 courses. A III].
bass-course is a string (single or dupli- *
Crembalum [L.]. Jew's harp.
cated) which runs alongside the finger-
ingboard without crossing the frets; Crescendo, decrescendo, abbr. cresc.,
hence, it is invariable in pitch. See *Lute. decresc., or deer.; indicated by the signs
[194]
CRESCENDO PEDAL CROSS-RELATION
-==i and m=-. The usual terms and Cross-relation [F. faussc relation-, G.
signs for increasing or decreasing ot tone Querstand]. Cross-relation (or false re-
volume. For the latter, the word diminu- lation) denotes the appearance in differ-
endo (dim.) is also in use. For the his- ent voices of two tones which, owing to
tory, see ^Expression III. their mutually
contradictory character
e.g., major and minor third of the same
Crescendo pedal. See *Organ Vll. triad are best placed as a melodic pro-
195]
CROSS RHYTHM CURRENDE
Considering the corrective power of N. Bessaraboff, Ancient European Musi-
cal Instruments (1941), pp.
strongly marked voice progressions, it is 314^.
not surprising to find ample use of cross-
C.s. Abbreviation for It. colla sinistra,
relation in earlier, contrapuntal music.
i.e., with the left hand.
The compositions of Byrd, Gibbons,
Frescobaldi contain many interesting ex- Csardas. See *Czardas.
amples [Ex. 5, 6], also of what might be
somewhat
C sol fa ut. See *Hexachord III.
called, antithetically, "vertical
cross-relation," i.e., the simultaneous Cuba. The island of Cuba is interesting
sounding of the two chromatic tones as the breeding place for various dances
[Ex. 7; other examples under *Musica of mixed Spanish and Negro origin, such
ficta]. In modern harmonic style cross- as the *Bolero, *Conga, *Habanera,
relations are, of course, very frequent, the *Guarache, *Rumba.
impression of "falsity" diminishing with Lit.: I. Castellanos, Instrumentos musi-
the growing disintegration of the har- cales de los ajrocubanos (Havana, 1927);
monic system of the i9th century. H. Cowell, "The 'sones' of Cuba" (MM
viii); E. Grenet, Musica popular cubana
Cross rhythm. See *Polyrhythm.
(Havana, 1939); J. Molina y Ramos, La
Crot. See *Crwth. Historia y desenvolvimiento del arte mu-
sical en Cuba (Havana, 1924); F. Ortiz,
Crotales [F.]. Castanets. See *Cymbals. "Afro-Cuban Music" (Quarterly Journal
Crotalum A rattle of Inter-American Relations i); S. Ra-
[L.]. (castanets?)
used in ancient Egypt, Greece, and Rome. mirez, La Habana Artistica
(Havana,
1891); A. Salazar, "El Movimiento Afri-
Crotchet. See *Notes. canista en la Musica de arte Cubana"
(Estudios Afrocubanos ii); E. Sanchez de
Crouth, Crowd, Cruit. See *Crwth.
Fuentes, Consideraciones sobre la Musica
Crucifixus. A
section of the *Credo of Cubana (Havana, 1936). See also general
the *Mass, In mass compositions it fre- bibliography under *Latin American
quently appears as a separate movement, music.
harp (frame harp). Later, a finger board symbolizing a a cock, and all the
hen and
was added by which became an early
it dancing gestures as well as the animating
member ill. on
of the violin family [see words of the bystanders agree with this
p. 823; also CD, pi. 31 and 87]. The in- symbol. Cf. P. Garrido, Biografia de la
strument was still used in Wales in the Cueca 1943); H. Allende,
(Santiago,
early years of the i9th century. It is also "Chilean Folk Music" (Bulletin of the
known under the Anglicized form crowd Pan American Union ix, 9i7ff).
and under the names crot and cruit.
Irish
Instruments dc
Cuivre [F., copper].
A medieval Latin name, used in the nth
culvre or, simply, les cuivres are the brass
to the lAth centuries, chorus [cf.
is
instruments of the orchestra. Cuivre calls
SaRM, 80 J. The medieval form, without for a forced, harsh tone in the playing,
finger board, is usually called rotta, rotte.
especially of the horn [see *Horn I],
The chrotta, mentioned by Venantius For-
tunatus (6th century), was probably not Currende [from L. currendo canerc,
a lyre but a harp [cf. SaHMl, 262]. Cf. i.e., street singing]. In the i6th and lyth
CURRENTES CYMBALON
centuries, name for the chorus of Latin tinction to the older metrical cursus which
schools {Gymnasium) in Germany. Their follows the laws of quantity [see * Poetic
members were usually boys lacking in meter]. Cf. H. B. Briggs, in xxiv, PMA
means who, by singing on the
financial 74f ;
H. Bewerunge, in Z1M xii; Paleo gra-
streets and for special occasions such as phic musicale iv [see *Editions XXIII].
funerals and marriages, provided towards
their support. There has been a recent Gustos [L., watcher]. See *Direct.
revival of this custom in various German
towns. See *Quempas. Cf. G. Schiine- Cyclic, cyclical. This term is used in
two meanings: (i) Generally, to denote
mann, Geschichte der deutschcn Schul-
musiJ^ (1928); W. Nicolai, in Bach-Jahr- any musical form including several move-
buch (1914). ments; thus, sonata, suite, toccata, can-
tata, etc., aretermed cyclic forms. (2)
Currentes. Same as *conjunctura or, Specifically, to denote compositions
usually sonatas or symphonies in which
quick diamond-shaped notes
at least, the
of the conjunctura [see *Square nota- the same thematic material is used in all
or in some of the movements. The use of
tion; *Elmuahim].
the term in this meaning is more common
Curtain tune. Same as act tune [see recently and is, no doubt, preferable. An
Entr'acte]. early example of cyclic treatment is Schu-
bert's Wander er-Fantasie, op. 15. Still
Curtal(l). See *Oboe family III.
more conspicuous is the use of identical
Cursus. In Latin
material in Berlioz' Symphonic Fantas-
prose and, in particu-
tique [see *Idee fixe]. Cyclic treatment
Gregorian chant, cursus denotes an
lar, in
was adopted by Bruckner who in several
important principle of textual construc- of his symphonies restates the initial
tion,observed in the closing words of a
theme of the first movement in the clos-
sentence or a section thereof. great A
number of these chants close with the ing climax of the last. It was more clearly
established as a principle of composition
cursus planus, i.e., with five syllables
by Cesar Franck and his French follow-
showing the following scheme of accents: Vincent d'Indy, Saint-Saens, Faure,
ers,
/w w f w, e.g.: glorlam tuam; . . . . . .
tury a special type of chant, called Rorate, Antonin Dvorak (1841-1904) who, how-
sung first to Latin, later to Czech words, ever, followed largely the German tradi-
was introduced for the service of Matins tion (Brahms), particularly in his cham-
during Advent. At the same time there known than these two is
ber music. Less
existed an important school of Czech Zdenko Fibich (1850-1900) who in his
musicians and writers on music, headed numerous operas and orchestral works
by Magister Zavise (d. 1410). The re- shows himself strongly influenced by
forming activity of Johan Hus (burned Schumann and Wagner, and who re-
1415), directed against abuses in the mained relatively apathetic toward na-
Catholic Church, was of disastrous results tional expression. A similar statement
for the cultivation of music, which was can be made with regard to J. B. Foerster
entirely banned from the service. During (b. 1859) whose music represents what
the 1 6th
century the Moravian Brothers may be called a "subjective idealism."
were active in the edition of song books The national trend is more clearly ex-
in the Czech language. One of these, pressed in the works of Leos Janacek
published in 1561, contains 744 melodies. (1854-1928) who developed an interest-
As a result of these tendencies, the use of ing personal style of veristic and highly
the Czech language in the service was dynamic prosody, somewhat influenced
authorized in 1601. The splendid court by Moussorgsky's style (Jenufa, 1904).
of Rudolph II (1575-1611) at Prague The most influential Czech composer
numbered among its members musicians the father of present-day Czech music
such as Jacobus Handl (Gallus), Hans is Vitezlav Novak (b. 1870) whose works
Leo Hassler, Philipp de Monte, Jacques show a great variety of expression and
Buus, and Charles Luython. In the i7th style, Romanticas well as impressionistic,
and 1 8th centuries a small number of lyrical as well as intellectual and ironic.
Czech (Bohemian) composers partici- JosefSuk (1874-1935) represents a lyrical
pated in the development of German or Romanticism of French color. Gustav
Italian music, e.g., Andreas Hammer- Mahler, although born in Bohemia
schmidt (1611-75), Bohuslav Czerno- (Kalischt, 1860-1911), stands entirely
horski (1684-1740; Italian opera), Jo- outside of the development of Czech
DANCE MUSIC
music and must be considered in con- Czechoslovakia (1942); L. Urban, The
nection with the history of German music. Music of Bohemia (1919); V. E. Helfert,
Composers of a later generation, such as Geschichte der Musit( in der Tschechi-
Alois Haba (b. 1893), Erwin Schulhoff schen Republil^ (1936; also in French);
(b. 1894), Bohuslav Martinu (b. 1890), R. Batka, Die Musit( in Bohmen (1906);
have largely given up the nationalistic id., Geschichte der Musi^ in Bohmen, \,
approach to music, and have ranked them- 900-1333 (1906); P. Nettl, Beitrdge zur
selves among the champions of the more bohmischen und mdhrischen Musi^ge-
cosmopolitan trends of *New music; schichte (1927); LavE 1.5, 2597; ii.i, 33
Hdba in the field of *atonality and (modern); 2956 (folk song);
ii-5, AdHM
*quarter-tones, Schulhoff particularly in ii, 1156; P. Nettl, "The Czechs in i8th-
"idealized jazz," while Martinu is one of century Music" (ML xxi, no. 4); id. 9
the most successful proponents of a neo- "Schubert's Czech Predecessors" (ML
romantic style of a purely musical design. xxiii, no. i); Z. Nejedly, "Magister
A happy amalgamation of national ele- Zavise und seine Schule" (SIM vii); D.
ments and of a rather modern idiom is Orel, "Stilarten der Mehrstimmigkeit des
found in Jaromir Weinberger's (b. 1896) 15. und 1 6. Jahrhunderts in Bohmen"
opera Schwanda, the Bagpiper (1927) (Adler-Festschrift, 1930).
which was a remarkable world success.
Lit.: R. Newmarch, The Music of Czimbalom. See *Cimbalom.
D
D. See *Pitch-names; *Letter notation; Daily hours. See under *Office hours.
*Hexachord. In 16th-century *part books
D stands for discantus (soprano). In har- Dal segno [It.,from the sign], abbrevi-
ated means from the
repetition, not
monic analysis D means dominant. d.s.,
frequently found at the end of the trio sordino] . In pianofortes and harpsichords
to a scherzo (or minuet), indicating that that part of the mechanism which termi-
the latter be repeated after the trio. Da nates the vibration of the string hence,
capo senza repetizione means that the the sound in the moment when the key
repetitions within the scherzo should be is released. The dampers of the piano-
omitted, as is usually done even where forte are small pieces of wood, lying above
this remark is lacking. Da capo e poi la the strings, and covered underneath with
coda, see *Coda. See also *Dal segno. felt [see *Pianoforte I], See also *Mute.
national type of the zyth century is the ^Wiener Tanzmusit{ (c. 1650-1700;
English ^country dance. In this period DTOe 28.ii); J. Wolf, "Die Tanze des
there appeared also the first "exotic" Mittelalters" (AMW
i); O. Gombosi,
dance the ballrooms of Europe, the
in "About Dance and Dance Music in the
*canarie (from the Canary Islands). Late Middle-Ages" (MQ xxvii); id.,
IV. The 1 8th century cultivated par- "Der Hoftanz" (AM vii, no. 2) J. Pulver,
;
ticularly the minuet, without adding "The Ancient Dance Forms" (PMA
much to the repertory of dance music xxxix, xl); R. Eitner, f"Tanze des 15. bis
end of the century when Vienna
until the 17. Jahrhunderts" (MfM vii, Beilage);
became a new center of dance music and L. Schrade, "Tanze aus einer anonymen
when the first modern types of dances italienischen Tabulatur, 1551" (ZMW
appeared, the vigorous *ecossaise (Bee- x); P. Nettl, "Die Wiener Tanzkomposi-
thoven) and the soft swaying *Ldndler tionen des 17. Jahrhunderts" (StM viii).
(Schubert), which soon changed into the See also under *Suite.
most famous dance of all times, the
* Dance of
waltz. The period from 1830 to 1850 death. Death as a dancer or
brought about a number of dances which as a fiddler of dance tunes was
gruesome
quickly superseded one another in the a favored subject of i5th- and 16th-cen-
favor of the public, e.g., the Polish *ma- tury painters and drawers (Holbein,
zurfy (Chopin), the Bohemian *polfa 9 Diirer), who took their mental picture
*
the * quadrille, and the galop (Oflen- from medieval or contemporary dance
bach), all of which were launched in customs incorporating dancers masked as
Paris, confirming the fame of this city as skeletons. Augustus Normiger's tabla-
the world center of amusement. The rise ture of 1593 contains a piece entitled
of the National Schools led to the discov- *Mattasin oder Toden Tantz, the peculiar
ery by composers of a
wealth of national syncopated rhythm of which is quite an
dances, among which the Spanish dances adequate expression of fear and trem-
figure prominently in variety
and indi- bling. In the 1 9th century two composers
of character [see 'Spanish have used the *Dies irae as the basis of
viduality
UoiJ
DANISH MUSIC DAVIDSBONDLER-TANZE
compositions portraying the idea of the the melodies, and in their contrapuntal
dance of death, namely, Liszt (Todten- texture. Practically all the living Danish
Tanz for pianoforte and orchestra, 1849) composers stand under his influence, com-
and Saint-Saens (Danse Macabre for or- bining it with impressionistic or neo-
chestra, 1874). For a 14th-century Span- classical tendencies, e.g., J. L. Emborg (b.
ish example cf. O. Ursprung, in ZMW 1876), Peder Gram (b. 1881), Rud Lang-
iv, gaard (b. 1893), Jorgen Bentzon (b.
1897), and Finn Hoffding (b. 1899).
Danish music. While, prior to 1800, Lit.: AdHM ii, 1106 (bibl. pp. 1112);
Danish music was but a reflection of LavE i-5, 2594.
Flemish, French, English, Italian, or Ger- Danse macabre *Dance
[F.]. of death.
man [for Danish pupils of
influences
G. Gabrieli, e.g., see *Editions V, 35], it Dante Symphony. See ^Symphonic
adopted a significance of its own when a poem I.
dic color. is as characteristic of Dan- def g abc'd' c'f'J g'a' b' c"*. This
and | | |
[202]
DEACONING DEGREES AND DIPLOMAS
named after an imaginary
teristic pieces
Deceptive cadence. See *Cadence I.
"Davidsbund" ("League of David") to
which he frequently referred in his writ- Decibel. Sec *Bel.
ings on music and which was destined to Declamation. See *Text and music.
fight like David against the Philis-
tines, that is, against the mediocre taste Decoration. Same as *ornamentation,
and the reactionary tendencies of the aver- ^coloratura, florid style.
age composers, performers, and musical
amateurs of his day. The letters E. and F. Decrescendo, abbreviated deer, or
decresc. See *Crescendo.
given at the end of each piece mean
Eusebius and Florestan, imaginary names In harmonic analysis, see *Scale
Degree.
which were meant to portray the lyrical
degrees.
(introvert) and the heroic (extrovert)
side of his own self. Degrees and diplomas. The degrees
most commonly awarded to music stu-
Deaconing. English term for *lining. dents are:
de livrcy see *Discantus supra librum. more on the professional side. This de-
[203]
DEGREES AND DIPLOMAS DEGREES AND DIPLOMAS
gree is
given chiefly by conservatories and a. B.S. (Bachelor of Science). More
schools of music. A certain number of or less equivalent to the B.A., out with
advanced courses music must be satis-
in less stress on the humanities Greek,
factorily completed; one to two years of Latin, etc. In general not recommended
residence as a full-time student are re- for those intending to do graduate
quired (most schools require only one). work.
M.Mus. degrees are given in various b. Education degrees: B.Mus.Ed.;
fields of concentration applied music, B. Pub. School Mus.; M.M.Ed.; Ed.D.
theory, composition, history, aesthetics, These degrees are generally given by state
The special requirements vary greatly
etc. universities and schools of music to stu-
among the various schools. Most schools dents preparing to teach in the public
require a thesis or its equivalent, such as schools.
a composition in a larger form, or a pub- c. M.S.M. (Master of Sacred Music)
lic concert in the case of an applied music is conferred by some schools.
student. The policy of granting a mas- 8. Diplomas, certificates, etc. It is im-
ter'sdegree for work done primarily in possible to describe the various awards of
applied music has been questioned by this kind which are made throughout the
some educators, who feel that the higher country. State teaching certificates are
degrees should be reserved more spe- required of public school music teachers,
cifically for advanced academic work in and requirements vary widely from state
theory, history, or the like. to state.The New York State require-
5. Ph.D. (in music). This is the high- ments are generally considered to be
est degree which be taken, and rela-
may among the highest and have become ac-
tively few have been granted. At least cepted nationally as a norm. Music
two years of residence are required (in schools in particular give out a variety of
the United States) by most universities diplomas, certificates, and the like. Since
granting the degree. The candidate must each individual school sets the standard,
submit, and the university accept, a thesis the value of such awards depends directly
showing distinctly original work, bring- upon the excellence of the school granting
ing to light new source material or treat- it. Moreover, the achievement repre-
ing known material in an original way. sented by the diploma or certificate is any-
He must then pass an oral examination thing but standardized. In one school the
covering all branches and fields of music. diploma may be given for a minimum
Generally, in addition, he must present a amount of work, in another it may repre-
satisfactory musical composition of some sent a high even the highest stand-
sort; this may be a piece in a larger form, ard of excellence. In some schools the
if he is
gifted in composition, or a fugue, term "artist's diploma" used to indicate
is
purely honorary degree in the United Mus.D. degrees are given, the require-
States. given in recognition of out-
It is ments varying somewhat among the
standing excellence and achievement in various universities. Certain residence
music, in much the same way as the LL.D. requirements exist in nearly every in-
is
given in other fields. In England the stance, and various examinations are
Mus.D. may be "earned'*; in America the given to test the candidate's knowledge
highest "earned" degree is the Ph.D. in of theory, history, and practical music.
music. The Mus.B. candidate is
expected to have
7. Other degrees.
The above-given aie already received the B.A. degree, or to
the most usual degrees. Mention may be pass preliminary examinations of equiva-
made also of the following: lent difficulty. In this respect, as well as
[204]
DEGREES AND DIPLOMAS DESCANI
in thefact that the Mus.D. may be Dehors, en dehors [F.]. "Outside,"
"earned" instead of being purely honor- made to stand out, with emphasis.
i.e.,
can undergraduate's term paper. Others, Descant, (i) Older name for the high-
on the other hand, are splendid contribu- est voice in part music, i.e., the soprano
tions to musical research and often have [G. Distant}. Hence, names such as
the proportions of full-sized books. In descant viol, descant recorder for the high-
addition to writing a dissertation, the est pitched instruments. Unfortunately,
candidate must pass various examina- there is no consistency in the use of the
tions, in music as well as in three "re- teims descant and *treble. As terms for
lated" fields (e.g., Philosophy, Mathe- the upper voice in part music, they are
matics, Acoustics). Certain teachers' cer- used synonymously; however, descant viol
tificates and diplomas are awarded by (recorder) is a higher (and smaller) in-
German schools of music. These have strument than the treble viol (recorder);
little significance outside of Germany and on the other hand, descant clef is a
are designed chiefly to maintain standards "lower" clef than treble clef [see *Clefs].
within the country. (2) As a designation for early part-
c. Other European countries. The re- music, written out or improvised, see
maining countries of Europe do not lay *Discant and *Discantus supra librum.
so much stress on academic degrees. In (3) In hymn singing, descant is a
France the Doctor of Letters (Dr. es Let- more or less florid melody sung by a few
tres) may be awarded for musicological picked trebles as an addition to the nor-
research. The Paris Conservatory, how- mal melody and harmony of the hymn.
ever, and other similar schools (Brussels, The practice as well as the term go back
for example) have systems of recognizing to the *discantus supra
14th-century
achievement by means of first and second librum which was a method of improvi-
and diplomas of vari- sation to a plainsong melody. While, one
prizes, certificates,
ous sorts, E. B. H. hundred years or more ago, there still
[205]
DESCORT DIABELLI VARIATIONS
were singers in England who improvised sonata-form, that is, in the so-called de-
a descant, the modern practice is to sup- velopment-section, in which material pre-
books of sented in the exposition is "developed"
ply such melodies in the printed
standard hymn-tunes. The same method [see *Sonata-form]. However, the same
of singing is known by the entirely
also technique (although usually on a minor
inappropriate name fauxbourdon or fa- scale) is also used in the exposition itself
burden [see *Fauxbourdon (5)]. See of larger symphonies, or, still more fre-
also under *Division. quently, in the recapitulation, and occa-
sionally in the *coda. It also occurs in
Descort [F.]. See *Lai.
slow movements written in binary or
Descriptive music. See *Program ternary form, in the *scherzos and *ron-
dos, and in free compositions (program
music; *Word-painting.
music). In brief, it one of the corner-
is
[ao6]
DIABOLUS IN MUSICA DIATESSARON
each to a collective set which was meant *liturgical drama. Dialogue-technique
to represent a cross section of the compo- occurs in the *frottola ("a botte e ris-
sitional activity in Austria of his
day. The poste") around 1500, and in Willaert's
entire collection was published under the madrigals. The dialogue-laude of the
title Vaterldndischer Kunstlerverein (So- 1 6th
century are among the forerunners
ciety of Artists of the Fatherland) in two of the opera.
volumes, the first of which contained the Th. Kroyer, "Dialog und Echo in
Lit.:
variations of Beethoven, the second those der alten Chormusik" (JMP xvi); A.
of the 50 other composers (Schubert, Dolmetsch: 'Select English Songs and
"f
Moscheles, Kalkbrenner, Liszt who Dialogues of the XVhh and XVllth Cen-
was then eleven years old! and others). turies (2 vols., 1912).
Cf. the complete list in GD v, 457.
Diapason [from Gr. dia pason chordon,
Diabolus in musica [L., the devil in through the strings], (i) In medi-
all
music]. Nickname for the *tritone, eval theory, the interval which includes
which was considered in the theory of the "all the tones," i.e., the octave [see *Dia-
1
5th to the 1 9th centuries as the "most pente; *Diatessaron; intervals]. De-
dangerous" interval. rived meanings, chiefly used in French
terminology, are: (2) range of a voice;
Dialogue [G. Dialog-, It. dialogo].
(3) diapason normal, i.e., concert pitch,
Seventeenth-century vocal compositions
or the tuning fork (diapason a branches)
the text of which is in the nature of ques-
tion and answer, or contains such por-
which indicates that pitch; (4) the flue-
tions. They are usually written for two pipe work of the organ which forms the
backbone of each manual.
singers whose parts alternate. In a way,
they represent the vocal counterpart of Diapente [Gr. pente, five]. Ancient
the stile concertante of 17th-century in- Greek and medieval name for the fifth.
strumental music. Aside from the fre-
Epidiapente, fifth above; subdiapente or
quent use of this form in operas there
hypodiapente, fifth below. Hence, canon
exist various collections of cantatas writ- in epidiapente, canon in the fifth above.
ten in the style of dialogues, so-called
and Dialogues (1653, '55, '58). The dia- of diaphonia. (3) Diaphonia basilica
means pedal point (cf. the long-held tones
logue-technique was frequently applied
to choruses and arias of oratorios, pas- of the organa of the i^th century). The
[207;
DIATONIC DICTIONARIES OF MUSIC
val of the fourth. Epidiatessaron, fourth which are limited (a) to a particular pe-
above; subdiatessaron, hypodiatessaron, riod (e.g., A. Eaglefield Hull, A Diction-
fourth below. See also *Diapente. ary of Modern Music and Musicians), or
(b) to a particular country (e.g., E.
Diatonic. The term denotes the natural Refardt, Historisch-biographisches Mu-
scale consisting of five whole tones and siferlexifon der Schweiz), or (c) to a
two semitones, as it is produced on the particular field (e.g., W. W. Cobbett,
white keys of the keyboard. There is, of Cyclopedic Survey of Chamber Music.
course, a corresponding scale in each key. The subsequent list groups the diction-
Music is called diatonic if it is confined to aries under three headings: I. Standard
the notes of this scale, to the exclusion of Dictionaries (including the above types
chromatic tones. For instance, in C major, i, 2, 3) published after 1890; II. Special
the melodic progression c-d-e and the Dictionaries (including type 4) published
chord d a c' are diatonic, while c-dtt-e after 1890; III. Earlier Dictionaries.
and d ab c are chromatic. Diatonicism is Standard Dictionaries after 1890.
I.
a term used for music the tonality of A. United States: Th. Baker, A Diction-
which is predominantly diatonic, i.e., non- ary of Musical Terms (25th cd., 1939).
chromatic, such as the works of Haydn /W.,Biographical Dictionary of Musicians
and Mozart. For a recent modification (4th cd., 1940). W. S. Pratt, The New
of diatonicism, see *Pandiatonicism. A Encyclopedia of Music and Musicians
diatonic semitone is one which involves (1924, originally planned as an abridg-
change of degree, e.g., e f, c-db, g#-a, in ment of Grove; rev. ed., 1929). O.
contradistinction to the chromatic semi- Thompson, The International Cyclopedia
tone which involves modification of the of Music and Musicians (1939; rev ec^ -
(b) to topics without biographical entries bis zur Mitte des 79. Jahrhunderts (1900-
Mustc and Musicians (i.e., since 1880; biografito e cntico (Valencia, 1903).
1924). Stainer and Barrett, Dictionary E. Vieira, Dice ion ario btografico de musi-
of Musical Terms ( 1898). W. W. Cob- cos portuguezes ; Lisbon,.
1900, 2
bett,Cyclopedic Survey of Chamber vols.). W. Neumann, Lexicon balti-
Music (1929-30, 2 vols.). D. Ewen, scher Ton^unstler (Riga, 1909), Vo- A
Composers of Today (1935; 2d ed., 1936). darsky-Shireff, Russian Composers and
D. Ewen, Living Musicians (i.e,, per- Musicians, A Biographical Dictionary
formers; 1940). Cl. Reis, Composers in (New York, 1940); E. Rcfardt, Htsto-
America (from 1912 to 1937; '38). N. risch-biographisches Musifarlexifon der
Slonimsky, "Concise Biographical Dic- Schweiz (Zurich, 1928). G. Cernuj&k
tionary of Twentieth-Century Musicians" and V. Helfert, Pazdirfaff hudebni Slov-
in Music Since 7900 (1937; 2d ed., 1938; niJ{ naucny (Brno, 1938).
contains important corrections of dates in III. Earlier Dictionaries. The earliest
the dictionaries of Grove, Hull, Riemann, musical dictionary is an nth-century Vo-
and Moser). Who is Who in Music cabularium musicum (repr. in J. La Fage,
(1941 edition). J. Towers, Dictionary- Essai de diphtero graphic music ale, 1864).
Catalog of Operas and Operettas (1910). Much more complete is Job. Tinctoris'
J. Pulver, Dictionary of Old English Terminorum musicae diffinitorium from
Music and Musical Instruments (1923). c. 1474 (repr. in CS iv and, with German
J. Pulver, Biographical Dictionary of translation, in JMW i). This was fol-
Old English Music (1927). John A. lowed, but only after more than two cen-
Julian, Dictionary of Hymnology (1892; turies, by the Clavis ad thesaurum magnis
2d ed.. 19071!). Anselm Hughes, Dic- artis musicae (Prague, 1701) of the Bo-
[209]
DICTIONARIES OF MUSIC DIES IRAE
was unfamiliar with Janovka's work, in the Dictionary of Musicians (1824, 2
stems the line of French musical diction- vols.; 2d ed., 1827).
aries continued most notably by J J. Rous- : .
Italy's first dictionary of music was the
seau, Dictionnaire de musique (Geneva, Dizionario di musica sacra e prof ana of
1768); the Dictionnaire de musique (I, P. Gianelli (Venice, 1801; 2d ed., 1820),
1791; II, 1 8 1 8) by Framery and Ginguene*, which was superseded by P. Lichtenthal,
contained in the Encyclopedic metho- Dizionario c bibliografia della music a
dique\ the first French biographical dic- (1826,4 vols.).
tionary of musicians, namely the Diction- Of American dictionaries in this field
naire historique des musidens, of Choron the most important early work is J. W.
and Fayolle 1810-11, 2 vols.);
(Paris, Moore, Complete encyclopedia of music
F. H. J. Castil-Blaze, Dictionnaire de (Boston, 1854; appendix to 1875), which
musique moderne (Paris, 1821; 2d ed., 2 was followed by the author's snorter Dic-
vols., 1825; revised 1828); F. J. F&is' ex- tionary of musical information containing
clusively biographical Biographie univer- also a vocabulary of musical terms, and a
selle des musidens (Paris, 1834-35, 8 list of modern musical worlds published in
vols.;2d ed., 1860-65; 2-vol. supplement the United States from 1640 to 1875
by A. Pougin, 1879-81); and the still use- (Boston, 1876). Later came, among
ful compilation, Dictionnaire de musique others, the Cyclopedia of music and mu-
d'apres les theoriciens, historiens, et cri- sicians [composers only] by J. D. Champ-
tiques les plus celebres, edited by M. and and W. F. Apthorp (New York,
lin, Jr.,
L. Escudier (Paris, 1844; 5th ed., 1872). 1888-90, 3 vols.) and the American his-
The German musical dictionaries begin tory and encyclopedia of music y edited by
with J. G. Walther's topical and bio- W. L. Hubbard and others (New York,
graphical [Alte und neue musi\alische 1910, 12 vols.).
Eibliothe\ oder] MusiJ(alisches Lexicon Works in other languages are: B. Sal-
(1728; greatly enlarged, 1732), and are doni, Diccionario biogrdfico-bibliogrdfico
subsequently represented in addition de efemerides de musico espanoles (Ma-
to biographical and other material found drid, 1868, 4 vols.); J. de Vasconcellos,
in J. Mattheson's writings, especially his Os musicos portuguezes (Porto, 1870, 2
Grundlage einer Ehrenpforte (1740; mod- vols.); A. Sowinski, Les musidens polo-
ern edition by M. Schneider, Berlin, nais et slaves anciens et modernes (Paris,
1910) chiefly by: E. L. Gerber's purely 1857); /W., Slownil^ muzyt(6w polstych
biographical Historisch -bio graph isch es (Paris, 1874). ^
[210]
DIESIS DIPLOMAS
tus [see *Church modes] shows the se- is called minor diesis or enharmonic diesis
quence-like aa bb cc
structure this
scheme being repeated with three stanzas = = *
4I cents > ; see En
-
i^"
(in the third stanza, the second c is re- harmonic (2).
[212]
DISCANTUS VISIBILIS DIVERTISSEMENT
gest the possibility of improvised figura- in honor of the Greek god
Dionysus. It
tion [see 'Ornamentation I]; the lowest seems as though it
originally was a stro-
part is the tenor "from the book.") A phic song sung by a chorus or the whole
more progressive and more important crowd attending the feast of the god.
type of discantus supra librum is that From the 6th to the 4th century it grew
known as English discant [see *Faux- more elaborate by the inclusion of the
bourdon (2)]. It may be noted that, in *aulos, of soloists, and of dancing groups.
English writings of the i6th to the i9th Thus became a compound form con-
it
Distinction. In Gregorian chant, the winds, or mixed groups, usually with one
or two players to the part; thus they are
phrases of the melody, such as are indi-
chamber rather than orchestral music.
cated by the sections of the text, e.g.:
Omnes They were particularly popular in Vi-
qui habebant infirmos/ ducebant
enna. Haydn wrote 66 divertimenti, Mo-
illos ad Jesum/ et sanabantur [AR, 394].
zart 21 ; others are by Dittersdorf (1739-
In the Vatican editions of the monks of
Solesmes vertical dashes (called divisio) 99) and Ignaz Holzbauer (1711-83; cf.
of various lengths and positions are used
DTB 15). Beethoven's Septett op. 20 and
Schubert's Octett op. 166 belong to the
to indicate smaller or longer rests to be
same category. Closely related types are
made after each distinction. Cf. GR 9
the Cassation and the *serenade. See also
p. xiii.
^Divertissement (4).
Dital harp. See *Harp lute.
Divertissement [F.]. (i) Fugal epi-
Dithyramb \G*.dithyrambos\. A song sode. (2) A musical potpourri, fre-
DIVIDED STOP DOMINANT
quently in the form of pieces extracted A modern counterpart of the lyth-cen-
from an opera. (3) In the French tury method of divisions exists in that
Baroque opera, the ballets, dances, en- recent type of jazz known as *boogie-
Divisi [It.]. The term, abbreviated div., Do, doh. See *Solmization I; *Tonic
is used in orchestral scores to indicate Sol-fa.
that an instrumental body, the first
e.g., Dodekachordon [from Gr. dode\a,
violins, is to be divided into two groups
twelve, and chordos, string, tone]. Title
for the rendering of passages which in- of an important theoretical book by
clude full chords, doubling in thirds, etc.
H. Glareanus (1488-1563), published in
See reference under *A due.
1547, in which the traditional system of
Divisio eight *church modes is enlarged to a sys-
[L.]. (i) In Gregorian chant,
tem of twelve. The book is also remark-
see under *Distinction. (2) In 13th-
able forits highly
judicious and compre-
century notation, divisio modi is a small
hensive analysis of the works of Josquin
vertical dash of indefinite length which
and other masters of the early i6th cen-
is regularly placed at the end of an *ordo,
tury. A German translation by P. Bohn
i.e., of a melodic phrase in modal meter.
Dominica [L.]. Sunday [see under Don Quixote. See *Symphonic poem
*Feria]. III.
[see *Lute II] of the i6th and iyth cen- Doppelfuge, double fugue; Doppelgriff,
double stop; Doppel\reuz, double sharp;
turies, the forerunner of the ^balalaika.
Cf. A. S. Faminzin, The Domra (1891; Doppelpedal, double pedal; Doppelschlag,
LavE turn; Doppeltriller, double trill; Doppel-
Russian); i.5, 2494^
zunge, double-tonguing. In connection
Don Giovanni ("Don Juan"). Opera with instruments, the term usually de-
(dramma giocoso) in two acts by W. A. notes *duplex instruments [cf. SaRM,
Mozart (1756-91), text by Da Ponte, 114-117].
composed in 1787. The action takes place Double. Doppio bemolle,
Doppio [It.].
in Seville during the i7th century and
centers around the libertine of legendary
double doppio diesis, double sharp;
flat;
practice and which has been the object of slow section in Lully's French Coverture)
much investigation and controversy. The call for amore pronounced rhythm than
only proper answer to this question is is indicated in writing, so that a dotted
that in the period under consideration the note should be performed almost as a
dot indicates a prolongation of undeter- double-dotted value as in Ex. a. This
mined value, depending upon various rendition, if used with taste and modera-
factors such as the character of the piece,
the rhythmof the other parts, the tempo,
the interpretation of the performer, etc.
- J..fl J
j|
b
J m J
H 4/353 J|
cases of the freely used dot are noteworthy: removed from the gentle and somewhat
(a) If dotted notes
are used against boring lyricism in which it is usually in-
triplets in another voice, the dotted terpreted. On the other hand, it cannot
be modified (attenuated) be denied that some modern writers and
rhythm may
DOTTED NOTES DOUBL6
performers have gone too far in recom- preferable to the trochaic rhythm J j\ be-
mending strict double-dotted execution cause "a rhythm full of strength and
it is
for all sorts of pieces which show a re- harmonizing with nature which is al-
mote resemblance to the style of the ways stronger at the end than at the be-
French overture (e.g., the D-major ginning" [cf. ApNPM, 339].
Fugue of Wt.Cl.i). In art music, the inverted dotting ap-
(c) Another free usage of the dot, but pears first in French songs of the late
less likely to lead to confusion, is illus- 1 6th century, as a means of correct
pro-
trated by Ex. b (used as early as Kotter's nunciation [cf, ApNPM, 129]. It is ex-
tablature, c. 1515; cf. ApNPM, 30). tremely frequent in Italian music of the
(d) Around 1700 dotted rhythm be- early i7th century and, in fact, repre-
came a sort of fashionable folly. Certain sents one of the most typical embodi-
French or French-minded composers in- ments of the somewhat exaggerated ex-
troduced reiterated dotting for running pressiveness of early Baroque music [ex-
passages, as in Ex. c, or even Ex. d [cf. amples in Caccini, Nuove Musiche
Georg Muffat, Florilegium (1695/96); (1602); toccatas of Trabaci and Mayone,
DTOe 2.ii, p. 48], and players applied 1603, cf. W. Apel in MQ
xxiv, 436;
this rhythm to running figures written Frescobaldi, e.g., his Toccata per 1'ele-
in plain eighth- or sixteenth-notes. This vazione; Cazzati, Cantata of 1649, cf. H.
method of playing was known as inegales. Riemann. Kantaten-Fruhling ii, 14; Ales-
Some modern writers have done ill service sandro Scarlatti, cf. TaAM ix, 112].
to the cause of *AurKihrungspraxis by Italian terms for the inverted dotted
advocating this passing mannerism as the rhythm are alia zoppa or Lombardic
true style of late Baroque music in gen- style. This rhythm also figures promi-
eral. Cf. E. Borrel, in TG viii, 2675, and nently in the English music of the I7th
inRdM, no. 40; G. Horn, in RdM, no. 53; century (John Blow, Henry Purcell), in
G. Scheck, and E. Schenck, in xxi.8 DM which it is used effectively in order to
and ii. bring out the short, but accented, first syl-
III. Inverted Dotting. The rhythm lables which occur in so many English
which is the reverse of the ordinary dotted dissyllabics.
rhythm; in other words a dotted note
which is preceded, not followed, by its Double, (i) The French word double
complementary short value (e.g., /J.). is an 18th-century term for a simple type
This rhythm is generally known under of variation, consisting chiefly in the ad-
the name Scotch snap, because it is a dition of embellishments. It occurs pref-
typical feature of the *strathspey and of erably with certain dances of a suite (cf.
other Scottish folk tunes. Its occurrence, Bach, ist English Suite: courante with
however, far exceeds the province of two "doubles"; 6th English Suite: sara-
Scotch music. It is a typical feature of bande with "double"). (2) The Eng-
American Negro music and of jazz, and lish word double, if used in connection
it has been maintained that the synco- with instruments, indicates either instru-
pated effects of jazz have their origin in ments of lower pitch or a combination of
the Scotch snap [see reference under two instruments in one. The former
*Jig], On
the other hand, it should be meaning, which is derived from the
noted that inverted dotting is also very double octave, occurs with the *double-
frequent in Oriental and in primitive bass, the double-bass clarinet, the double-
music [see *Primitive music IV], where bass trombone, the double bassoon, etc.,
the normal dotted rhythm is rather rare. while the latter occurs with the double
In this connection it is interesting to note horn, the double trumpet, and the double
that the author of the Speculum musicae flageolet. See *Duplex instruments.
(c. 1320), in defending the *Ars antiqua
against the refinements of the *Ars nova, Double [F.]. Term of the French
maintains that the iambic rhythm /J is clavecinists for the *turn.
U7J
DOUBLE-BASS DOUBLE FUGUE
Double-bass, also called bass viol or upon each of two successive notes. The
contrabass [F. contrebasse; G. Kontra- interpretation of the double cadence was
bass\ contrabasso}. The largest mem-
It. quite flexible, its
being left to the
details
*
ber of the violin family, serving in the discretion of the performer, but the fol-
orchestra somewhat in the capacity of a lowing sequence of notes, in which the
1 6-footorgan stop and frequently dou- first trill is reduced to a five-note turn, is
A don].
Dragma [Gr., spike, ear]. note-form
of the late i4th century which occurs, with
Drum. I. Generic name for instruments
a variety of meanings, in the theoretical
the sound-producing agent of which is a
and practical sources of the period. Cf.
skin stretched on a frame or vessel and
ApNPM) passim. struck with the hands or a stick. Drums
Dramatic music. The term, aside from are, therefore, practically identical with
itsobvious meaning, is used to denote the category "membranophones" of the
music written for a drama or play (*inci- scientific classification [see Instruments
dental music), particularly the incidental II]. There exist, however, in some of the
music written by Henry Purcell, in order most primitive cultures, drums which
to distinguish it from his only complete have no membrane, consisting of a tree
trunk which is hollowed out from a nar-
opera, Dido and Aeneas. Cf. E. D. Ken-
dall, in ML i; W. Barclay Squire, in row longitudinal slit (slit-drum; cf.
SIMv. SaHMI, 29f). These are, in scientific
classification, "idiophoncs."
Drame lyrique [F.]; lirico dramma II. The membranophonous drums are
fit.]. Modern terms
for opera, not neces-
by far the most ancient and most wide-
sarily of a lyrical character. The English spread of all instruments. They are found
term "lyrical drama" is used in the same in all exotic cultures, with the most prim-
meaning. itive African or South American tribes as
well as in China, India, Arabia, etc. [see
Dramma per musica It.] . The earliest
name for Italian operas (i7th century),
f * Exotic
music]. A
gigantic bass drum of
man's size is depicted on a Sumerian vase
particularly those of a serious character
of the third millennium B.C. SaHMl,
(the later opera seria). Bach used the term
[cf.
Dreher [G. drehen, to twirl]. An Aus- shapes, in the form of a barrel, a cylinder,
trian dance, similar to the *Landler. an hourglass, a goblet, etc.
From the Orient the drum was intro-
Drehleier [G.]. *Hurdy-gurdy. duced into the Western world, into Greece
where the use of the "tympanon" was
Drehorgel [G.]. *Street organ.
restricted to the orgiastic cult of Dionysus
Dreiklang [G.]. Triad. and Cybele as well as into medieval
[220]
DRUM ROLL SYMPHONY DUET
The cylindrical drum appeared at about that the "minor dominant"
corresponds
the same time under the name *tabor or, to the "major subdominant," and vice
later, *tambourin. In the i5th century the versa. The greatest shortcoming of the
drums, kettledrums as well as side drums, theory lies in the fact that in a minor mode
were adopted by the armies as an indis- the triad is determined, not by its lowest,
pensable part of the military equipment. but by its highest tone, i.e., the fifth.
They remained restricted to this sphere Hence, the first chord on the lower staff
until the end of the i7th century when must not be read: c (fundamental )-eb
the kettledrums were used in the or-
first
(minor third)-g (fifth), but downwards:
chestra. See ^Percussion instruments A,i; g (fundamental)-eb (major third)-c
(fifth). This forced explanation is in con-
tradiction to the most elementary facts of
Drum Roll Symphony. Haydn's Sym- acousticsand of musical experience. The
phony in E 1795 (Salomon Sympho-
flat,
theory has not gained much ground ex-
nies no. 8), so called on account of the
cept within the school of Riemann.
drum roll in the opening measure. Lit.: A. v. Oettingen, The Dual Har-
monic System (1913); S. Karg-Elert, Po-
Drum Stroke Symphony. Same as
laristische Klang- und Tonalitdtslchre
hands), either on the same or on two in- the early 16th-century MS Brit. Mus. Roy.
struments [see *Piano duet]. App. 58 probably belongs to this class [cf.
See under *Soubrette.
HAM, no. 103; J. Stafford Smith, Musica
Dugazon. Antiqua (1812), p. 42; see *Ostinato]. A
Dulce melos. See under *Echiquier. piece called "The Irish Dumpe" is con-
tained in the Fitzwilliam Virginal Boof{
Dulcimer [F. tympanon\ G. Hac1(brett\ [new ed. ii, 236]. Shakespeare, in Ro-
It. salterio tedesco]. A
variety of the meo and Juliet, IV, 4, mentions "doleful
*psaltery, almost identical in shape, but dumps" and "merry dumps." For an ex-
played by small hammers held in the hand ample of a more recent date which has
(the psaltery plucked). Thus dulcimer
is been arranged by Beethoven [bische Ge-
and psaltery stand in a similar relation- sange, no. 171], cf. GD i, 109.
ship as their ultimate descendants, the
Duo [F.,G.]. *Duet.
pianoforte and the harpsichord. The dul-
cimer originated in the Middle Orient Duodecuple scale. The chromatic
(Assyria, Persia) whence it migrated in scale in its modern
interpretation as a
three directions: (i) to Spain and western twelve tones of equal rights. See
series of
[222]
DUPLEX INSTRUMENTS DUREZZA
Duplex instruments. Instruments, taking turns [see Ex.; Haydn]. This
usually of the brass family, which are a technique, which is frequently used in
combination of two instruments. The symphonies, quartets, etc., appeared first
two most important members of the class
1st violin
are: (a) The double
euphonium which
has a wide euphonium bell and a narrow
Sax-tromba bell either of which may be ln<i violin
used by manipulating a controlling valve
in the works of Haydn and Mozart [cf.
which directs the wind-stream through
one or the other of the bells; thus two dif-
RiHM 11.3, 178] . A
medieval type of this
E
E. See *Letter notation; *Pitch names; sounding with strings). The same instru-
*Hexachord. ment is probably meant by the English
chcffar and by the German Schachtbret
Ear-training. The important field of not chess-
(i.e., Schaftbret, quillboard,
elementary instruction [see *Solfege] board as has frequently been surmised)
designed to develop in the student sen- which is mentioned in a poem Der Minne
sitiveness to musical phenomena, particu-
Regeln by Eberhard Cersne (1404). Both
larly with regard to intervals and rhythm. the etymology of the name and the nature
The usual method is to play intervals, of the instrument are obscure. According
rhythms, etc., and have the student rec- to C. Sachs was an upright harpsichord
it
opening is
brought into operation. The
tones thus produced sound as if they were Eclatant [F.]. Brilliant; or piercing.
played at a great distance.
system of modes [see *Church modes] the stage, particularly in Spain. These
of the Roman
chant. The echoi existed in presentations, which probably involved
the same number eight as the West- music, are believed to be among the vari-
ern church modes and were collectively ous precursors of opera, Cf. A. Salazar,
referred to as octocchos (eight echoi). in PAMSy 1938, p. 98. Modern com-
They differed, however, from the modes posers have used the term Eclogue (Eg-
[225]
ECO EDITIONS, HISTORICAL
logue) as a title for compositions of an trum Crucijerorum Leodensium (pieces
idyllic, pastoral character. by A. Gabrieli, Sweelinck, Merulo, and
others).
Eco [It.]. Echo.
II. LArte music ale in Italia (7 vols., ed.
The group was St. Landi, San Alessio (Op); Anon., Da-
sidered as their leader.
founded in 1923 [cf. N. Slonimsky, Music niel (Or); solo cantatas, i7th cent. 6:
Since 1900 (1937), p. 236], See also *Six, Peri, Euridlce (Op); Monteverdi, Com-
Les.
battimento (V); id., Ballo delle ingrate.
7: Instrumental music, i7th century.
ficossaise [F., Scotch, i.e., dance]. A
III. Biblioteca di rarita musicali (9 vols.,
dance which, in spite of its name, has
ed. by O. Chilesotti, c. 1885-1915). i:
nothing in common with genuine Scotch Danze del secolo xvi (Caroso, Ncgri; L).
dance music [see *Reel, *Strathspey],
2: Balli d'arpicordo (Picchi, 1621; K).
but which belongs to the English *coun-
3: Affetti amorosi (G. Steffani, 1621;
try dances. It appeared around 1780 in Arianna (B. Marcello, 1727;
S). 4:
England and in France and had a great Arie, canzonette e balli (H.
in the early igth century. Beetho-
Op). 5:
vogue Vecchi, 1590; V). 6: Partite . .
(Fres-
.
der; Vier Motetten; Missa Da pacem\ nette e madrigali (V). 22: P. D. Para-
Drei Evangelien-Motetten; Acht Lied- disi, Sonate (K). 23: G. B. Pergolesi,
und Choralmotetten; Drei Psalmen; Missa Opere (Op, V). 24: J. Peri, L'Euridicc
De beata virgine. i3;34;37;4i;48: O. di (Op). 25: N. A. Porpora, Sonate (I).
Lasso, Madrigale und Chansons; Buss- 26: M. Rossi, Composizioni (K).
tranen des heiligen Petrus i, ii, Hi; Pro- 27: G. Rutini, Sonate (K). 28: G. B.
phetiae Sibyllarum. 15: J. Lupi, Zehn Sammartini, Sonate (I). 29: P. G. San-
weltliche Lieder. 46: J. Martini, Drei doni e Serini, Sonate (K). 30: A. Scar-
geistliche Gesange. 4: J. Ockeghem, latti, Cantate (S). 31: D. Scarlatti,
Missa mi-mi. 17: H. Purcell, Fiinf Composizioni (K). 32: G. Tartini,
geistliche Chore. 1 1 P. de la Rue, Re-
: Sonate (I). 33: F. Turrini, Sonate (K).
quiem und eine Motette. i2;36: H. M. Veracini, Sonate
34: F. (I). 35:
Schein, Sechs deutsche Motetten; Der 116. A. Vivaldi, Lc Stagioni (I). 36: D. Zi-
Psalm. 29: P. Schoffer, Fiinf zehn poli, Composizioni (K).
deutsche Lieder. 26: Th. Selle, Johan- VII. DenJ(mdler der Tonfanst in Oes-
nes-Passion. 6: Th. Stoltzer, Der 37.
Psalm. 1 6: J. Theile and Chr. Bernhard,
terreich, (DTOe, 1894 to
83 volumes,
date; in annual issues (Jahrgange): i.i;
Zwei Kurzmessen. 2: J. Vaet, Sechs
i.2; ii.i; ii.2, etc., reproduced here as fol-
Motetten. 5:8: A. Willaert, Italienische
lows: i.i; i.ii; 2.i; 2.ii, etc.). Alphabetical
Madrigale; Volkstumliche italienische
list of composers; collective volumes at
Lieder.
the end.
Collective Volumes: 14: Sieben chro-
i6.ii: J. G. Albrechtsberger, Instrumental-
matische Motetten. 32: Zwolf Hym- werke (I).
nen. 35: Nordische Gabrieli-Schuler.
38.1: Bl. Amon, Kirchen-Werke (V).
43: Karnevalslieder der Renaissance. O. Benevoli, Festmesse und
10.1: Hymnus
45: Deutsche Lieder des 15. Jahrhun-
(V).
derts.
36.!: St. Bernardi, Kirchenwerke (V).
VI. Classici musica italiana, 1
della 5.11; I2.ii: H. F. Biber, Violinsonaten (I).
(Raccolta Nazionale diritta da Gabriele 25.i: H. F. Biber, Messen (V).
d'Annunzio; 36 vols.; the titles do not al- 3o.i: H. F. Biber, Requiem (V).
4.1; 6.ii,
io.il: J. J Froberger, Orgel- und j.i: }, Stadlmayer, Hymnen (V).
Klavierwerke (K). 30.1: Chr Requiem (V).
Straus,
35.!: E. A. Forster, Kammermusik (I). 35.11: J Strauss, Vater, Walzer (I).
i.i: J.J.Fux, Messen (V) 32.11: J. Strauss, Sohn, Walzer (I).
(V,S,I). W-
6.ii: A. Steffani, Ausgewahlte Werke (S, 45: J. W. Franck, Heinrich Elmenhorsts
v). Geistliche Lieder (S).
u.ii: A. Steffani, Alarico (Op). 16: M. Franck, Ausgewahlte Instrumen-
I2.ii: A. Steffani, Ausgewahlte Werke talwerke.
(selections from operas). J. V. Corner, Sammlung neuer Oden
57:
19/20: P. Torri, Ausgewahlte Werke (se- und Lieder (S).
from operas).
15: C. H. Graun, Montezuma (Op).
lections
i4.i; 17: T. Traetta, Ausgewahlte Werke 51/52: Chr. Graupner, Ausgewahlte Kan-
(selections from operas). taten (V).
Collective Volumes:
40: A. Hammerschmidt, Ausgewahlte
3.i; 7.H; 8.ii: Sinfonien der Pfalzbayeri- Werke (V).
J. Hasse, La Conversione
schen (Mannheimer) Schule (J. Sta- 20: di S. Agos-
mitz, F. X. Richter, A. Filtz, I. Holz- tino (Or).
bauer, J. Toeschi, Chr. Cannabich, C. 2: H. L. Hassler, Cantiones sacrae (V).
Stamitz, F. Beck, E. Eichner; I). 7 :H.L. Hassler, Messen (V).
6.i: Nurnberger Meister der zweiten Half-
24/25: H. L. Hassler, Sacri concentus
te Kon-
des 17. Jahrhunderts. Geistliche
und Kirchenkantaten (P. Hain-
zerte 16: V. Haussmann, Ausgewahlte Instru-
lein, H. Schwemmer, G. K. Wecker, J. mentalwerke.
Pachelbel, J. P. Krieger, J. Krieger; V). 42: V. Herbing, Must\alisc her Versuch
15; 1 6: Mannheimer Kammermusik . . .
(S).
(F. X. Richter, L Holzbauer, J. B. 8, 9: J. Holzbauer, Gunther von Schwarz-
Wendling, J. Toeschi, Chr. Cannabich, burg (Op).
E. Eichner, K. Stamitz, Abt G. J. 32/33: N. Jommelli, Fetontc (Op).
EDITIONS, HISTORICAL EDITIONS, HISTORICAL
busch).
(1594). 36. Madrigal writings of Mi-
34: Newe deudsche geistliche Gescnge, ed. chael Cavendish (1598); Thomas Greaves
by Georg Rhau, 1544 (numerous com-
(1604); William Holborne (1597), etc.
posers).
49/50: Thuringische Motetten der ersten XL The English School of Lutenist
Halfte des 18. Jahrhunderts (Topff, Song-writers (2 series of 16 vols. each, ed.
EDITIONS, HISTORICAL EDITIONS, HISTORICAL
by E. H. Fellowes, 1920-32). First Series: B.
Landschajtsdenkjnale (numbering
J. Dowland, First (Second, Third) Boo\e not original), (i) N. Bruhns, Kirchen-
of Songs and Ayres (1597; 1600; '03); A kantaten i (F. Stein). (2) N. Bruhns,
Pilgrim's Solace (1612; vol. 2 includes Kirchenkantaten ii, Orgelwerke (F.
three songs from Robert Dowland's A Stein). (3) Chr. Demantius, Neue
MusicallBanquet, 16 1 o ) Th. Ford, . teutsche weltliche Lieder (K. Stangl; S).
Songs in Music %e of Sundrie Kindes (4) J. W. Franck, Die drey Tochter
(1607). F. Pilkington, First Boo\e o] Cecrops (1679; G. F. Schmidt; Op).
Songs or Ayres (1605). Ph. Rosseter (5) }. H. Herbst, Drei mehrchorige Fest-
and Th. Campian, A Eoo\e of Ayres konzerte (G. Fcrbcr; V). (6) Hoch-
( 1601). Th. Morley, Little Short Songs zeitsarien und Kantaten Stettiner Meister
to the Lute. nach 1700 (H. Engel; S). (7) J. S.
Second Series: Th. Campian, First (Sec- Kusser, Arien aus Erindo (H.. . .
ond, Third, Fourth) Eool(e of Ayres (un- Osthoff; Op). (8) R. J. Mayr, Ausgc-
dated). R. Jones, First (Second, Third, wahlte Kirchenmusik (K. G. Fellerer;
Fourth, Fifth) Boofye of Songs and Ayres V). (9) Moritz Landgraf von Hessen,
(1600-10). J. Attey, First Boo^e of Ausgewahlte Werke (K. Dane; I).
Ayres (1622). J. Bartlett, A Boo^e of (10) Preussische Festlieder (J. Miiller-
Ayres (1606). M. Cavendish, Airs Blattau; V). (n) F. W. Rust, Werke
(1598). W. Corkine, Ayres (1610); fur Klavicr und Streichinstrumente (R.
Second Eoo\e of Ayres (1612). J. Czach; K, I). (12) J. Schultz, Mu-
Danyel, Songs (1606). A. Ferrabosco si^alischer Lust gar te (1622; H. Zenck;
(the younger), Ayres (1609). Th. v,i).
Greaves, The Songs in Songes of Sundrie
Kindes (1604). T. Hume, The Songs Hispaniae Schola Musica Sacra
XIII.
(ed. F. Pedrell, 1895-98). i: Chr. Mo-
h Musicall Humors (1608); Poeticall 2: F. Gue-
rales, Composiciones (V).
Music\e (1607).
rrero, Composiciones (V). 354: A. de
XII. Das Erbe deutscher Musi\ (pres-
Cabezon, Composiciones (K). . . .
tury" (Bravo, Muelas, Soler, Ripa, and Airs de plusieurs musiciens. 4-7: A. de
others). Four vols. "i9th Century" Bertrand, Amours de Pierre de Ronsard,
(Garcia, Secanilla, Ledesma, Eslava, and i-iii. 8: Cl. Le Jeune, Octonaires . . .
Expert, 1894-1908; French vocal music XX. Musica Divina (10 vols., ed. by C.
of the 1 6th century). Alphabetical list of Proske and J. Schrems, 1853-63; contains
composers; numbering not original, (i) selections of 16th-century vocal sacred
P. Attaingnant, Trente et une chansons music). Annus primus, Liber mis-
i:
tion of the Maitres Musiciens). i: Cl. Le Daman, Anthems, Motets, etc. 22: J.
[232]
EDITIONS, HISTORICAL EDITIONS, HISTORICAL
"Orpheus Britannicus." 25: J. Blow, musique de la
Bibliotheque de 1'Arsenal
Venus and Adonis. a Paris (de la
Laurencie, Gastoue).
8: Bibliographic des
XXIII. poesies de P. de Ron-
PaUographie musicals (17 sard mises en musique au i6e siecle
vols., cd. by the Benedictines of *Solesmes, (Thi-
bault, Perceau).
1889 to date; containing facsimiles and
studies of plainsong MSS). XXV. Publitytionen alterer Musi^
A. First Series, i: Le Codex 339 de (various editors, 1926 to date), i.i; 3.i;
Saint-Gall. 2,3: Le repons-graduel Jus- 4.ii: Guillaume de Machaut, Musikalischc
tus ut palma. 4: Le Codex 121 d'Ein- Werke (Ludwig; V). i.ii: Johannes
siedeln. Antiphonarium Ambrosi-
5,6: Ockeghem, Samtliche Werke i
(Pla-
anum (Cod. Add. 34209 Brit. . . .
menac; V). 2: Luys Milan, Libra de
Mus.). 7,8: Antiphonarium tonale mis- musica (Schrade; L). 3.11: Sixtus Die-
sarum (Cod. H. 159 Montpellier). . . . trich, Ein Beitrag zur Musikan-
. . .
(1524; V). 28(32): M. Zeuner, 82 Sententiae (c. 1600; V). 35: A. Wil-
geistliche Kirchenlieder (1616; V). laert, Missa super Benedicta (c. 1550; V).
Raccolta nazionale. See VI.
Education. See *Music education.
XXVII. Tresor musicale (58 vols., ed.
by R. J. van Maldeghem, 1865-93; con- Effleurer [F.]. To touch very lightly.
tains sacredand secular vocal music of the
i6th century; each year two volumes, one Eglogue. Same as *Eclogue.
piano). 19: A. van Noort, Tabulatuur- Greece, the "Apollinian" element was
Boec\ (1659; K). 34: Orkestcomposi- superseded by the "Dionysian" [see
ties . . .
(early 17* cent.; I). 37: *Greek music]. The trend towards indi-
Oud-Nederlandsche Klaviermuziek (mu- vidual and unrestrained expression and
[234]
EIGHT-FOOT ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTS
the consequent dissoluteness of civiliza- ing of pitch, or signs calling for special
tion led, around 600 B.C., to a reaction inflections used to
bring out grammatical
and to the re-establishment of the old peculiarities, such as questions, exclama-
sacred rites. It is to this rather artificial tions,affirmations, etc. Later, they de-
state of affairs that Herodotus, Strabo, veloped into somewhat more elaborate
Plato, and other Greek writers refer in formulae the exact nature of which is ob-
their reports telling about the high ethical scure. Ekphonetic signs occur in Byzan-
standard of Egyptian culture and the re- tine, Armenian, Syrian, Coptic, manu-
strained character of the music. It is very scripts of the later Middle Ages (c. 600-
likely that Egyptian music and theory 1500). In Jewish chant a system of ek-
exercised a great influence upon those of phonetic signs, called ta'amim, is used to
Greece. In the early Christian era, Alex- the present day [see *Jewish music]. Es-
andria was an important center of Chris- pecially important are the Byzantine signs,
tian worship and of psalm-singing. e 'g-
/ ^ %
+> tne deciphering of
Lit.:A. Hemsi, La Musique orientate which has been greatly furthered in recent
en Egypte (1930); J. Pulver, "The Music studies of C. Hoeg [cf. the reproduction
of Ancient Egypt" (PMA xlviii); C. in BeMMRj 32]. The ekphonetic
signs
Sachs,"Die Tonkunst dcr alten Aegypter" aie distinguished from the neumes by the
signed for the solemn reading of a litur- thousands of years no new ones were dis-
gical text.Originally, they were nothing covered. Not until the i9th century, when
but accents indicating a raising or lower- electrical science began to take an interest
[235]
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTS ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTS
in the subject, was a fundamentally new function (i.e., reinforcement or "amplifi-
method of making music devised; and not cation" of sound waves generated by the
until the three-element vacuum tube was vibration of the strings) is performed elec-
developed, in the second decade of the There are several methods of con-
trically.
present century, did this new method be- verting string vibrations into electrical
come really practical. Today there are impulses without the aid of a microphone.
musical instruments which, without the These are commonly called "pickup" sys-
aid of soundboards or other acoustical tems. The types most widely used are the
amplifiers, achieve any desired volume of electromagnetic and electrostatic systems.
sound by means of electrical circuits and In the former, a tiny coil with a magnetic
appliances such as are used in radio re- core is mounted near the string, but far
ceivers; and there are others whose vibra- enough from it to prevent contact as the
tions originate not as motions of solid string vibrates. When the string is set in
bodies or particles of air but as electrical motion its vibrations generate alternating
impulses. coil. The electrical impulses
current in the
Perhaps the instruments
earliest of these thus produced are conducted by wires
was the Telharmonium y invented towards through amplifiers which increase their
the close of the i9th century by Thaddeus strength, and finally to a loudspeaker
Cahill (b. Iowa, 1867). This was a kind which converts them into sound waves.
of organ which, instead of generating In the electrostatic system the coil and
sound waves in the air by means of pipes, magnet are replaced by a simple conduc-
employed rotary generators to create elec- tor, and the string itself is charged. As the
tricalimpulses at frequencies correspond- string vibrates, variation of the distance
ing to the rates of vibration of musical between it and the conductor generates
pitches, and telephone receivers to convert alternating current which is amplified and
the electrical impulses into sound. De- converted into sound waves in the manner
signed to distribute music over telephone described above. Such a method of am-
lines, proved commercially impractical
it plification makes it possible not only to
because it interfered with telephone serv- obtain great volume from a small instru-
ice. Moreover, it was enormously complex ment but also to control the characteristics
and bulky, comprising no less than thirty of its tone. Harmonics may be altered in
carloads of machinery. It is hardly sur- intensity,or omitted altogether, thus
prising that electronic music made little changing the timbre of the original sound,
headway until science evolved, in the form and the dynamic envelope of the tone may
of vacuum tubes no larger than ordinary be controlled to vary the apparent manner
electric light bulbs, a substitute for the of generation and decay e.g., the per-
tons of steel and copper used in Cahill's cussive impact of the piano hammer may
generators. Since 1920, progress has been be eliminated so that the tone builds up
rapid and many kinds of electronic instru- gradually. By such means the piano may
ments have been developed. In 1939 an be made to produce sonorities resembling
orchestra composed exclusively of such those of stringed or wind instruments.
instruments was organized by T. A. Cra- The power amplifier and loudspeaker are
craft and introduced to the public in usually built into the piano cabinet but
broadcasts over the network of the Na- may be separately housed and connected
tional Broadcasting Company. The prin- by cable to the pickup system. To this
class of instruments belong the Neo-Bech-
cipal electronic instruments in current use
are briefly described below. For more de- stein (inventedby W. Nerust) and the
tailed information consult the sources Ele\trochord (invented by H. Vierling).
listed at theend of this article. Numerous electronic organs have been
I.Keyboard Instruments. Various types developed. Some are similar in operation
of electronic piano are available. These to the pianos described above, converting
instruments retain all of the essential piano mechanically generated sound frequen-
mechanism except the soundboard, whose cies which are amplified and then con-
[236]
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTS ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTS
verted back into sound; others omit the note of the scale. Controls mounted on
first step in that process and begin with one end of the panel above the keyboard
electricallygenerated frequencies. Repre- provide different tone colors by varying
sentative of the former type are the wind- the harmonic components of the tone, and
blown reed organs of R. H. Ranger and similar controls on the other end operate
B. F. Miessner and the now widely known another set of vacuum tubes which varies
Everett Orgatron. The Ranger instrument the tonal envelope to produce either per-
utilizes a photoelectric pickup system, cussive effects, similar to those of the pi-
light reflected from the vibrating reeds ano, or sustained tones, similar to those of
being translated into electrical energy by stringed or wind instruments. The power
means of a photoelectric cell [see VII]. amplifier and loudspeaker are built into
Miessner employs an electrostatic pickup the console.
system which makes it possible to obtain The principles utilized in the Nova-
more than one timbre from a single reed. chord have recently been adapted, with
The Orgatron also has electrostatic pickup some modifications, to produce the Solo-
and is available in models with two manu- vox, an instrument designed to add a sus-
als, pedal board, swell pedal, and tablet- tained melodic voice to the conventional
form controls similar to the stops of a piano. A miniature keyboard of three
modern pipe organ. octaves, which is mounted just below the
Among keyboard instruments utilizing right-hand end of the piano keyboard,
electrical sound generation the best known controls a master oscillator and five di-
arc the Hammond Organ and the Nova- vider tubes. When a key is
depressed it
chord. The former
resembles the spinet tunes the master oscillator to the pitch
in size and shape but has two five-octave associated with that key in the highest
manuals. A series of small, motor-driven octave of the instrument, and selects the
rotary generators produces alternating proper divider to produce the tone in the
current at frequencies corresponding to desired octave. As there is only one mas-
those of the tempered scale, and harmonic ter oscillator, only one fundamental pitch
controls provide a very large number of can be produced at one time, but harmonic
timbres, some of which are pre-set. These controls afford a considerable variety of
are controlled by means of keys located at tone color. The performer plays the prin-
the left-hand end of each of the two man- cipal melodic part on the Solovox with the
uals. Sliding bars located above the upper right hand and accompanies it on the pi-
manual enable the player to select other
ano keyboard with the left hand.
timbres. Pedal board and swell pedal are II. Bowed Instruments. Electronic vio-
provided, and the amplifier and loud- lins, violas, violoncellos, and basses usually
speaker are contained in a separate cabi- consist of skeleton frameworks just suffi-
net. cient to support the finger board, bridge,
The Novachord, a six-octave, single-
and strings (and to afford some guidance
manual instrument which also resembles to the player's hand), with non-micro-
the spinet in form, employs a purely elec- phonic (usually electrostatic) pickups at-
tronic tone-generating system. Twelve tached to the bridge. Amplifiers and loud-
vacuum tube oscillators (i.e., circuits ca- speakers are contained in separate cabi-
nets connected by cable to the pickups.
pable of producing alternating current at
Certain variations of tone are
given frequencies) operate at the frequen- quality
cies of the highest octave of the instru- available in some models.
ment. There is a separate oscillator for III. Fretted Stringed Instruments. Elec-
each note of the chromatic scale, and asso- tronic amplification has been applied to
ciated with each oscillator are five divider guitars of all types, banjos, and mandolins.
tubes, each of which operates at one-half Of these instruments the most successful
the frequency of the preceding tube. Thus is the so-called steel guitar, now widely
one oscillator and the five dividers asso- used in popular dance orchestras. In ap-
ciated with it
supply the six octaves of one pearance it bears little resemblance to any
[237]
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTS ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTS
traditional form of guitar, its body con- is used to give time
signals in public places
sisting of a small box-like structure which such as Rockefeller Plaza in New York.
affords no acoustical amplification. The A very practical percussion instrument
pickup system is similar to that used for is a chromatic kettledrum invented by
bowed instruments and the amplifying Miessner. It consists of thirteen short
equipment separately housed. Its ad-
is bass viol strings which are stretched over
vantages include widely variable amplifi- a rectangular frame and tuned in semi-
cation, greater sustaining power, and con- tones. Whenthe strings are struck with
trol of tone quality. ordinary kettledrum sticks their vibra-
IV. Wind Instruments. Electronic wind tions, picked up electrostatically and am-
instruments apparently have not passed plified through a suitable loudspeaker,
the experimental stage. This is probably produce sounds closely resembling those
due chiefly to the fact that their inherent of conventional kettledrums. The obvious
volume is usually sufficient for all
pur- advantage of this electronic instrument is
poses. Miessner has adapted pickup sys- that it
provides in a compact and easily
tems to reed instruments such as the clari- portable form the equivalent of thirteen
net and saxophone, chiefly for the purpose actual drums, since all of its pitches are
of providing them with variable tone available simultaneously.
quality, but they do not appear to have VI. Space-controlled Instruments. One
emerged from the laboratory. Electronic of the first electronic instruments to attract
brass instruments seem to be non-existent. public attention was the Theremin, in-
sembling those produced by bells weigh- generation based on the dissonance be-
ing many tons. One form of electronic tween two oscillators. One oscillator op-
carillon consists of a set of coiled steel reeds erates at a fixed frequency and the other
similar to those used in clocks. Equipped at varying frequencies determined by the
with a keyboard controlling electrically proximity of the player's hand to a short
operated strikers, it is played ^i the same rod antenna which is charged with alter-
manner as is the piano, and its amplifying nating current from the second oscillator.
system increases its volume to any degree The difference between the frequencies of
desired. Another form utilizes
loosely the two oscillators produces a "beat"
suspended lengths of piano wire. The i.e., a third frequency, which is the audio
latter method has proved especially suc- frequency that operates the loudspeaker.
cessful in reproducing the inharmonic The volume of sound is controlled in a
having marks to indicate where the string 1935); E. G. Richardson, "The Produc-
should be pressed on the rail for the cor- tion and Analysis of Tone by Electrical
rect pitches of the tempered scale. Means" (PMA Ixvi); J. Schillinger, "Elec-
VII. Photoelectric Instruments. The tricity, a Musical Liberator" (MM viii,
sound track of a modern motion picture no. 3); A. N. Goldsmith, "Electricity be-
film is recorded by photoelectric methods. comes Music" (MM xv, no. i); J. M. Bar-
In one system, sound vibrations are con- bour, "Music and Electricity" (PAMS,
verted into varying intensities of a beam 1937). E.P.
of light which produces on the film a per-
manent pattern of variable density cor- Elegy [G. Elegie]. A
plaintive poem;
and
to the variations in pitch
hence, a musical composition of a sad or
responding mournful character.
volume of the sounds recorded. Another
system uses an oscillating beam to trace a Elektrochord. See *Electronic musical
SOUND TRACKS
i. Variable area sound track. 2. Variable density sound track
When the film is exhibited the process is Elevation [L. elevatio-, It. elevazione].
reversed. A beam of light passing through (i) The music played during the Eleva-
the sound track falls on a photoelectric tion of the Host. It consists either of a
cell which converts the varying intensities motet or of an organ piece. A "Toccata
or areas of light into audio-frequency cur- per 1'elevazione" and other similar pieces
rent, and this current, after amplification, are contained in Frescobaldi's Fiori musi-
operates a loudspeaker which reproduces call (1635). See *OrTertorium. (2) See
the original sounds. Various musical in- *Appoggiatura, Double II.
article on "Electronic Music and Instru- to denote the semibrevis which has the
ments" [see Lit.]. of a rhomb. come from Ara-
shape They
Lit.: C. Chavez, Toward a New Music bian al ma'luma and al ma ruja, i.e., "the
Th Cahm " The Cahi11 Telhar- known Arabian
(1937); thing," terms used
-
in
monium" (Electric World, 1906); B. F. translations of Euclid for the rhomb. Cf.
Miessner, "The Electronic Piano" (Pro-
J. Handschin, in ZMW
xiv, 321; H. G.
Music Teachers' Nat. Assn.,
ceedings, Farmer, in Journal of the Royal Asiatic
1937); ^- "The Application of Electron-
Society, 1925, p. 76.
the Piano" (Proceedings, Radio Club
ics to
[239]
EMBOUCHURE ENGLISH MUSIC
Embouchure, (i) The ^mouthpiece of 6mu [F.]. With emotion, affectation.
wind instruments, especially of the brass
and the flute.
Enchainement [F.]. Voice-leading,
(2) In the playing of these
proper connection of chords.
instruments, the proper disposition of the
lips,the tongue, etc. Also called "lip," Enchainez Same as *segue.
[F.].
"lipping."
Enchiriadis, Enchiridion [Gr., from
Emmeles [Gr., within the melos]. Ear- chcir, hand]. Medieval term for hand-
ly medieval term for the subfinalis, i.e., book, manual. *Musica Enchiriadis is the
the tone below the final of a church mode, title of an important treatise of the 9th
Emperor Quartet [G. Kaiser quartett}. Encore [F., again]. In public perform-
Colloquial name for Haydn's String ance, the repetition of a piece, or an extra
Quartet in C, op. 76, no. 4, the slow move- piece played in response to the applause
ment of which comprises variations on his of the audience. The practice of encoring
Emperor's hymn: "Gott erhalte Franz den started in the i7th century with the rise of
Kaiser," the *national anthem of Austria. the operatic virtuoso-singers. Haydn had
turned against this habit by 1799, at the
Emperor's Hymn. See ^National an-
occasion of the first performance of his
thems.
Creation', in a note printed on the program
Empfindsamer Stil [G., sensitive he begged the audience not to insist upon
Denomination for the North- the repetition of any number.
style].
German style of the second half of the
Endings. See ^Differentiae.
18th century represented by W. F. Bach,
C. P. E. Bach, Quantz, G. Benda, Reich- Enechema. See *Echos.
ardt, and others who,in the period from
c. 1750 to 1780, tried to arrive at an ex- Engfiihrung [G.]. Stretto of fugues.
[240]
ENGLISH MUSIC ENGLISH MUSIC
decline, follows a rather irregular and name *gymel, and its more developed va-
somewhat eruptive line of evolution, in- riety in parallel thirds and sixths, com-
volving short periods of extraordinary monly known as *fauxbourdon. Writers
flowering between centuries of low ebb of the 1
4th century praise this type of
and almost complete stagnation. The music "merry to the singer
as and to the
high points of English music history are hearer." This characterization is interest-
marked by a limited number of great ing because it indicates a typically English
personalities: Dunstable around 1400; penchant for harmonic euphony which
Tallis, Byrd, and Gibbons before and after possibly accounts for the striking changes
1600; Purcell and Handel before and after from artistic greatness to mediocrity en-
ory's lifetime (c. 600)by St. Augustine of music (known to us chiefly through some
Kent, the first Archbishop of Canterbury. fragmentary MSS from Worcester) em-
Later (loth century) special rites (Uses) ployed a simple *conductus style which is
developed in Salisbury (*Sarum Use), strikingly backward in comparison with
Hereford, and at other great cathedrals. the highly developed melodic and rhyth-
In the loth century we hear of a remark- mic resources of contemporary French
able activity in organ building, particu- and Italian music [see *Ars nova], but
larly in Winchester where, around 950, a which is historically important owing to
giant organ having 26 bellows and 400 the extended use of progressions in sixth
pipeswas built, as is reported by a monk chords, called English discant [see *Faux-
Wulstan (d. 963) [see *Organ XII]. bourdon (2); examples in HAM,
no. 57
Musical and theoretical sources of the a, b]. A great number
of early 15th-cen-
nth century (Winchester Troper, new tury English composers are known to us
ed. by W. H. Frere, 1884), treatise by from various MSS, partly of English ori-
John Cotton (c. noo; cf. GS ii, 230) gin (Old Hall MS; see ^Sources, no. 25),
show England participating actively in partly of Continental (*Trent codices;
the development of "free organum" [see Bologna, see *Sources, nos. 20, 22). Since
*Organum]. The spread of French po- the composers (as well as the musical
lyphony to England is also demonstrated style) represented by the latter differ
by the four
fact that the earliest of the strikingly from the former, they are be-
preserved MSS
containing the repertoire lieved to belong to two schools, an insular
of the *School of Notre Dame (before school of strictly conservative trends
and after 1200) was written in Scotland (Cooke, Damett, Sturgeon, Typp, and
(St.Andrews, now Wolfenbiittel 677; see others), and a Continental school of pro-
bined English folk elements with a certain Dom Anselm Hughes, f Worcester Medi-
open-air frankness which is probably de- aeval Harmony (1928). D. Attwater,
rived from his native Australian back- "English Folk Song" (ML ix, no. 2); M.
ground. Bax's leaning towards a roman- Bukofzer, "The First Motet with English
ENGLISH SCHOOL OF LUTENIST SONGWRITERS ENHARMONIC
Words" (ML xvii); id., "The First Eng- The statement regarding the identity in
Chanson on the Continent" (ML xix)
lish ; pitch of enharmonic tones is correct only
A. H. Fox Strangways, "English Folk- in our modern system of well-tempered
songs" (ML v, no. 4); A. Hughes, "Old tuning, but not in other systems of ei-
English Harmony" (ML vi, no. 2); J. ther theoretical or historical significance
Mark, "Dryden and the Beginnings of (^Pythagorean system, *just intonation,
Opera in England" (ML v, no. 3); J. Pul- mean-tone systems; see *Temperament).
ver, "Music in England during the Com- In just intonation, e.g., df (upper third of
monwealth" (AM vi, no. 4); H. Reichen- 25 16
a) is while db (lower third of f ) is
bach, "The Tonality of English and Gaelic
;
24 15
Folksong" (ML xix, no. 3); }. B. Trend, the difference between these tones is the
"The First English Songs" (ML ix, no. 128
2); S. T. Warnei, "An Aspect of Tudor enharmonic *diesis, = 41 *cents (very
Counterpoint" (ML ii, no. i).
near one-fifth of a whole-tone). While
English School of Lutenist Song- piano-players naturally have fully adopted
writers, The. See 'Editions XI. the view that enharmonic tones are iden-
tical in pitch, violinists and singers fre-
English violet. See *Viol IV 4.
quently insist that they differ andthat this
Enharmonic, difference should be brought out in per-
(i) In Greek music, the
term enharmonic denotes a tonality (scale, formance. Thus, in the example (a) given
tetrachord, genus) which includes quar-
ter-tones [see *Greek music II (b); cf. H.
Husmann, in JMP xliv; C. del Grande, in
for tones which are actually one and the below, the db would sound nearly a quar-
same degree of the chromatic scale, but ter-tone lower than the preceding df. The
are named and written differently, e.g.: main objection against this procedure is
g# and ab, c# and db, etc., according to the that arbitrarily introduces a dash of just
it
key in which they occur. Enharmonic in- intonation into a performance which in
tervals are intervals consisting of the same all other respects is based upon equal
tones, but "spelt" differently, e.g.: temperament, e.g., in the intonation of
the triad. Moreover, in an example like
(b), the recommended distinction is ob-
viously impossible since the "changeable"
tone is tied over. Finally, it should be no-
A well-known example of "enharmonic
ticed that theenharmonic change is by no
equivalents"is the *diminished seventh
means restricted to chromatic tones such
chord which can be written in four or
as df and db, but that it may occur also on
more different ways. Enharmonic change
the change of of a tone or a
any of the diatonic degrees of the scale.
is
meaning For instance, example (a) in exact trans-
chord (frequently a diminished seventh
position a major third upwards becomes
chord) from sharp to flat, or vice versa, as
example (c). However, even the most
is
frequently the case in modulations, e.g. sensitive violinist would probably not
(to quote one of the earlier instances, from think of playing this passage as it should
Handel's Samson):
be played in enharmonically correct in-
tonation, that is, as indicated under (d).
Enharmonic instruments are key-
(3)
board instruments which provide separate
keys and strings (pipes, etc.) for the dif-
ferent enharmonic tones. The most com-
I
2 44]
ENIGMATIC CANON ENSEMBLE
quet's 53-tone clavier of 1851. For a 16th- tempo [see *Expression III]. It may be
century construction see *Arcicembalo. noticed, however, that the "soloist-versus-
Cf. also W. Dupont, Geschichte der mu- ensemble" point of view can also be suc-
si^alischen Temperatur (1935). cessfully applied to the question as to how
ensemble music is performed. In fact,
Enigmatic canon. See under *Canon motets or chansons may be reproduced
II.
Enigmatic scale, see *Scala enigmatica. either in "ensemble performance," i.e.,
with more than one singer to each part, or
Enigma Variations. Theme with va-
in "soloist performance," i.e., with only
riations, for orchestra, by Edward Elgar one singer to the part. While ensemble
(op. 36, 1899), so called because each vari-
ation is addressed to one of his friends, the performance calls for strict adherence to
the music as written, soloist performance
dedication being indicated enigmatically
leaves the singer free to insert improvised
by their initials.
coloraturas, particularly in the highest
Ensalada part. There is ample evidence to show
medley, potpourri].
[Sp.,
Spanish 16th-century songs of a humorous that,toward the end of the i6th century,
character. An early example contained in ensemble performance of motets was fre-
the *Cancionero musical (c. 1500) is a quently superseded by soloist performance
*quodlibet [cf. RiHM ii.i, 203] Whether . (including improvised coloraturas), a
the ensaladas by Matea Flecha (1581) procedure which evidently foreshadows
were also quodlibets cannot be ascertained the *monodic style of the iyth century.
since the bass part only is preserved. It The distinction between ensemble mu-
would seem that the name refers here only sic and soloist music plays a basic role in
to the choice of humorous the study of the notation of polyphonic
texts, dealing
with scenes from the life of soldiers, stu- music [see * Notation V], It also may be
dents, muleteers, etc. Cf. LavE {.4, 201 iff. recommended to supplant the customary,
but unsatisfactory, classification of early
Ensemble [F., the whole]. The term polyphonic music as "vocal music" and
generally denotes the cooperation of sev- "instrumental music." The following de-
eral performers. Thus, one speaks (i) of fects of this classification may be noticed:
a "good ensemble" or a "bad ensemble" (a) Prior to 1550 (i.e., prior to the period
with reference to the degree of balance of strict *a-cappella music) instrumental
and unification attained in the perform- participation was frequently called for, or
ance of a string quartet, etc. (2) In op- admitted, in the performance of "vocal"
eras, ensemble is a piece for more than music; this admixture is particularly con-
two lingers (duet) or for the soloists to- spicuous in the accompanied songs (bal-
gether with the chorus. Such pieces usu- lades, etc.) of the i4th century, and in the
ally occur at the end of an act (finale). frottole of the early i6th century, (b)
(3) In the study of early music (prior Several publications of the i6th century
to 1600), a distinction between ensemble [e.g., Willaert, Ricercari
.
(1559)] bear
. .
music (i.e., music performed by more than the remark: "da cantare e suonare d'ogni
one participant) and soloist music (i.e., sorte di stromenti," showing that such
music for a single performer) is of funda- could be sung (in * vocali-
textless pieces
mental importance, since it explains many zation) as well as played on any type of
features of style and clarifies various prob- melody instruments (viols, recorders, cor-
lems of *Auffiihrungspraxis, e.g., the nettos). Evidently such pieces cannot be
question of improvised coloraturas, which instrumental or vocal
classified as either
are possible only in soloist music, either music; however, they are definitely "en-
monophonic (e.g., the soloist portions of semble music." (c) The field of "instru-
Gregorian chant) or polyphonic (i.e., key- mental music" includes such strongly
board and lute music). Similarly, *Frei- heterogeneous styles as that of a keyboard
stimmigkeit is restricted to (polyphonic) toccata and a lute prelude on one side, and
soloist music as was also free variability of a ricercar by Willaert or Padovano [see
[=45]
ENTfi ENTR6E
(b)] on the other side. This contrast of or) and his servant Pedrillo
(Tenor) seek
style is easily explained if it is recalled Constanze (Soprano) and her maid
that the former types are soloist music, Blondchen (Soprano), who are held cap-
the latter ensemble music. Parenthetically tive in the seraglio of thepasha Selim
it may be mentioned that ensemble music
(speaking part), guarded by the terrible
may well be changed into soloist music, a Moor Osmin (Bass). Pedrillo' s success in
method which was generally known in making Osmin drunk gives the two cou-
the 1 6th
century as *Intabulierung. This ples a chance
to reunite and to flee.
They
practice, however, does not invalidate the are,however, trapped and brought before
between genuine ensem-
basic distinction Selim who, to the delight of Osmin, con-
ble music and genuine soloist music, as demns them to die and then, touched by
little as the existence of 19th-century ar- and grief, pardons them.
their love
Keyboard Prelude (unpubl. diss. Har- . . . for his wife, Constanze Weber, whom he
vard 1941); id. in xxii, no. 2. MO married one month after its
production,
Ente a spe- Motet ente is
and truly reflects the happiness of this
it
[F., grafted].
cial type of 13th-century motet, the texted period in its long array of arias and scenes
charm and overflowing hu-
of irresistible
upper part being constructed in a manner
mor. See *Janizary music.
suggestive of "grafting" a fresh twig upon
an old tree, that is, by inserting a new text
Entr'acte. A piece (usually instrumen-
(and melody) between portions of a pre-
performed between the acts of a play
existing text (and melody). The "old ma-
tal)
or opera, e.g., Beethoven's compositions
terial" is usually one of the numerous
for Goethe's play Egmont, or Bizet's
popular *refrains taken from the ballades,
entr'actes for his opera Carmen. The mu-
rondeaux, etc., of the trouveres and split * come die-ballets
sic of Lully's is mostly
into two or more portions between which
new words are interpolated. For instance, in the form of entr'actes (intermedes) for
Moliere's plays, e.g., Le Bourgeois gcntil-
the refrain "E ail Ke ferail fc mur
homrne [see *Ballet]. PurcelPs instru-
d'amouretes, comant garirai?" of a trou-
mental entr'actes are known as act-tunes
vere ballade [cf. F. Gennrich, BaUaden,
Rondeaux und Virelais (1921)
or curtain tunes. The term ^intermezzo
i, 148]
is sometimes used for entr'acte.
leads to the following triplum of a motet:
"He, que jerais? Belle, je vous ai Tant
ha,
See *In-
amee . Et nuit et jour je chant: Je muir
. .
Entrada, entrata [It., Sp.J.
d'amouretesl Se vostre amour n'ai ou . . .
trada; *Entree.
Entfiihrung aus dem Serail ("The In the French ballet of the lyth-iSth cen-
Abduction from the Seraglio"). Comic turies an entree is a subdivision of an act,
[246]
ENTREMES ERBE DEUTSCHER MUSIK
entree has its own plot, unconnected with Episode. Secondary sections of a com-
thai of any other entree. D. J. G. position, chiefly fugue and rondo, in which
the principal subjects are
Entr ernes missing, being
[Sp.]. The Spanish variety
replaced by subordinate subjects (as in
of the operatic ^intermezzo.
the rondo) or by motives derived from
Entschieden
foi organ and violin, etc.
[G.]. Determined.
Es, eses [G.]. See *Pitch names. existing examples are purely instrumen-
tal monophonic pieces. Eight estampies
Esaltato [It.]. "Exalted," excited. are contained in the 13th-century Chan-
[250]
EXPRESSION EXPRESSION
be indicated by notes or, in tion that they do not
its highest appear as an extra
manifestation, by any symbol or sign element of independent importance. It
whatsoever. It includes all the nuances of was in the symphonies of the Mannheim
tempo, dynamics, phrasing, accent, touch, School that devices of expression for its
bowing, etc., by which the mere combina- own sake, such as sudden ff and pp, long
tion and succession of pitch-time-values is crescendos and decrescendos, were for the
transformed into a living organism. Al- firsttime exploited. While in these works
though, as far as the written notes are con- the details of expression are not always
cerned, the performer is strictly bound to justified by the music itself, but frequently
the composer's work, he enjoys a consid- appear as a somewhat extraneous admix-
erable amount of freedom in the field of ture, a complete amalgamation of "expres-
expression, which may be said to represent sion" and "composition" is reached in the
the creative contribution of the performer. classical works of Haydn, Mozart, Bee-
In early music, i.e., prior to 1600, the line thoven, and Schubert. Here we find ex-
of demarcation between "composition" pression in complete harmony with the
and "expression," i.e., between written musical substance which has become ex-
pitch-time-values and nuances of perform- pressive in itself. In the Romantic move-
ance, very clear, since composers never
is ment, the possibilities of expression were
provided anything but the bare notes, exploited to the fullest extent. An im-
leaving the matter of expression entirely mense array in shades of subtlety ap-
to the performer [see below, III], With peared, and composers spent a good deal
the gradual rise of more specific and de- of their ingenuity in the invention of new
tailed manners of expression, composers nuances as well as of words or signs to in-
more and more felt the necessity of pro- dicate them. Although this tendency has
viding at least some basic indications, in greatly enriched the musical palette, it has
order to clarify their intentions and to pre- not always been to the advantage of cre-
vent mistakes or arbitrariness on the part ative progress. There can be no doubt
of the performer. This trend led to the that the late 19th-century over-indulgence
gradual introduction of *tempo-marks, in "expressiveness" and in expression signs
*dynamic marks, signs for touch,bowing, or words [cf. the works of Scriabin, Re-
phrasing, and, in the i9th century, of the ger, R. Strauss, Debussy, Fl. Schmitt] has
numerous terms such as "dolce," "amare- been the cause (or the result?) of a
vole," "passionato," which are meant to marked deterioration of the musical in-
describe the general character of the com- vention. The anti-Romantic movement
position or a passage thereof. It goes with- of the 2oth century [see *New Music]
out saying that, however detailed and brought with it a marked reversal of atti-
subtle these indications may be, they give tude. Erik Satie was probably the first to
only the general outline and still leave write intentionally unexpressive (dry)
ample room for what has been termed music, and to ridicule the Romantic ten-
above the "creative contribution of the dencies by ironic expression marks, such
performer." In the following explanation as: "corpulentus," "caeremoniosus," "de-
separate treatment is given to (I) the com- venez pale," etc. Recent composers such
poser's and (II) the performer's share in as Poulenc, Stravinsky, Hindemith, fre-
[251]
EXPRESSION EXPRESSION
compliance with the intentions shown by trasting bodies of sound [see *Stile con-
the composer's indications. Unfortunately, certato; *Echo] that the necessity of in-
the second part of this postulate is seldom troducing indications for forte and piano
realized. The arbitrariness of so many vir- was felt. The earliest pieces provided with
tuosos partly responsible for the excess
is such indications (forte, piano) are Gio.
of expression marks to be found in the Gabrieli's Sonata pian'e forte [SchGMB,
works of composers who thus hoped to no. 148] and several organ pieces by
and misinterpretation.
forestall distortion Adriano Banchieri [ApMZ i], all dating
Yet, complete control over the performer from about 1600. Shortly after this, ab-
is not only
impossible but also undesirable. breviating letters must have been used,
The only remedy is to improve the educa- because Domenico Mazzochi, in the Pref-
tion of performers in matters of musical ace to his Partitura de Madrigali ... of
style and taste. The most common fault is 1638, says that "the letters F. P. E. t
. . .
the application of a Romantic, i.e., a high- for Forte, Piano, Echo, and trill are al-
tissimo instead of allegro, of larghissimo Prior to the middle of the i8th century
instead of adagio, of /// and ppp instead crescendo and decrescendo were used
of / and p y of frequent crescendi and de- chiefly for the vocal
performance of single
crescendi instead of an even level of so- sustained [see *messa di voce].
tones
nority, of numerous rubatos, ritardandos, Mazzocchi seems to have been the first to
and accelerandos instead of strictly kept indicate these effects by signs, a F for a
tempo, etc. In view of all these tendencies crescendo (called by him messa di voce},
nothing seems to be more important for and a C for a crescendo followed by a
the student than to learn to play without diminuendo (the messa di voce proper)
expression. Only the pianist who has [see Harding, p. 91]. The modern signs
learned to play Bach's Chromatic Fan- for crescendo and diminuendo were much
tasia or Beethoven's Appassionata in the later to appear, the earliest known instance
most rigid way add that
will be able to being in Geminiani's Prime Sonate of
amount of nuances and shades which 1739. Crescendos and diminuendos ex-
these works properly require. tending over lengthy musical phrases
III. Expression in early music. The ab- were also known throughout the i7th
sence or extreme scarcity of expression century, but were always indicated by
marks in music prior to 1750 does not prescriptions such as: "forte, piano, pia-
mean that the compositions of the Middle nissimo" (Mazzocchi), or "Lowd, Soft,
Ages, the Renaissance, and the Baroque Softer" (M. Locke), or "lowder by de-
period were always played without any grees" (M. Locke, Curtain Tune in The
gradation of intensity or of tempo. Al- Tempest, 1675). The members of the
though no gradation of intensity was pos- *Mannheim School were the first to culti-
sible on the organ and the harpsichord, it vate all the dynamic effects in the modern
would be foolish to assume that singers or way, for the purpose of orchestral coloring
players of stringed instruments performed and of climactic or anticlimactic effects.
the expressive lines of a 14th-century bal- As regards the history of tempo marks,
lade or the dramatic curves of a Bach can- it must be noted in the first
place that in
tata in an intentionally uniform tone. music prior to 1600 indications such as al-
However, no special signs were needed legro, adagio, etc., were unnecessary since
since these gradations remained within the tempo of a piece or a section thereof
modest and natural limits, following close- was clearly expressed in the notation itself
ly the rise and fall of the melody. It was [see *Tactus]. It is significant that the
not until the advent of the lyth century earliest instances of free tempo variability
with its characteristic technique of con- occur in soloist music [see *Ensemble
[252]
EXPRESSIONISM EXPRESSIONISM
(3) ] , namely, in the lute book El Maestro Feininger, Klee) who represented a re-
535) f Liiys de Milan who prescribes
( I action against the "impressionistic" school
for certain passages of his fantasias "a (Degas, Renoir, Monet, Manet). The
priesa" (quick), for others, "a espacio" provocative replacement of the prefix "im"
(slow). Particularly interesting is the de- by "ex" was meant to indicate a complete
tailed information
regarding free tempo reversal of thought, i.e., the change from
(rubato) which Frescobaldi gives in the "impressions gained from the outer
preface to his Fiori musicali (1635; cf. world" to "expression of the inner self,"
TaAM iv, p. x). more properly, of the "subconscious self,"
The monodic style of the early Baroque in the psycho-analytical sense of the word.
made musicians conscious of the impor- Technically this meant the replacement
tance of subtly shaded expressions. Cac- of a highly refined naturalism and color
cini, in the preface of his Nuove music he technique by abstract and strangely dis-
(1601), illustrated the new style of singing torted forms combined in utter disregard
by sample pieces provided with remarks of the traditional principles of "beauty,"
such as: "Esclamazione spiritosa," "senza "symmetry," etc. In music, a roughly
misura quasi favellando," etc. [cf. v, GD parallel change took place around 1910,
20]. Pieces by Banchieri (c. 1600) are leading from the sensuous program music
among the earliest to show the use of and the coloristic effects of Debussy to an
tempo indications such as: "Allegro," avowedly abstract type of music in which,
"Adasio," "Presto" [d.ApMZi]. About likewise, distorted melodies, discordant
100 years later Francois Couperin made harmonies and disintegrated lines were
consistent use of captions such as: "grave- used in utter disregard of all traditional
ment sans lenteur," "gayement," "gra- principles of musical art. Since the paint-
cieusement et legerement," etc. [cf. his er's term "impressionism" had already
Pieces de Clavecin, 4 vols. (171330)]. been adopted in the musical vocabulary
Expression marks in Bach are practi- as a designation for Debussy's school, the
cally limited to a handful of pieces in champions of the new movement point-
which different degrees of sonority are edly designated themselves as expression-
indicated by /, /?, and pp. In view of the ists, in order to emphasize their sympathy
excessive amount of expression marks with the new ideas of their colleagues in
found in modern editions of Bach it may the Fine Arts, and to demonstrate their
be stated that the entire manuscript of the antagonism against the musical impres-
Well-tempered Clavier contains nothing sionism and romanticism. Unfortunately,
but the notes and signs of ornamentation. in music such a designation was bound to
Lit.: R. E. M. Harding, Origins of Mu- lead to a misunderstanding, that is, to
sical Time and Expression (1938); G. confusion with the term "expression'*
Langley, in PMA xxxviii; A. Heuss, "Die (which, it
may be noted, hardly exists in
present century to denote certain radical his followersAnton von Webern, Alban
trends of modern music [see *New mu- Berg, and Ernst Krenek [see *Atonality;
sic], particularly Austrian and German. *Twelve-tone technique; *Quarter-tones] .
It was taken over from the Fine Arts in The earlier works of Hindemith (be-
which it designated a school of the early tween 1920 and 1925) also seem to fall
years of the century (Picasso, Kandinsky, under the classification of expressionism.
[253]
EXPRESSIVE ORGAN FALSE
The new and more constructive tendencies include one or several measures more than
which appeared after 1925 (*Neoclassi- in original form.
its A
famous example is
cism) mark the end of expressionism. the third statement of the initial motive
of Wagner's Tristan.
Expressive organ [F. orgue expressif] .
F. (i) See *Pitch names; *Letter nota- Fagott [G.], fagotto [It.]. Bassoon.
tion; *Hexachord. (2) Abbreviation Fagottino is the tenor oboe (tenoroon),
for *forte; ff (fff ), abbreviation for fortis- fagot tone the contrabassoon. Fagottgeige
simo. F-clef, see *Clefs. F-holes, see is a
large viol of the i8th century, the
*Sound-holes. strings of which were overspun with silk
and therefore produced a buzzing sound
Fa. See *Pitch names; *Solmization;
reminiscent of that of the Fagott. Fagott-
*Hexachord. Fa fictum means, in Guide's
is a
zttg stop-mechanism of old pianofortes
system of hexachord and mutation, the fa
(around 1800) which produced a buzzing
(fourth degree) of the hexachordum molle
effectby means of a paper strip coming in
(beginning with f), i.e., B-flat; or, the contact with the strings.
same degree of the transposed hexachord
starting on B-flat, i.e., E-flat. Both tones
Fa-la, fa-Ia-la. A special type of 16th-
belong to the *musica ficta, hence the
name. century songs in which the syllables "fa
la la" or similar ones are used as a refrain,
Fabordone, faburden. See *Faux- e.g.: "Now in the month of may ing, When
bourdon (4). merry lads are playing, Fa la la la la, fa la
la la la" (Th. Morley). An early example,
Facilmente [It.] .
Easily, without strain. with the refrain "san san san sarir ," . . .
Flotow, and Meyerbeer have written mu- fa-la's became known in England (Mor-
sic for such occasions. ley; Weelkes; Hilton) and in Germany
(Hans Leo Hassler; Widman; Staden;
Fado (also Fadinho). The popular mu-
sic par excellence of the cities of Portugal,
Friderici). Expls. in HAM, nos. 158, 159.
frequently heard in the cafes and on the Falsa musica. See *Musica ficta.
streets. of song and dance to
It consists
[254]
FALSETTO FAMILIAR STYLE
Falsetto [It.]. An artificial method of earlier works [see *Number opera] and
singing used by male singers, particularly adopted something like Wagner's unend-
tenors, to obtain notes above the ordinary ing recitative. In view of this influence it
range of their voice. Since such tones are is interesting to note that he remained
pressiveness of a tenor, has its own charm "strict*chordal style," the only difference
of a veiled and undynamic transparence; being that the latter term is not restricted
itstands in the same relationship to the to vocal music and, hence, carries no im-
normal tenor voice as the recorder to the plication as to textual treatment. See
flute, the viol to the violin. *Texture.
seppe Verdi (1813-1901), libretto by A. speaks of "lo stilo semplice di nota e sillaba
Boito, after Shakespeare's The Merry che fu denominato familiare," and men-
Wives of Windsor, composed in 1893. The tions Josquin's Mass Dung aultre amer as
with slight alterations, the
libretto relates, the model. Actually, the history of
first
well-known episodes from Shakespeare's familiar style goes back to the earliest
play, with the "merry wives" Mistress periods of part music. Prior to noo *or-
Ford (Ford's wife, called Alice in the li- ganum is
essentially in note-against-note
bretto; Soprano), Mistress Page (Sopra- texture with syllabic treatment. Likewise,
no), and Mistress Quickly (Contralto) most of the conductus of the i3th century
plotting against the lecherous Sir John move chordal blocks (two to four
in
Falstaff (Baritone) and, at the same time, parts), one each to the syllable; hence the
succeeding in marrying Ford's daughter name "conductus style" as another syno-
Anne (called Nanetta\ Soprano) to the nym for familiar style, used preferably
young Fenton (Tenor), instead of to with reference to the i3th and i4th cen-
Ford's protege*, Dr. Cams (Tenor). turies. In the works of the *Burgundian
It will always remain one of the mir- School frequent use is made of three-voice
acles of creative genius that a man 79 years chordal sections in *fauxbourdon chords.
of age could write an opera which, for its For an interesting example of three-voice
brilliance and bustling humor, might well harmony around 1425, cf. HAM, no. 56.
be the work of a youthful composer, were Longish sections in four-voice harmony
it not for the fact that in
every measure it appear in the works of Obrecht who there-
displays a consummate skill (final fugue fore has been considered the inaugurator
"Tutto nel mondo"), a lucid plasticity, of familiar style, a statement which over-
such as only lifelong experience can pro- looks or dismisses the previous develop-
duce. Falstaff) together with the earlier ment outlined above [regarding the transi-
*Otello (1886), represents the climax of tion from three-part to four-part harmony,
Verdi's operatic work. Influenced by see *Flemish School]. In the motets of
Wagner's music drama, Verdi largely Josquin and his successors the prevailingly
abandoned here the "number style" of his polyphonic (more properly, *polyrhyth-
FANCY FANDANGO
mic) texture is usually balanced by sec- century form adopted suite-like fea-
this
tions in familiar style. This style became tures by combining with dance type move-
increasingly prominent in the later course ments, such as the pavan, galliard, alle-
of the 1 6th century, particularly in the mand, saraband, etc., to make longer
more popular forms [chanson, frottola, works. Example for the older ricercare
canzone, villanella; see also *Fauxbour- type: Byrd, in The English Madrigal
don (4)]. After 1600 it persisted chiefly School, 71; for the canzona-type:
xvi,
in the harmonized hymns and chorales. Byrd, ibid., 166; for the suite type: Locke,
Cf H. Bush, The Development of Chordal
. in Ed. Warlock and Mangeot, Six String
ments of "free fantasia" such as character- (1934); E. H. Walker, "An Oxford Book
ize the fantasia of Bach, Mozart, Beetho- of Fancies" (MA iii); R. Erlebach, "Wil-
ven, etc. However, from the iyth century liam Lawes and his String Music" (PMA,
point of view, the name was wholly ap- 1932-33); C. W. Hughes, "Richard Deer-
propriate, being indicative of a greater ing's Fancies for Viols" (MQ xxvii); H. J.
freedom and variety of style, form, struc- Sleeper, "John Jenkins and the English
ture, etc.,than was admitted in the ricer- Fantasia-Suite" (BAMS iv); E. Fellowes,
care [see *Fantasia (5)]. The earliest fO. Gibbons. Nine Fantasias (1924); . . .
much or little of it according as shall seeme Fancies for String Quartet (1936); ^Nine
best in his own conceit. In this may more Fantasias in Four Parts (New York Pub-
art be showne then
in any other musicke. lic Library). H.J.S.
. . . And
kind will beare any allow-
this
ances whatsoever tolerable in other mu- Fandango. A Spanish dance in moder-
sick, except changing the ayre & leaving ate quick triple time with rhythms
to
the key, which in fantasie may never bee such as Ex. i, danced by a single pair to
"
suffered. [For the meaning of the term the accompaniment of guitar and casta-
"ayre," sec *Ayre (2).] In the iTth cen- nets, in alternationwith sung couplets.
tury a more sectional treatment, similar to The fandango appeared in Spain in the
that of the contemporary *canzona, and early i8th century. A popular melody
a more instrumental type of melody were [Ex. 2] was used by Gluck in his ballet
introduced. Towards the middle of the Don Juan (1761), as well as by Mozart in
[256]
FANFARE FANTASIA
his Figaro (1786; finale of the third of form, style, etc.
act, Naturally, the term
section in % time). More recently, Rim- covers a great variety of types which may
sky-Korsakov (Caprice Espagnol, 1887) be tentatively classified into five groups,
and E. Granados (Goyescas, 1912) have (i) Pieces of a markedly improvisatory
character; written records, as it were, of
the improvisation-technique of the various
masters. Examples are Bach's Chromatic
Fantasia and his (lesser
known) Fantasia
in A minor
for harpsichord (ed. Peters,
Mozart's Fantasia in
vol. xviii), D
minor
written fandangos. Local varieties of the for pianoforte and Beethoven's Fantasia
dance are the *Malaguena (from Malaga), op. 77. The numerous "Fantasien" by
the Granadina (from Granada), the Mur- C. P. E. Bach also belong to this category.
ciana (from Murcia), the Rondena (from (2) ^Character pieces of the Romantic
Ronda), etc. era. Here, fantasia is one of the various
titles used to indicate dream-like mood,
Fanfare, (i) A short tune for trumpets, or some other whim of fancy. Examples
used as a signal for ceremonial, military,
are Brahms's Fantasien op. 116. (3)
or hunting purposes. Since they are in-
Sonatas in freer form, or of a special char-
tended for natural instruments, they in-
acter; for instance, Beethoven's op. 27,
clude the tones of the triad only. The
nos. i, 2, the latter being known as Moon-
various nations possess a large repertory
light Sonata, both of which deviate in
of such melodies. Fanfare-like motives
various respects from the normal form
have been frequently used in art-music.
and style of the sonata; Schubert's Wan-
They already occur in the *caccias of the clerer-Fantasie in which a song of his
I4th century [cf. also the virelai in used as the main
("Der Wanderer") is
BeMMR, 141], in Josquin's Fanfares
movements
no. 62], in Jannequin's subject for all the [see '"Cy-
royales [SchGMB, Schumann's Fantasie op. 17, which
clic]
program-chanson La Guerre (c. 1525),
;
is a Romantic
and in other *battle pieces [cf. ApMZ, hybrid of sonata form.
(4) Operatic potpourris of a free and
Banchieri], in the introductory "Toccata"
somewhat improvisatory treatment, as if
of Monteverdi's Orfeo (1607), and in
written in remembrance of a performance;
Bach's Capriccio sopra la lontananza dello
F. Liszt's Don Juan Fantaisie (1841).
e.g.,
suo fratello dilcttissimo. Various operatic
(5) In the 1 6th and i7th centuries the
composers have made a highly effective name fantasia occurs frequently with in-
use of the fanfare, e.g., Beethoven in his
strumental pieces which are written in a
Fidelio (Act II, arrival of the governor;
more or less strict contrapuntal style, ap-
see also his Leonore Overture), and Wag-
ner in the horn-call scene of his Tristan parently lacking any features of "free flight
of fancy." Although the use of the name
(introduction to the first scene of Act II).
fantasia for such pieces seems strange
Lit.: G. Schiinemann, "Sonaten und
from the modern point of view, it is en-
Feldstikke der Hoftrompeter" (ZMW tirely reasonable from that of the 16th-
xvii); G. Schiinemann, "fTrompeterfan- whom the fantasia
century musician, to
faren, Sonaten und Feldstucke (1936)
was a free variety of the strictly contra-
[see *Editions XII A
(7)] ; K. Taut, Bei-
puntal and learned *ricercare. In this
trdge zur Geschichte der fagdmusi^ (Diss.
meaning, the term was adopted first by
1926). the lutenists who, although anxious to
(2) French term for a brass band, either include in their repertoire the motet-like
military or civilian.
technique of the ricercare, found them-
Fantasia [F. fantaisie; G. Fantasie, selves handicapped by the technical limi-
position in which the "free flight of fancy" in developing a free instrumental adapta-
prevails over contemporary conventions tion of the motet, the fantasia. A large
[257]
FANTASIA FARCE
literature of lute fantasias exists in the siesfour 3 4 instruments by Claude
et
The instrumental (more properly *en- designation for interpolations, chiefly the
semble) fantasia is represented chiefly by liturgical tropes which appear as inser-
the English *fancy of the i7th century. tions between two words of the authentic
The meaning of the term in publications text, for instance, the farced Kyrie: Kyrie
such as A. Willaert, Fantasie ct Ricercari fons bonitatis eleison [see *Trope
. .
(1549; also 1559) and G. Tiburtino,
.
(4)]. For another example of farcing see
Fantasie e Recercari a 3 voci (1549) is not *Ente. (2) In plays and operas, chiefly
clear, since the contents of these books do of the 1 8th century, farcing means the in-
not show any differentiation such as might troduction of alien elements, usually of a
be expected from the title [see *Ricercare humorous, comical, or even lascivious
I
(a) J H. Expert edited 6 vols. of Fanta-
. nature [see *Intermezzo]. This meaning
[258]
FAREWELL SYMPHONY FAUXBOURDON
persists in present-day usage in which Fausse relation [F.]. *False relation
farce a light comedy, sometimes vulgar,
is [see *Cross relation],
frequently a travesty of a serious model.
Around 1800, Italian comic operas in one
Fauxbourdon [F.; Middle English,
actwere called farza, e.g., Rossini's La jaburden\ It. falso bordone\ Sp. jabor-
Cam hiale di matrimonio (1810). donc]. (i) A 15th-century term which
has been adopted into modern usage as a
Farewell Symphony [G. Abschieds- general denomination for harmonic pro-
symphonic]. Haydn's Symphony in F- gressions based on parallel sixth chords.
sharp minor, composed in 1772 (no. 45 of [In scholarly writings a designation such
the B.u.H. edition; cf. GD ii, 586). The as "sixth-chord style" would seem to be
name refers to the last movement, the close preferable, with the term fauxbourdon
of which is so designed that the players being restricted to its original and proper
can leave one by one, the last measures meaning; see (2).]
being played by only two violinists. The Such progressions occur in Bach, Mo-
charming jest was meant to convey to the zart, Beethoven (Piano Sonata op. 2, no.
Prince of Esterhazy, whom Haydn served 3, last movement), Brahms, and others
as a conductor, the desire of the orchestra [see Ex. i, from Bach's Cantata Ach wic
to leave for Vienna.
can song books, the letters F, S, L, F, S, 1300, that is, of the period when French
L, M
being placed on a staff (e.g., in The
music was based chiefly on the principle of
Psalms and Hymns , 1737). In 1802
. . . contrary motion in the "perfect" conso-
William Little
nances (octave, fifth, fourth). For exam-
(The Easy Instructor) in-
troduced four different shapes of notes for ples cf. ReMMA, 399; HAM, no. 57; A.
each of the syllables, a method which was Hughes, ^Worcester Mediaeval Harmony
known as "buckwheat" or "four-shape" (1928). Short progressions in sixth chords
are quite frequent in the works of Landini
or "shape" note [see Ex.], and which
proved very successful in the rural dis- [cf., e.g., RiHM 1.2, 330], especially for
tiicts of the South.
cadences [see *Landini cadence]. The
sixth-chord style reached its high-point in
Lit.: G. P. Jackson, "Buckwheat Notes"
the compositions of Dufay and Binchois
(MQ xix); Ch. Seeger, "Contrapuntal
in the Three-voice [see *Burgundian School] which fre-
Style Shape-note
quently include long phrases and even
Hymns" (MQ xxvi); K. P. Fuller, in
Etude WoHN entire sections in sixth-chord harmonies
Ivii, 501; ii, 369.
[Ex. 2; cf. HAM, nos. 658; SchGMB, nos.
Fassung, Mit [G.]. Calm, resigned. 39, 40; AdHM i, 299].
[259]
FAUXBOURDON FAUXBOURDON
evolution of harmony, since it is the first c. 1450) and referred to in modern writ-
step towards the emergence of the third ings (Bukofzer) as English discant, in
and the full triad as the basic element of order to distinguish it from the
(French)
harmony [see *Harmony]. Sixth-chord 13th-century discant in contrary motion
style proper dropped out largely around and perfect consonances [see *Discant].
1475 when Ockeghem and Obrecht es- Here only one part, the tenor, is notated,
tablished four-part writing [see *Flemish and the other two singers improvise melo-
School] . Traces, however, survived under dies resulting in sixth chords with occa-
the name falso bordonc throughout the sional open triads (1-5-8). The
principle
i6th and iyth centuries [see (4)]. It will may be explained as follows: the tenor
be noticed that the above description clear- sings the plainsong as written, e.g.: d-e-
ly refutes the theory advanced by H. E. f-g-f-e-d; the other singers derive from
Wooldridge (OH ii, Syft) and adopted in this a
slightly modified melody, by replac-
numerous books, according to which ing each tone, except the first and the last,
"fauxbourdon" originated as a result of a by its lower third, as follows: d-c-d-e-
decree of Pope John XXII, issued from d-c-d; this modified melody is sung by
Avignon in 1322, by which the use in the the highest voice (treble) an octave
high-
service of elaborate polyphonic music was er, by the middle voice (*meane) a fifth
forbidden. See also *Gymel. higher. The result is sixth-chord harmony
(2)Historically and properly, faux- with the cantus firmus in the lowest part
bourdon is the designation for a French [Ex. 4], This method was known under
(Burgundian) 15th-century technique of
composition in which a soprano part
(usually a plainsong hymn transposed to
the higher octave) is notated together with
a lower part (contra) moving along in the such names as *discanius supra librum,
lower sixth or octave, while the middle sight (referring to the two different
part is extemporized by a singer doubling "sights" i.e., ways of looking at, or ren-
the melody in the lower fourth through- ditions of the plainsong, one performed
out [see Ex. 3, from Dufay's ]uvenis qui by the singer of the meane ["meane-
sight"], the other, of the treble ["treble-
tations of psalm tones. One of the early (1936); Th. Georgiades, Englische Dis-
examples is a Magnificat by Binchois [cf. \anttr a^tate aus der i.Halfte des 15. Jahr-
J. Marix, \Les Musiciens de la
court de hunderts (1937); OHii, 896?; M. Bukof-
Bourgogne (1937), p. 196]. After the zer, in MO xxvi; S. S. Meech, "Three Mu-
change from three-voice to four-voice har- sical Treatises in English from a 15th-
mony, the name was retained for har- century Manuscript" (Speculum, July,
monizations of psalm-tones, Magnificats, '935)-
etc., in accordance with the fact that
four-
Feeders. In organ building, small bel-
voice harmonies are frequently fauxbour-
lows employed to supply the large bellows
don (sixth chords) with a bass tone added
with wind. See *Organ I.
below. Four-voice harmonizations of rec-
itation chants, called falso bordone [It.] Fe fa ut, Fefaut. See *Hexachord II.
Evangelist's recitations as
"falsobordone." Roman ritual (GR [95] ). See *Innomine.
The use of falso bordone compositions
Fellowships. See *Scholarships, Fel-
(particularly Palestrina's ^Lamentations)
in alternation with Gregorian chant was lowships, and Prizes.
authorized for special occasions by Pius X Feminine cadence. See *Masculinc
in his Motu proprio (1903). and feminine cadence.
faux-
(5) In present-day English usage
bourdon denotes "a means of giving in- Feria, ferial. Any weekday in the cal-
terest to by supplying the endar of the Catholic Church on which no
hymn-singing
choir sopranos with a freely written part, feast occurs is called feria. This meaning
the reverse of the original meaning of
which often soars above the hymn-tune is
as sung by the congregation" [cf. P. A. L. feria, that is, a festival day. The re-
[261]
FERMAMENTE FESTIVALS
came about by extending the use of
versal II. America. The
American
earliest
theword from Sunday to the other days, festivals on record are those
Handel of the
Sunday being named feria prima, the oth- and Haydn Society of Boston (1857) and
ers feria secunda, tertia, etc. Later, Sun- at Worcester (1858). In 1869 P. S. Gil-
day was called Dominica, whereas for more organized his monster festival Peace
grand lines. There followed, in 1724, the the festivals of Peterboro, N. H. (1910),
Three Choirs Festivals which combine Lockport, N. Y. (1916). Outstanding
the choral forces of Gloucester, Worcester, among the more recent developments are:
and Hereford and which last for several the Berkshire Festivals of Chambermusic
days. Others are the Birmingham Festival at Pittsfield, Mass, (established 1918
by
(1768-1912), the Norwich Festival (1770 Mrs. Elizabeth Sprague Coolidge, held
to date, since 1824 triennially), and the irregularly after 1924; numerous first pres-
Leeds Festival (1858, from 1874 trienni- entations of chamber music works); the
ally), all of which are held for the benefit Westchester Music Festival (1925, now
of local charitable institutions. The Han- held at White Plains, N. Y., under Hugh
del Festivals in the Crystal Palace began Ross); the Coolidge Festivals (established
in 1857 and are now held triennially. 1925 at the Library of Congress by Mrs.
[262]
FESTIVALS FIDELIO
Elizabeth Sprague Coolidge; eight festi- Festschrift [G.]. Name of German
vals to the present
day); the Rochester publications designed as a present for out-
Festival of American Music (1931? di- standing musicologists (6oth birthday,
rected by Howard Hanson); the West- etc.). They contain contributions from
minster Festival at Princeton, N. J. (1936; pupils and colleagues. Cf. MoML, 218.
programs of American music) the Eer\-
;
[263]
FIDICEN FIGURED MELODY
panied the production of Fidelio. Never- music or style [G. Figuralmusi^ figu-
theless, the music shows Beethoven's hand rierter Stil\ is used with reference to the
in many scenes, and the opera, though not highly florid polyphonic style of the early
"Beethoven at his best," certainly belongs Flemish composers such as Ockeghem
to the classical operatic repertoire. Re- and Obrecht, as distinguished from the
garding the various overtures, see *Leo- less complex style of Josquin and his suc-
nora Overtures. See also reference under cessors [see *Musica reservata]. (2)
*Melodrama. With reference to lyth- and iSth-century
music the terms denote the use of stereo-
Fidicen from fides, stringed instru-
[L.,
typed figures or *motives, particularly in
ment]. Humanistic ( 16th-century) name variations or in the accompanying parts
for a string player.
of organ chorales [see ^Figuration; *Fig-
Fiedel [G.]. (i) Colloquial for violin ured chorale]. The ambiguous and in-
consistent use of these terms is to be de-
and the like. (2) Generic term for me-
dieval violin-instruments (vielle, fidula) plored, particularly since the term "fig-
and modern imitations thereof. ured" is used with still another meaning
in the designation: ^figured bass. Tenta-
Fiero Proud.
[It.].
tively the following distinctions may be
[264]
FILAR IL TUONO FINGERING
Filar il tuono [It.], filer le son [F., Fine [It.]. End, close.
"to spin the tone"] An
iSth-century term,
.
ving, in ML
xxiv, no. 4. Fingering [F. doigtt\ G. Finger'satz,
Applicatur (obs.)]. The methodical use
Final, finalis. See *Church modes I.
of the fingers in the playing of instru-
[265]
FINGERING FINNISH MUSIC
, cdefgabagfedcr
6 6 known English fingering: x i 2 3 4, i.e.,
as
* such as:
ing [see L
with a cross for the thumb and with i for
23232343232 3 2
Ex.; also the article in GD 236 and
ii,
the index finger (as in violin playing).
This is now almost completely abandoned
for the"German fingering" 12345. h * s
curious to note that the "English system"
was widely used in Germany as well as in
other countries during the i8th century
and that, on the other hand, the first rec-
ord of the "German fingering" occurs in
English virginal books (c. 1600). Purcell
Weitzmann-Seifert, Geschichte der Kla- used the English fingering, but in reversed
viermusi\ (1899), pp. n, 13, 70, 82, 84, order for the left hand, i.e., with the x for
1 60, etc.]. This method of passing one the fifth finger. For the system of finger-
finger over the other, which from the ing utilized for stringed instruments, see
modern point of view appears the extreme ^Positions. Cf. H. Gleason, "Organ In-
was considerably less awk-
of clumsiness, struction before Bach" (BAMS iv).
ward on the old instruments whose keys
had a smaller "fall" than those of the Finlandia. See ^Symphonic poem II.
Fioritura [It., from fiore, flower]. Em- Flamenco. The "gypsy" style of Spanish
bellishment, either written out or impro- dance and dance music. It is this style,
[267]
FLAT FLEMISH SCHOOL
tumes, alluring and pointedly erotic move- traverse [see *Flute III]. In the same pe-
ments, stamping of the feet (zapateado), riod, flauto piccolo means, not the trans-
and clapping of the hands (palmada), verse piccolo, but a small recorder [see
which is commonly thought to be "typi- *Recorder],
cally Spanish." Truly Spanish dancing,
Flaviol. A small Spanish one-handed
however, is of an entirely different char-
flute, used for dance music. See *Pipe
acter, darkly glowing rather than brilliant,
and tabor.
silent rather than noisy, introvert rather
than extrovert in its expression of passion Mournful.
Flebile [It.].
and love. The gypsy style is supposed to
have originated in the early i9th century Flehend [G.]. Imploring.
from the cantc hondo or jondo ("deep
song") of Andalusia, a highly emotional Flemish School. I. The
leading school
and tragic type of song, probably influ- (or schools) of the *Renaissance, c. 1450-
enced by the Sephardic Jews and cultivated 1600, following the *Burgundian School.
particularly among prisoners (carcelera), The name Flemish, which has by now
many of whom
were gypsies. In the mid- been fairly universally adopted instead of
dle of the century it was taken up by the the earlier name Netherlandish [regard-
educated people, as was the case with jazz. ing the ramifications of these names, see
* Netherlands
The meaning of the name "flamenco" Schools], expresses the fact
(Flemish? flamingo-colored?) is obscure. that practically all the numerous members
Cf. LavE i-4, 2391; D. Duff, in MM xvii, of this school came from Flanders, i.e., the
Flatterzunge [G.]. Flutter tonguing many, Italy, England, and Spain. The
[see *Tonguing]. second half of the i6th century presents a
unique picture of artistic rivalry and co-
Flautando, flautato. See *Bowing (1).
operation between the Flemish teachers
Flautino [It.]. A small flute, either the and their "foreign" pupils.
II. The origin of the Flemish School is
flageolet or the descant flute.
still veiled in obscurity.
Early musicians
Flauto [It.]. Flute. Flauto a becco, of Flemish extraction such as Willem Mal-
*
flauto diritto, -ftauto dolce, recorder; beke (fl. c. 1430) and Heyne van Gize-
flauto d'amorCy see *Flute II (b); flautone, ghem (fl. c. 1450) would seem to belong
alto flute or bass flute; flauto piccolo, pic- to the late Burgundian School. The ob-
colo (flute). Until the middle of the i8th vious surmise that the Flemish music de-
century, e.g., in Bach, flauto always means veloped from the Burgundian School has
the recorder, the flute being called flauto weight, considering the sharp cleav-
little
FLEMISH SCHOOL FLEMISH SCHOOL
age between the style of Dufay and that nella, the *canzonetto, the *balletto, etc.,
ofOckeghem and Obrecht [see below], which indicate the approaching decadence.
More likely there was a line of develop- III.
Following is a brief account of the
ment leading from Dunstable (via Regi- development within this general frame:
nald Liebert ?) to the early Flemish. The contrast between the Burgundian
Following is a list of the most important School (Dufay) and the first Flemish
Flemish composers, arranged according masters (Ockeghem, Obrecht) can be
to generations:
briefly characterized as the change from
three-part writing to four-part writing;
1425: Johannes Ockeghem (1430-95);
from a relatively high range to a consid-
Jacob Obrecht (1430-1505).
1450: Caspar van Werbecke (c. 1440-after erably lower range (first appearance of the
bass); from a medieval timbre ^Sound-
1514) ;HendrikIsaac ( 1450-1517) ;
equivalence of all the parts and, beginning chordal, sectional, cadential, using con-
with Josquin, the consistent use of imita- trasting sonorities) by Obrecht, Josquin,
tion as the chief means to achieve this Willaert, G. Gabrieli [regarding the ap-
equivalence. This tendency appears even pearance of chordal style in Flemish mu-
in those compositions in which a cantus sic, see *Familiar style]. Although the
firmus stands apart from and in balance Flemish composers occasionally made use
to the contrapuntal web of the other voices in their Masses of proportional complica-
(tenor masses and motets of the i5th cen- tions and of canonic riddles [see *Propor-
tury). Masses and motets are the back- tions; *Canon], an entirely misleading
bone of the vast repertory of Flemish com- impression has been created by numerous
posers; to these were gradually added the writers who have made this feature the
various "national" types of secular music, main point of their characterization. Up
the (French) *chanson, the (Italian) to the present day, books have been pub-
*madrigal, the (German) *Lied, and fi- lished in which Ockeghem is represented
lially
the many popular forms of *villa- only by his 36-voiced canon or his Missa
[269]
FLEXA FLOGELHORN
cujusvis toni [see *Catholica], and Jos- The musical style also descends from these
quin by his early canonic Missa I'hommc precursors, both in the broad melodic
armc* In this connection it may be noted style and in the rich and colorful orchestral
that English composers of the mid- 1 5th accompaniment, while typically Wagneri-
century far surpassed their Flemish col- an features, such as the use of ^leitmotifs,
leagues in the devising of canonic enig- continuous melody, and symphonic treat-
mas [see *English music III] and that the ment of the orchestra, are not yet devel-
proportional complications in the works oped.
of Ockeghem, Isaac, Josquin, are only a
modest remainder of those encountered
Fliessend [G.]. Flowing.
in the French music between Machaut Flote [G.]. Flute.
and Dufay [cf. ApNPM, "Mannered No-
tation"]. See also ^Imitation; *Mass;
Flotenuhr [G.]. See *Mechanical in-
struments III.
*Motet; *Musica reservata.
Lit.: P. Lang, "The So-called Nether- Florid. The adjective is used as synony-
land Schools" xxv); H. Besseler,
(MQ mous with ornamented, embroidered,
"Von Dufay bis Josquin" (ZMW
xi); see
decorated, *figurate, etc., chiefly with ref-
also *Belgian music.
erence to contrapuntal music in which the
Flexa. See *Psalm tones. lines move largely in relatively quick notes
(i) (2)
Same as *clivis (also flexus). from one beat to the next. Thus, the works
of the early Flemish masters (Ockeghem,
Flick-kanzone [G., "patchwork "-can- Obrecht, Isaac) are said to be in florid
zona] . A term introduced by H. Riemann style [cf. HAM,
no. 73; SchGMB, nos. 52,
for a special type of canzona [see *Can- 55]. Florid counterpoint specifically de-
zona (5), II] which shows a particularly notes the use of ornamented lines in the
quick change of extremely short sections teaching of counterpoint [see Counter-
in contrasting characters and styles. An point].
example of this relatively rare type is a
canzona by Hermann Schein [cf. the com-
Flos [L., flower], A 13th-century term
for embellishments, somewhat like the
plete ed. by Priifer, vol. i, 41]. For an-
other example, by G. B. Grille (1608), cf. trill, mordent, or vibrato. Johannes de
RiHM ii.2, Moravia (CS i, 92) likens the flos har-
127.
monicus to the rippled surface of a water
Flicorno [It.]. An Italian make of moved by a gentle wind.
[270]
FLOSSIG FLUTE
Fliissig [G.]. "Fluid," flowing. called contrabass flute. An instrument
builtan octave below the regular flute. A
Flute. For the general characteristics of
recent construction is the Albisiphone
the flutes, see under *Wind instruments.
(invented by A. Albisi, 1910). The body
I. Present Forms,
(a) Flute [F. flute-, G. of this instrument is held vertically, the
Flote\ It. flauto}. The modern flute is a
extension being shortened by means of a
cylindrical tube with a stopped parabolic double U-tube between the embouchure
head at the upper end. In the head is a
and the tuning slide. The mouth part is
side hole (embouchure) across which the bent horizontally to form the top of a T.
player blows, thus setting in vibration the The fingering is that of the regular Boehm
column of air inside the tube. The lowest
system. The compass is from B to f"8.
octave of the fundamental scale over-
blown by increased wind
is
(e) Flutes and piccolos in D
are occasion-
pressure, thus encountered. These are treated as
ally
providing the second octave of the com-
transposing instruments, having the writ-
pass. The remaining part of its three- ten range of the regular flute. See also
octave range is
produced by further over-
*Giorgi flute.
blowing and by cross fingering. The mod- II. Obsolete Forms, (a) The Third
ern flute was largely developed by Th.
flute So called from being
[G. Terzflote] .
means of *tonguing. Its range is as shown Throughout the Middle Ages, the Renais-
in Fig. i, although it appears that some sance, and the early Baroque periods the
instruments had the low Bb, and the high cross flute was mainly a military instru-
C# and D are occasionally written, (b) The ment (fife), associated particularly with
Piccolo [F. petite flute; G. Kleine Flote, Germany, hence the name German flute
Picl(elfldte\ It. flauto piccolo or ottavino]. under which it was generally known. For
A small flute, pitched an octave above the artisticpurposes, the end-blown flute, the
flute. Its written range is as shown in Fig. ^recorder, was preferred. Around 1650
2, sounding an octave higher. It is one of the instrument, which formerly had a
the brightest and most penetrating instru- cylindrical bore, was provided with a
ments of the orchestra, and its upper reg- conical bore, a change which procured a
ister must be used with care, (c) The Alto much smoother tone. Before 1750 the
Flute [F. flute alto\ G. Altflote; It. flau- flute traversicre became, for the first time,
tone], sometimes called bass flute. An in- an important solistic instrument, as is
strument built in G, i.e., a perfect fourth shown by the appearance of Quantz's
lower than the normal flute, with a range epochal treatise: Versuch einer Anwei-
from g to c'". It is notated as a transposing sung die Flote traversiere zu spielen
instrument, a fourth above its actual sound (1752). It may be noticed that in Bach
(c' to '") (d) The Bass Flute,
sometimes and Handel the plain name flauto still
5 n
FLUTES
Boehm metal. Boehm 4- Flute, i8th century.
i. Boehm flute, wood. 2. flute, 3. flute, piccolo.
8. Sheng (not a flute).
5. Recorder. 6. Bass Recorder. 7. Flageolet. Panpipes. 9.
[272]
FLOTE FOLIA
invariably means the recorder, the cross hence the name "Farinelli's Ground" un-
flute being called flauto traverse or tra- der which this piece appeared in Playford's
verse. Lully was probably the first com- The Division Violin , 1685); D'Anglebert
poser to use the flute in the orchestra, but (for harpsichord, 1689; c ^- TaAM, vii,
not until the time of Haydn did the flute 122); Pasquini (for harpsichord; cf.
become a permanent member thereof. TaAM viii, 117 and 125); Alessandro
Beginning with c. 1800 attempts at im- (Domenico?) Scarlatti (for harpsichord;
provement were made, caused chiefly by cf. TaAM ix, 112); Mar in Marais (for
the incorrect position of the side holes viola da gamba; Pieces de viol 1681); . . .
which were cut to conform with the reach Corelli (for violin; op. 5 no. 12, 1700); F.
of the fingers rather than with the laws of Liszt (Rhapsodic Espagnole, 1863); Rach-
acoustics. The final step in this develop- maninov (Variations on a theme by Co-
ment was the system of Boehm, who also relli, op. 42, 1932). The beginning of
changed the bore back to its former cylin- d'Angelbert's set is
reproduced here.
drical shape. This change made the pitch
more accurate, but destroyed the sweet
timbre of the conical flute. It made the
flute a most useful member of the orches-
tra, but practically useless as a solo instru-
ment.
Lit.: D. C. Miller, The Flute and Flute
[=73]
FOLK SONG FOLK SONG
Folk song. I. Folk song may be defined immense wealth of material which is of
as the musical repertory and tradition of great interest and importance, particularly
communities, as opposed to art music from the ethnological point of view. Folk
which the artistic expression of musi-
is songs of the different nations have certain
cally trained individuals. It develops characteristic features which, although
anonymously, usually among the "lower difficult to describe, are clearly felt to rep
classes," together with artless poems deal- resent the general national traits of the
ing with the various phases of daily life: people. Our example, showing an Amer-
working songs, love songs, cradle songs, ican (i), an Italian (2), a German (3), a
drinking songs, patriotic songs, dancing Swedish (4), and a Hungarian (5)
folk song, will be sufficient to dem-
onstrate this point. On the other hand,
there exist numerous examples of melo-
dies found among different and widely
separated nations which show a striking
similarity of melodic or rhythmic design.
Certain Hungarian folk songs, for exam-
1W 'mtuattttotiie meadow Jm. to milk the cow.
ple, have been found to be almost identical
gnng
with melodies sung in Anatolia, Scotch
folk tunes have been said to be similar in
some respects to those of Arabia, and
T'aje fat-la
la, Russian gypsy songs are surprisingly close
cpn-nl-laAn.-to-ni-a,
in character to Brazilian melodies. While
in many cases such similarity may be mere-
ly incidental,it often
points to a common
a. Te la. col - la *nre -
-je fat-ta,
origin of such melodies and, in such cases,
gives a clue as to the presumable age
3m
g of the songs, which obviously must be
anterior to the period in which the two
people migrated into different places. By
such methods (which would be applicable
in the case of Hungary and Anatolia, but
P
UL s eio Wan -drer drinnen certainly not in the case of Scotland and
Arabia or Russia and Brazil) it has been
possible to establish scientifically the age
of certain folk songs. To mention this
point is all the more important since no-
where in musical studies have pure fancy
and wishful thinking been given free rein
to such a degree as in the study of folk
music, where millenniums are treated
with unparalleled generosity, and melo-
dies are "believed to date back to pre-
Christian eras" which show unmistakable
traces of having been invented in the iyth
or 1 8th century [see under *Bards]. Ac-
most of the folk melodies of the
&&&&F tually,
"civilized" nations are of a relatively re-
cent origin. For instance, practically all
songs, mourning songs* narrative and epic the folk songs which are in current use in
songs, etc. Songs of this kind exist among Germany date from the period around
practically every nation, race, or tribe, 1800. Those of Italy are still more recent,
and they form, considered as a whole, an while the English ones frequently show
[274]
FOLK SONG FOLK SONG
traits of an earlier origin (i6th, cen- shows that music is much closer to the
gions of the Balkan peninsula, of Fin- far as the "original" song has, in the course
land, of Scotland, etc. Strict meter and of decades, centuries, or millenniums,
measure, clear and regular phrases, well- been modified by others.
defined tonality (sometimes with traces III. Perhaps the earliest true folk
songs
of modality), definite form, triadic inter- traceable in written form are Icelandic
vals, etc., are features which have their songs and the Polish war song Bo gar o-
origin in the rationalized vocabulary of dicza, which are preserved in 13th-century
art music and which have, in the course MSS [see *Icelandic music; *Polish mu-
of one or two centuries, sunk down to the sic]. A famous 15th-century example is
sition to the still largely current opinion garian melody preserved in a Cronica of
according to which folk song is the "foun- 1544 because it is the earliest folk song
dation" of all music, an opinion which is showing unmistakable "national" traits
reflected in many books on the history of [cL LavE i.5, 2615^. A number of
music which the traceable history is
in charming English folk tunes (Goe from
preceded by an introductory chapter on my window, John come tyss me now) are
"Folk song." Such a procedure would preserved in the Fitzwilliam
Virginal
have some justification if examples of re- Boo\ (c. 1600) where they are used as
ally primitive folk music were discussed, themes for variations. Most of the Eng-
instead of folk songs which evidently be- lish folk melodies date from the i7th cen-
long to the i yth and i8th centuries. tury while those of Germany originated
It is important and interesting to note mostly around and after 1800. Many of
that the process of seepage has exercised a the most popular folk songs are of trace-
much more penetrating effect on the texts able authorship, e.g., the Lorelei (Ger-
than on the melodies of folk songs. Nu- man; text by Heine, music by F. Silcher,
merous texts of folk songs have been 1789-1860), Dixie (Daniel D. Emmett,
shown to be but modified, frequently dis- 1859), or Estrellita (Mexico; Manuel
torted, versions of art poems. Similar ex- Ponce). As regards the folk songs of the
amples are rare, however, as far as the United States, a clear line of distinction
melodies are concerned. Here the influ- must, of course, be drawn between the
ence "from above" is of a more general aboriginal melodies of the Indians and the
character, establishing the general frame- civilized folk songs of the white settlers
work of style and design only, but admit- and the Negroes. For the former, see
ting original creation within this frame. *American Indian music; for the latter,
This observation is important because it *Ballad; *Shanty; *Negro music.
[275]
FOLLIA FORLANA
Lit. (selection of books and collections from the fact that, in a normally pitched
of a general character): W. Danckert, flue-stop, such as 8'-principal, the length
Das europdischc Vol1(slied (1939); LavE of the pipe sounding C measures about 8
2866-3014 (bibl.);
11.5,
M. E. Sears, Song feet (the other pipes of the same stop be-
Index (1926; Suppl. Vol. 1934); A. M. ing, of course, correspondingly longer or
Buchanan, American Fol1(music (Index, shorter), whereas, in a stop of the 4'-class,
Bibliography; National Federation of the pipe sounded by the same key is only
Music Clubs, 1939); F. Howes, "Recent half as long, etc. [see *Organ V] In mu- .
Work in Folk-Music" (PMA Ixiv); H. tation stops, i.e., those stops which are
6 =
such as 3
55 (
= ) and
( lower thirds, E,
Scotland; K. Schindler, Fol\ Music and J give e,
[276]
FORM FORMS, MUSICAL
dance in triple meter (6/4, 6/8) with position." The much-discussed problem
dotted rhythm, similar to the gigue. It of "form and contents" offers an example.
appears frequently in the ballets of Cam- Considering, e.g., a typical statement such
pra [L'Europe galante (1697), Les Festes as: "In the last analysis form and content
V&nitiens (1710)]. Bach's orchestral cannot be wholly independent of each
suite in C major includes a forlana. In other," it
appears that this is
entirely cor-
1914 attempts were made
(ostensibly rect if form here means: "form in a com-
under the auspices of the Pope) to revive position." In fact, in this case the some-
the forlana in place of the "offensive" what cautious and defensive wording of
tango. Cf. J. ficorcheville, in BS1M x; the phrase may be replaced by the frank
P. Nettl, in RM xiv. statement: "the form in a composition is
entirely dependent on its contents." If,
Form. A which has different
term however, form were meant here to denote
meanings depending on whether it occurs "form of a composition," the almost op-
in the connection: "form in music" or: posite statement would be correct, namely:
"form(s) of music." In the former com- "the form of a composition (if it has a
bination it has a very general and loose 'form') is essentially independent of its
significance, simply expressing the basic contents." If we conceive of the sound-
fact that music, like all art, is not a cha- material as a somewhat amorphous sub-
otic conglomeration of sounds, but that stance comparable to the flesh and cells
it consists of sounds arranged in orderly of a body, then form might be said to
manner according to numerous obvious represent the support by which this sub-
principles as well as to a still greater num- stance is held and shaped, this support
ber of subtle and hidden relationships being of two kinds: one forming a highly
which evade formulation. In this mean- complicated inner structure comparable
ing, form is so essential to music that it to the bones and muscles (form in a com-
is difficult to imagine a procedure by position); the other determining its outer
which it could be avoided. Perhaps a contour, somewhat like the skin (form
wild portato up and down the violin of a composition).
mingled with some scratching and knock- Regarding the details of "form in
ing of the bow would come pretty near music," it suffices to say that practically
to this. Even
the simplest melody shows all the theoretical and compositional prin-
relationships of pitch (intervals), of time ciples of music fall under this category,
values (rhythm), of grouping (phrases), e.g., tones, intervals, scales, tonality, con-
etc., in words, has "form." In
other sonance and dissonance, meter, rhythm,
speaking of "forms of music," however, phrase, theme, motive, repetition, varia-
something quite different and much more tion, modification (metamorphosis, trans-
a specific composition, a clear distinction other words, a musical form is the plan of
were made between the "form in this construction comparable to an archi-
this com- which
composition" and the "form of
tect's ground plan exists in the
377]
FORMS, MUSICAL FORMS, MUSICAL
mind of the composer when he sets out to In other cases in fact, in most of them
write, say, a fugue or a sonata. History the evolutionary element has to be
shows that in almost every period of Euro- taken into account. For instance, the
pean music (much less so in Oriental toccata which, in the period of Bach, is
[278]
FORMS, MUSICAL FORTSPINNUNG
recitative, the through-composed song, in no. 4); R. von Picker, "Formprobleme
Wagner's "unending melody," etc. A der mittelalterlichen Musik" vii);(ZMW
similar situation exists with regard to the M. Bauer, "Formprobleme des spaten
"compound vocal forms" [II, B] and to Beethoven" (ZMW ix); H. Mersmann,
the symphonic poem in which the com- "Zur Geschichte des Formbegriffs" (JMP
poser "proceeds" on the basis of the pro- xxxvii). See also under *Sonata, *Fugue,
grammatical idea. and the bibliography in MoML, 231.
There exists a widespread tendency
Forte [It.], abbr. /, loud; fortissimo,
among modern composers and writers to
abbr. ff (///), very loud; piu forte, louder;
deny, or at least to minimize, the impor-
tance of musical forms, the view being forte -piano, abbr. //?, loud followed by
that each composition creates not only its soft; mezzoforte, abbr. mf, medium loud.
See *Dynamic marks.
own inner form (form within the com-
position; see under *Form) but also its Fortepiano fit.], (i) See *Forte.
outer structure (form of the composi- (2) Older name for the pianoforte.
tion). As far as the repertory of classical
music and the greater part of early music Fortfahren [G.]. To continue (e.g.,
are concerned, such a statement is obvi- with the same speed).
Loui-ie*, "The Crisis in Form" (MM viii, terial," the former being treated in repe-
[279]
FORTY-EIGHT FREISCHOTZ
tition, the latter in continuation. Other Frais, fraiche [F.]. Fresh.
terms for the same two types are "static"
and "dynamic" melody (E. Kurth). Cf. Frappant [F.]. "Striking," marking.
W. Fischer, in StM iii. Frauenchor [G.]. Women's chorus.
[280]
FRE1STIMMIG FRENCH MUSIC
ter of the flute which portrays Samiel. which had its
special music, known as
See reference under *Melodrama. *Gallican chant. After the establishment
of the Roman Rite
(by Pipin, 752-768)
Freistimmig [G., from fret, free; the cathedral of Metz became the leading
Stimmcy part]. Modern German term for French center of Gregorian chant, well
a "pseudo-contrapuntal'* style in which
known particularly for its neumatic
there is no strict adherence to a given
number of parts, that is, in which voices manuscripts written in a special type of
are allowed freely to enter or drop out,
neumes, the Messine neumes [see
*Neumes I]. In the pth century the
and in which also chordal elements occur.
The natural idiom for such a style is the
monastery of St. Martial in Limoges
played a leading part in the early devel-
keyboard or the lute. Indeed, it makes its
opment of the *sequence, a development
first appearance in the
i5th- and 16th- which reached its high-point in Adam de
century preludes for these instruments.
It is frequently found in the works of
St. Victor (d. 1192). From the period of
1450), during which France was the un- tional period (Ce* saris, Tapissier, Solage,
disputed leader in musical development; and many others), led to the last period
another of about 100 years, during the of medieval French music, the *Bur-
Baroque era(Chambonnieres, Lully, gundian School, with Dufay (c. 1400-
Couperin, Rameau), and a third one, that 74), and Binchois (c. 1400-67). Late
of modern French music, beginning with Burgundian musicians such as Antoine
Berlioz. Busnois (d. 1492) and Loyset Compare
I. During the 5th and 6th centuries (d. 1518), both pupils of Ockeghem, form
there existed in France a special branch of a group sometimes referred to as the
Christian worship, the Gallican Rite, School of Cambrai (Dufay lived in Cam-
FRENCH MUSIC FRENCH MUSIC
brai from 1450 till his death) which al- (1602-72) and Louis Couperin (c. 1626-
ready shows the influence of the Flemish 61) over the Baroque peak of Henry
style(figurate counterpoint with imita- d'Anglebcrt (1635-91) to the Rococo
tion; cf., e.g., BeMMR
212, 213). In the hedonism of Francois Couperin (1668-
works of other French composers such as 1733), coming to its close in the master-
Josquin des Pros (1450-1521), Pierre de works of Jean-Philippe Rameau (1683-
la Rue (c. 1460-1518), and Antoine 1764), with their almost Beethovenian
Brumel (fl. around 1500), the Flemish traitsof ingenious characterization and
influence is so dominating that they are dramatic surprise. The French organ
usually classified as *Flemish composers. music of the Baroque (Gigault, 1625-
The Flemish style took on a typically 1707; Le Begue, 1630-1702; Dandrieu,
French tinge with Clement Jannequin 1684-1740) is notable for its ventures in
(1485-1560), the founder of the French registration rather than for truly artistic
*chanson, that witty and frivolous type achievements. The French song litera-
of music which established France's lead- ture of this period includes the *air de
ership in the field of amorous and hedo- cour, the *bergerette, and the ^brunette
nistic music, but also marked the end of [see *Chanson],
eminence. Alongside this, there
its artistic The invasion of the Italian opera buffa
goes an academic strain through the (1752; guerre des *bouffons) marked the
French music of the i6th century, char- end of the French Baroque opera and the
acterized chiefly by the cultivation of the beginning of the less significant *opera
*vers mesure (Claudin, Costeley). A comique. For an entire century, from
large repertoire of French 16th-century 1750 to 1850, the history of French music
lute music (mostly dances and arrange- was practically restricted to the efforts to
ments of chansons) exists in the lute build up a new "great opera," efforts in
books of Attaingnant (1530), Morlaye which the German Gluck (1714-87), the
(c. 1550), Adrian Le Roy (c. 1550), and Cherubini (1760-1842) and Ros-
Italians
others [see *Lute music], while only a sini(1792-1868), the German Meyerbeer
few remnants of 16th-century French (1791-1864) participated side by side
organ music have been preserved in the with French composers such as Gretry
organ books published by Attaingnant (1742-1813), Mehul (1763-1817), Boiel-
around 1530, and in the works of the dieu (1775-1834), Auber (1782-1871),
great organ composer Jean Titelouze and Halevy (1799-1862).
(1563-1633), the "French Sweelinck," as IV. Much more important than the
he might be called. mediocrities of these operas is the sym-
III. In the i yth century, French music phonic work of Hector Berlioz (1803-
was entirely under the patronage of the 69), the heir to the tradition of Beethoven
court of Versailles (Louis XIII, 1610-43; and perhaps the greatest figure in the
Louis XIV, 1643-1715), the pomp and French music of the i9th century. With
splendor of which was enhanced by the all show
their "flaws" his compositions
*ballet (Cambefort, 1605-61; Lully, an and vigor which
originality, passion,
is rarely encountered in the more aca-
1632-87; Campra, 1660-1744), and by
the opera (Cambert, 1628-77; Lully; demic works of his successors, Csar
Campra; Rameau, 1683-1764) [see Franck (1822-90), Charles Saint-Saens
*Opera IV]. Here originated the *min- (1835-1921), Gabriel Faure (1845-
uet, the *gavotte, the *bourree, and 1924), and Vincent d'Indy (1851-1931).
numerous other dances which were later These four form what might be called
adopted into the *suite. Of great artistic the classical school of French music.
the classical forms of
significance is the French lute music of They amalgamated
the the symphony, quartet, variations, etc.,
7th century, represented chiefly by
1
Denis Gaultier (c. 1600-72), and the with a romantic vocabulary of harmonies
harpsichord music which leads from and with a thorough study of counter-
the reserved dignity of Chambonnires point. Their academic and somewhat
FRENCH MUSIC FRET
dogmatic leanings became patent in the oped a highly personal style of a basically
*Schola cantorum (founded by d'Indy contrapuntal construction, but varying
and others in 1894) which continued the greatly from one composition to the next.
tradition of Cesar Franck, combining it The repertoire of the modern French
with the study of Gregorian chant and of opera is characterized by Gounod's Faust
16th-century counterpoint (Palestrina). (1859), Bizet's Carmen (1875), Saint-
The tendency towards a greater sub- Saens's Samson (1877), Masse-
et Dallla
jectivism, a more lyrical expressiveness, net's Manon (1884), Lalo's Le Roi d'Ys
a richer orchestral palette, and a typically (1878), Chabrier's Gwendoline (1886),
French exquisiteness of taste appears in d'Indy 's Fervaal (1897), Charpentier's
the works of Henri Duparc (1848-1933), Louise (1900), Debussy's Pelleas et Meli-
the creator of the modern French song sande (1900), Dukas' Ariane et Barbe-
[see *Chanson], Ernest Chausson (1855- bleue (1907), Ravel's Heure Espagnole
99), and Paul Dukas (1865-1935). Un- (1911), and Faure's Penelope (1913).
fortunately, each of them produced only After the first World War French com-
a few works of importance. To the fore- posers became interested chiefly in the
going may be added Florent Schmitt ballet [see *Ballet III.]
(b. 1870) who, more than any other Lit.: LavE i.3, 1176 (till 1814), ii.i, 56
French composer, was influenced by the (modern); P. Lasserre, The Spirit of
emotional exuberance of German Roman- French Music (1917); M. Hargrave, The
ticism. Modern French music found its Earlier French Musicians, 1632-1834
most characteristic expression in the im- (1917); A. Hervey, French Music of the
pressionism which was prepared by i<)th Century (1903); A. W. Locke,
fidouard Lalo (1823-92) and Emmanuel Music and the Romantic Movement in
Chabrier (1841-94), and brought to full France ( 1920) E. B. Hill, Modern French
;
after-war period brought a strong reac- French Organ Music Past and Present ,
tion against the refinement of impres- (1919); A. Cortot, French Piano Music
sionistic style, a reaction which found its (1932); A. Koechlin, "Sur revolution de
clearest formulation in the words of Coc- la musique franchise avant et apres De-
teau: "After the music with the silk- bussy" (RM xvi). See *Editions XVI,
brush, the music with the ax." In this XIX, XXIV.
movement Erik Satie (1866-1925) played
French overture. See 'Overture I,
a rolecomparable to that of Arnold
II.
Schonberg in Germany. He founded the
school known as Les Six [see *Six] which French sixth. See *Sixth chord.
includes the most prominent among the
Frenetico Frenzied.
contemporary French composers, notably [It.].
[283]
FRETTEVOLE FUGA
mcnts they are narrow strips of wood or leading renditions in SchGMB, nos. 69,
metal fixed on the finger board. On Euro- 70, with the correct (vocalizing) inter-
pean instruments the frets are always so pretation in BeMMR, 220] The most im- .
arranged as to give a succession of semi- portant source for these songs are the
tones [see *Tablature III]. eleven books, Frottole, published by Pe-
trucci in 1504-14. In these books, as well
Frettevole [It.]. Hurried.
as in present-day usage, the term frottole
Frohlich
for Italian secular songs of the period
[G.]. Happy, joyful.
around 1500, including, in addition to
Frog. Colloquial term adopted from the the frottola proper, other poetic-musical
G. *Frosch< for the *nut of the violin bow.
types such as the *canzona (4), the *ode
and the *strambotto.
Frog Quartet [G. Froschquartett].
D The frottola grew up in the social at-
Popular name for Haydn's Quartet in
(no. 50, or op. 50, no. 6), so called on ac- mosphere of the courts at Verona, Padua,
count of the character of the main theme Venice, and particularly Mantua, where
the most fertile composers of frottole
of the last movement.
lived, Marco Cara and Bartolommeo
Froidement [F.]. Coldly, indifferently. Tromboncino. H. Isaac and Josquin des
Pres also wrote in this form, which be-
From the New World. See *Sym-
came a forerunner of the *villanella as
phonic poem I.
well as of the *madrial. Expls. in Am-
Frosch [G., frog]. The *nut (*frog) bros, Geschichte der Musit( v; ^Editions
of the violin bow. II, vol. r; HAM, no. 95.
Lit.: R. Schwartz, cf. *Editions XXV,
Frottola [It. dimin. of jrutto, fruit?]. vol. A. Einstein, "fCanzoni, Sonetti,
8;
A type of late i5th- and early 16th-century Strambotti e Frottole ... (1941); W. H.
North-Italian poetry and music. As a
Rubsamen, Literary Sources of Secular
poetic form, the frottola consists of vari- Music in Italy (1943); E. B. Helm, in
ous stanzas of three (or four) double-
with a refrain (called ripresd)
MQ xxvii; E. T. Ferand, in xxvii; MQ
lines each, E. Gizzarelli, in BAMS
i; R. Schwartz,
of two double-lines before and after each VMW
in ii; id., in JMP xxxi; id., in Fest-
stanza, a form similar to the 14th-century Th. Kroyer\ A. Einstein, in
schrift fur
*ballata, and the contemporary Spanish ZMW x; E. Ferand, in AM
x; K. Jep-
*villancico. The music always consists of AM
pesen, in xi; A. Pirro, in RdM, 1922;
several short sections which are arranged F. Vatielli, in RMl
xxviii.
and repeated in various schemes, the fol-
lowing one being frequent:
Friihlingslied [G.]. Spring song.
Text: r r s s s r r
Music: a b a a b a b Fullstimme A mere
[G.I. "filling"
(r stands for two lines of the refrain, s for voice, lacking in independent importance.
two lines of the stanza).
The style of the frottola is essentially Fuga [It.; L.]. (i) Italian for *fugue.
chordal in three or four parts, with the (2) The original meaning of the (Latin)
upper part standing out as a melody. term is not fugue, but canon, particularly
They were probably performed as accom- the canon in which the different voices
the lower parts being played sing the same melody as in the modern
panied songs,
on instruments. There is, however, no canon or in the mensuration canon as
foundation for the theory, advanced by distinguished from the enigmatic canons
H. Riemann and repeated by others, that [see *Canon In this meaning the
II].
the textless sections which frequently oc- term is
already used by Oswald v. Wol-
cur at the end of a frottola were "instru- kenstein, 1377-1445 [cf. H. J. Moser,
mental afterludes" [compare the mis- Geschichte der Deutschen Musi\ (1930),
[284]
FUGATO FUGUE
imitation (second statement) of the sub-
p. 196], later by J. Ockcghem [Ambros
V, p. 18], Johannes Buchner [c. 1525; ject, near the beginning of the fugue.
see *Fundamentum], Hans Gerle [Mu- Frequently, but not always, this continu-
slca Teusch (1532)], A. de Cabezon [see ation takes on a rather definite form,
^Editions XIII], and Vincenzo Galilei somewhat comparable in distinctiveness
[see *Editions XIV, vol. 4, p. 12]. and importance to the subject. In this
Around 1600 the word fuga adopted the case it is called "countersubject," and will
Fugue [from L. fuga, flight; F. fugue; being applied to the later sections of simi-
G. Fuge]. The latest and most mature lar construction. (e) A section of the
form of imitative counterpoint, developed fugue which does not include a statement
of the subject is called an episode. The
during the iyth century and brought to
its
highest perfection by J. S. Bach. episodes are based chiefly on short motives
I. Structure. The main features of a derived from the subject or its continua-
plained subsequently. (c) In each voice episodes. The episodes, although still in
the horizontal space between one state- counterpoint, are somewhat "lighter
strict
ment and the next of the subject is filled in weight" and stand to the preceding
out by a freely invented counterpoint expositions in the relationship of relaxa-
which, however, is usually rendered tion to tension. A
fugue may have three,
homogeneous by the consistent use of four, or more from
expositions, separated
small motives of a unified melodic and one another by episodes. The middle ex-
rhythmic pattern. These motives are de- positions usually involve modulations
rived eitherfrom the subject itself, or, into other keys, such as the relative minor,
more frequently, from its continuation the dominant, or the subdominant, with
which forms the counterpoint to the first return to the main key in the last exposi-
FUGUE FUGUE
tion. (g) While in the first exposition lesser or greater complexity, somewhat
the statements of the subject follow in learned in character, but artistically justi-
rather close succession, they usually occur fied as elements not only of additional
more widely spaced in the later exposi- interest and variety but also of increased
tions, separated by what might be called intensity. Most of these are found
"secondary episodes." In the accompany- under separate entries [see * Augmenta-
ing schematic graph of the first fugue tion and diminution; *Inversion; *Stret-
from Bach's Wt. Cl. ii these are designated to; *Double Fugue; see also *Art of
Fugue].
fo.ll- E*y.2 lEy.2lBjp.5lC.Aal II. History. The principle of imitative
quent," or "dux (leader) and comes" pansion of each point into a well-defined
section including a greater number (up
(follower). Usually the answer is not an
exact transposition, but one involving the to 15 and more) of statements of the sub-
modification of certain steps, e.g., the re- ject. Besides these "poly thematic" ricer-
detail. It is interesting to observe that style persists in slow fugues, such as nos.
Bach treated the fugue much more freely 4 and 22 of Wt. Cl. i, while the canzona
than Mozart, Haydn, and Beethoven the type leads to the more flexible and indi-
sonata. The well be raised vidual subjects such as occur in the
question may
whether there really exists such a thing quicker fugues [see *Soggetto].
as the "form of the fugue," and whether The details of the development leading
it would not be more proper to speak of from the and canzona of the
ricercar
"fugal procedure" rather than "fugal i6oo-period to the fugue of Bach have
form" [see *Forms, Musical]. At any
never been thoroughly investigated and
rate, the statement repeated in numerous clearly outlined. The problem is very
books that "a fugue is a three-part form" difficult indeed owing to the enormous
israther misleading. wealth of material and the variety of
While the above explanations indicate trends and schools. In restricting our-
the basic principles of the fugue, fugal selves to the organ fugue (i.e., omitting
style includes many special devices oi the no less important development of
[286]
FUGUE FUNCTIONAL HARMONY
fugal style in instrumental and vocal Elements of Fugal Construction (1929);
music) it can be said that this develop- E. Prout, Fugue ( 1 89 1
) id., Fugal Analy-
;
ment takes place chiefly in Germany sis (1892) J. Knorr, Lehrbuch der
;
Fugen-
["fugues'* by Frescobaldi, which have fymposition (1911); A. Gedalge, Trait i
been frequently reprinted in modern col- de la fugue (1901); W. Apel, Die Fuge
lections (e.g., L. Oesterle, Early Keyboard (5 lectures, 1932); S. Levarie, "Fugue
Music (1932) 59) are definitely
i, p. and Form" (BAMS vii).
spurious] and that in a slow process of B. Historical: J. Miiller-Blattau, Grund-
gradual changes the typical features of ztige einer Geschichte der Fuge (1924, 2d
the Bach-fugue appear, such as individ- ed. 1931); W.
Wesely, Die Entwickjung
ual design of subject and countersubject, der Bach (Diss. Prague 1928);
bis
Fuge
restriction to one subject, and loosening E. P. Schwartz, Die Fugenbeantwortung
up of the uniformly heavy contrapuntal vor Bach (Diss. Vienna 1932); J. S. Shed-
texture by the use of episodes. The inter- "The Evolution
lock, of Fugue" (PMA
ested student will find this process illus-
xxiv); F. Deutsch, "Die Fugenarbeit in
trated by the following examples, con- the Werken Beethoven's" (StM xiv); M.
tained in A. Ritter, Zur Geschichte des Zulauf, "Zur Frage der Quintbeantwor-
Orgelspiels, vol. ii (1884): Wolfgang tung bei J. S. Bach" (ZMW vi).
Carl Briegel, 1626-1710 (p. 206); Georg
Caspar Wecker, 1632-95 (p. 120); Jo- Fugue-tune, fuguing piece. Early
hann Christoph Bach, 16431703 (p. American hymns which make some use
172); cf. also HAM, nos. 215, 234, 236.
of imitation. A number of such pieces
to lead the form to its high-point of artis- Cf. Cl. Dickinson, ^Billings Three . . .
parable artistic quality of their themes there exist only three "functionally" dif-
[sec *Melody]. The great master of the ferent chords, namely, tonic (I), domi-
fugue Bach is Beethoven who, in
after nant (V), and subdominant (IV), and
various movements of his latest piano so- that all other chordal combinations, even
natas (opp. 106, no), quartets, and other the most complex and chromatic, are but
works has shown that the potentialities variants of one of these three chords, in
of this form were by no means exhausted other words, that they have either tonic-
by the Baroque masters. After Beethoven function, dominant-function, or subdomi-
composers seldom used the fugue as a nant-function. The chief substitute for
serious art form. Recently, however, the each of the three principal triads is its
*neo-classicaltendencies of present-day relative minor; thus VI stands for I; III
music have stimulated a new creative in- for V; II for IV. However, the "upper
terest in this form (Hindemith and relative" may also serve as a substitute:
[287]
FUNDAMENTAL FUSA
(which may appear in tonic-function or in fictitious bass linewhich consists of the
dominant-function) is an essential feature roots of the chords occurring in a succes-
of the system in which a chord is deter- sion of harmonies. Only if a chord is in
mined, not as an isolated phenomenon by root position does the basse fondamentale
its degree (as is largely the case in the coincide with the real bass. Rameau used
current system of harmonic analysis), but the basse fondamentale in order to dem-
by its function within a series of progres- onstrate his then novel theory of the in-
sions. Particularly the *subdominant oc- verted chords.
curs in a great number of substitutes;
Fundament-instrument [G.]. In the
among these is the *Neapolitan sixth
which, in functional harmony, is simply a *thorough-bass period, all instruments
used for the playing of the bass part,
(doubly altered) S, while in the orthodox
either the written part only (violone, viola
system it is the "first inversion of the
lowered submediant." Another example da gamba, violoncello, bassoon, etc.), or
of functional interpretation is the six-four with accompanying chords (organ, harp-
chord of the first degree (I*) which func- sichord, chitarrone, theorbo, etc.).
tionally is
nearly always a plain dominant Fundamentum organisandi. A title
recognition as a corrective of the tradi- sandi, see *Organum (2)]. Aside from
tional system with its somewhat dogmatic the MS of 1542 which contains also the
method of labeling which is not always Lochamer *Liederbuch [facs. ed. by K.
conducive to an understanding of har- Ameln, 1925; transcr. in JMW ii], two
monic life. The
accompanying example slightly enlarged collections are preserved
in the *Buxheim Organ Book. The
title was
also used by Joh. Buchner (1483-
V* Eb V* FV I
VMWv].
Funktionslehre. See *Functional har-
^sm mony.
"'"'
.
HR^ ,
bfr
. .
b^- !*
"
L- h,
R*
|l |f1
'"
Furiant. A rapid and fiery Bohemian
dance, in % time, with frequentlv shift-
ing accents. It has been used repeatedly
(Schumann) illustrates the traditional
and the "functional" methods. by Dvorak [op. 12, Dum\a and Furiant\
Lit.: H. Riemann, Vereinjachte Har- op. 42, Two Furiants\ also in his chamber
moniclehrc (1893); E. Kirsch, Wcsen und music] and by Smetana [The Bartered
Aujbau der Lehre von den harmonischcn Bride Czech Dances]. A piece called
\
[288]
FUTURISM GALLANT STYLE
Futurism. The term juturismo was in- chestra" consisting of machine guns, si-
troduced by the Italian writer Marinetti rens, steam-whistles, etc. His music, how-
in 1909 in order to denote the extreme ever, is not more than a mild Debussyism,
radicalism in literature and in all the arts. mingled with Puccinian idioms. Real fu-
His ideas were transferred to music by turistic music was composed by Luigi Rus-
Francesco Pratella, at least theoretically, solo (b. 1885), who constructed a number
in his Musica Futurista (1912), which of noise instruments. Although his few
contains the following characteristic sen- performances of futurist music remained
tences: "Dare 1'anima musicale delle folle entirely without success, it is interesting
(of the masses), del grandi cantieri in- to note that the program of futurism (a
dustriali (industrial ship yards), dei treni similar French movement was called
(railways), dei transatlantici (steam- bruitisme, noise-music) was partly real-
boats), delle corazzate (battleships), degli ized by the "machine-music" of Bartok,
automobili e degli aeroplani. Aggiungere Milhaud, Stravinsky (c. 1920-30). See
ai grandi motivi centrali del poema musi- *New music. Cf J. Ecorcheville, in BS1M
.
G. See *Pitch names; 'Letter notation; elaborate style of the *Baroque era (stren-
*Hexachord; *Clefs. ger Stil, gearbeiteter Stil, stile osservato).
The appearance of this new style indicated
Gabelgriff [G.]. *Cross fingering. the change from the church to the "salon"
as the cultural center, from fugal treat-
Gagliard, gaillarde. See *Galliard.
ment to accompanied melody, from ar-
Gai [F.],Gaio [It.]. Gay. chitectural greatness to playful pettiness,
from cantatas and masses to amorous
Gai'ta. See *Bagpipe.
songs. This transition is already noticeable
Galanterien [G.]. Eighteenth-century in the harpsichord compositions of F.
name tor short entertaining pieces in Couperin and his German imitators (such
as J. K. F. Fischer, F. X. Murschhauser,
homophonic, i.e., non-fugal style, such as
airs, variations, dances. In particular, Th. Muff at) as well as in the optional
denomination for the more recent dances dances (menuets, bourrees, gavots, etc.;
in the optional group of the suite, such as see *Galanterien) in the suites of Bach
the bourree, gavotte, etc., [cf. also the (spurious?) dances menu-
passepied,
which are a lighter style in ets, marches, polonaises in the Noten-
composed
than the traditional allemand, courant, buchlein der Anna Magdalena Bach ] The .
und anderen Galanterien." See *Gallant works of Italian composers such as Rutini,
style.
Paganelli, Pescetti [cf. TaAM xii], and
in England. In Germany produced more
it
Gallant style [F. style galant\ G. galan- important results under the hands of Tclc-
ter Stil\ It. stile sueto\. In the i8th cen- mann, Mattheson, Theophil Muffat. In
tury, the light and elegant style
of the the second half of the i8th century Bach's
*Rococo, as opposed to the serious and sons Wilhelm Friedemann and Philipp
[289]
GALLIARD GAPPED SCALE
Emanuel endowed the new style with an such as those shown in the illustration. It
expressiveness [see *Empfindsamer Stil] was executed with many changes of steps
for which the somewhat derogatory word
of 1584 [see *Editions XIV, 4, p. 101], medieval theory the lowest tone of the
After 1550 the galliard usually appears scale, the G of the modern scale. In the
as an after-dance to the *pavane. See Guidonian terminology it received the
Gallican chant. The French (Proven- cally used to denote "all the tones from
gal) branch or "dialect" of the plainsong Gamma," i.e., the entire scale. This mean-
tradition of the medieval Western Church ing persists in the French word gamme
[see *Chant]. It was in use in France for scale, and in the English gamut for
until the introduction of the Roman chant scale or range.
and rite under Pipin [see *French music
I], A small number of melodies survive Gamme [F.]. Scale. See under *Gam-
in manuscripts of the nth century. Cer- ma.
tain portions of the Gallican chant were Gamut. See under *Gamma.
incorporated into the Roman liturgy, e.g.,
the *Improperia and the hymn Crux Fi- Ganze Note, ganze Pause [G.]. See
*Notes.
Lit.: A. Gastoue, Histoire du chant a Ganzton Whole tone. Ganzton-
[G.].
Paris 1904) ; id., Le Chant gallican ( 1939;
(
leiter, whole-tone scale.
also published in Revue du Chant Grc-
gorifn, 1937-39). For additional bibl. cf. Ganzschluss [G.]. Full cadence.
ReMMA,
Gapped scale. A scale which is derived
436.
Galop. A quick round-dance of the mid- from a more complete system of tones by
I9th century (c. 182575) with rhythms the omission of some of these. Thus, the
[290]
GARBATAMENTE GEBRAUCHSMUSIK
pentatonic scale is a gapped scale of the in the middle of a measure. Earlier ex-
diatonic system, and this, in turn, can be amples, however, are frequently notated
considered as a gapped scale of the chro- without upbeat [see Ex.]. The dance is
matic scale. Another selection, made from already mentioned in Arbeau's *0rcheso-
the chromatic system, leads to the chro- graphie (1588) as a "recueil de branles,"
matic scale of the ancient Greek theory. but apparently did not come in vogue
Most of the scales of Oriental music are until the middle of the
iyth century when
gapped scales, as the tones used in actual Lully introduced it into his ballets and
music are only a small selection from a operas. From here it found its way into
more complete system which is designed the ordres of d'Anglebert and Fr. Cou-
only for theoretical demonstration [cf., perin, and into the German suites of
e.g., the 22 sruti and the y-tone scales, sa- Pachelbel and K. F. Fischer. Bach used
J.
Gebundener Stil [G. gebunden, tied, Geistertrio [G. Geist, spirit, ghost].
restricted]. The strict contrapuntal style Popular name for Beethoven's Pianoforte
of the i yth and early i8th centuries Trio in D, op. 70, with reference to the
(fugues), as opposed to jrcier Stil (free ghost-like character of the slow movement.
strained.
(of a subject).
for the transverse (cross) flute, as distin- primitive pieces (written in the style of
guished from the English flute, i.e., the nth-century *organum) of the 14th-
recorder. century codex Engelberg 314 [cf. F. Lud-
wig, in KJ xxi, 48-61, and in v, AMW
German music. The development of 305*1], and in the slightly less archaic
German music, if compared with that in pieces of the Munch of Salzburg (fl.
France, England, Italy, started strikingly around 1375; cf. Moser, p. 1841!) and of
late. In the field of polyphonic music in Oswald von Wolkenstein (1377-1445; cf.
particular, it was not until the middle of BeMMR, 1 80; SchGMB, no. 46; complete
the 1 5th century that is, at the time works in DTOe 9.i). Attractive examples
when the great period of *French music of unpretentious domestic chamber music
came to its close that Germany came to exist in the Lochamer Liederbuch and in
the fore. From then on, however, Ger- the Glogauer Liederbuch (both c. 1460;
man music progressed in a continuous see*Liederbuch). Closely related to the
line which, even aside from its many out- Lochamer MS, which is also an important
standing summits, has maintained an ex- source ofGerman 15th-century folk song,
ceptionally high level up to the present is *Fundamentum organisandi (1452)
the
day, thus making Germany the leading of Conrad Paumann (141073), an im-
nation in the more recent era of music portant source of German organ music,
history. preceded by the tablature of Adam Ile-
I. Prehistory and Middle Ages. The borgh (1448; cf. W. Apel, in xvi) ZMW
*lures, beautiful long trumpets of the and followed by the *Buxheim Organ
Nordic bronze age, are remarkable as evi- Boof^ of c. 1470.
dence of a high standard of bronze found- II. Renaissance. The late I5th century
[293]
GERMAN MUSIC GERMAN MUSIC
ichmuss dich lassen"), to which Paulus Johann Ph. Krieger, Fischer, Pachelbel
Hofhaimer (1459-1537), court-organist (b. c. 1650)
to Maximilian Thomas Stoltzer (c.
II, Bohm, Bruhns, Kuhnau (b. c. 1660)
1480-1526), and Ludwig Scnfl (c. 1490- Telemann, Walther, J. S. Bach (b.^. 1685).
c. 1550), a Swiss, also contributed many At the outset of the I7th century we find
examples of great beauty [cf. H. J. Moser, an interesting activity in the field of the
Paulus Hofhaimer (1929); DTOe 37ii; instrumental dance and *suite, repre-
DdT 34; HAM, nos. 93, 108-111; sented by Johann Hermann Schein (1586-
SchGMB, nos. 76, 84-87; BcMMR, 265^] .
1630), Valentin Haussmann, Isaak Posch,
SenfTs *quodlibets are an interesting and Paul Peuerl. Simultaneously Hein-
source for the reconstruction of the early rich Schiitz the
(1585-1672) brought
German folk song. Around the middle of vocal church music (*passion, *oratorio)
the 1 6th century this autochthonous de- to an artistic height comparable to that of
velopment was interrupted to a certain Bach, and Samuel Scheidt (1586-1654)
extent by the great influx of Flemish com- laid thefoundation for the development
posers who held the key-position in all the of German organ music
[see *Organ mu-
musical centers (de Monte in Prague; Le sic II *Organ chorale, etc.]. The
(a);
Maistre and Scandellus in Dresden; Lasso next generation saw the rise of harpsi-
in Munich), until their German pupils chord music under Johann Jacob Fro-
such as Jacobus Gallus (Handl, 1550-91),
berger (1616-67) [see *Suite III], and
Leonard Lechner (1553-1606), and Hans around 1650 the church cantata emerged
Leo Hassler (1564-1612) were ready to as an exclusively German product [see
continue their tradition. Gallus and Hass- *Cantata III]. Lute music reached an
ler, together with Heinrich Praetorius artistic climax in the works of Esaias Reus-
(1560-1629) and Michael Praetorius ner (1636-79) and Silvius Weiss (1686-
(1571-1621), contributed also to the dis- 1750) [see *Lute music], while violin
semination of the * Venetian poly choral music was cultivated by Johann Schop (d.
style. Towards the end of the century a 1665), Nicolaus Adam Strungk (1640-
number of musicians known as *colorists 1700), and Heinrich Biber (1644-1704),
were active
in the field of keyboard music. masters whose virtuosity paved the way
Baroque. The i7th century found
III. for Bach's pieces for violin solo. In the
German composers active in practically field of orchestral music Johann Rosen-
allthe fields of vocal and instrumental miiller (1620-84) stands out as an early
music, and soon leading particularly in master of original significance, while later
the various forms of church music, the
composers such as Georg Muffat (1645-
*cantata, *passion, and organ composi- 1704), and Philipp Erlebach (1657-1714),
tion. Here the Lutheran *chorale pro- incorporated elements of the Italian and
vided a basis of tradition as well as of French orchestral styles. The German
progress, which largely accounts for the Baroque lied found an outstanding mas-
spiritual integrity and, as a result, for the ter in Adam Krieger (1634-66) [see *Lied
high artistic quality of German Baroque III], and only in the field of the opera
music. An idea of the scope of German have German musicians failed to compete
Baroque music can be gained by glancing successfully with their foreign models
through the list of the German Den\- [see*Opera VII]. In all these fields, ex-
mdler [see 'Editions VII, VIII, IX]. The cept thetwo last-mentioned, the develop-
most outstanding figures are (arranged in ment is climaxed by J. S. Bach (1685-
contemporary groups): 1750).
Schiitz, Schein, Scheidt (b. c. 1585, 100 IV. Rococo. Contemporaries of Bach,
years before Bach) such as Georg Philipp Telemann (1681-
Tundcr, Frobergcr, Rosenmiiller (b. c. 1767), Valentin Rathgeber (1682-1750),
1615) and Gottlieb Muffat (1690-1770), were
Buxtehude, Gcorg Muffat, Biber (b. c. quick to embrace the novel and facile
1640) style of the *Rococo, and "progressive''
GERMAN MUSIC GERMAN MUSIC
writers such as Johann Matthcson (1681- 1830-40: The Romantic decade par ex-
1764) helped to throw overboard the last cellence, including practically all the
vestiges of a tradition which, from their important works of Schumann and
point of view, they were justified in con- Mendelssohn.
sidering old-fashioned and useless. After 1840-50: Schumann's last works (Piano
a comparatively short period of low ebb, Concerto), and Wagner's (1813-83)
German music took a new start in two first operas: Hollander, Tannhauser,
directions: one towards a novel type of Lohengrin.
expressiveness, the *empfindsamer S//7; 1850-60: Wagner's Rheingold, Waltyre,
the other towards the exploitation of mod- Tristan. F. Liszt (1811-86) establishes
ern orchestral resources and the formal the *symphonic poem (Faust, Dante,
development of the classical sonata, sym- Mazefpa), and writes his Etudes trans-
phony, and string quartet. In the former cendentales and most of the Hungarian
field Bach's sons, Wilhelm Friedemann Rhapsodies. Brahms (1833-97) ap-
Bach (1710-84) and Carl Philipp Eman- pears with his Piano Sonatas (opp. i,
uel Bach (1714-88), are outstanding; in 2, 5) and D
minor Concerto, op. 15.
the latter, the numerous musicians col- 1860-70: Wagner and Brahms still domi-
lectively known as the *Mannheim School. nate the scene, the former with Sieg-
Concomitant with this development is the fried and Meistersinger, the latter with
rise of the *Singspiel, and of the *volk-
opp. 18-50, including the Handel
stiimliches Lied [see also *Berlin School] . Variations, the Magelone Songs, and
V. Classicism, Romanticism, and Mod- the Deutsche s Requiem.
ernism. The man who molded the formal 1870-80: Wagner's Gotterdammerung,
and elements of the late Rococo
stylistic the last opera of the Ring des Nibe-
into a new work
of art, thus laying the lungen. Brahms writes his first two
foundation for the musical period known symphonies and chamber music (up to
as *classicism, was Franz Joseph Haydn op. 86). Bruckner (1824-96) appears
(17321809). From 1770 on, his sym- with his symphonies nos. 2-6.
phonies and string quartets, as well as 188090: Wagner climaxes the opera with
those of Mozart (1756-91), show more his Parsifal', Bruckner and Brahms, the
and more clearly that full mastery and symphony with their symphonies nos.
maturity which has led to the designation 7-9 and 3-4. Brahms writes his last
"classical." No less immortal than these chamber works and the Piano Concerto
works are Haydn's oratorios and Mozart's in B-flat. Richard Strauss (b. 1864)
operas. Beethoven (1770-1827) brought brings new life to the symphonic poem
this development to its acme and, in his in his Don Juan and Tod und Ver^la-
latest works, prepared the musical *Ro- rung. Hugo Wolf (1860-1903) writes
manticism, side by side with Franz most of his songs.
Schubert (1797-1828), the great master 1890-1900: The last works of Brahms
of the German lied. The Romantic spirit (opp. 114-121). High-point of Strauss's
is clearly patent in the operas and
more symphonic poem: Till Eulenspiegel,
rhythms, neo-classic forms, etc., brings schen Musi^ 3 vols. (1920-24); LavE i.2,
group of young composers,
to the fore a 971-1175; H. v. d. Pfordten, Deutsche
notably Paul Hindemith (b. 1895) Musi{ (1920); Arnold Schering, Deut-
with stage works such as Cardillac, so- sche Musif(geschichte im Umriss (1917);
natas, string quartets, Das Marienlcben; R. Malsch, Geschichte der deutschen
Ernst Krenek (b. 1900) with Johnny Musi\ (1926); J. A. Fuller-Maitland,
spielt auf and piano and chamber Masters of German Music (1894); J.
works; Ernst Toch (b. 1887) with Miiller-Blattau, Das deutsche Vol^slied
chamber and piano music; Kurt Weill (1932); L. Schiedermaier, Die deutsche
(b. 1900) with the highly successful Oper (1930); AdHM ii, 1002-1038 ("Die
Dreigrosch en oper. Moderne"; bibl.).
1930-40: The most outstanding produc-
tions Hindemith's Mathis der
are
German Requiem. A work for solo
for their return to more conservative Brahms, op. 45, composed 1857-68, as a
memorial for his mother. It consists of
methods.
seven movements based on German texts
The most recent development of Ger-
freely selected Scriptures, instead of
from
man music deserves a few additional re-
the authoritative Latin text of the liturgi-
marks. While Hindemith, in composi-
tions such as the sonatas for pianoforte
cal Requiem Mass [see *Requiem]. Its
[296]
GESANGVOLL GIOCOSO
Gesangvoll [G.]. Cantabile. final one [see *Suite; *Dance music III].
Its chief characteristics are:
Geschleift [G.]. Slurred.
compound
triple time (%, %), dotted rhythm,
Geschwind [G.]. Quick.
wide intervals (sixths, sevenths, octaves),
and fugal writing, usually with the in-
Gesellschaftslied [G.]. Recent musi- verted subject [see ^Inversion (2)] used
cological term for songs which socially for the second section. See the accom-
belong to the bourgeois class, as opposed panying example from Bach, French
to Hoflied (court-song) or Vol\slied
(folk song). The term is used particu-
larly with reference to the German 16th-
century polyphonic songs of Hofhaimer,
Senfl, and others, but it may also be used
to include the Italian madrigal, the French
chanson, etc.
[298]
GLOCKE GOLDEN SEQUENCE
the thumb or that of the third finger is Gloria in excelsis. The second item
drawn rapidly over the white keys. The of the Ordinary of the Mass, also known
same technique can also be applied to the as greater See *Mass A; B
*doxology.
black keys. A much more difficult feat is In plainsong the
III.
phrase, Gloria
first
the glissando in parallel thirds, sixths, or in excelsis Deo, is
sung by the officiating
octaves which is performed by a sliding priest, and the chorus picks up at Et in
movement of the hand with two fingers terra pax. Early (^th-century) poly-
held in a strongly fixed position. It is sur- phonic settings of the Gloria therefore
prising to note that Mozart already has a begin with the latter phrase, and are
glissando in parallel sixths in the cadenza usually indexed under Et in terra in
of his piano variations "Lison dormait." modern editions.
It should be noted, however, that the
Gloria patri. See *Doxology.
glissando was much easier to perform on
the old instruments with their light Vien- Glosa [Sp.]. Spanish 16th-century name
nese action. This fact also explains the for diminutions [see ^Ornamentation I].
octave-glissandi in the last movement of
Diego Ortiz' Tratado de glosas sobre
Beethoven's Waldstein-Sonata which are clausulas (1553;
. . .
reprint by M.
almost impossible to perform on modern
Schneider, 1913, 1936) contains a great
instruments. The first record of a glis- number of instructive examples, illustrat-
sando occurs in a publication by Moyreau,
ing the methods of ornamenting a caden-
Premier livre de pieces de clavecin tialformula (clausula). Cabezon [Obras
(1722). Glissando is much used in the de musica (1578)] uses the term for sim-
playing of the *harp. On the violin the
ple figurative variations of harmonized
glissando a difficult virtuoso effect pro-
is
tones
psalm (jabordone y glosas; cf.
duced by a rapid succession of minute 1 8), while more elaborate vari-
ApMZ ii,
distinct movements of the hand. This ations are called *diferencias.
effect should not be confused with the
*portamento, which is easily produced by
G.O. In French organ music, abbrevia-
a continuous movement of the hand. The tion for grand orgue.
so-called glissando of the trombones prac-
Gotterdammerung. See *Ring des
tically always is a portamento.
Nibelungen, Der.
Glocke [G.]. Bell. Goldberg Variations. A series of 30
variations by J. S. Bach, commissioned
Glockenspiel. See ^Percussion instru-
by the Russian Count Kayserling, and
ments A, 2. The
portable glockenspiel of named after Bach's pupil lohann The-
the military bands consists of steel bars
ophilus Goldberg (c. 1720-60), who was
fixed on a frame in the shape of the an- in the count's service as a pianist. Bach
cient Greek hence the name bell-
lyre, published them in the fourth part of the
lyra [G. Lyra]. In German terminology *Clavierubung (1742). The work, which
the word Glockenspiel is also used to de- is among the greatest in the field of vari-
note what it properly means, namely a ations, is written according to a special
set of bells [Glocke, i.e., bell], i.e., a two variations in free style
plan: (fre-
*carillon. In the late i8th century there
quently of a highly virtuoso character)
existed Glockenspiels to be played from are always followed by a canonic variation
a keyboard, similar to the modern *ce- (nos. 3, 6, 9, etc.). The latter are unsur-
lesta. This is probably the instrument passed masterpieces of canonic technique,
called for in Mozart's Zauberflote under
being canons at different intervals within
the name strumento d'acciaio (steel in- the same harmonic frame. The final vari-
strument). ation is a *quodlibet.
[299]
GOLIARD SONGS GRACE
Goliard songs. Latin poems of the era in architecture, sculpture, and paint-
loth to the 1 3th
century, written by ing. It is usually understood to embrace
goliards, i.e., wandering students or the period from 1200 (Perotinus) to 1450
young ecclesiastics who played an impor- (Dufay), that is, prior to the beginning
tant part in the cultural life of that period. of the *Renaissancc [see *History of
The most famous collection is the Car- music]. The term also carries a certain
mina Burana (named after the monas- geographical implication, referring to the
tery of Benedict-Beuren in southwest Nordic cultures (northern France, Eng-
Germany, where the manuscript was pre- land, Netherlands, Germany) rather than
served). Some of these poems are pro- to those of the south. In fact, the music
vided with staffless neumes which cannot of the Italian *Ars nova is
perhaps too
be deciphered. The only decipherable "earthly" "lively" (too much: "proto-
and
melody of a Goliard song is that to the renaissance") to be termed Gothic. Of
loth-century poem O admirabile Veneris the two contemporary early Flemish mas*
ydolum [BeMMR, 72]. Cf. ReMMA, ters,Ockeghem and Obrecht, the former
200; H. Spanke, in ZMW xiii. may be considered as representing the
end of Gothic, the latter, the beginning
Gondola song, Gondellied [G.], of Renaissance music [see ^Flemish
Gondoliera [It.]. See *Barcarole. School III]. Cf. LaMWC, passim.
Metaphorically, the word Gothic is also
Gong. See *Percussion
instruments, applied to later works showing traits sug-
See also *Chinese, *Javanese music.
B, 7. gestive of Gothic spirituality and irreal-
Gothic music. A term used by various (semitone), and closed graces, i.e., those
modern writers to denote music coeval involving a smaller interval (vibrato).
with, or culturally related to,the Gothic P. A.
[300]
GRACE NOTE GREEK MUSIC
Grace note. A
note printed in small Grandezza, Con [It.]. With grandeur.
type to indicate that its time value is not
counted in the rhythm of the bar and
Grandisonante [It.]. Sonorous.
must be subtracted from that of an ad- Grandsire. See *Change ringing.
Large groups of grace notes
jacent note.
sometimes make an exception to this rule Gran gusto, Con [It.]. See *Gusto.
in that together they fill up the time value
Grasshopper. See *Pianoforte I.
of a single note that has been omitted
from the score (as in the so-called "ca- Grave [It.]. Slow, solemn.
denzas" by Chopin and other Romantic
Gravicembalo. Italian 17th-century
composers), in which case the rhythm of name for the harpsichord,
the grace notes is flexible and not sub- possibly for a
large variety used especially for orchestral
jected to a strict beat. Most grace notes
are used to represent *graces, or musical accompaniment. The name may be a cor-
ornaments. P. A, ruption of *clavicembalo, or may refer to
the presence of a "grave" 1 6-foot
stop.
Gracieux [F.]. Graceful.
Grazios [G.], grazioso [It.]. Grace-
Gradatamente [It.]. Gradually. ful.
nothing about the purely Oriental *aulos. in the remaining period of Greek his-
There developed, however, in the Ho- tory.
meric era a national Greek culture which II. Theory, a. Tetrachord and Scale.
was looked upon by later generations as The point of departure of Greek musical
the Golden Age of music also. The chief theory is the tetrachord, i.e., a succession
instrument of the Homeric poems is the of four descending tones forming the in-
phorminx, a lyre, with which the aioidos tervals S (T = whole tone; S
TT semi- =
(singer, bard) accompanied his recitations tone), e.g., a-g-f-e. A
complete two-
of heroic deeds. For this he used certain octave scale (descending, like all Greek
traditional standard melodies, called scales)was arrived at as a succession of
nomos, which may have been but short four tetrachords plus an added lowest
phrases repeated over and over again tone, as follows:
*
(similar to the chanson de geste of the Nctc hyperbolaion a'"^
Middle Ages?; see also *Melody types). Paranete hyperbolaion g' I I. Tetr.
While Olympos, said to have "invented" Trite hyperbolaion f hyperbolaion
f
Nete diezeugmenon e' J
music, remains legendary, Terpander of ^|
Paranete diezeugmenon d' I II. Tetr.
Lesbos (c. 675 B.C.) is the earliest definite Trite diezeugmenon c' f diezeugmenon
figure of Greek music. By his time the Paramese b J
nomos must have been a much more Mese a
^j
Lichanos meson g Tetr.
elaborate composition, since he increased I III.
doubt, a musical as well as a literary art, of the other, while I and IV are added in
a "conjunct" fashion, i.e., with one note
probably created simultaneously by the
poet-musician. The 6th century sees the in common. The name "hypaton" (high-
chiefly choral, played an important part. fact that the kithara players tilted their
instrument in such a that the lowest
Occasionally scenes were accompanied by way
[302]
GREEK MUSIC GREEK MUSIC
strings were in the highest position [an c'-c: Lydian
b'-B: Mixolydian
analogous phenomenon exists in the 16th- (Hypcrdorian) .
century Italian lute tablatures; see under (The alternative names given in paren*
theses are later
*Tablature III ] The names for the single
.
usage; some of them prop-
tones also show that the whole system de- erly refer to lower or higher octaves, e.g.,
veloped from the playing of the kithara: Hyperphrygian - i.e., a fifth above
nete (chords) means lowest
strings (actu- Phrygian, hence a'-a; Hypodorian i.e.,
a fifth below Dorian, hence
ally the highest in pitch); paranete, next a-A.) These
to the lowest; trite, the third, etc. octave-species (harmoniai) have been
The entire two-octave scale was called and still are frequently referred to as
sy sterna teleion translated: "Greek mpdes." Although there exists a
(usually
Greater Perfect System; henceforth re- certain similarity between the two sys-
ferred to as disdiapason). There also ex- tems, it must be noted that the Greek
isted a Lesser Perfect System which con- octave-species differ from the medieval
sisted of the lowest octave to a) plus modes not only in the somewhat external
(A
a tetrachord added above matter of denomination (the octave e-e',
conjunctly
a called for instance, is Dorian in Greek,
(therefore synemmenon y i.e., Phrygian
in medieval theory; see the
"hooked"), thus providing the tones (a), explanation
bb, c', and d'. under *Church modes) but chiefly in the
b. The fundamental tetra-
Genera. question of the tonic or center tone. In
chord was capable of certain chromatic the medieval system, this is (considering
modifications which, however, affected the authentic modes only) the lowest tone
of the octave; in Greek theory, however,
only the pitch of its two middle notes
the center tone was probably always the
(fynoumenoi, "movable"), never that of
the two outer tones (hestotes, "fixed"). mese y Thus, a medieval and a Greek
a.
The alterations were made in such a way octave of the same ambitus, e.g., f-f ,
that the highest of the three intervals of have different tonics, the medieval a well-
the tetrachordwas widened from a whole characterized /, the Greek, a much less
tone (a-g) into an interval of three semi- clearly defined a or, possibly, no prescribed
tones (a-gb) or, of four (a-f). The re- tonic at all.
maining interval
(gb-e, f-e) was
or d. Transposed Scales (Tonoi) For prac- .
[303]
GREEK MUSIC GREGORIAN CHANT
considerable intellectual complications evidence of the musical practice of Greek
which might well be avoided. Needless antiquity. Needless to say, they are all
to say, the principle of transposition was monophonic. We know, however, that
also applied to the chromatic and enhar- Greek musicians made use of a primitive
monic scales; thus, the "chromatic mixo- type of "polyphony," described by Plato
lydian tonos" is:
e'-d'-cb'-bb-a-gb-f-e. as *heterophony. The melodies are not
Recent investigations have shown how unimpressive in their somewhat puristic
the tonoi were obtained on the *kithara. simplicity and reservedness, but, on the
A kithara with six strings tuned penta- whole, would seem to confirm the impres-
tonically: e' d' b a g e was probably the sion that the great artistic contributions of
original type. On this instrument, the the ancient Greeks lie in the fields of archi-
missing tones of, e.g., the Dorian, namely tectureand sculpture rather than in those
c' and f, were obtained by stopping (be- of painting and music. See also: Chroai;
tween two firmly pressed fingers) the Dithyram; Ethos; Hydraulis; Hypor-
strings b and e so that they sounded a chema; Kithara; Lyre; Magadis, Pyknon;
semitone higher. For students familiar Pythagorean scale.
with 16th-century Italian lute *tablature Lit.: C. Sachs, The Rise of Music ( 1943)1
the accompanying scheme [Ex. 2] will pp. i98ff ; id., Musi\ des Alterturns ( 1924) ;
m Ht-O-
Winnington-Ingram,
Barry, in
the
11-53;
MQ v.
pieces
LavE
in
in
i.i,
transcription);
377-537; R. P-
ML x, no. 4; Ph.
Additional bibliography
the kithara and consequently the tonoi in ReMMA 4278.
were frequently used in the compass f'-f, The modern development of Greek
a semitone higher than the earlier one. music started around 1850 under the in-
Thus, two kinds of Dorian, etc., tonoi fluence of the Italian opera (Spiridion
were distinguished, "low Dorian" and Xyndas, 1812-96, and others). Particu-
"high Dorian." Finally, the method of larly successfulwas Spiro Samara (1861
transposition was extended to the entire 1917), a pupil of Delibes, with the opera
disdiapason with the result that the char- Flora Mirabilis (1886). national move- A
acteristic distinctions of the octave-species ment started with the songs of George
disappeared and that only a two-octave Lambelet 1875), and found a
(b. more
minor scale in the 14 different chromatic definite expression in the works of Man-
transpositions from F to g (each in three uel Kalomiris (b. 1883) whose opera
genera, hence the number total of 52) re- Protomastoras (1916) has been compared
mained. It is this stage of the theory to Glinka's A Life for the Czar. The
which is
represented by the compendious compositions of Petro Petridis (b. 1891)
tables of Alypios (c. 360 B.C.; cf. ii, GD show neo-classical influence. Other living
444$), the main interest of which lies in composers are George Poniridis (b. 1892)
the accompanying notational signs. For and Mario Varvoglis (b. 1885).
the Greek notation cf., e.g., WoHN i; also For Greek church music see *Byzantine
C. Sachs, in ZMW vi, vii. chant.
III. The Musical Documents. The most
Greghesca, pi. greghesche. See un-
important (because relatively complete) der *ViIlanclla.
documents are two Delphic Hymns to
Apollo, dating from about 130 B.C., two Gregorian chant. The liturgical chant
brief Hymns to theMuse, a Hymn to of the Roman Catholic Church. It is
ously from 200 B.C. to A.D. 100. Their ment and codification [see VII]. The
late date renders them rather useless as term Gregorian chant has the disadvan-
[304]
GREGORIAN CHANT GREGORIAN CHANT
tage of excluding, strictly speaking, the i.e., the feasts of individual Saints, such
choir) and partly solo (by the *cantor). The Graduale also contains the chants for
These will be considered subsequently special services introductory to Mass, e.g.,
according to: I. Liturgical categories; II. the *antiphons antiphon) and
(Mass
Text; III. Style; IV. Forms; V. Tonality; Ash Wednesday (pp.
*responsoria for
VI. Rhythmic interpretation; VII. His- 73-76), Palm Sunday (pp. 155-166),
torical development. Maundy Thursday (pp. 186-191), and
I. Liturgical Categories. The days of Purification (pp. 405-410). It may be
the liturgical year fall into four classes: noticed that the usual form of Antiphonale
(a) Ordinarium (Divini Officii), i.e., printed now is the Antiphonale pro di-
those Sundays and weekdays on which urnis horis (A. for the day hours; see
there is not a special feast; (b) Proprium *Office hours), the service for *Matins
de tempore, i.e., the feasts of Our Lord, (matutinum), which contains chants of
and of the Holy Trinity (this category great beauty and special interest, being
includes all the great feasts, Christmas, omitted because this service is celebrated
Easter, etc.); (c) Proprium Sanctorum, today in monastic churches only. These
[305]
GREGORIAN CHANT GREGORIAN CHANT
chants are, however, included to some ex- matic style, (a) Chants composed in syl-
tent in the Liber Usualis (LU), a modern labic style have one note to each syllable
editionwhich contains the chants both for of the text; occasionally a group of two or
the Office and the Mass more clearly ar- three notes will be found to one syllable.
ranged in the way they follow one another To this type belong the various recitation-
during the service of the day. The reader tones of the Office (psalm tones, lection
may compare the service for Christmas tones, toni orationum; AR, i*-57*) and
(Nativitas Domini) as given in LU, pp. of the Mass (toni orationum, epistolae,
364-414 (beginning with Vespers, i.e., evangelii, praefationum, of the Gloria
the evening service of the preceding day), Patriy etc.; GR, 109*-! 25*) as well as
with the corresponding sections in AR, the numerous Antiphons of the Office
pp. 259-273 and GR y pp. 27-35; PP- 3 68
~ (throughout the Antiphonarium), the
392 of LU contain the service for Matins, hymns and the various melodies for the
which is not given in the two other books. Credo [GR 9 59*-69*]. The recitation-
Text. By far the greater part of the
II. tones are "inflected *monotones," where-
chants are based on prose texts, and of as the other chants have fully developed
these the great majority are taken from melodies in ascending and descending
the *psalms. Entire psalms sung to a lines. (b) The chants in group-style
*psalm tone form a regular part of the show a more frequent use of groups of
psalm verses prevail in the
Office; single two to four or more notes to one syllable.
"verses" (Y) of the Introits, Graduals, The most important chants of this class
Alleluias, Tracts, as well as in the opening are the Introitus and Communions
Antiphons and Responses ot these chants (throughout the Graduate), and the Re-
and in the Communions and Offertories sponsoria of Matins; other examples are
[see *Psalmody]. Non-psalmodic Scrip- the Kyries, Sanctus, and Agnus Dei of the
tural texts occur in the *canticles and in Ordinary of the Mass [GR, i*~59*],
a number of Introits, Graduals, etc., par- while the melodies for the Gloria belong
ticularly in those which belong to a feast more to the melismatic type. (c) To
of a Saint [e.g., the Gradual of St. John's the melismatic type, involving extended
Feast: "Fuit homo missus a Deo, cui no- coloraturas, belong the chants of the Prop-
men Joannes erat: hie venit. y. Ut testi- er of the Mass other than the first (In-
monium gerhiberet de lumine, et parare troitus) and the last (Communion), that
Domino plebem perfectam" (GR, 504 V ); is, the Graduals, Alleluias, Tracts, and
cf. St. John, 6, 7] . In the liturgical books, Offertories. In the first three of these
Ps. (in the Introits) always denotes a verse classes, which belong to the category of
from the Psalms, while ^7. indicates a responsorial chants, the melismatic style
verse eitherfrom the Psalms or from other is
usually still more clearly marked than
Scriptural texts. The most outstanding in the Offertories (and Glorias). See the
non-Scriptural prose texts are those of the accompanying Ex. i.
prose chants are usually distinguished by style in any of the liturgical items is one
modern writers: (a) syllabic style; (b) of the most remarkable traits of Gregorian
neumatic or group style; and (c) melis- chant. According to a carefully-laid-out
GREGORIAN CHANT GREGORIAN CHANT
plan, each type of chant receives that treat- are all reductionsmore or less drastic
ment which conforms with its liturgical of the rondo-like structure of early
position and significance. In this respect psalmody, responsorial or antiphonal. This
it is
interesting to note that one and the species, which is the most characteristic
same text is composed in totally different and most interesting in Gregorian chant,
stylesaccording to whether it is used as receives separate treatment under the
an Antiphon, a Gradual, or for any other heading *Psalmody.
purpose. A famous example is the psalm- V. Tonality. The melodies of Gregori-
verse Justus ut palma for which there exist an chant are based upon the system of the
more than 20 different melodies, ranging eight *Church modes. With each chant,
from the simplest to the most ornate [cf. its mode is indicated at the beginning,
Editions XXIII A, 2/3]. e.g., Intr. 6., i.e., Introitus in the sixth
The musical style of the hymns and mode. The indexes of the Graduale and
sequences is mainly syllabic, but differs the Antiphonarium, in which the modes
radically from that of the prose chants are given preceding the title (e.g., under
with regard to rhythm [see VI]. The Introitus: 6. Cantate Domino) make it
hymn melodies, which generally are much easy to investigate the relative frequency
later in date than the prose chants [see, of any mode in the entire repertory, or in
however, *Ambrosian hymns] are syl- a special rubric. Naturally, a closer study
labic tunes with regularly recurrent ac- of the chants reveals many deviations from
cents conforming with those of the text the strictly modal scheme. Scholars are
(usually iambic dimeters). They are thus now generally agreed upon the fact that
more closely allied to measured music most of the melodies existed long before
than any other type of plainsong. the theoretical scheme of the eight modes
IV. Forms. From the point of view of came into being, and that, after the adop-
formal structure, the chants fall roughly in- tion of this theory (9th, loth centuries),
to the following categories: (a) Through- the repertory of the chants was subjected
composed chants. Under this rubric fall: to a process of adaptation which, however,
the Glorias, Sanctus, and Credos of the was not carried out completely, thus leav-
Ordinary of the Mass, and the Graduals, ing (fortunately enough) various discrep-
Offertories, and Communions of the Prop- ancies between theory and practice. Among
er of the Mass [for the last three, see these one finds: (a) The use of B-flat,
posed does not preclude the occasional the "first" mode with a B-flat throughout,
[307]
GREGORIAN CHANT GREGORIAN CHANT
thcntic (e.g., d-d') with that of the plagal reconstruction were made in the i9th cen-
(A-a). However, the passage from the tury when the re-editors of the Editlo
Gradual Omncs gcntcs quoted in Ex. 2 Medicea [ see *Liturgical books] made the
namental *pien-tones" [cf. the reference agreed that Gregorian rhythm belongs to
in ReMMA, 160] is without foundation,
the category termed "measured rhythm"
ber of chants are clearly pentatonic [see the "chronos-protos" variety thereof [see
ody types] .
they divide the melody into elementary
VI. Rhythmic Interpretation. This con- groups of two or three notes, groups
stitutes themost vexed and disputed prob- which in turn are combined into larger
lem of Gregorian chant, a problem which, rhythmic divisions: incises, members,
in spite of the efforts of numerous schol- phrases, and periods. The beginning of
ars, is still far from being solved. It arises each binary or ternary group is marked
from the fact that the notation of the by an *ictus. Only at the end of a phrase
chants [sec *Neumes; also *Plainsong are notes of longer value admitted. In
notation] contains no clear and obvious addition to these principles the monks of
indication of temporal values and that, as Solesmes have worked out a special man-
as the i3th century, the oral tradition
early
ner of performing Gregorian chant which
of the rhythmic performance of the melo- is characterized, among others, by the al-
dies was lost. Unsuccessful attempts at most complete absence of contrasts of in-
[308]
GREGORIAN CHANT GREGORIAN CHANT
tensity (piano, forte), the voices moving ably stands in the same relation to its
along, quite impressively, in a subtly medieval counterpart as a Romanesque
shaded mezzopiano. church of 1880 to its nth-century model"
Among the adherents of the second [BeMMR, 15]. Finally, since the history
school (sometimes called mensuraiists), of Gregorian chant embraces at least six
the admission of two time-values natural- centuries (600-1300) and numerous lo-
ly leads to a considerable disagreement as calities, there can be no single "correct
to which notes of the chants are long, answer." It would be foolish to assume
which short. Here the various scholars that the chant was performed in the same
nin, Bonvin, Jammers) differ mainly in was in the 9th or i2th century. Even the
the question as to the correct interpretation current designation of the 9th and loth
and importance of early theorists
relative centuries as the "Golden Age" of Gre-
as well as of certain special signs found in gorian chant is rather arbitrary, not to
the early neumatic manuscripts, such as mention the possibility of local differences
the *episema, the *Romanian letters, the within this era (Metz, St. Gall, etc.).
virga and punctum [see *Neumes], etc. VII. History. There has been an ex-
Ex. 5 serves to illustrate the various tended controversy regarding the origin
methods (a: Riemann; b: Bernouilli- and roots of Gregorian chant. Opinion
was, and still is, divided among those who
maintain the Greek lineage and those who
point to the tradition of the Jewish Syna-
gogue. An interesting evidence in favor
of the former opinion was found in the
striking resemblance between one of the
few remaining Greek melodies, the Sei-
kilos song [see *Greek music III] and the
148.
"Oriental" rather than "Greek." This
Without attempting an evaluation of point of view has gained considerable
the above methods, it can be said that the support by the recent investigations of
mensuraiists "have an impressive amount Idelsohn [cf. ZMW iv], who has shown
of historical evidence on their side" that melodies still sung today by Jewish
and that the Solesmes tribes inisolated spots (South
[ReMMA, 146], living
interpretation would seem
to derive its Arabia, Persia) are strikingly similar to
main justification from the results em- lection tones of the Roman Church.
bodied in their actual performances and During the early centuries of the Chris-
been tian era there accrued a large repertory of
recordings which, so far, have not
chants from various sources, pagan (neo-
challenged by similar attempts on
the part
of of the mensuraiists. As regards the
any Platonists), heretic (Gnostics, Therapeuts;
historical truthfulness of the Solesmes in- see *Hymns), East-Christian (Syria, Alex-
col-
terpretation, it has been said that it "prob- andria), etc. Pope Gregory (590-604)
[309]
GREGORIAN CHANT GRIFFSCHRIFT
Iccted the chants anp! standardized their chant (1937); J. Schrembs, The Gregorian
use in the service, a task which was con- Chant Manual .
(1935); G. Sunyol,
. .
planus; Cecilian movement; Chant; Com- lins, etc.). See *Bowing (1).
munion; Cursus; Dies irae; Doxology; Griffloch [G.]. Finger-hole (of flutes,
Euouae; Gradual; Hymn; Ictus; Impro-
etc.).
peria; Incipit; Introitus; Jubilus; Lamen-
tations; Litany; Liturgical boo\s\ Machi- Griffschrift [G.]. A general name for
cotage; Magnificat; Mass', Miserere; Missa; systems of notation the signs of which re-
Motu proprio; Neuma; Neumes; Offer- fer directly to the position of the fingers
torium; Office hours; Ordinary; Plain- on the instrument, rather than to the re-
chant musical; Psalm; Psalmody Psalm \
sult of these positions, the tones. While
tones; Requiem; Responsorium; Salve the latter method is the normal one, the
Regina; Sarum use; Sequence (2); So- former has been used repeatedly in the
lesmes; Te Deum; Tenebrae; Tract; Tris- evolution of musical notation, particularly
hagion; Trope. in the lute tablatures of the i6th century.
Lit.: Practical: Dom Johner, A New A modern instance is the notation for the
School of Gregorian Chant (1925); A. guitar or *ukulele in popular music. See
Robertson, The Interpretation of Plain- *Tablatures; cf, also ApNPM, 54,
GRIMMIG GSP.
ambition and, consequently, greater pop- used in England under the name English
ular appeal. In the late i7th century the guitar [cf. GD
ii, pi. XXXI]. direct A
instrument became fashionable in the derivative of the cittern is the bandurria
French court-circles, and painters a la and its larger variety, the bandolon [cf.
mode, like Watteau and Boucher, depicted SaRM]. The name of these instruments
it in the hands of beautiful ladies and of (probably also that of the modern *banjo)
comedians. Boccherini used the guitar in comes from the 16th-century pandora, a
some of his chamber music works, as did guitar with a peculiar doubly scalloped
also other composers of the i8th century. body, thus forming three lobes, somewhat
Schubert's so-called Guitar Quartet, how- like an oak leaf. The name quinterne
ever, is only an adaptation of a guitar trio (probably from guitterne) was also used
of a Bohemian Matiegka, published in for instruments of the guitar family, as
1807. See also *Guitar family; *Electronic well as for certain members of the lute
musical instruments III. family, e.g., the mandola. Portuguese A
Lit.: D. Prat Marsal, Diccionario . . . dc guitar, much used in the Azores, is the
gultarras ... (1934); B. Terzi, Dizionario machete, which is the ancestor of the
del chitarristi c liutai Italiani (1937); modern * ukulele. Of the various guitar
J. Zuth, Handbuch der Laute und der instruments of Russia only the *balalaiJ(a
Gitarre (1926); LavE ii.3, 1997-2035; survives today. A
circular guitar with a
WoHN 157-218; A. Koczirz, "Die
ii, short neck is used in China under the
Fantasien des Melchior de Barberis ." . . name yiieh ch'in and in Japan under the
(ZMW iv); id., "Die Gitarrenkomposi- namcgeffin [d.SaHMl, 216-218]. The
tionen in Miguel de Fuenllana's Orphe- Japanese samisen has a nearly square body
nica lyra" iv); W. Tappert, "Zur
(AMW with rounded sides. It is covered with
Geschichte der Guitarre" (MfM xiv); E. skin, has a long neck, and three silk
Schmitz, "Guitarrentabulaturen" (MfM strings tuned in fourths or fifths. It is a
xxxv); O. Chilesotti, "La Chitarra fran- popular instrument used by street singers
cese" (RMI xiv); M. R. Brondi, "II Liuto and for the dance of the geisha girls. See
e la chitarra" (RMI xxxii, xxxiii) . also *Vihuela.
stood here to include the instruments Gusla, gusle. The chief instrument of
which have the general characteristics of Bulgarian folk music. It is a primitive
violin, with a round wooden back, a belly
the lute family, except for the flat body as
made from skin, and only one string made
found with the guitar. Like the lute, the
from horsehair. The player of the instru-
guitar is of Oriental origin. It appears in
ment is called guslar. 111. in SaRMI, 170.
various shapes in the famous miniatures
MS
of the
The gusla should not be confused with
of the 13th-century Cantigas
the Russian gusli (guslee), a large zither
Escorial [cf. GD ii, 482]. Various such
which is used in balalaika bands [see
instruments existed in the i6th and i7th
names which *Psaltery]. Cf. W. Wunsch, Die Geigcn-
centuries under different
der Guslaren (Diss. Prague
make exact identification difficult. The techni\
1937?)-
most important among these was the cit-
tern (also gittern, cister, cither, cithara,
cetera, cistola, citole} which had an oval Gusto, Con [It.]. "With taste," i.e., in
entirely in parallel thirds [cf. AdHM i, nationalistic feature [see *Hungarian mu-
167; HAM, no. 25d] .
Gymel, then, would sic]. It also is frequent in modern Turk-
seem to represent a typically English type ish and Jewish music as well as in Greek
of parallel *organum, as against the French church music. The gypsies have also
organum in parallel fourths and fifths. played a certain role in the cultural and
However, it would be wrong to assume musical life of Spain [see *Flamenco].
that parallel thirds were unknown in Cf. LavE i.5, 2646*!; W. Starkie, "The
France [cf. J. Handschin, in Festschrift Gipsy in Andalusian Folk-music" (PMA
fur Guido Adler, 1930, p. 57]. Cf. M. Ixii).
Bukofzer, "Gymel, the Earliest Form of
H
H. See *Pitch names; *Letter notation. for some time, wrote the two most famous
Abbreviation for Horn (in orchestral habaneras, the popular song La Paloma,
scores). H dur (moll), German for B and another, El Arreglito, which became
major (minor). world famous as a composition of Bizet
in his Carmen, first act [cf. R. Laparra,
Habanera. Adance from Cuba (Ha- Bizet et I'Espagne, p. 18]. Other well-
vana), in slow to moderate duple time and known habaneras are by Chabrier (1885)
with a variety of characteristic rhythms and by Ravel (Rhapsodic Espagnole,
somewhat similar to those of the *tango.
1907).
[315]
HAFFNER SERENADE HARMONICA
sicilehave been republished by G. Ben- Hand organ. The term used for two is
venuti under the title: Cembalisti Italiani mechanical instruments similar in con-
del Settecento (G. Ricordi). See *Sonata struction but different in purpose: the
B III (a) and (b). English *barrel organ, used formerly in
small churches; or the street organ of the
Haffner Serenade. Mozart's Serenade
Italian organ grinders.
in D [K.V. 250] composed in 1776 for a
wedding in the family of Sigmund Haff- Handstiick [G.]. Late 18th-century
ner, burgomaster of Salzburg. His Haff- term for instructive piano pieces.
ner Symphony in D
[K.V. 385] was com-
in 1782 for a similar purpose.
Handtrommel [G.]. *Tambourine.
posed
Harfe [G.]. *Harp.
Hakenneumen [G.]. Hook neumes;
see *Neumes II. Harmoniai. See *Greek music, II (c).
Harmonic. *
See Acoustics, IV.
Halb, halbe [G., half]. Halbe Note
(Pause), half-note (-rest). Halbinstru- Harmonica. ( i ) The Glass Harmonica.
ment, half-tube instrument. Halbschluss, An instrument invented by Benjamin
half-cadence. Halbsopran, mezzosoprano.
Franklin in 1763, in which a series of glass
Halbton, semitone. basins of graded sizes are fixed on a hori-
Half. Half-close, imperfect cadence. zontal spindle which is made to revolve
Half-fall, see *Appoggiatura. Half-shift, by a treadle operated by the foot of the
the first shift on the violin. Half-step, i.e., player. The spindle is fitted into a trough
semitone. Half-tube instruments, see filled with water so that the glasses are
*Wind instruments II. kept wet. The sound is produced by a
delicate friction of the fingers [ill. in GD
Hallelujah [from Hebrew hallel, praise, 522] .The instrument had an extraor-
and ]ah, Jehovah]. A Biblical word, ex-
ii,
Hailing. A
Norwegian folk dance, which teresting [cf. the compl. ed., x]. Beetho-
isexecuted with a great variety of move- ven used the harmonica in a melodrama,
ments, varying from the intentionally Leonora Prohasfo, composed in 1814
awkward to the really violent [cf. the de- [Supplementary volume of the B. and H.
scription in GD
ii, 499]. Grieg has used edition] Other composers who wrote for
.
the dance in several of his Lyric Pieces. the instrument were J. G. Naumann,
Padre Martini, Hasse, Galuppi, and Jo-
Hammerklavier [G.]. Early 19th- melli. Cf C. F. Pohl, Cursory Notices on
.
century name for the pianoforte. Bee- the Origin and History of the Glass Har-
thoven used it for his sonatas op. 101 and monica (1862).
1 06 [the latter
frequently known as Ham- (2) The Mouth Harmonica or Mouth
merklavier-sonata], probably for no other Organ. This instrument, widely used for
reason than to avoid the Italian word.
popular music making, consists of a small,
flat box with a number of channels on the
Hammond organ. See *Electronic mu-
sical instruments I. oblong side, each of which leads to a metal
reed inside the box. The instrument is
Hand horn. See*HornII. placed against the lips and moved in one
HARMONIC ANALYSIS HARMONIC ANALYSIS
direction or the other, according to the not because their basic chordal progres-
notes desired. Alternating notes of the sions differ
essentially; they differ only
scale can be obtained by blowing or by superficially in that the individual chords
suction. A number of harmonica
great of the latter may be more
complicated and
bands United States and else-
exist in the rhythm with which the music
colored, the
where, and a remarkable degree of virtu- moves may have a different gait, the
osity has been achieved by players to be phrases may be differently conceived in
heard on the stage. The instrument was terms of length, and the non-essential
probably invented by F, Buschmann in connections between the chordal pillars,
1821 [cf. SaHMI, 406]. Other reference the ornamentations, be handled dif-
may
books mention Sir Charles Wheatstone as ferently. But as
any building, regardless
the inventor (Aeolina, 1829). of its appearance, must obey the laws of
(3) In French and German the name is gravity, so must tonal music obey the
also used for a variety of instruments of fundamental laws of harmony.
the xylophone type, i.e., consisting of II. Triads. The basis of classical har-
tuned strips of wood (harmonica de bois, mony, hence of harmonic analysis, is the
Holz harmonica) steel (harmonica a la-
,
*triad. There are three different kinds of
mes d'acier, Stahl harmonica, i.e., *Glock- triads among those erected on the seven
enspiel), stone (harmonica a lames de degrees [see *Scale degrees] of the major
pierre, e.g., the Chinese pien ch'ing\ see scale:I, IV, and V, the tonal degrees, have
*Chinese music IV), etc. Ziehharmoni\a major triads; II, III, and VI, the modal
[G.] is the accordion. degrees, have minor triads; and VII, which
is indeterminate, has a diminished triad.
Harmonic analysis. I. General. In the I, V, and IV are the roots of the basic
more restricted sense harmonic analysis is chords in the major key, and ordinarily
for the purpose of determining the struc- in pieces in such a key these chords are
ture of each chord in a piece of music; in used preponderantly over the chords whose
the larger and truer sense its objective is roots are the modal degrees. The follow-
to determine how
a piece of music is con- ing illustration shows the triads on each
structed from the chordal point of view. degree of the major scale and its tonic
The latter includes the former as a matter (parallel) minor and the relations among
of course, but no particular end is served them [Ex. i].
if account is not taken of how progres-
sions of chords are organized to form
siderably, in the ipth, forms the basis of mostly so used in the ipth century, the tonic minor
harmonic analysis at the present time. having such usage mostly as a melodic device in
popular American music of the "blues" type.)
Such analysis will show that composers
any of them from Bach to Faure* have Besides the practice of exchange of
had certain common habits in forming chords from one mode to the other, which
sequences of chords. If the music of Bach in itself makes the two modes practically
and that of Faure* do not sound alike, it is identical, certain other alterations have
1317]
HARMONIC ANALYSIS HARMONIC ANALYSIS
come into practical usage which further tween the lowest note (bass note, not the
color, and therefore confuse, the two root) and those above it. Thus, the desig-
modes; it is hardly going too far to say nation for the first inversion, known as
6
that in the late ipth century practically sixth chord, is I
(properly I*), for the
any note of any chord could be sharped or second inversion, known as six-jour chord,
flatted, and that if this were done judi- Ij*
and similar symbols are used for the
ciously the feeling of a central tonality inversion of the seventh chord [Ex. 3].
could still be preserved, although it might
not be possible to determine whether the
resulting tonality was major or minor.
Seventh and Ninth Chords. Be-
III.
6
6
sides the triads illustrated above, music of
1 8th and
the I9th centuries makes great See ^Inversion; *Sixth chord; *Six-four
use of seventh chords. These chords are *
chord; Seventh chord.
triads with another diatonic third super- V. Altered Chords. These are chords
posed. Each degree of the scale is
capable in which one or several notes are chro-
of having a seventh chord erected upon it. matically altered, i.e., by accidentals for-
Ninth chords, used more in the i9th cen- eign to the key. The minor subdominant
tury than before, are seventh chords with in a major key (e.g., f-ab-c' in C major)
stillanother diatonic third superposed. usually not considered an altered chord.
is
Seventh chords and ninth chords are des- The commonest among the altered chords
ignated by adding the figure 7 or 9 to the are illustrated in Ex. 4: (a) diminished
Roman numeral indicating the root, thus: seventh chord; (b) Neapolitan sixth;
7 9
I I, The symbol I, means a ninth
.
(c) augmented fifth; (d) diminished fifth,
chord with the seventh degree flatted [ see while (e) represents the more complex
Ex. 2], For more details see ^Seventh type frequently found in modern music.
chord; *Ninth chord. Closely related to the diminished seventh
2
A o to ~
g
If the third of the chord, E in the ex- can be considered as V of III in D minor,
amples above, lies in the bass the chord is V of III in D-flat, V of V in B-flat, and
in first inversion; if the fifth, in the G so on. The diminished seventh chord and
above examples, is in the bass the chord the augmented sixth chords are also valu-
is in second inversion; and if the seventh able as pivots since the same chord is to
is in the bass it is in third inversion. The be found in a variety of keys. These pivot
Arabic figuring of these chords indicates chords serve as connections between dif-
the characteristic intervals which lie be- ferent keys in much the same manner as
HARMONIC ANALYSIS HARMONIC RHYTHM
doors serve to connect different rooms,
Harmony (1937). For historical studies,
and by means of them that modula-
it is see under A. T. M.
*Harmony.
tion is effected. See * Modulation.
VII. Non-Harmonic Tones. These are Harmonic division. See ^Arithmetic
tones dissonant to the harmonies with or and harmonic division.
after which they are sounded, and they Harmonic inversion. See inversion
serve the purpose melodic of
usually (i).
smoothness of flow and ornamental embel-
Harmonic minor (scale). See *Major
lishment. They are of two main types, and minor.
accented and unaccented. The unaccented
non-harmonic tones are (i) passing tones, Harmonic rhythm. The rhythmic
(2) auxiliary tones, lifecontributed to music by means of the
(3) anticipations,
(4) echappees, and (5) cambiatas, while underlying changes of harmony. The
the accented ones are (6)
appoggiaturas pattern of the harmonic rhythm of a given
and (7) suspensions, although the last piece of music, derived by noting the root
has no rhythmic accent on the note itself changes as they occur, reveals important
at the moment when it causes dissonance. and distinctive features affecting the style
All the non-harmonic tones may be found and texture. Chief of these are the fre-
either ascending or
descending, and in quency of harmonic change, and the
any voice part. See *Nonharmonic tones. rhythmic quality of that change. There
VIII. Harmonic Rhythm. An impor- may be no change of harmony over sev-
harmonic analysis is har-
tant aspect of eral measures of music, as for example in
monic rhythm, the rate of speed with the opening of Beethoven's Ninth Sym-
which harmonies change in the course of phony. A contrast to this is the rapid suc-
a phrase or series of phrases. It is essen- cession of root changes, a different chord
tial some phrases experi-
to notice that appearing with each note of the melody,
ence a greater number of harmonies than as in Ex. i (Chopin, Mazurka op. 59, no.
others in the same length of time, and
that certain parts of single phrases like-
wise have faster-moving harmonies than
other parts. The tendency in single
phrases is to have faster harmonic change
in the latter part than in the first, but this
will depend on the structural idea which
the composer has in mind for the piece as
a whole and the psychological effect he
wishes to convey. See *Harmonic rhythm.
See also *Harmony; *Funetional har-
mony; *Texture; *Dualism.
Lit. (attempt at a selection out of hun-
dreds of text books): W. Piston, Har- 2). Between these extremes all variations
mony (1940); Principles of Harmonic
id.,
can be found. In general it may be said
Analysis (1933); P. Hindemith, Tradi- that music of a contrapuntal character em-
tional Harmony (1943); C. H. Kitson, ploys fewer chord changes than do other
Elementary Harmony (1920); id.. Evolu- types.
tion Harmony (1914); N- Rimsky-
of The pattern of the harmonic rhythm is
Korsakov, Practical Manual of Harmony made up of strong and weak rhythmic
(1930); E. Prout, Harmony (i6th ed., quantities. Certain root progressions,
1901); A. P. The Beginners
Scholes, such as II to V, are regarded as strong
Guide to Harmony (1922!!). H. A. Mil- progressions, that is, having the rhythmic
ler, New Harmonic Devices (i93)*>
R- effect of weak to strong. Others, like III
Lenormand, Study of Modern Harmony to V, are weak, with strong to weak, or
in Modern even static rhythm [Ex. 2]. Usually,
(1915); A. F. Barnes, Practice
[319]
HARMONIC RHYTHM HARMONICS
however, the pattern contains several root ern music. Increased melodic and contra-
progressions, so that a judgment of their puntal rhythmic complexity and the use
comparative rhythmic values involves of irregular and changing meters are in
consideration of other factors. The most
Eb:I IV V
m
V7 I V7
frequencies of the harmonic and the nor- Harmonika Either the Mund-
[G.].
mal tone produced at the same point. For
harmonica, mouth-harmonica [see *Har-
instance, in determining the harmonic monica (2)], or the Ziehharmonifa i.e.,
obtained by lightly touching "the c" of *accordion. B. Franklin's harmonica is
called Glas harmonica. See also *Har-
the g-string, t is
(relative frequency of
monica (3).
the fourth; see intervals, Calculation
I *
Harmonious Blacksmith. Air with
r\ 3
i
= =
or),
h =
therefore:
4,
h
the frequency of the second
i.e.,
i
44 , or variations
Suite no. 5, in
from
*i
g-w tongues of metal set in vibration by a
steady current of air which is provided
(>" * *
The introduction of the harmonics is for the rendering of Bach's organ works.
variously ascribed to Domenico Ferrari However, it lends itself well to many
(1722-80), a pupil of Tartini, and to Jean organ compositions of the i9th century
de Mondonville (1711-72). The latter (Mendelssohn, Schumann, Liszt, Reger),
seems to have made the first practical ap- or for the pieces written directly for the
plication of the harmonics in his six so- instrument (Karg-Elert, Dvorak, Reger,
natas Les Sons harmoniques, op. 4 (1735). Cesar Franck).
See also *Ch'in; *Tromba marina. II. The harmonium
developed in the
Harmonic (minor)
1 9th
century, from Grenid's orgue ex-
scale. See *Major
pressif (1810, influenced by the Chinese
and minor; *Scales.
*Sheng) over a great number of more or
Harmonic series. The series of the less experimental instruments (Organo^
acoustical harmonics [see *Acoustics IV], violin, 1814; Aeoline, 1816; Aeolodicon,
Physharmonica, 1818; Aerophone, 1829;
Harmonic [F., G.]. Harmony. In Seraphine, 1833; Melophonc, 1837; and
French usage the term also denotes the many others) to the first real harmonium
HARMONIUM HARMONY
(A. Debain, 1840) which combined the Harmony. In general, any simultane-
useful devices found separately in the ous combination of sounds, hence synony-
earlier constructions.
Important improve- mous with *chord. The narrower use of
ments made afterward are: the percussion the term in the meaning of "agreeable
(small hammers like those of the piano- chord" conforms to some extent with the
forte, acting upon the tongues and caus- earlier practice, but has been rendered
ing a quicker and more precise "start" of pointless by the recent development of
the sound); the prolongement, by which music. There is, however, a difference
single tones can be automatically pro- between chord and harmony in that the
longed (pedal-points); the melody-attach- former term applies to the single forma-
ment, which puts the highest notes in tions, the latter to successions of chords
over the others; the pedal-substitute,
relief and to the relationships between them.
by which, contrariwise, the lowest note of Thus, harmony denotes the chordal (or
a chord can be made to stand out; the vertical) structure of a musical composi-
double touch (1855), which permits a tion, in contrast to counterpoint, i.e., its
[3*3]
HARMONY HARMONY
Only when tonality was firmly established number of chords on adjacent scale de-
could the relative importance of chords grees (*parallel chords; Debussy), led
built on the different
degrees of the scale harmony back in many respects to the
be determined in relation to a key center paths which it had followed in the period
or tonic; only when this was accomplished of modality. During the 2oth century cer-
could a logical departure from this tonic tain composers have abandoned tonality
into other keys and return from those keys altogether and once again depend on the
to it modulation be consummated. conjunction of melodic lines to form their
When chords came to be conceived as harmonies (*atonality; Schonberg), while
entities became possible to enlarge the
it others retain only the triad as the basic
small chords such as the triad with its chord with which phrases must begin and
inversions to bigger ones with three or end, and allow any combinations of notes
more thirds (seventh chords; ninth to form the harmonies in the course of the
chords). For the sake of color, moreover, phrases, so long as they are arranged logi-
it was
possible to raise or lower the various cally in regard to increasing and decreas-
notes of these chords without allowing ing dissonance as the phrase proceeds, an
them to lose their identity and their rela- arrangement called "harmonic fluctua-
tionship with the central tonic. From the tion" (Hindemith).
beginning of the i8th century onward the II. Considering the triad as the most
versely on the strength of classical tonal- clausula, c. 1200] See also *Gymel.
.
itywas the use by certain nationalist com- (3) 1200-1350: Open triads (1-5-8)
posers towards the end of the century of including those with a diminished
a preponderance of modal degrees of the fifth as the main consonance in three-
scale in the harmonization of the folk or part writing; full triads (1-3-5) occur
folk-like melodies which they often used occasionally inweak position; harsh dis-
as the basis of their compositions
(Dvorak sonances (consecutive seconds, etc.) are
and Moussorgsky). This, with its logical freely admitted as passing notes and ap-
complement of writing consecutively a poggiaturas [Ex. 4, motet c. 1250] .
[323]
HARMONY HARMONY
(4) 1350-1450: Open triads in con- monic vocabulary of the late Baroque
junction with first inversions (3-5-8) in [Ex. 9] to bare "essentials," the tonic,
its
parts or in free chordal style; increasing quences; extensive use of chromatic alter-
predominance of the first, fifth, and ations, of unprepared and towards the
fourth as the central chords end of the century of unresolved ap-
degrees
(tonic, dominant, subdominant), leading poggiatura chords; free modulation into
to the establishment of the major and distant keys [see the description under I],
minor tonality in all the keys [ Well-tem- Gradual disintegration of the "system."
pered Clavier, 1722] and to modest modu- [Ex. n, Chopin; Ex. 12, Wagner.]
lations; appearance of altered chords such (C) Post-Tertian Harmony (1900-)
as the diminished seventh and the Nea- (9) 1900-present: Deliberate viola-
politan sixth; occasionally extensive use tion of the harmonic system by the use
of chromatic progressions; enharmonic of *parallel chords (Debussy), of *fourth
change [Ex. 8, Weckmann, c. 1660; Ex. 9, chords (Scriabin), etc., leading to the
J.S.Bach]. complete abandonment of harmonic re-
(?) 1750-1825: Reduction of the har- strictions, i.e., to *atonality (Schonberg;
HARMONY HARP
c.
1910) and to a period of unlimited ex- "Debussy et Tharmonie romantique" (RM
perimentation in the field of novel usages, ii); G. Knosp, "Essai d'harmonie exo-
frequently of a contrapuntal nature, most tique" (RM1 xxxviii, xxxix).
of which defy classification [see *New A. T. M. and W. A.
music]. Around 1925, gradual return to
Harp [F. harpe\ G. Harje\ It.
arpa\.
I. The Double Action Harp. The mod-
ern double action (or double pedal) harp
was introduced about 1810 by Sebastien
firard. It has a range of six octaves and a
fifth with seven strings to the octave,
tuned normally in the key of Cb major,
i.e., from Gib to g""b. At the foot of the
xxi); A. Liess, "L'harmonie dans les oeu- number of strings is nearly doubled; (b)
vres de Debussy" xii); A. Cocuroy,
(RM a new finger technique is demanded of
[325]
HARP HARP
performers; (c) tone is poorer than
its
harps (telyn) were known before A.D.
that of the double action harp; 1000. the
"ancient bardic
(d) it can- Regarding
not play the diatonic or chordal harp music," see under *Bards. In the
glissandos
written for the double action harp. For 1 2th century the
harp spread over to the
advantages, one may mention: *(a) there Continent and was held in high esteem
are no pedals, thus the player is free to by the troubadours, trouvres, and Min-
devote his entire attention to controlling nesinger. Antonio de Cabezon's Obras
the strings with his hands; (b) the instru- de musica of 1572 bears the remark "para
ment stays better in tune than the double tecla,harpa y vihuela" thus showing that
action harp since the strings are not con- the same compositions were played on
tinually shortened and lengthened; (c) keyboard instruments, harps, and lutes.
for the same reasons the strings last Harps of the late lyth century had hook-
longer; (d) there is no restriction with like gadgets by means of which the length
regard to the simultaneous use of natural of the strings could be shortened so that
and chromatic degrees, and anything the sharped tone was produced. In 1720
playable on the piano is playable on the Hochbrucker replaced these hooks by
chromatic harp. Its main exponents are pedals each of which altered the tuning of
composers of the modern French school, a string and its octaves.
but its special literature is as yet small. IV. Repertory. The harp was occasion-
W. D. D. ally used in Italian opera of the early i7th
III. History. In the scientific classifica- century (Monteverdi, Orfeo, 1607; see
tion of instruments harp is the generic ^Orchestration II), and then almost dis-
term for chordophones (practically al- appeared from the orchestra. Handel and
ways plucked) in which the plane of the Gluck used it but a few times, the former
strings is vertical to the soundboard (not in Esther (1720), the latter in Orpheus
parallel as, e.g., in the zither or the piano- (1762). Mozart wrote a Concerto for
forte); see ^Instruments IV, D. Harps flute and harp (K.V. 299) and Beethoven
are among the oldest instruments. In used the harp in his Prometheus. Berlioz,
Mesopotamia they are documented as far Liszt, Wagner, and most of the later com-
back as c. 3000 B.C., and a great variety of posers included the harp in their orches-
forms existed there as well as in Egypt tral scores, and composers such as De-
[see *Babylonian, ^Egyptian music]. In bussy and Ravel have used it prominently
spite of the innumerable references to as a vehicle of impressionist coloring, often
"King David playing the harp" it is not writing parts for two harps.
certain whether the Jews had a harp. The solo literature for the harp is re-
215; also p. 418, footnotes 460 and 461]. harp, mainly by French composers such
On the other hand, the ancient English as Saint-Saens (Fantasia for violin and
rotta probably was a harp. In Wales harp), Debussy (Sonata for flute, viola,
[326]
HARP LUTE HARPSICHORD
and harp), Ravel (Septet for strings, by a plectrum instead of being struck by
flute, clarinet, and harp), Rousscl (Sere- a hammer. If the
pianoforte may be
nade for flute, violin, viola, cello, and looked upon as a
keyed *dulcimer, the
harp), Florent Schmitt (Quartet for harpsichord may be regarded as a keyed
strings and chromatic harp), and Inghel- *psaltery. The characteristic part of its
brecht (Sonatina for flute and harp; action is the jack, a
long piece of wood
Quintet for strings and harp). Other
chamber music works calling for the harp BRIDOC
are by D. G. Mason (Suite for flute, vio-
lin, viola, cello, and harp), Bax (Sextet
for strings, harp, and horn; Sonata for
viola and harp), and Carlos Salzedo.
Lit.:C. Salzedo, Modern Study of the
Harp (1921); W. H. Grattan Flood, The
Story of the Harp (1905); LavE ii.3,
1892-1971; R. B. Armstrong, The Irish
and the Highland Harps (1904); H. J.
Zingel, Harfe und Harfenspiel . . . bis
ins . . . 18. Jahrhundert (Diss. Halle
1932); A. Kastner, "The Harp as a Solo
Instrument and in the Orchestra" (PMA
xxxv ); id., "The Use of the Modem ACK GUIDE
Harp" (Z/M xiii); F. W. Galpin, "The
Sumerian Harp of Ur, c. 3500 B.C." (ML
x); id., "The Origin of the Clarsech"
(KIM, 1911, p. 317); H. Panum, "Harfe
und Lyra im alten Nordeuropa" (SIM
vii); H. J. Zingel, in AM vii, AMF ii,
ZMW xvii. Action of the Harpsichord (from N. BessaraborT,
Ancient European Musical Instruments, 1941)
Harp lute. An early 19th-century in-
strument combining features of the guitar
which at the upper end bears a plectrum
(rather than the lute) with those of the made from crow from leather.
quills or
harp. It may be described as a guitar The jack rests on end of the pro-
the rear
which, instead of the neck, has a harp-
longed lever of the key which, on being
like structure attachedon the top of the
depressed, causes it to jump up so that
body, thus giving room for a greater num- the quill plucks the string. To each key
ber of strings. Similar constructions ap-
belong several jacks which produce a
peared under the names Dital Harp and
slightly different timbre, owing to-the dif-
Harp-lute Guitar. Cf. the illustrations in ferent material used for the plectrum.
GD ii, opp. p. 70 and p. 542. There are also several strings to each key
which produce higher or lower octaves
Harp Quartet. Popular name for Bee-
thoven's Quartet op. 74, in E-flat, so called (4', 8', 16'). The harpsichord has two
manuals and several stops by which the
on account of some pizzicato-arpeggios in
various jacks and strings can be brought
the first movement.
into play, so that a modest degree of regis-
[327]
HARPSICHORD HAUPT-
his objection loses much of its weight. different names which cannot always be
Actually, the harpsichord is just as per- identified with a given type. find in- We
fect a medium for the music of the struments in the shape of a long wing
Baroque period as is the pianoforte for (harpsichord, clavicembalo, clavecin, vir-
that of the ipth century. In particular, ginal), of a rectangular box (virginal,
It is
definitely superior to the pianoforte spinet, spinetto), of a pentagonal box
as a medium for contrapuntal music, since (spinetto), of an upright box (clavicythe-
the middle and lower parts of a composi- rium), and of a short wing extending
tion stand out with an amazing clarity. diagonally (spinet) [illustrations in GD
A misleading statement, thoughtlessly re- i, 664; ii, See *Arpicordo;
546; v, 552].
peated in numerous books, is that re- *Clavicytherium; *Spinet; *Virginal; also
garding the sustaining power of the under *Pedal piano.
sound of the harpsichord, which is said In the late i8th century the harpsichord
to be very slight in comparison with that was gradually displaced by the piano-
of the pianoforte. Actually, the sustain- forte. It is interesting to note that the
ing power of the two instruments is prac- original editions of almost all the Bee-
tically equal, if equal sonorities (piano, thoven sonatas up to op. 27 bear the in-
forte) are considered. Even the most scription: "Pour le Clavecin ou Piano-
tenacious adversaries of the harpsichord forte." This does not mean that such
concede its excellence as an accompanying essentially pianistic works as the Moon-
instrument for violins. In fact, the com- light Sonata were composed for the harp-
bination of a violin and a harpsichord in sichord; but it shows that harpsichords
a sonata by Bach is acoustically much were still widely in use around 1800 and
more satisfactory than that of a pianoforte that the publishers (who in all probabil-
and a violin in a sonata by Beethoven. ity werechiefly responsible for such in-
Throughout the Baroque period the scriptions) were anxious to accommodate
harpsichord was the chief instrument for the players and owners of the old instru-
the realization of *thorough-bass accom- ment as well as those of the more modern
paniment, always in chamber music and one. Regarding the distinction between
often (in place of the organ) in church the repertory of the harpsichord and that
music. of the clavichord, see *Keyboard music.
II. History. The earliest records of See also *Pianoforte music; *Organ music.
what may possibly have been a harpsi- Lit.: Ph. James, Early Keyboard In-
chord-like instrument date from the i4th struments (1930); W. Landowska,
. . .
century [see *Echiquier]. Around 1400 Music of the Past (1926); E. Harich-
the name clavicymbalum occurs in vari- Schneider, Die Kunst des Cembalo-Spiels
ous manuscripts. It points to the addition (1930); A. Pirro, Les Clavecinistes
of a keyboard (claves) to an earlier in- (1926); LavE ii.3, 2036; C. V. Pilking-
strument cymbalum; very likely this had ton, in PMA
Ixii; F. Miiller, "Vom Cem-
[328]
HAUSMUSIK HERMENEUTICS
great organ; Hauptsatz, first theme (or Hemidla, hemiolia [Gr., one and one-
section) in sonata-form [see under half]. In early musical
theory the term
Satzj. is used in two meanings, both of which
imply the ratio of 3:2. (i) If applied to
Hausmusik [G.]. Music for domestic
pitches, hemiola means the fifth, since
use, asopposed to music for public per- the lengths of two strings sounding this
formance. See *Gebrauchsmusik.
interval are in the ratio of 3:2 [see
* Acoustics
Haut, haute [F., high]. Haute-contre, III].
high tenor, male *alto, usually replaced (2) In treatises on mensural notation
by a female contralto. Haut-dessus, high (i5th, 1 6th centuries) the term is applied
to time-values which are in the relation-
treble, soprano. Haute-tallle, see *Taille.
ship of 3:2, particularly to the use of
Hautbois, hautboy [F.]. *Oboe. blackened notes in tetnpus perfectum
[see *Mensural notation V], or, in mod-
Haye, hay, hey. A
dance or a dance ern terms, of three half-notes instead of
figure of the Elizabethan period. The two dotted half-notes: *|J.J.|JJJ| or
name is probably derived from F. hale,
i.e., hedge, the point in comparison being
I-
This change from % to
the arrangement of the dancers in two 3/2 or vice versa is frequent in Baroque
hedge-like rows. Cf. GD ii, 625. vocal music [cf. H. H. Wintersgill, "Han-
del's Two-length Bar" in ML
xvii, no. i]
Hb. Short for hautbois, i.e., oboe.
and forms a typical feature of the *cou-
Head-voice. See rante. Among the modern composers
*Rcgister (2); *Voice.
Brahms is known for his frequent use of
Hebrew music. Sec *Jewish music.
Herunterstimmen To tune
Hexachord [Gr. hexa, six; chordos,
[G.].
down a string. string, tone]. I. A group of six diatonic
tones, with a semitone interval in the
Herunterstrich [G.]. See *Bowing middle, e.g., c d e f g a. The hexachord is
ony, namely, the use of slightly modi- chord, starting on f. The hexachord on c
fied versions of the same melody by two was called hexachordum naturale, that on
g, hexachordum durum, because it in-
cluded the b durum, i.e., B-natural [see
*B], that on f, hexachordum molle, be-
I-nstrutnent cause included the b molle, i.e., B-flat
it
molle:
b
G A B c d e f g a< c' d
7
e' f g' a'< c" d" c"
b'
durum:
naturale:
[330]
HEXACHORD HEXACHORD
It appears that, in medieval teaching, gag e gd |a g a f ga a gf d ce d
Sol- vc polluti|La-bi-i re-a- turn, Sanctc Johannes.
the compass of tones was obtained, not by
adjoining octaves, but by dovetailing hexa- (That with relaxed (vocal) chords thy
chords. This method, generally servants may be able to sing the wonders
although
considered inferior to the modern pro- of thy deeds, remove the sin from their
cedure, actually superior in at least one
is polluted lips, O holy John.) These syl-
point, namely in that it produces the scale lables were used as a "movable solmiza-
without establishing at the same time a tion,"being applied to each of the seven
preference regarding tonality. Indeed, in hexachords. Thus, the tone d was sol
the modern system the initial tone C auto- (fifth) in the hexachord on G, and re
designated the six tones of the hexachord the tone d may appear either as a sol or a
by the vocables [L. voces, voces musicales} re. Following is a survey of the entire
ut, re, mi, fa, sol, la. These are the initial nomenclature (D. = durum; N. = natu-
syllables of the first six lines of a then well- rale; M. = molle) :
known hymn to St. John [cf. AR, 733 ], To a certain degree the compound names
the melody of which has the peculiarity served to differentiate octaves, e.g., C fa ut
of beginning one tone higher with each (c), C sol fa ut (c'), and C sol fa (c").
successive line: IV. In order to accommodate melodic
repeatedly been used as a cantus firmus "octave"). The intervals of sa-grama are:
Sa Ri Ga Ma Pa Dha Ni Sa (solmization-syllables)
04
o
7 9 13 17 20
1088
22
1 200
(number of sruti)
204 386 498 702 906 (pitch in cents)
[332]
HINDU MUSIC HINDU MUSIC
tones [in actual music, the seven-tone Cross rhythms between two drums or be-
scales (hepta-scales) described above are tween the drum and the vina [see below]
usually reduced to six-tone scales (hexa- are very frequent. Essential characteristics
scales) or five-tone scales (penta-scales)]. of Hindu melody are the elaborate orna-
It further prescribes the use of
typical pro- mentations (gamaty), vocal as well as
gressions, stereotyped melodic formulae, instrumental. These form a basic part of
rhythmic patterns, and ornamentations. instructionand practice, especially in the
The theoretical system (there are, of playing of the vina, the main melody in-
course, many variants in the different lo- strument of Hindu music. This is a "stick
cal schools) knows 6 (main) ragas and 30 zither" [seeinstruments IV], with seven
raginis, each of which are duplicated ac- strings,four of which run over a fretted
cording to the sa-grama or the ma-grama finger board in the form of a long stick,
scheme (perfect or augmented fourths), while three others run alongside as open
thus leading to a system of 72 "primary strings (bass courses). The stick is fas-
nary training is likely to be able to play wild and rapidly increasing tremolo (often
and improvise in 50 or 60 ragas. Each at the distance of a third or fourth), an
raga (literally "color," "mood") has not abruptly ending portamento performed
only musical characteristics, but also a either by a slide of the left hand (as in
very definite "ethical" and "emotional" violin playing) or by a lateral pull of the
significance, and is furthermore associated strings, etc.
with a special season or hour of the day. The older tradition of Hindu music
For instance, the raga Bhairava is based survives to some extent in the sacrificial
on the scale: c db e f-g ab b, has the Sama chants (Vedic chants), simple litur-
center-tone c, expresses reverence, and be- gical melodies which move chiefly within
longs to dawn. The accompanying Ex. i a tetrachord. The fact that they are not
considered to be "in a raga" points to their
early origin, certainly anterior to the in-
troduction of the ragas (c. A.D. 600). It
has been surmised that they show Greek
influence (Lachmann, p. 107). The pres-
ent-day music of course, of an entirely
is,
different character. A
vocal piece usually
shows theraga Megha-Mallbar\ the begins with a drone accompaniment
brackets indicate important formulae; the (tambura), followed by a vocalizing im-
pauses, the two main tones. The most provisation over the main outlines of the
important ragas have also certain sym- raga, followed in turn by the song, ac-
bolistic pictorial associations which have companied by the drums. A typical form
been portrayed in many paintings [see of the south (Carnatic) is the \irtanam
Lit., Lachmann, p. 134]. the construction of which has been com-
II. Style and Form. Hindu music is pared to that of sonata-form, since it in-
essentially monophonic, except for a mo- cludes the following sections: pallavi
notonous drone provided by the tambura, (first subject), anupallavi (second sub-
an unfretted lute, and for a rhythmic back- ject), caranam (development), and pal-
ground provided by drums. The rhythm lavi (first subject). Each "subject" is a
of Hindu music is based on the tala, i.e., short melody (four or eight measures)
a more or less elaborate rhythmic pattern which is repeated several times in free
which is repeated over and over again. variations which preserve only the main
Ex, 2 shows three frequently used tala's. outlines and the chief notes of the "theme."
[333]
HINSTERBEND HISTORY OF MUSIC
The first subject and its variations move Hirmos. Inearly *Byzantine music
around the "tonic" (amsa) of the raga, (9th-i2th centuries) a melody composed
whereas the second subject emphasizes for the first stanza of a hymn (the ode of
the "dominant," i.e., the fifth above. In a *t(anon) and repeated with the follow-
the "development section" both subjects ing stanzas, in the manner of a strophic
are "combined," that is,they appear in song. Naturally, the procedure was more
immediate succession. Such pieces usu- flexible than with a modern strophic
ally arc opened and closed by a short in- chant, admitting adjustments to the vary-
strumental passage (four measures) in ing number of syllables in the different
which all the tones and characteristic stanzas, similar to the method used with
traits of the raga are given. An example the psalm-tones. Most of the hirmoi
reproduced in Lachmann, p. 118, has a (which were collected in books called
slightly extended form. Another form, hirmologion) were composed in the 7th
used chiefly in the north (Hindostan), is and 8th centuries, and were later used for
the \hyal. This resembles our rondo, as other hymns written after the model of
it consists of a short ostinato-like motive the earlier music. See *Tract.
which is repeated many times between Lit.: H. Gaisser, Les Heirmoi de Pdques
free couplets [cf. Fox-Strangways, p. (1905; also in RMC
ii); A. Gastoue, Les
"A Study in East Indian Rhythm" (MQ musical history, at an interval of 300 years,
A. F. Fox-Strangways, "The Hindu the evolution led to changes which were
xvii);
Scale" (SIM ix); P. Runge, "Die Notation so strikingly novel in character that con-
des Somanatha" xxxvi); E. M. v. writers the term
(MfM temporary adopted
Hornbostel, "Phonographierte Indische "new" as a characterization: the *Ars
Melodien" (SIM v); R. Lachmann and Nova of 1300, the *Nuove Musiche of
E. v. Hornbostel, "Das indische Ton- 1600, and the *New Music of 1900. It
system bei Bharata ." (Zeitschrift fur
. .
would be admissible to add to these "land-
vergleichende Musifaissenschaft iv); H.
marks of innovation" the year 1000, as
Engel, in AMP
iv; P. Stern, in iv, RM indicative of one of the most epochal in-
no. 7; G. F. Checacci, in RMI xv. ventions in music, i.e., the musical *staff
(Guido and his predecessors). There
Hinsterbend [G.]. Dying away. landmarks of no lesser impor-
exist other
tance which occur almost exactly at the
Hinstrich [G.]. Sec *Bowing (a). middle of each of our 3oo-year periods.
[334]
HISTORY OF MUSIC HISTORY OF MUSIC
Of these, the year 1750 (marked by the gorian chant). Around 850 (Romanesque
death of Joh. Seb. Bach is familiar to period) there began a period of amplifica-
every music student. Around 1450 we tion of the traditional
repertory, leading
find the rise of the *Flemish School, mark- to the *tropes, *sequences, and
finally to
ing the end of medieval music, and the the *liturgical drama. More epochal than
beginning of the Renaissance; around these "horizontal broadenings" is the
1150, the first important school of poly- simultaneous rise of polyphonic music
phonic music, the School of St. Martial. which, in its early
period, can be charac-
Finally, the middle of the 9th century terized as "vertical broadening" of the
can be regarded as the "beginning of chant, i.e., as polyphonic settings of plain-
polyphony," judging from the date of the song *cantus firmi. In the ensuing three
earliest preserved records. periods of The centuries these settings, known as *or-
150 years each resulting from the above gana, underwent slow but remarkable
consideration can be conveniently identi- changes of style. Around 1150 the School
fiedby terms long used in the Fine Arts of *St. Martial stands out as an important
and coming to be adopted more and more landmark in this evolution, being fol-
by musical scholars: lowed, around 1175, by the still more im-
Itgoes without saying that, in reality, the portant School of *Notre Dame with its
border lines between these periods are not two masters Leoninus and Pcrotinus,
as neatly marked off as the above table, which is usually considered as the begin-
taken literally, would suggest. However, ning of the *Ars antiqua (i3th century).
it is
only on the basis of a clearly-drawn Secondary forms of this school are the
sketch that the finer lines of historical evo- non-liturgical *conductus, and the *claus-
lution can be inserted at their proper ulae fragments, as it were, of organa
place [cf. ML, p. 545 for other schemes of which acquired particular importance as
periods]. the starting point of the *motet, the most
II. Up to 1500. For want of other per- characteristic form of the Ars antiqua
tinent information, the history of pre- proper (Franco of Cologne, Petrus de
Christian music in Europe is practically Cruce). The early Gothic period also sees
limited to that of *Greek music [see also the rise of secular music in the Provencal
under *Roman music]. The early Chris- *troubadours (c. 1100-1300), who are
tian era sees the rise of the Christian followed, half a century later, by the
Chant (plainsong) which would appear northern French *trouvres (c.1150-
to be rooted chiefly in the tradition of the 1300) and the German *Minnesinger
*Jewish synagogue. The most important (c. 1150-1350). The latter tradition con-
of the various branches of Christian Chant tinued to live in the *Meistersinger (c.
[see *Chant] that of the Roman Church,
, 1400-1600), the last representatives of
reached its high-point ("Golden Age") monophonic music, aside from *folk song
around 900, after the codification of the which, to be sure, is not restricted to any
repertory by St. Gregory (c. 600; see
*Gre- period of history. Monophonic music also
[335]
HISTORY OF MUSIC HISTORY OF MUSIC
had a relatively short period of flowering, of a continuous development of instru-
chiefly during the I3th century, in Spain mental music, for *ensemble as well as
(*cantigas) and in Italy (*laude). for the organ and, slightly later, the lute
III. / 300-7450. With the advent of the [see *Prelude; *Intabulierung; *Ricer-
late Gothic period or, to speak in musical care; *Canzona (4); *Fantasia; *Toccata;
*
terms, of the *Ars nova, the picture of Variations; *Dance music, the last-men-
music underwent a striking change from tioned with interesting forerunners in the
the sacred to the secular, a change which I3th and I4th centuries (*estampie)].
brought about the appearance of an en- The Renaissance came to an impressive
tirely new
repertory of music, the poly- pompous splendor of the Ve-
close in the
(or Schools), Ockeghem and Obrecht. two chief forms of Baroque instrumental
Although their masses and motets, par- music, the *suite and the *sonata are both
ticularly those of the former, are far re- rooted in 16th-century developments [see
moved from what the term Renaissance *Canzona (4)], while the contrast style
suggests, Renaissance-like features the of the *concerto is more exclusively an
1
"sun of Italy,' as it were appeared in affair of the Baroque [see also *Bologna
the secular compositions of Obrecht and School]. In a way, the Baroque period is
still more so in those of his the most "international" period in music
great succes-
sor Josquin. In the early i6th century with Italy, Germany, and France
history,
similar in this respect to the early i4th competing on almost equal terms, and
century numerous secular forms arose: England being a "good second." No
the Italian *frottola, the German poly- other period can boast of a similar variety
phonic *Lied, the Spanish *villancico, the of forms, nor of an equal number of great
Italian *madrigal. The tradition of sacred composers, nor of a summit comparable
music, however, continued in the numer- to that represented by the name of Bach.
ous masses and motets, and reached its VI. 7750-7900. Although, in a way,
"Golden Age" under Palestrina, Lasso, the change taking place after Bach's
Byrd, and Vittoria. The beginning of the death (1750) is more clearly present in
Renaissance also marks the starting-point the mind of most students of music his-
[336]
[337]
HISTORY OF MUSIC HISTORY OF MUSIC
tory than any of the preceding ones, there ary tendencies, summed up under the
actually is more (at least, just as much) term *New music, embrace a variety of
"transition" here than elsewhere, namely, attempts, experiments, and aspects for
in the *Rococo movement which started which there is no parallel in the entire
in France (Couperin) around 1700 and history of music. It is not until recently
continued, under the name *gallant style, (c. 1930) that this wild uproar has partly
chiefly in Italy and Germany. In the latter subsided and that a more steady course,
country, under the hands of W. F. and known as *neo-classicism and represented
C. P. E. Bach, it took on, after 1750, a chiefly by Stravinsky and Hindemith, be-
greater expressiveness [see *Empfindsam- comes visible.
keit; also *Berlin School] which heralds The accompanying table illustrates the
the achievements of the classical and even development of the most important forms
the Romantic period. At the same time of music (straight lines indicate the main
the members of the *Mannheim School period of existence; dotted lines a more
(and other
composers also) laid the sporadic continuation).
foundation for the formal development Related articles (in approximately
of the *sonata, the dominating form of chronological order): Gregorian Chant;
the 1 9th century, with its orchestral and Byzantine Chant; Bards; Middle- Ages;
chamber music varieties, the *symphony Troubadours; Trouveres; Minnesinger;
and the *quartet. Vienna became the Gothic music; St. Martial; Ars antiqua;
musical world center under the Viennese Ars nova; Burgundian School; Flemish
classics Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, and School; Renaissance; Musica reservata;
Schubert [see *Classicism], the last of Humanism; Colorists; Virginalists; Ve-
whom, the great master of the *lied, netian School; Roman School; Baroque;
marks the ^Romanticism
transition to the Nuove musiche; Bologna School; Nea-
of the 1 9th century. The early Romanti- politan School; Rococo; Mannheim
cists (Schumann, Mendelssohn, Chopin) School; Berlin School; Classicism; Ro-
cultivated particularly the *character manticism; Nationalism; Modern music.
piece for pianoforte in
they which See also the articles on the various nations,
achieved more perfect results than in the listedon p. 2, and the article on Form.
large forms of the classical period. The Standard booJ(s: Oxford History
Lit.:
symphonic tradition was revived, how- of Music (new ed., 7 vols., 1929-34; for
ever 1870-90) by the symphonies of
(c. the medieval history the vols. i, ii of the
Bruckner, Brahms, Tchaikovsky, C. first edition, 1901, are preferable); A. W.
Franck, and came to a close with those Ambros, Geschichte der Musi^ (5 vols.,
of Mahler (c. 18901910). Around 1850 1862 and later); G. Adler, Handbuch der
the *symphonic poem developed as a MusiJ^geschichte (2 vols., 1929); H. Rie-
novel type of symphonic music, and the mann, Handbuch der Musi\geschichte
opera took a new start under Wagner, (5 vols., 2d ed. 1921/22); J. Combarieu,
who added even more weight to the Histoire de la musique (3 vols., 1913-20);
power of German music. Against the A. Lavignac, Encyclopedic de la musique
dominant position of German music there . .
(1912/20), part i (5 vols.).
.
arose, around 1860, the *National Schools Synoptic books'. H. Prunieres, A New
which brought the "peripheric" nations History of Music ( 1943) K. Nef An Out-
; ,
(Bohemia, Norway, Russia, Spain, Eng- line of the History of Music (1935); Stan-
land) into play, and, around 1900, the ford and Forsyth, History of Music
Impressionism which carried France (1922); P. La*ng, Music in Western Civili-
back into the spotlight. zation (1941); H. Leichtentritt, Music,
VII. 7900. The impressionism
From History and Ideas (1938); A. Einstein,
was the indication of a quickly grow-
first A Short History of Music ( 1938) E. Dick- ;
ing antithesis against the Romanticism inson, The Study of the History of Music
and the musical tradition of the i9th cen- (1908); D. N. Ferguson, A
History of
tury in general. The ensuing revolution- Musical Thought (1935); Th. M. Finney,
[338]
HOBOE HOMOPHONIC
A History of Music (1935); W. S. Pratt, *chace, cf.
BeMMR, 131] serve as an illus-
History of Music (1935); P- A. Scholcs, tration [cf. also HAMy no. 35]. Theo-
The Listener's History of Music (1923 of the I3th
rists
century mention hofotus
and later); A. Schcring, Tabellen zur not only as a technique to be applied
Musi^gcschichte ( 1 92 1 ) . within the course of a motet, etc., but also
Collections of Examples: A. T. Davison as an independent musical form. This
and W. Apel, fHistorical Anthology of probably refers to pieces in which hocket
Music (in preparation); A. Schering, technique is used consistently between
^Geschichte der Musi\ in Beispielen the two upper parts. A
limited number
(1931); A. Einstein, "\Beispielsammlung of such pieces, mostly instrumental, are
zur Musil^geschichte (1917); H. Rie- preserved [cf. P. Aubry, Cent motets,
mann, ^Musi\geschichte in Beispielen nos. 102, 103, 104,
1 06,
107, 1 08; Y. Rok-
(1929); G. Kinsky, History of Music in Polyphonies du Xllle siecle ii, 160],
seth,
Pictures (1930). For collections of rec- The hocket technique loses much of its
ords see under *Phonograph. seeming oddity if it is realized that a
Articles: F. Malipiero, "The History of rather similar type of technique exists in
Music and the Music of History" (MQ the "*durchbrochene Arbeit" used in
ix); A. Mendel, "Spengler and Music compositions by Haydn, Mozart, and
History" (MQ xx); A. Lorenz, "Perio- Beethoven. Some of the 17th-century
dizitat in der Musikgeschichte" (DM *catches likewise show a fragmentary
xxi.9); A. Schering, "Historische und alternation of voice-parts similar in prin-
nationale Klangstile" (]MP 9 1927); H. ciple to the hocket technique. Cf Marius.
quet, hoquet; It. ochetto; the root of the Hold. Same as *pause.
word is possibly the same as in hiccough] .
which are given to two parts in alterna- posite of ^polyphonic, i.e., music in which
tion. The accompanying examples [(i): all parts contribute more or less equally
motet In Bethlehem; (2): anonymous to the musical fabric [see *Texture]. In
[339]
HOOK NEUMES HORN
German terminology Homophonie (ho- now a strong tendency to write horn parts
mophon) has a different meaning, namely with a key-signature which, owing to the
of part-music in which all the voices move transposed notation, has one flat less or
in the same rhythm (cf. the literal mean- one sharp more than that of, e.g., the
ing of the Greek term). Hence, Homo- violins (E-flat for a composition in A-flat,
Haydn: three concertos for one horn, and instance of the use of
keyed brass instru-
one for two horns, also a trio for horn, vio- ments. Around 1770 the horn -player
lin, and violoncello; Mozart: four con- Hampl of Dresden discovered that the
certos, three divertimend for two horns natural tones of the horn could be lowered
and strings, and a quintet for horn, violin, to the extent of a semitone or a tone by
two violas, and cello; Beethoven: Sonata inserting the open hand with the fingers
for piano and French horn, op. 17; Sextet close together into the bell. This tech-
for two horns and strings, op. 8ib; various nique made it possible for the first time to
pieces for several wind instruments (op. produce "artificial" horn tones, thus
1 6, 20,
71, 103, 146); Spohr: Octet for two bridging to some extent the gaps be-
horns, clarinet, and strings; Weber: Con- tween the natural tones. The natural
certino for horn; Schumann: Adagio und horns thus played were called "hand
Allegro for horn and piano, op. 70, Con- horn" [It. corno a mano].
certstiick for four horns and orchestra, op. In the late i8th century horns were
86; Brahms: Horn trio, op. 40; R. Strauss: provided with *crooks, i.e., additional
Concerto for horn, op. n; Hindemith: lengths of tubing by which the fundamen-
Chamber music for five winds, op. 24, tal tuning of the instrument could be
no. 2. changed. Thus, a horn in F could be
II. History. The following explanation made horn in E or Eb, etc. At first
into a
deals only with the most immediate prede- these crookswere pieces inserted immedi-
cessors of the modern horn, the other ately underneath the mouthpiece. This
"members of the horn family" being method had the drawback of removing
treated under the general article on *brass the instrument from the body of the
instruments. The earliest type is the player so that,if longer crooks or several
Hunting Horn, a plain pipe which was crooks were used, the playing became
coiled in a circle large enough to permit quite inconvenient. The above-mentioned
carrying over the shoulder. It had a shal- Hampl is credited with the invention of
low mouthpiece of the trumpet pattern curved sliding crooks to be inserted into
and as a consequence its tone was loud the body, and these became known as
and brilliant. Towards the close of the "inventions," hence the name Inventions-
1 7th century the same instrument was horn for this instrument. By the use of
built in a considerably smaller size, proper crooks together with stopped notes the
for use in the orchestra. These instru- horn became an almost completely chro-
ments were similar most respects to the
in matic instrument. However, the stopped
modern horn, except that they had no notes differed in timbre from the natural
valves or crooks [sec below] so that only notes and the change of crooks was a
the tones of one and the same harmonic time-consuming process. The invention
series could be obtained. The details of of * valves by Blumel in 1813 did away
the development leading from the hunt- with these inconveniences and revolution-
ing horn to the "natural horn" [F.
cor ized the playing of the horn. The first
d'harmonic\ G. Naturhorn, Waldhorn\ part for the valve horn is in Halvy's La
HORN FIFTHS HUMANISM
Juive (1835). The hand horn, however, Stainer and Barrett, Dictionary of Musical
continued for some time to be used side Terms, 233.
by side with the modern type, owing to
its more brilliant tone. See the illustra-
Hornquinten, Hornsatz [G.]. *Horn
fifths.
tions on p. 98.
Das Horn in derKunst-
Lit.: F. Piersig, Hosanna, Osanna. A Hebrew word
musi{ Bach (Diss. Halle 1927); E.
bis expressing triumph and glorification. In
Paul, Das Horn in seiner Entwic^lung the connection Hosanna in excelsis it oc-
vom Natur- zum Ventilinstrument (Diss.
curs in the Sanctus of the
Ordinary of
Vienna 1932); D. J. Blaikley, "The the Mass [see *Mass B, III]. In
poly-
French Horn" (PMA xxxv); H. Kling, phonic masses it is always treated as a
"Le Cor de chasse" (RM1 xviii); G. de St. brilliant coda.
pipes (1705), and in the various books of MR ii, iii; P. Masson, in Le Mercure musi-
[see *vielle] and Nicolaus, dictus Kobzos sign and shows the influence of the polo-
(both c. 1350). Hungarian music came naise. This aboriginal music deteriorated
to a great flowering under King Mathias after 1800 under the influence of Western
Corvinus (145890) to whose wife, idioms while, on the other hand, Western
Beatrix, Tinctoris dedicated his Diffini- composers adopted Hungarian idioms in
torium [see ^Dictionaries III]. Thomas numerous compositions "All* ongarese,"
Stoltzer and Adriaen Willaert stayed at e.g., Haydn and Schubert, whose
Divertis-
the court of King Louis until 1562, the sement a Hongroise for four hands (op.
la
year of the battle of Mohacs against the 54) portrays, one might feel, the Hun-
Turks which marked the end of Hun- garian spirit more purely than Liszt's fa-
gary's independence and the beginning mous rhapsodies. The * Czardas (Tschar-
of Turkish influence. Nonetheless, it was dache) is said to be a 19th-century revival
after this disastrous event that Hungarian of the old verbunko and shows also the
composers emerged for the first time, division into two sections, a slow and a
particularly lute composers such as Sebas- quick one, sometimes with the addition of
tian Tinodi (i505?-56; cf. RiML, 1847), an ornamented middle section, the czijra.
and Valentin Bakfark (1507-76; cf. A typical feature of Hungarian dance mu-
DTOe iS.ii). The former was also an sic is the virtuoso treatment of the violin,
outstanding historian, and in his Cronica chiefly in the hands of gypsies who added
(1554) several Hungarian airs are given, to the melodies their characteristic touch
among which the one memorizing the of rubato execution and of improvised
siege of Eger is most remarkable for its cadenzas. Nonetheless, F. Liszt was in
[343]
HUNGARIAN MUSIC HURDY-GURDY
error when, in his The Gipsies and their ten Den\mdler ungarischer Vo\almusi\
Music (1859), he gave the gypsies a cen- (1931); B. Bartok, "Hungarian Peasant
tral place in the creation of Hungarian Music" (MQ xix); E. Kilenyi, "The The-
dance music. Actually, this place should ory of Hungarian Music" (MQ v); J. de
be reserved for Hungarian composers Gyory, "Hungarian Music" (PMA xxix);
such as Johann Bihari (1764-1827) and F. Korbay, "The Hungarian Folk-Songs"
A. Czermak (17711822), while to the (PMA xxxv) B. Scabolski, "Probleme der
;
sic are alia 0/>/>0-rLiythms, augmented Matthias Corvinus" (KJ, 1900); A. Bar-
seconds (Gypsy scale), ornamented ca- tha, in AMP
ii; E. Haraszti, in KlM 1930, y
dential formulae, and the playing of the p. 140. For Hungarian literature cf .
RiML,
*cimbalom. There is also a genuine gypsy . Cf. also AdHM, 1180.
music amongst the rural gypsies, but this
differsmarkedly from the "Hungarian Hunting horn. See *Horn II.
gypsy music," as do also the aboriginal Hunting music [G. JagdmusiJ(\. Cf.
Hungarian peasant songs which have K. Taut, Beitrdge zur Geschichte der ]agd-
been collected in great number by Bela
(Diss. Leipzig 1927).
Bartok [cf. E. Haraszti, in KIM, 1930,
p. 140].
Hunt Quartet, Hunt Symphony.
III. The father of modern Hungarian See *Chasse, La.
music is Ferenc Erkel (1810-93), who
Hupfauf [G., jump-up]. See *Nach-
wrote the first national operas Bathory Ma-
tanz.
ria (1840) and Hunyady Laszlo (1844).
The most famous Hungarian composer, Hurdy-gurdy [F. vielle {de roue)\ G.
Franz Liszt (1811 86), embraced the Drehleier\ ghironda; Sp. zanfonia]. A
It.
(1931 ) ; O. Gombosi, La Vita musicale alia gurdies. He calls the instrument lyra or
corte di Re Mattia (1929); id.. Die altes- lira organizzata, a name which has been
[344]
HURTIG HYMN
erroneously interpreted as *lira da braccio. Az Aquincumi orgona (1934; in Hunga-
Some 18th-century specimens of the hur- rian, with a
summary in German); W.
dy-gurdy have a small number of organ W. Hyde, Transactions and Proceed-
in
pipes attached in the body, and it is prob- ings of the American Philological Associa-
ably to these that the term "organizzata" tion, Philadelphia, 69 (1938).
refers. The name lyra as well as the use of
a crank has also led to confusion with the Hymn. A song of praise or adoration of
street-organ [G. *Leierl(asten].
Schu- God (originally, in honor of Apollo; two
bert's well-known song "Der Leiermann" hymns to Apollo of c. 150 B.C. are among
portrays the player of a hurdy-gurdy, not the most complete remnants of Greek
of a street-organ. See the illustration on music; cf HAM, no. 6a, b) In the earliest
. .
The original name organistrum was re- the early Christian era Antioch (Syria)
placed around 1300 by the names armonie and Constantinople (Byzantine empire)
and symphonia, the latter of which was were the centers of hymn writing (hym-
perverted into chijonie, cinfonie, zanfonja, nody). The movement apparently started
zampugna, *sambuca, etc. In the I5th among the Gnostics, a sect which flour-
century the instrument adopted the name ished in the 2d century. Bardesanes (d.
vielle, after the old *vielle (a fiddle) had 223) and his son Harmonius wrote a com-
become obsolete. Cf. SaFIMI, 271; GD ii, plete Gnostic Psalter, i.e., a collection of
685; E. de Bricqueville, in BSIM, 1909. poetic paraphrases of the psalms. The
great success of this popularizing enter-
Hurtig [G.]. Nimble, quick.
prise (cf. the *psalters of the i6th cen-
Hydraulis [from Gr. hydor, water; tury!) led to imitations among the Chris-
aulos, pipe]. The organ of the ancient tians. The Syrian Saint Ephrem (306-
hydraulis was used particularly in Rome of Poitiers (d. 366), is credited with hav-
in connection with the gladiatorial shows. ing written the first Latin hymns, in imi-
Nero reported to have performed on it
is tation of the Syrian hymns which were,
[see *Roman music]. See *Magrepha; of course, in Greek (as are all those of the
*Organ XII. early Eastern Churches). His hymns be-
Lit.: H. G. Farmer, The Organ of the ing all lost (except one), St. Ambrose (d.
Ancients from Eastern Sources (1931); 397) is actually the father of the hymnody
SaHMI, 143; Ch. Maclean, in SIM vi; of the Catholic Church [see *Ambrosian
J. W. Warman, in PMA
xxx; Nagy Lajos, hymns], together with Aurelius Pruden-
[345]
HYMN, ENGLISH HYMN, ENGLISH
tius (d. after 405) and St. Augustin (354- persuasiveness or of practicability, but
430). Ambrosius' iambic dimeter (w/w/ simply to the persistence of the tradition
\^/w>, e.g., Vent credtor spiritus) became of sacro-sanctity with which Biblical texts
the standard meter of the innumerable were surrounded to the detriment of the
Latin hymns of which there are about 120 purely "man-made" hymn texts of Ger-
in use, chiefly for the Office [cf. AR,
still man Reformation writers. The Germans
230*; a number of hymns of much later must be credited with a greater catholicity
date, the so-calledRococo hymns, are listed of viewpoint than many of their neigh-
separately, under Varia, p. 232*]. The bors, for editions of the French Psalter
more than fifty volumes of G. M. Dreves' were at one time or another in use in
and Cl. Blume's Analecta Hymnica are Germany. England was not so receptive,
a practically complete collection of medie- for though Coverdale's Goostly Psalms
val hymn-texts; a useful index for quick and Spiritualle Songs (1539, '46) included
reference is U. Chevalier's Repertorium thirty-six Chorales, these failed to make
their way. The volume was, to be sure,
Hymnologicum. The earliest sources of
hymn melodies date from the nth cen- banned by Henry the Eighth, but even
The great majority of these melodies royal disfavor can hardly account for
tury.
introduce groups of two to four notes what appears to have been a pretty com-
which fall just as frequently on the strong plete rejection. Indeed, had the success of
as on the weak the hymn as a form in England depended
syllable. Evidently, they
do not admit a strictly metrical
rendering upon the support of the crown, it
solely
[cf. Wagner, Gregorianische Formen*
P. would have come into its own during the
lehre, p. 462]. The polyphonic composi- reign of Elizabeth, for by decree she ad-
tion of hymns started in the i3th century mitted it to a part in the English Service
[cf. SchGMB, no. 10; BeMMR, 169; O.
and permitted its inclusion in Day's
Ursprung, Katholische KirchenmusiJ(, p. Psalter. Again, about the end of the first
142], Later composers were Dunstable, quarter of the I7th century, James I gave
to George Wither a patent allowing him
Dufay [cf. DTOe 27.!], A. v. Fulda,
Thomas to have his Hymns and Songs of the
Stoltzer [DdT 65"], Tallis, Vit-
toria, Byrd, and many others. In 1589
Church bound in the same volume with
Palestrina published a collection, Hymni the Psalter. But the grip of the latter upon
totius anni, for the entire year. the English Service was so strong that it
hymns i.e.,
was not, perhaps, until a hundred years
Organ hymns were written by A. Schlick,
G. Cavazzoni [cf. SchGMB, no. 103: In- later that the hymn was fully established
no], Cabezon, Titelouze, etc.; see
and hymn books began to appear.
*Organ
chorale I. Watts's first hymnal appeared in 1707
III. German Hymns. For the German and was followed in 1737 by John Wes-
hymns of the Catholic rites, cf. AfoML, ley's hymn book published in Georgia.
After the Wesleys returned to England
395 (Kirchenlied)\ for those of the Prot-
estant Church, see *Chorale. they continued the work undertaken in
IV. English Hymns. See subsequent America; and as singing was an important
feature of the Methodist movement, the
entry.
contributions of the Wesleys were of in-
Hymn, English. I. Even before the estimable value, the use of their hymns
8th century it was evident that the limita-
1 spreading, as well, into many of the other
tions, psychological no less than artistic, non-conformist branches of the Church.
which surrounded the *Psalter as a con- The 1 8th
century was prolific in the pro-
gregational musical form, were bound to duction of hymns which as music do not
produce a reaction in favor of the hymn. in all cases warrant enthusiasm. The pe-
The Lutheran *Chorale, in particular, had riod should not be judged by the extraor-
demonstrated the power of the hymn dinary *fuguing tunes in which one or
form, and its failure of acceptance in other another part dropped out momentarily,
lands cannot be laid to any lack of musical sometimes making, upon its re-entrance,
[346]
HYMN, ENGLISH HYPER- HYPO-
unintentional rearrangements of the text editorial obsession that the music must be
which, while more innocent than those to familiar and that the traditional
partner-
be found in some *catches, are not less ship between certain texts and tunes must
mirth-provoking. The period was, per- be preserved. Devotion to this policy has
haps, near enough to the Psalter tradition resulted in the
perpetuating from genera-
to retain an essential musical dignity tion to generation of many texts and much
which, in the Psalter itself, must have music of inferior worth. The average
been so all-pervading as to be occasionally quality of denominational hymnals is not
oppressive. In any case the hymn book high, but in recent years three books of
output of the 1 8th century is, with reserva- outstanding merit have appeared, namely,
tions, more to be commended than the The English Hymnal (2d ed. 1933), The
bulk of 19th-century production. A nota- Oxford Hymn Boo^, and Songs of Praise.
ble exception, however, resulted from the Second, the publishing of the melodies in
rise of interest in Plainsong and the Cho- part arrangements has been detrimental
rale which occurred in England about the to congregational singing. The best hymn
middle of the i9th century and which in- tunes are generally within the range of
troduced into the hymnal an element of the average voice, but many worshipers
vitality and musical excellence long over- prefer to indulge in a modest tonal excur-
due. This was the real achievement of sion which, they hope, and perhaps be-
19th-century English hymnody and helps lieve, isa rendition of the alto, tenor, or
us to forget a little the ensuing pallid re- bass part. If congregations could be in-
flections of romanticism that characterize duced to unite on the melody and leave
the hymns of the Victorians. The i8th- the harmony to the organ, the vigor and
century hymn may have been at times assured quality of hymn singing would
dull, but it has never been charged with miraculously increase.
musical feebleness or sentimentality. Lit.: W. Douglas, Church Music in His-
II. In America, as in
England, the i8th tory and Practice ( 1937) ; J. T. Lightwood,
century saw an effort to extend the borders Hymn Tunes and Their Story ( 906) F. J. 1 ;
Billings (17461800), who was followed panion to Music (1938), article "Hymn";
by Lowell Mason (1792-1872). English H. B, Marks, The Rise and Growth of
standards of hymn composition were gen- English Hymnody (1937); G. Dearmer,
erally adopted in America in the late i9th "The Fall and Rise of the Hymn Tune"
century and although some hymnals in- (ML vi, no. i). A.T.D.
cluded psalter and chorale material, the
emphasis was strongly on the Victorian Hypate [Gr.]. See *Greek music.
side. One phenomenon connected with
American congregational song of the lat- Hyper-, hypo- [Gr., above, below]. Pre-
ter part of the i9th century was the gospel fixes denoting higher and lower pitches.
hymn. Many of its texts were closely con- Hyper- (hypo-)diatessaron is the upper
nected with the doctrine of "salvation by (lower) fourth; hyper- (hypo-)diapente,
grace" so that their content is often no the higher (lower) fifth. In Greek theory,
more than an irritatingly priggish assump- terms such as Hyperdorian and Hypodo-
tion of Christian superiority. Both as lit- rian signify modes (more properly, octave-
erature and as music they plumbed the species) which start a fifth above and be-
depths of commonness, but, in spite of low the initial tone of the original octave,
this, their influence extended beyond the e.g.,Dorian on e, Hyperdorian on b,
confines of the revival meeting and into Hypodorian on A [see *Greek music II
the regular services of the church. (c)]. In the medieval system of church
Two evils, in particular, have beset the modes the prefix hypo- denotes modes the
modern Protestant hymnal. First, the range (ambitus) of which is a fourth be-
[347]
I IDIOMATIC STYLE
low that of the
corresponding primary Hyporchema [Gr.]. An ancient Greek
(authentic) mode [see *Church modes dancing song from Crete.
II].
I
I. This letter was introduced by Kirn- [see *Grcgorian chant VI]. It serves pri-
berger to denote the natural seventh, i.e., marily to mark off those groups of two
the seventh *harmonic, such as is pro- and three notes which form the basis of
duced on the natural horn. Its pitch their rendering of the chant. The ictus
( %=969 *cents) is noticeably lower than has nothing to do with the speech accent
that of the well-tempered seventh (1000 (tonic accent); in numerous cases it falls
cents) and that of the seventh in *first on the weak syllable [see Ex.] The monks
.
lastian. See *Greek music II (c). of Solesmes make it a point that, in actual
The
A comparison of early manuscripts [Arna- question as to which communicable
form it actually takes has therefore become
magndan MS y University Library of Co- a sort of mystery. Probably the mental
penhagen; cf. WoHN i, 119] with recent
collections shows that music has been perception of alternating points of eleva-
tion and repose (aided by cheironomic
stationary in Iceland for at least 600 years.
A characteristic feature of the rimur
graphs and by analogies such as the
waves of the sea or an elastic ball) en-
(dancing songs, ballades) is the frequent able the singer to produce a minimal de-
change of meter. Particularly interesting
is the twisongur (twin-song), i.e., two-
gree of distinction. See the authoritative
explanation in LU, p. xi. Also all the
part singing in parallel fifths, which is Solesmes books [Dom Mocquereau, Le
obviously a remnant of the parallel *or- nombre Dom
musical, etc.; particularly,
ganum of the 9th century, and which is Gajard, Notions sur le rhy thine gregorien
still practiced today in certain remote parts
GD (1935)]-
of Iceland [cf. iv, 44; ReMMA, 271].
Lit.: B. Thorsteinsson, Islenzf^ Thj6d- Idee fixe. Berlioz' name for the prin-
log (1906-09); J. Leifs, Islandische Vol^s- cipal subject of his Symphonic Phantas-
lieder (1929); A. Hammerich, in SIM i; tique in which it occurs in all the move-
E. M. v.
Hornbostel, "Phonographierte ments [see *Cyclic; *Metamorphosis],
islandische Zwiegesange" (Deutsche Is- representing the artist in various stages of
landforschung, 1930); J. Leifs, in ZMW his life. It is considered an important
xiandDMxvi.i. forerunner of Wagner's *leitmotive.
[348]
IDIOMELON IMITATION
the *organa of Pcrotinus
since the quality of the score is judged (c. 1225; see Ex.
largely by the degree to which the various i) and in certain ^th-century motets [cf.
Y. Rokseth, Polyphonies du Xllle siecle,
parts exploit the technical and sonorous
resources of the instruments without ex- iv (1941)], imitation found its first defi-
[349]
IMITATIVE COUNTERPOINT IMPRESSIONISM
ticcd that, prior to 1700, fugal imitation Nocturnes for orchestra (1893-99), the
at the interval of the fourth (lower fifth) orchestral suite La Mer (1903-05), the
is much more frequent than that of the opera Pelltas et Melisande (1902), or the
fifth. Bach would seem to have been one collections for pianoforte Images (1905,
of the first to establish imitation at the '07), Preludes (1910-13), and Etudes
interval of the fifth as a characteristic fea-
ture of fugal writing [Ex. 3] .
Impressionism, as most new move-
The *Rococo period (c. 1700-1780) ments, was rooted in antagonism. De-
brought about a sharp reaction against bussy instinctively disliked the dramatic
the fugal style of the Baroque era [see dynamism of Beethoven, the heated at-
*Gallant style] However, imitation freely
.
mosphere and pathetic exhibitionism of
used made its come-back in the mature Wagner, the introspective emotionalism
styleof Haydn's and Mozart's later sym- of the Romantic composers in general.
phonies and quartets and has since re- The paintings of the French impression-
mained an important feature of composi- ists, Monet, Manet, Renoir, and the refined
(1862-1918) and Maurice Ravel (1875- Next to Debussy, Ravel is the main
1937). Foreshadowed in the works of representative of impressionism, although
Edouard Lalo and Alexis Chabrier [see his classical inclinations, his general feel-
*French music IV], it found its first full ing for form, his dance-like rhythms, his
realization in Debussy's Prelude a I'apres- "verve" and elegance are traits hardly
midi d'un faune (1892) and still more so compatible with impressionism in its pur-
in his ensuing works, such as the three est sense. In fact, except for its founder,
[350]
IMPRESSIONISM IMPROVISATION
impressionism has not found any full- "Liszt als Vorlaufer des Impressionismus"
fledged representative, although it has left (DM xxi.5); A. Capri, "Le Origini dell'
its imprint upon the works of a great
impressionismo musicale" (LRM xi).
number of composers, for instance the
French Dukas, Roussel, de SeVerac; the Impromptu [F., improvised], name A
used as a fanciful designation for 19th-
English Delius, Bax, Cyril Scott; the Ger-
man Graner, Schreker, Niemann; the century *character pieces of the Romantic
American period. The best-known examples are
Loeffler, Carpenter, Griffes;
Schubert's Impromptus op. 90 and op. 142
the Spanish Albeniz; the Italian Re-
the Czech Novak; and many (probably their title is not Schubert's but
spighi;
others.
that of his publisher, Haslinger; cf . GD ii,
After a relatively short time impres- 700) and Chopin's Impromptus opp. 26,
sionism began to lose much of its original 36, 51, 66. The title does not refer to the
desseches]. It was the French novelist a number of other short texts, sung in
Cocteau who pronounced the death-sen- alternation with Popule meus [cf. GR,
tence of impressionism in his aphorism:
198]. They were introduced (around
"After the music with the silk brush, the
1200) from the *Gallican rites. Palestrina
music with the axe." It is somewhat
a
composed them in simple four-part note-
tragic truth that Debussy's work stands
against-note style [{also bordone\ see
before the eye of the present-day viewer *Fauxbourdon (4)]. It is with reference
not as what he intended: the negation of to these pieces, the artistic significance of
Romanticism but as a part thereof, in which has been frequently overrated [see
fact, its very acme and conclusion. On the word improperia
also *Miserere], that the
other hand, it should be noticed that some is
commonly used. They have been an-
impressionistic devices have been taken nually performed on Good Friday in the
over with characteristic modifications into Sistine Chapel since 1560 [for more de-
the vocabulary of *New music, particu- tails, cf. GD
ii, 700] Vittoria and other
.
larly the parallel chords, modified from a masters of the i6th century composed the
coloristic into a rhythmic effect [see *Par- famous text in the same style as Palestrina.
allelchords] . See also *Modern music.
Lit.: E. B. Hill, Modern French Music Improvisation, extemporization. I.
( 1924) R. Lyr, Les Musiciens impression-
;
The art of performing music as an im-
istes (1938); H. G. Schulz, Musifolischer mediate reproduction of simultaneous
Impressionismus (Diss. Wiirzburg 1938); mental processes, that is, without the aid
H. F. Kolsch, Der Impressionismus bei of manuscript, sketches, or memory. In a
Debussy (1937); O. Wartisch, Studien more restricted sense, the art of introduc-
zur Harmoni^ des musitylischen Impres- ing improvised details into written com-
sionismus (Diss. Erlangen 1928); E. Ev- position. The former type is a "soap-
ans, "French Music of Today" (PMA bubble" phenomenon the evanescent na-
xxxvi); P. Landormy, "Le Dcclin de
Tim- ture of which defies documentation and
prcssionismc" (RM ii);
W. Danckert, detailed description. This is true, at least,
[351]
IMPROVISATION INCANTATION
of the great days of improvisation in Gregorian chant, particularly, the alle-
which masters such as Bach, Handel, luias [see ^Ornamentation]. More clearly
Beethoven were just as famous for their discernible is its role as an improvised ac-
art of improvising as for their written companiment to a cantus firmus in the
compositions. Today, the recording ma- fauxbourdon practice of the I4th and i5th
chine would afford an easy means of fixa- centuries [see *Fauxbourdon (2)]. In
tion; unfortunately, the great art of im- the 6th century the improvised execution
1
fugue, all on one and the same hymn-tune. id., Cours complet d' improvisation a
In 1747, on visiting Frederick the Great I'orgue (1937); G. F. Wehle, Die Kunst
in Potsdam, he extemporized a fugue on der Improvisation (3 vols., 1925-32); E.
that "royal theme" which he subsequently Ferand, Die Improvisation in der Musi^
worked out in his * Musical Offering. (1938; historical); Martin Fischer, Die
John Hawkins is one of several who have Organistische Improvisation im ij. ]ahr-
given a vivid description of the effect of hundert (1929); P. Rosenfeld, "A Plea
Handel's extemporization. Mozart fre- for Improvisation" (MM
xix, no. i).
quently extemporized fugues or variations
on a given theme. There exist a number Incalcando [It.]. "Trampling," i.e.,
played an important role in the emergence SchGMB, no. 201] and a scene in Mas-
of the more ornate (mclismatic) types of senet's Roy de Lahore of 1877.
[35*1
INCIDENTAL MUSIC INNOMINE
Incidental music. Instrumental music Indicate [It.]. Assured, prominent.
designed to be performed during a play.
Indirectum in
Properly speaking, the term does not in- (properly: directurn).
clude the music to be played before and See *Psalmody I.
33735 Ad. Aber, Die Musit^ im Schauspiel Innomine [L. in nomine, "in the name"
(1926). See also under ^Dramatic music. Title of a large number of
(of God)].
Incipit [L., it
begins], (i) In Gregorian English instrumental pieces (for viols or
chant, the first words of a liturgical text keyboard) based on a cantus firmus:
(also called intonation) sung by the cantor dfdddcfgfga. ... This cantus firmus
before the chorus picks up at the place has nothing to do with the introit In
indicated by an asterisk; e.g., Ad te levavi nomine ]esu [GR, 48, 541], as is stated in
*animam meam . . .
[GR, i]. (2) In
a recent reference book, but is almost
from which the tenor is taken; for in- rl-a K-bl Trl-nl-tas ae-<jua- Us
glo
stance, Manere, referring to the melisma
on the word "manere," which occurs in
nomine" by John Bull [Fitzwilliam Vir-
the introit Exiit sermo (inter fratres . . .
the manner of its resolution [see *Can- i5th century: German polyphonic dances
Easter Gradual Haec dies [GR, 221] and [DTOe and Josquin
by Isaac 14.1]
beginning as follows: ccbcdecbccb SchGMB, no. 62].
fieces i6th century: nu-
[cf. HAM, nos. 3od, 32d]. This cantus merous *dances for keyboard, lute [see
firrnus particularly interesting because
is *Lute music] and ensemble; *ricercare;
it also occurs in a number of "instru-
*fantasia; *canzona; *prelude; *toccata;
mental motets" contained in the Bamberg Variations.
Codex [cf. P. Aubry, Cent motets du B. Period of Equal Importance: 1600-
XIHe siecle (1908), ii, nos. 104/8], One Chamber music: instrumental
1750.
of them, reproduced in SchGMB, no. 20, *canzona; *fancy; *sonata da chiesa;
bears the inscription In seculum viellatoris, *sonata da camera; *trio sonata; *ground.
possibly with reference to a well-known Orchestral music: operatic *overture
*vielle-player who composed it [cf. and *sinfonia; orchestral *suite; Con-
ReMMA, 325] . Cf. H. Gleason, in BAMS certo grosso. Keyboard music: *suite;
vi.
*toccata; *fugue; *chaconne and passa-
[354]
INSTRUMENTS INSTRUMENTS
Torchi, La musica instrumentale ncisecoli *chimes; *Glockenspiel; *cymbals; 'xylo-
XVl-XVlll (RMI i8 97 ff; also as sepa-
9 phone; 'celesta; *castanets [see *Percus-
rate publication); K. Nef, Zur Geschichte sion instruments]. Also numerous exotic
der deutschen Instrumentalmusil^ des ij. instruments, e.g., the Javanese *gambang
Jahrhunderts (1902); E. H. Meyer, Die (xylophone) and the Chinese ch'ing
mehrstimmige Spielmusi^ des 17. Jahr- (stone chimes; see *Chinese music IV).
hunderts (1934). See the literature under B. Shaken: *rattle, *sistrum; 'crescent.
the various forms; also under *Organ C. Plucked: * Jew's harp; also the mu-
music; *Piano
music; *Violin music; sical box.
*Lute music; *Dance music. D. Rubbed: *glass harmonica; *nail
violin.
Instruments [from L. instruere\ cf. in- II.
Membranophones. Chiefly *drums.
struction]. The generic name for all Classifications can be according tomade
mechanisms producing musical sounds; shape (tubular drums, kettledrums, frame
hence for all musical media with the ex- drums) or material (wood, metal, coco-
ception of the human voice (and, possibly, nut, gourd, etc.), fastening of the skin,
etc. The *mirliton
whistling). may be mentioned as
Classification. While former studies in a membranophone which is not a drum.
the field of musical instruments were re- III. Aerophones.
stricted to those of European art-music, A. Free aerophones. Instruments which
the scope of investigation has been wid- act on the principle of the free (more
ened considerably by the recent inclusion properly, idiophonous) *reed: '"harmoni-
of the non-European (Oriental, African, um; *accordion; *regal; 'sheng; the reed
etc.)instruments which outnumber many section of the organ [see 'Organ X] .
been added recently, i.e., the electrophones> cut in the side of the pipe. Flute
in which the acoustical vibrations are proper; see 'Flute family.
produced by electric contrivances. With- c. Whistle flutes. The player blows
in each of these categories further distinc- from the upper end through a
tions are made, as appears from the sub- flue against the sharp edge cut
[356]
INSTRUMENTS INTABULIERUNG
Instruments
pendent repertory of music for the organ, (1940); H. W. Schwartz,
the harpsichord, and the lute [see in- The Story of Musical Instruments
(1938) ;
strumental music]. Many other instru- A. J. Hipkins, Musical Instruments, His-
ments, however, were built and used, as tone, Rare and Unique (1888; repr. 1921);
is shown K. Schlesinger, A
by the writings of Sebastian Bibliography of Musical
Virdung: Musica getutscht ("Music Ger- Instruments and
Archaeology (1912);
manized," 1511); Martin Agricola: Mu- Karl Geiringer, Musical Instruments,
sica instrumental deudsch (1528); and Their History .
(1943); W. Hei-
. .
the wind instruments. The collection of Inszenierung [G.]. Get-up (of an op-
mis en scene.
381 instruments left
King Henry VIII
by era, play),
of England, e.g., comprised 272 wind in-
struments (cross flutes, recorders, shawms, Intabulierung [G.; It. intavolatura].
In 16th-century music, the arrangement
cromornes, horns, cornets, organs, bag-
of vocal music (motets, chansons) for the
pipes) as against 109 stringed instruments
lutes, clavi- keyboard or the lute. The term is derived
(virginals, viols, guitars,
from tabulatura, i.e., *tablature, and re-
chords). An important feature of this
fers to the change from the original nota-
period was the building of instruments
tion in single parts (*mensural notation)
in families; in fact, the playing of music
into the score-like (vertical) notation used
in homogeneous groups, e.g., on four re-
for the tablatures of the soloist instru-
corders, four viols, four trombones, re-
ments, the organ and lute. The Intabulie-
placed to a large extent the mixed ensem-
rung of a motet or a chanson is the 16th-
bles of the 1
5th century which enjoyed
the simultaneous sound of contrasting century counterpart of the piano arrange-
timbres [see *Sound ideal].
ment of a modern symphony or quartet.
The i yth
The chief difference between the early
century (Baroque) brought
and the modern procedure lies in the
about a marked trend toward the stringed
instruments, the soft viol, the delicate lute, greater freedom of the former. Not only
were original parts omitted or differently
the "singing" violin. The lute, especially,
existed in a great variety of sizes and types,
the chitarrone, the theorbo, the cittern,
the mandola, etc. [see *Lute and *Gui-
tar]. Special types of viols are the viola
d'amore, the baryton, and the viola pom-
posa [see *Viol family] Among the wind
.
1357]
INTAVOLATURA INTERMEZZO
quantity in the keyboard and lute books Protestant service short interlude-like pas-
of the 1 6th century, is, of course, very sages were inserted between the various
slight. They have
been drawn upon chief- lines of the chorale, rather than after a
ly for the study of *musica ficta [E. Fre- complete stanza. Certain organ chorales
richs, in ZMW vii; W. Apel, Accidentien by Bach illustrate this procedure, e.g., his
und Tonalitdt in den Musi\den1(mdlern In dulci jubilo (B.-G. XL, 74).
des 15. und 16. Jahrhunderts ( 1936) ] , and Intermedium intermede
[L.], [F.],
of ornamentation [A. Schering, Studien intermedio See *Intermezzo (i).
[It.].
zur Musil^geschichte der Friihrenaissance
(1914); O. Kinkeldey, Orgel undKlavier Intermezzo, (i) A theatrical entertain-
im 16. Jahrhundert (1910)]. See *Ar- ment of light character, introduced be-
rangement. Examples in HAM, nos. 145, tween the acts of a serious play or opera
160; SchGMB, nos. 35/36 and (interpolations consisting only of instru-
mental music are more properly termed
Intavolatura [It.]. See *Intabulierung. ^entr'actes). They are important because
In of Italian publications of keyboard
titles twice in music history they have led to
music (i6th/i7th century) the designa- new forms: the 16th-century intermedii of
tion "Toccate (Canzone, Capricci, etc.) the forerunners of
stage plays are among
d'intavolatura" indicates that the music the opera [see and the 18th-
*Opera II],
isnotated on two staves (piano-score), as century intermezzi of operas were the
distinguished from "di partitura" (or origin of the opera buffa [see *Comic op-
"spartiti"), that is, pieces notated on a era II (b) ] . A
similar process took place in
different staff for each part, as in the open the I3th century when certain *tropes (in
score. a way, intermezzi of Gregorian chant)
developed into the medieval *liturgical
Integer valor [L., integral value]. In
drama.
mensural notation of the i5th and i6th The most famous of the 16th-century
centuries the normal value of a note
intermedii were those performed between
as
(brevis, semibrevis), distinguished the acts of Bardi's LAmico fido during
from the reduced or enlarged values festivities attending the marriage of the
caused by the proportions. See *Propor- Grand Duke of Tuscany at Florence in
tions.
1589, the music for which was composed
Interference. See * Acoustics VI. by Marenzio, Cavalieri, Malvezzi, Bardi,
Peri, and Caccini. They included solo
Interlude. Any type of inserted music madrigals, airs, madrigal choruses, and
[see *Entr'acte; ^Intermezzo]. Specifi- with considerable instrumental ac-
ballets
cally, short organ pieces played between companiment. These intermedii usually
the various verses of a hymn or a psalm. had no relation to the drama nor between
These were usually improvised; hence, themselves, each having its own character,
they are rarely found in printed books, "The Harmony of the Spheres/' "The
e.g.,
except in those of the early I9th century Infernal Regions," etc. [cf. AdHM i, 414;
when the art of improvisation had begun O. G. Sonneck, in MA in] .
to decline. One of the few early books In the later part of the i7th century
containing interludes is: Daniel Purcell, most of the Italian operas performed at
The Psalms Set Full for the Organ or Paris were furnished with intermtdes
(MA iii).
Latin (medieval):
(2) One of the numerous titles of ipth- The intervals larger than an octave are
century ^character pieces, suggestive of a called compound intervals. The first five
somewhat casual origin of the piece, as if of these also receive special names as fol-
it were composed between works of great- lows, c-d': ninth or compound second
er importance (Schumann, Brahms). [F. neuvieme\ G. None]] c-e': tenth or
compound third [P.dixime;G.Dezime] ;
[359]
INTERVALS INTERVALS
thirds, according to whether the intervals
between the tones are whole-tones or semi- rd arc 2n >
8,5
tn and 1n
> respectively. In
Intervals, Calculation of. The fol- spective fractions. E.g., the interval of the
lowing explanation presupposes a knowl-
twelfth (upper fifth) is: F + O =| X 2=
edge of elementary arithmetic, including
powers, roots, and (optionally) loga- F+T=
3; that of the major seventh is:
rithms.
The pitch of a tone is determined by
I. -
* X T4 = o that of the third octave
-rr> is:
tervals,namely, the octave (O), the fifth (actually the twelfth), the third becomes 5
(F), and the major third (T). Experi- (actually the second higher third) F
= 3; :
[360]
INTERVALS INTERVALS
drawbacks of the above method are
such a power of 2
(2,4,8,,^) that will avoided if
logarithms are used. Accord-
cause the product to lie between i and 2. ing to the fundamental equation of loga-
rithms: log a b = log a X
log b, the +
Examples: (i) Calculation of the major
seventh, i.e., fifth plus third: F +T= logarithm of a product is equal to the sum
of the logarithms of the factors
15 (e.g., log
5 X3= J 5; to be divided by 8, hence: .
15 = log 3 + log 5). If, therefore, two
intervals ii and i2 are represented, not by
(2) Calculation of the fourth, i.e., lower their frequencies ^ and 2 , but
by the
fifth : F = -; to be multiplied by 4, hence logarithms of these figures, log fi and log
f2 , the compound interval ii + 12 is repre-
-. (3) Find the syntonic comma, that is,
sented, not as before by fi X 2* but by
log (fi X 2) = log fi + log fo. It fol-
the difference between the tone e of the lows that, if logarithmic frequencies are
*Pythagorean system (fourth consecutive used, "addition" or "subtraction" of inter-
fifth) and the natural third: 4F T= vals is done by actually adding and sub-
4 = tracting figures, instead of multiplying or
3 :
5 -T-, to be multiplied with
dividing them. The chief advantage of
,
the determination of the interval if the stance, in the usual logarithmic scale of
5x5
lution:
3x3
= 2T 2F, hence two con- Notice that in the ordinary measure-
secutive thirds minus two consecutive ment the fifth g (i-, 3, 6) lies exactly in
fifths, that is, F-sharp. (6) Determine the the middle of the octave, although prop-
interval . Solution (the denominator erly this place should be occupied by the
well-tempered fit, as is actually the case in
powers of 2, 2 = 32):
B
contains only the logarithmic scale.
3 X
3X 5 = aF T, that is, +
F-sharp. V. Logarithmic frequencies are partic-
Naturally, this F-sharp is not (exactly) ularly important in fact, indispensable
the same as the one before; the difference in all calculations concerning tempered
between them is again the syntonic com- intervals or microtonic intervals (exotic
ma, as can easily be found by dividing the scales).The well-tempered scale consists of
two figures (a quicker method is to subtract twelve equal intervals (semitones) within
the two "symbols": (2? T) - (2T - + one octave. If the interval of the semitone
2F) = 2 F T - 2 T 2F = 4 F- T, a
+ + be i, the successive tones of the chromatic
quantity which always indicates the syn- scale would have the frequencies: i (c),
2 3 12
tonic comma). i
(c*), i
(d), i (d*), etc., until i
(c')
IV. Logarithmic Intervals. Several Since, on the other hand, the octave has
INTERVALS INTERVALS
the frequency 2, we have the equation: mula for the conversion of interval ratios
12
i
12 = 2; hence i = \/2 1.05946. The (i) into cents (c) is: c
=- X log i =
successive powers of this figure gives the
relative frequencies of the successive tones 3986 Xlog i. For nearly all purposes the
factor 3986 can be replaced by 4000. E.g.,
of the well-tempered scale (e.g., d would
the calculation of the fifth is as follows:
be 1.05946 X
1.05946=1.12246, etc.). In
using logarithms, the intervals of the well- F = X log = X =
4000 -5 0.1761 4000
tempered scale are found much more
simply as the multiples of log i
= 0.0251 :
704.4 704 cents. If very accurate results
<=
portant interval of the octave is represented interval lies next to c, eb, fjf, a, or c'.
by the rather cumbersome figure 0.3010. Therefore, the accurate figure for F is 702
This defect, however, can easily be cor- cents. A similar calculation for T leads to
rected by multiplying the scale with a
convenient factor. Various such "enlarged
T= log
- X 4000 = 0.0969 X 4000 =
logarithmic scales" are in use; the most 387 cents, corrected to 386. With these
widely adopted one is that suggested by figures for F and T, all the other intervals
Ellis, in which the enlarging factor is
of *just intonation and of the *Pytha-
1200
that the octave becomes exactly gorean system can easily be calculated.
"tog~2~> For instance, the major seventh F is: T+
1200. The unit of this measurement is
702 +
386= 1088. This result shows that
called cent] each chromatic semitone the major seventh of just intonation is 12
equals 100 cents [see *Cents], The for- cents lower than that of equal tempera-
i
INTIME INTROITUS
ment, iioo. An extensive tabulation of (2) In Gregorian chant, the same as *in-
intervals is
given in RiML, 1857-64 (here cipit (i).The opening notes of a psalm
our F is replaced by Q, i.e., Quinte).
letter tone are more properly called initium or
The figures of the second column ("Basis inceptio [cf. AR, 3*]. (3) See *Just
10") are the ordinary logarithms of the intonation.
ratios. They can easily be converted into
cents by multiplication with 4000 (plus Intonazione. Sixteenth-century Italian
the above-mentioned correction). name for a prelude, designed chiefly for
quencies and in cents. The letters E, J, gano di Andrea Gabrieli, et di Gio. suo
and P indicate the tones of the systems of nepote, of 1593. They are usually ascribed
to Giovanni Gabrieli [cf. *Editions II, 3,
Equal Temperament (powers of i), of
Just Intonation (factors 3, 5, and 2), and p. 131], although stylistically they would
of Pythagoras (factors 3 and 2). For a rather seem to be in the idiom of his uncle
graphic table see *Temperament III. Andrea, to whom they are actually ascribed
It must be understood that the systems
in B. Schmidt's Tabulaturbuch (1607).
P and J actually consist of an infinite num- Cf. the correct ascription in EiBM, 35.
ber of tones within one octave (P one-
Intrada, entrada [It., entrance]. Six-
dimensional, J two-dimensional); only
teenth/ 17th-century name for opening
the simplest of these are given above.
pieces of a festive or march-like character,
Unfortunately, the measurement based written in full homophonic style [see
on cents is not the only one in use; various
others are employed, all of them loga- *Entree]. A
number of intradas for 5-6
instruments (the earliest ones in exist-
rithmic, but differing in the number of
units contained in the octave.
ence?) are contained in a publication by
Following Alessandro Orologio, of 1593 [cf. GD
iii,
is a survey of these other systems:
772]. Intradas in duple or triple meter
*Savart (301 to the octave) = 1000 X figure prominently among the dance-types
of the German orchestral suites of the early
log i f** - cents (i savart = approxi- 1
7th century, in which they usually, but
not always, appear at the beginning [cf.
mately 4 cents)
the suites of M. Franck and V. Hauss-
Millioctave (1000
x
to the octave)
'
= - -X mann, in DdT 16; H. Schein, Banchctto
log A
musicale (1617), new ed. by Priifer, vol. I;
log i = cents (i millioctave = - EiBM, no. 26; SchGMB, nos. 153, 154,
cents)
157; RiHM ii.2, 173]. Mozart (Bastien
and Basttenne) and Beethoven (Battle of
600
Centitone (600
v
to the octave)
'
= -
X Vittoria) used the name for short over-
log 2
tures.
phony.
Intime [F.], Intimo[It.]. Intimate.
Introitus, introit. The initial chant
Intonation, (i) In ensemble perform- of the (Proper of the) *Mass. It belongs
ance, intonation denotes the singing or to the antiphonal chants [see under *An-
[363]
INVENTION INVERSION
ornate style. For the form of the introit, frequent in the preludes of Bach's Wt. CL
see *Psalmody III. It was introduced by (e.g., vol. i, nos. 3, 9, 1 1, 13, 15, 18, 19, 20),
Pope Coelestine I (c. 400) as a chant ac- and that it occurs also in the preludes of
companying the entrance of the priest to the first three partitas [see *Suite I],
the altar [cf. the Ambrosian analogue
*ingressa] and consisted originally of an Inventionshorn. See *Horn II.
[364]
INVERSION INVERTED MORDENT
IV. In counterpoint, the
principle
of Inverted mordent. See *Schneller.
harmonic inversion leads to an exchange
of higher and lower parts Invertible
by means of counterpoint. Counter-
octave-transposition [Ex. ic]. For more point, i.e.,a passage in
contrapuntal tex-
details *Invertible counterpoint.
see ture, is called invertible if it is so
designed
The term inverted pedal (-point) denotes that, by means of transposition usually
the occurrence of a sustained note (pedal), of an octave the lower part may become
not in the bass, but in a higher part [see the higher part, or the higher the lower
*Pedalpoint]. [Ex. i]. This is an application of the
(2) Melodic Inversion. A
melody (sub-
ject) is inverted by changing each ascend-
ing interval into the corresponding de-
scending interval, and vice versa. By this rf.fTCffr n
process, an ascending fifth c-g changes
into a descending fifth c-F, the ascending
progression c-d'-e' into the descending
progression c-b-a.
like exchange of
The result is a mirror-
upward and downward
i
W
movements, comparable to the contours
of a forest and its reflection in a lake [Ex.
2, from Bach's Wt. Cl. i]. Inversion is
[365]
INVITATORIUM IRISH MUSIC
twelfth), whereas the other appears at the of Matins, it is not included in the usual
same pitch or merely in octave-transposi- Antiphonarium, except for the invitatori-
tion. Several examples of this technique um of Requiem Mass (AR, [152]). The
occur in Scheidt's Tabulator a nova of Liber usualis, however, has the invitatoria
1624 [Ex. 3, "Bicinium duplici contra- for Christmas, Easter, Whitsuntide, Cor-
puncti"; cf. DdT i, 130], Particularly re- pus Christi, and Requiem Mass [LU, 368,
markable is its application in Bach's Fiinf 765, 863, 918, 1779]. The invitatorium
canonische Verdnderungen
uber "Vom was taken over, minus the antiphon, into
Himmel hoch da fomm ich her" [Ex. 4] . the Anglican chant where it forms, under
Other examples occur among the canons the name Invitatory (Psalm), a part of
of his *Art of Fugue. This technique is the Morning Prayer; see *Service.
in general somewhat less "labored" than
com- A Ionian. See *Church modes; *Greek
it
frequently thought to be.
is
music II
parison of the various intervals (unison, (c).
second, third, . .
.) with their equiva-
Iratamente [It.]. Irate, angry.
lents in, e.g., double counterpoint of the
fifths (fifth, sixth, seventh, . .
.) easily
Irish music. The history of Irish music
shows which intervals will make good is interesting chiefly for its contribution
consonances in the original as well as in to folk song and for its role in early medi-
the inverted position. These intervals, eval music. Irish monks were among the
therefore, must be taken as the basis for firstpropagators of Gregorian chant and
the devising of the parts. Extensive stud- founded in the 9th century the monastery
ies of these and other devices of a still of St. Gall in Switzerland which later
more learned character(usually combina- became the leading center of plainsong in
tions of the double counterpoint with Germany. In the 9th century Johannes
canonic treatment) are to be found in Scotus Erigena (c. 815-877) wrote his
most of the books on counterpoint [cf. De Divisione Naturae which contains in-
also the article in GD ii, 722] .
teresting remarks about music [cf. J.
The term invertible counterpoint is oc- Handschin, in ZMW ix]. In the i2th
casionally applied to the melodic inversion century Giraldus Cambrensis repeatedly
of a subject, etc. [see ^Inversion (2)]. points out the achievements of Irish in-
Such a usage is unfortunate not only from strumentalists and their influence on Scot-
the point of view of clearer terminology, tish and Welsh music [cf. ReMMA, 392] .
but chiefly because melodic inversion, al- The oldest pictorial evidences of Irish in-
though frequently to be found in contra- struments (lyres? harps?; see *Harp III)
puntal writing, does not in any way in- are reliefs on stone crosses of the 8th and
volve counterpoint, since it applies essen- 9th centuries. Ever since, the harp has
tially to a single melody. For
the ex- been considered the national instrument,
change of parts without any transposition, the heraldic symbol of Ireland. Various
see *Stimmtausch. claims to precedence and eminence of
early Irish music, such as have been ad-
Invitatorium. In the Roman Catholic vanced by G. Flood and others, are not
rites, the first psalm of *Matins, "Venite substantiated [see *Bards]. Prominent
exsultemus Domino" (Ps. 94; Ps. 95 of the Irish composers are Th. Roseingrave
King James Version: "O come let us sing (1690-1766), lohn Field (1782-1837),
unto the Lord"). It is remarkable as one Michael W. Balfe (180870), composer
of the few remaining examples of the of the opera The Bohemian Girl, Charles
Mors Fine Amour Quare non sum have to be repeated five times until both
mortuus [cf. OH ii, 28; WoGM ii, iii, no.
schemes would come to a simultaneous
14; F. Ludwig, Guillaume de Machaut, close. Actually, Perotinus stops after the
Musi^alische Wer\e iii, 9] may serve as
fourth color, thus leaving the last talea
an example [Ex. i ] . The repeated scheme
incomplete.
In the 1 4th century the isorhythmic
principle was not only the chief method
for the rhythmic organization of the ten-
ors, but was also applied more freely
to the upper parts [for an example by
Philippe de Vitry cf. ReMMA, 338].
Later composers, however, used it so
rigidly that the motet falls into a number
^ of "melody-variations" of the same rhyth-
i mic skeleton (Dunstable, Dufay, and vari-
of time-values which is used in the sec- ous other composers of the Trent Codices,
tions A, B, C and (half of it) in D, is the Old Hall MS, etc.; cf. Dunstable's
called talea in 14th-century treatises. Be- hymn "Veni creator," in RiMB, no. 7).
ginning with a, the entire liturgical mel- Around 1400 one finds numerous exam-
in which the isorhythmic principle
ody, the so-called color, is repeated ples in is
halved values (diminution), a proce- applied to the upper parts only, the tenor
dure which is usual with Machaut [cf. being free [cf. Ch. v. d. Borren, Poly-
HAM, no. 44.] phonia sacra (1932), no. 25],
[367]
ISRAEL IN EGYPT ITALIAN MUSIC
Israel in Egypt. Oratorio by G. F. century, when Thomas a Celano wrote
Handel, composed in 1738. See *Oratorio the Dies irae, Thomas Aquino the Veni
III. sancte spiritus, and Jacopone the Stabat
mater [see ^Sequence (2)]. Guido of
Istar Variations. See *Variations IV
Arezzo (c. 980-1050) not only made (or
(d).
established) the epochal invention of the
Istesso tempo [It.] indicates that, *staff, but also discussed, in his Micro-
though the meter changes, the duration logus, the primitive polyphony of his day
of the beat remains unaltered. For in- [see *Organum II], as did also the anony-
stance, if there is a change from to %, % mous author of the important Milanese
it means J
= J.; if the time changes from treatise Ad organum faciendum (c. noo).
% to %, it means J
= J. The situation is, Nonetheless, until the end of the i3th
of course, the tempo is so
different if century, the development of polyphonic
quick that the half note becomes the beat. remained the privilege of France [sec
*French music II], and Italy's contribu-
In this case, a change from to would % % tion to the music of the *Ars antiqua re-
have to be interpreted according to the
equation J = J.; in any case, equations be- mained restricted to monophonic religious
tween note values are a much more secure songs, the *laude. The i4th century sees
indication than the somewhat ambiguous the first flowering of Italian polyphonic
term istesso tempo. music in the *caccie and *madrigals of
Giovanni da Cascia (or de Florentia) and
Istituzioni e Monumenti dell' Arte Jacopo da Bologna (fl. c. 1350), leading to
Musicale Italiana. See ^Editions, His- one of the outstanding peaks of musical
torical, XIV. art in the blind Francesco Landini (1325-
*madrigal, but after 1550 we find Italian [see *Rococo; *Gallant style]. A resume
composers, such as Costanzo Festa, An- of Italian Baroque music would be in-
drea Gabrieli, Luca Marenzio, Gesualdo, complete without mentioning such out-
in successful competition with the oltra- standing achievements in the field of mu-
montani. In the field of sacred music sicalreproduction as the *bel canto [see
(*motet, *mass) Rome became the central also *castrati]and the building of violins
*
place through Palestrina (1525-94) and [see Violin],
his numerous successors [see *Roman IV. Opera ij6o-Present. Around 1760
School], while in Venice Giovanni Ga- the leadership in the field of instrumental
brieli (15571612), by uniting masses of music passed from Italy to Germany and
choral and instrumental sounds, achieved for about 100 years Italian composers de-
an unparalleled peak of pomp and splen- voted their exclusive interest to the opera.
dor [see * Venetian School]. Hardly less Instead of building up a national opera,
consequential were the contributions of however, most of them were attracted by
16th-century Italian organ composers the operatic centers outside of Italy, main-
(Cavazzoni; Andrea Gabrieli; Claudio ly Paris. It was in Paris that Niccola Pic-
Merulo), who created the *ricercare, the cinni (1728-1800) became a dangerous
*canzona, and the *toccata. rival of Gluck and Antonio Sacchini
that
III. Baroque. The epochal events which, (1734-86) competed with Piccinni. An-
around 1600, led to the inauguration of a tonio Salieri, the teacher of Beethoven and
new era of music history, the Baroque, are Schubert, worked in Vienna and Paris,
too well known to be repeated here. Suf- and Maria Luigi Cherubini (17601842)
fice it to mention terms such as *camerata, became the central figure of French music
*Nuove musiche, *monody, *thorough- during the Napoleonic era, while Gasparo
bass (basso continuo), *opera, *oratorio, Spontini (1774-1851) played a similar
*cantata, all of which are exclusively role at the court of Berlin. Gioachino
Italian affairs and names such as Cac- Rossini (1792-1868) was the first to write
cini, Peri, Cavalieri and, above all, Monte- again a great Italian opera in his Bar biere
verdi. To the numerous masters of the di Siviglia (1816). His Guillaume Tell
vocal forms (opera: Monteverdi, Cesti, (1829), written for Paris, marks the be-
Cavalli, Al. Scarlatti, Pergolese; oratorio: ginning of the "grand opera" which was
Cavalieri, Carissimi, Caldara; cantata: continued by Gaettano Donizetti (1797-
Grandi, Carissimi, Stradella, Al. Scarlatti, 1848) and Vincenzo Bellini (1801-35),
Leonardo Leo, Jommelli) must be added whose early death terminated an artistic
others who worked in the field of instru- activity of great promise.
[369]
JACK JALOUSIESCHWELLER
In marked contrast to the above-men- purely theoretical affair, but opened the
tioned stands Giuseppe Verdi (1813- door for really constructive work done by
1901), who devoted his long life to the composers such as Ottorino Respighi
establishment of a national opera. From (1879-1936; see ^Symphonic poem),
the early Nabucco (1842) to the late Francesco Malipiero (b. 1882), Alfredo
masterworks Otdlo (1886) and Falstaff Casella (b. 1883). While Respighi in his
(1893) his style shows a steady progress symphonic poems builds on the tradition
to great artistic heights, a
progress which of the late Romanticism, the other two,
is all the more remarkable since he suc-
together with several younger composers,
ceeded in escaping the all-pervading in- represent an essentially modern *neo-
fluence of Wagner, He was followed by classicism.
three composers each of whom wrote only Lit.: R. A. Streatfield, Masters of Italian
one successful opera: Arrigo Boito (1842- Music (1895); LavE i.2, 611-910; ii.i,
1918; Mefistofele, 1868), Pietro Mascagni I46ff (modern)-, AdHM ii, 10870 (mod-
(b. 1863; Cavalleria Rusticana, 1890), ern). Middle Ages and Renaissance:
and Ruggiero Leoncavallo (1858-1924; ReMMA, 36off (bibl. p. 4 58ff; see also list
I Pagliacci, 1892), the last two being of records, p. 476f); W. Korte, Studie zur
known as the founders of the *Verismo. Geschichte der Musi\ in Italien im i.
Italian opera took on a more
and lyrical Viertel des 15. Jahrhunderts (1933); E.
slightly sentimental tinge with Giacomo Dent, Music of the Renaissance in Italy
Puccini's (1858-1924) world successes (1934); see also *Laude; *Ars nova; *f rot-
La Boheme (1896) and Madame Butter- tola; *madrigal; ^Editions XIV. Ba-
fly (1904). Among the more recent oper- roque: L. Torchi, La Musica instrumen-
atic composers Italo Montemezzi (b. tal? italiana nei secoli XVI-XVIH (1901;
1875; L'Amore del tre Re, 1913)and also in RMI, 1897-1901); F. Torrefranca,
Ildebrando Pizzetti (b. 1880; Debora e Le Origini italiane del Romanticismo mu-
Jade, 1921) are outstanding. sicale (1930); *Editions II.
V. Modern Instrumental Music. It was
Italian overture. See *Overture I.
not until the late *9th century that a re-
newed activity in instrumental music Italian sixth. See *Sixth-chord.
started in Italy. Giovanni Sgambati
Italian Symphony. Mendelssohn's
(1841-1914) wrote symphonies and
chamber music Fourth Symphony, in A (1831), so called
in the style of Brahms, as
because of the Italian character of the
did also Giuseppe Martucci (1856-1909).
themes (the last movement is a *taran-
Neither these, however, nor their suc-
tella).
cessors, such as Enrico Bossi (1861-1925)
or Leone Sinigaglia (b. 1868), succeeded Ite, missa est, Deo gratias [L., "Go,
in breaking the all-powerful position of the congregation is dismissed; thanks
the opera, and not until 1910 did tenden- to the Lord"] The
concluding salutation
.
cies towards a more universal and cosmo- at *Mass. It forms a part of the Ordinary
politan attitude become noticeable. The [cf. GR, 7*, 1 8*, etc.]. The word Mass
radicalism of the *Futurists remained a [L. missa] is derived from this sentence.
J
Jack. Sec *Harpsichord L Jaleo. A Spanish solo-dance in moderate
triple time, accompanied by castanets.
Jagd- [G., hunt]. Jagdhorn, hunting
horn; ]agdquartett> Jagdsymphony, see Jalousieschweller [G.]. 'Venetian
La *Chasse. swell.
[370]
JAM SESSION JAPANESE MUSIC
Jam session. See *Jazz IV. scious of aboriginal culture, and may
its
bodyguard of the Turkish sovereigns (c. tative confined to a few tones [Ex. i ] To .
worship. It originated in the i3th century the Japanese distinguish between a great
(Heian period) when Japan became con- number of types, according to subject-
[371]
JAPANESE MUSIC JAPANESE MUSIC
matter, social standards, etc. For instance, essentially monophonic, it frequently
IthyU'busi is an aristocratic type which, in includes certain "polyphonic" (*hetero-
a way, may be compared (socially) to the
phonic) elements. The rhythm of the
French opera of Lully; whereas Gidayu drums is
markedly independent from
is "music for the in fact, operating against
merchant," i.e., a popular that of the
opera or operetta, rather noisy and full of singers or players of melodic instruments.
cheap effects. The chamber music (fre- The music for voice and koto shows
quently instrumental and vocal combined) *heterophonic treatment, frequently with
is the most a peculiar technique of anticipation, the
interesting field of Japanese
music. Afavored form, which dates back
to the 1 8th century, is the
Jiuta. It con-
sists of an
opening song (S), an instru-
mental piece (I), and a final song (S).
Sometimes the scheme is broadened to a
rondo-like arrangement: S I S I S. An-
other form of special interest is the Dan-
mono. These are melodic variations on a
koto playing the chief notes of the vocal
theme of 7 or 8 measures, for the koto
alone [cf. the example in GD ii, 76] An- melody just one eighth-note before it ap-
.
sources, is extremely varied; the above to the samisen, but bowed; and the sha\u-
details are therefore given with reserva-
hachi, a long flute of ancient origin which
tion.) All these scales have the absolute calls for an especially technique of
difficult
pitch of the *Chinese huang chung (c =
blowing [cf. SaHMI,
213] .
f). Tritone progressions such as f-g-b-c Lit.: F. T. Piggott, The Music of the
are frequent in popular music.
Japanese (id ed. 1909); D. Arima, ]apa~
III. Rhythm. Japanese music, like Chi-
nische MusiJ^geschichte auf Grund der
nese, is practically always in duple time.
Quellentynde (Diss. Vienna 1933); Hisao
However, the phrases are frequently of
Tanabe, Japanische Musi^ (1936); R.
irregular length (five or seven measures),
Lachmann, Musi{ des Orients (1929);
in contrast to the more strictly "regular"
Ch. Leroux, La Musique classique japo-
scheme of Chinese music. The rhythms
naise (1911); N. Peri, Essai sur les gam-
provided by the drums are in those pe- mes LavE
japonaises (1935); i.i, 242;
culiar arrangements also found in Hindu,
F. T. Piggott, in PMA H. Werck-
xviii;
Javanese, Arabic music which, for the
European ear, obscure the fundamental
meister, in MQ xiii; O. Abraham and
*
E. Hornbostel, in SIM iv (14 pp. of
v.
time and beat, 1 1
e.g.: | J J J. J. |
music); K. Takano, in ii
(bibl.); AMF
IV. Counterpoint, Harmony. Although R. Lachmann, "Musik und Tonschrift des
Japanese music, as all Oriental music, is No" (Kongressbericht der Deutschen
[37*1
JARABE JAVANESE MUSIC
Musittgesellschaft, 1926); K. Takano, in are of particular interest because they in-
LRM xii. ^Collection of Japanese Koto clude intervals which differ more radically
Music (from Sh. Isawa, Extracts from the from those of our scale than the intervals
Report ...on Music 1884) Sh. Isawa,
. . .,
;
of Chinese, Japanese, and Hindu music.
^Collection of Koto Music (Tokyo, 1888 The tones frequently lie just between our
and 1913); ^Den^mdler der Japanischen chromatic tones, thus approximating
TonJ(unst ed. by Kanetune-Kiyoske and
y quarter-tones. Two different tone systems
Syioti Tudi (Tokyo, 1930$; cf. Horn- (wrongly called "modes") are distin-
hostel, in ZM W xiv, 235) ; Tokyo Ongaku guished, namely slendro and pelog. Each
Gakk5 (Tokyo Music
2 vols. (1914).
Jarabe. A
School), Sokyo-
%ushu (Songs accompanied by the So),
*m
Gender (me! a Jlophone]
mazurka, and the dancing imitates a
lover pursuing an evasive girl.
m
Javanese music. Orchestra. Javanese
I. k Saron (metallophone)
music is particularly noteworthy for its
highly developed orchestral art which is
^
cultivated at the various provincial courts Demoenq( bass Saron)
and villages as a musical background for
festivities and dances. The Javanese or-
chestra, called gamelan(g), includes chief-
ly various types of chimes, made from
wood (gambang, a xylophone); from
*r r r f ~r f r r
Bonnanq I.II.UUqonq chimes)
bronze slabs (gender, saron, demoeng);
from bamboo pipes of different lengths
(angf(lung)i from metal disks, or vases
Tjclempoenq (psaltery )
variety. All the instruments follow one which, however, are not clearly character-
and the same melodic line in various de- ized. The Javanese describe slendro as
[373]
JAVANESE MUSIC JAZZ
difficult ofexplanation, since there is a Stumpf, "Tonsystem und Musik der Sia-
considerable variation in different instru- mesen" (Sammelbdnde fur vergleichende
ments. Hornbostel's theory, according to Musil(wissenscha]t 1922); E. v. Horn-
i,
which it
originated as a succession of bostel, "Formanalysen an siamesischen
*Blasquinten, has been questioned by re- Orchesterstucken" (AMW
ii); M. F. Bu-
cent scholars (M. F. Bukofzer, C. Sachs) kofzer, "The Evolution of Javanese Tone
who interpret it as consisting of two con- Systems" (Intern. Congress of the AMS
junct tetrachords each of which is divided *939 [1944]); Ch. Koechlin, in BSIM,
(approximately) into a semitone and a 1910 (transcription for European instru-
major third, similar to the chromatic ments of a gamelang piece). Extensive
genus of ancient Greek music, as follows list of special studies in J. Kunst, De Toon-
(descending): \unst, vol. ii.
pitches of a pelog instrument (read de- Swing (c. 19355). Such distinctions as
12345678
scending)
c f+
:
g (a+) b c (d-) e
are valid between these types will best
appear from the following chronological
account, which is presented with due
no 150 255 140 115 190 240
warning that the distinctions are not al-
According to Bukofzer, the slendro system ways present owing to cross influences
originated in the 8th century A.D., when between one style and another.
invading Buddhists selected from the I. Ragtime makes its appearance at an
older pelog scale the tones i, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8. indeterminable date toward the end of
The result is a scale of almost equidistant the 1 9th century, one of the first published
pentatones, such as occur in slendro. The rags being the "Harlem Rag" (1895) by
corresponding tones in pelog and slendro the pianist T. M. Turpin, which was soon
could be shown to be of the same pitch. followed by W. Scott Joplin's "Maple Leaf
Pieces in slendro partake of the static Rag" (1899), and others. Ragtime de-
character of Chinese music [cf. Lach- scended from the early minstrel show
mann, Musi\ des Orients, Beispiel 6, 7 tunes (cakewalk, buck-and-wing, jig) of
(pp. in, 113); LavE 1.5, 3156], while the 1840*5 and later (an early example is
pieces in pelog show more conjunct, even "Old Zip Coon," better known as "Tur-
chromatic, motion, use quicker rhythms key in the Straw," 1834), as well as from
and ornamental figures, and are more the early marches ("Jagtime Johnson's
dynamic and expressive [cf. Lachmann, Ragtime March," 1901). Like theirs, its
ibid., Beispiel 8 (p. 113); id., "Ausser- harmony is conventional and is based
Europaische Musik," p. 21], Pelog prob- largely on the common tonic, dominant,
ably represents an autochthonous musical and subdominant triads of the major
style. mode, with a regular phraseology. How-
Lit.: J. Kunst, De Toon\unst van Java ever, owing to its (often improvisatory)
(1934); id., DC Toonfanst van Bali creation and performance primarily by
(1925); id., Hindoe-javaansche Muziel(- pianists (who rejected, as in later Jazz, the
instrumenten (1927); R. Lachmann, subtler pedal effects in favor of a percus-
Musi^ des Orients (1929); id., "Ausser- sive tone),with or without a small un-
Europaische Musik" (in BuHM)\ LavE standardized group of additional instru-
i.5, 3i47ff; McPhee, in BAMS vi; C. ments, the melody of Ragtime becomes
[374]
JAZZ JAZZ
somewhat more instrumental in style leans (the fount of so much Ragtime and
(most of the rags had no text) through Jazz), most of whose (5-7) musicians
the persistent exploitation, as a funda- could not read music, and improvised
mental characteristic, of Negroid rhyth- collectively, often with surprising dis-
mic complications such as the use of me- sonant and contrapuntal effects. The in-
lodic motives comprising groups of three troduction of Ragtime to the rest of the
or six notes in conflict with the 2/4- or world is credited to the white pianist Ben
4/4-meter [see Ex. i], which, by giving Harney, who appeared at Tony Pastor's
in New York in 1897 and published a
piano method, his Ragtime Instructor, the
same year, while the first New York stage
appearance (Proctor's Theater) of an or-
chestra playing such music seems to have
taken place in 1905 (Will Marion Cook's
Memphis Students) from which time to
about 1910 Ragtime reached its peak,
thereafter to decline in favor of the Blues
so that by 1915 it had all but disappeared
(found notably in Schumann), and very in 1909, though not published till 1912
frequently in Negro spirituals, as shown (his "St. Louis Blues," 1914). The prin-
in Ex. 2 (this is a figure typical of the cipal sources of the Blues appear to be the
Cakewalk and tango) (2) the suppression,
; Negro work songs and spirituals [see
by a rest or tie, of an accent proper to the *Negro music II, III]. The Blues were
normal rhythmic pulse already established originally distinguished from Ragtime by
by the same voice, or else in a counter- several features: (i) in the early, and
rhythm to the normal pulse simultaneous- many later, examples groups of 12 meas-
ly present in other parts [see, e.g., Ex. 3, ures are characteristic rather than those
4]; (3) the anticipation or retardation of of 8, 16, and 32 found in Ragtime (and
an accent, especially by having it appear Jazz); (2) although, as in Ragtime, Jazz,
on the fraction of a beat, e.g., Ex. 5 be- and spirituals, the major mode predomi-
comes as Ex. 6 or Ex. 7. nates, there is, in the Blues, more frequent
One
of the earliest "bands" (in popular harmonization with seventh-chords of the
idiom any group of instruments combined dominant type, especially with those on
for the purpose of playing marches or the flat or subdominant side of the key
7
popular dance music) which played (I^ , IW) heretofore exceptional in
marches, etc., in the free improvisatory American popular music as well as
manner later characteristic of true Jazz with those in rapid successions producing
was that of the Negro cornettist Buddy so-called ^barbershop harmonies [Ex.
"King" Bolden (c. 1895^) at New Or- 8] ; (3) the melody is in the tradition of the
[375]
JAZZ JAZZ
work songs and spirituals and differs from loons ("barrel houses") and brothels of
that of Ragtime owing to the fact that, un- New Orleans' red light district (Story-
like the latter, the Blues (whose through the activities of the Ne-
greatest ville)
gro Jim Europe's syndicated dance or-
chestras of the Clef Club in New York
(1912), as well as of the first white or-
chestra to play the Negro type of music,
the Original Dixieland Jazz Band ( 1912*!;
Chicago Boosters' Club, 1914; Reisen-
exponent was the Negro singer Bessie weber's in New York, 1917-18). From
Smith) began as vocal music and only this time on there emerges a "refining"
later developed as a type for instruments influence, largely the product of white
alone (Ellington's "Blue Light"), and musicians (Art Hickmann at the St. Fran-
consequently the early Blues are more cis Hotel, San Francisco,
1914*!). In its
singable than Ragtime; (4) Blues usually early stages Jazz inherited the various
possess special melodic features (also devices of syncopation and the regular
found in spirituals) such as (a) certain 1 6-and 32-measure groupings of Ragtime,
"blue" notes, that is, notes (in particular while from the early vocal Blues it in-
the III and VII degrees) whose intona- herited a more vocal type of melody
tion is unstable and lies between the nor- emphasized from about 1929 by a special
mal major and minor pitches, (b) the use soft, sliding, and sentimental style of sing-
of portamento, and (c) cadential formulas ing known as crooning (Rudy Vallee,
which avoid the VII degree in favor of II Bing Crosby) and greater melodic
or VI as penultimate tone of the melody; ("blue" notes) and harmonic resources
(5) the nature of many early texts be- (borrowed dominant seventh-chords)
wailing the loss or absence of a lover in- along with a somewhat slower tempo and
fluenced the general style toward the de- smoother rhythm as well as the use of
clamatory with a steady pulsating accom- "breaks." In the course of time (1920'$),
paniment, and invited a smoother, less other and non-Negroid influences enter,
percussive and less staccato rhythm as well among them the sentimental ballad-type
as a slower tempo in the Blues of New of melody (often with a Viennese oper-
Orleans and St. Louis (as contrasted with etta flavor, as with Sigmund Romberg
the fast Blues of Texas); (6) the Blues and Jerome Kern) along with harmonic
(e.g. "Memphis Blues") frequently use devices derived from 19th-century Roman-
habanera or tango rhythms such as in Ex. ticism and 20th-century impressionism
9; (7) and finally, the Blues introduced (added sixths, minor sevenths, and ninths
the "break,"i.e., brief improvised instru- to final and other triads, e.g.: c-e-g-a,
mental cadenza (usually about two meas- c-e-g-bb, c-e-g-bb-d) As a consequence,
.
spread beyond its source the cheap sa- the Black Bottom (1926), and their sue-
[376]
JAZZ JAZZ
ccssors, though not including the defi- "Tin Pan Alley." Milestones in the his-
nitely foreign importations (tango, rhum- tory of this type of Jazz were the inclusion
ba, conga) or the perennial waltz. of popular tunes on the
program of the
serious concert
singer Eva Gauthicr in
1923, and Paul Whiteman's Aeolian Hall
concert (1924) of Jazz and Blues, which
These melodic and harmonic develop- included the first performance of the
ments were accompanied by that toward "Rhapsody in Blue"
by George Gershwin
a more or less standardized instrumental (1898-1937). Gershwin's works from
group. In Jazz the piano largely relin- 1919 ("Swanee") onward, including nu-
quishes the primacy it possessed in Rag- merous musical shows (Pulitzer prize
time; for although it is firmly entrenched winner, "Of Thee I Sing," 1931-32) as
for harmonic functions and as the back- well as the folk opera Porgy and Bess
bone of the "rhythm" section (with banjo (1935), represent the peak of this genre
or guitar, stringed or wind bass, and not excelled by his contemporaries and
drums with "traps," i.e., percussion in- successorssuch as Cole Porter (from
struments and other effects too numerous "An Old Fashioned Garden" in "Hitchy-
to mention), nevertheless the melodic Koo," 1919), Richard Rogers (from the
element passes to other instruments. The show "A Connecticut Yankee," 1927),
latter are conventionally divided into and Marc Blitzstein who has employed
"reeds" (clarinets, saxophones) and "brass- Jazz (and other styles) in his satirical
es" (trumpets, cornets, trombones), with "Play with music," "The Cradle Will
other instruments (violins, etc.) occasion- Rock" (1937).
ally added, especially as, in the course of IV. While the white musicians (White-
the 1920'$, the orchestras grew larger and man, Ted Lewis, Guy Lombardo) were
the style more pretentious ("Symphonic largely concerned in developing commer-
Jazz" of Paul Whiteman and others), cial Jazz of the type just described, the
often with emphasis laid upon showman- true tradition was continued by small
ship (Waring's Pennsylvanians). With groups (4-7 men), mainly Negroes, and
the increase in resources, jazz treatment produced an important figure in the Ne-
spread from tunes written for such treat- gro trumpet virtuoso and "scat" singer
ment to compositions from the standard (i.e., interpolation
of nonsense syllables
J
concert literature (Paul Whiteman s ver- and other peculiar vocal effects), Louis
sion of Rimsky-Korsakov's "Song of In- Armstrong. Largely under the influence
dia," 1924). Smoothprofessionalized per- of Armstrong there arose (c. 1925) the
formance, achieved after laborious and type known as "Hot Jazz" (Armstrong's
meticulous rehearsal, replaced the earlier Hot Five) as distinct from the conven-
spontaneous and impromptu rendition, tional types thereafter known as "Sweet"
and the arranger (notably Ferdie Grofe or "Symphonic Jazz." Apart from Arm-
with Whiteman, 19195) emerges as at strong's influence on other cornettists
least as important as the composer. Under (most notably the white musician "Bix"
these conditions Jazz becomes, indeed, a Beiderbecke, 1923-31), attempts were
highly sophisticated and standardized made to imitate his vibrato and his short
formal conditions of performance under nato melodic figures by the band against
which Hot Jazz originated are similar to which one of the instruments improvises),
those which had produced early Ragtime, mention must be made of a special type of
so that a fundamental resemblance be- piano blues known as Boogie-woogie,
tween the two is to be expected. Unfor- which was heard at Negro "rent parties"
in Chicago in the early 1920*5 (Jimmy
tunately, however, the subtleties of per-
formance, especially in the realm of im- Yancey, "Pine Top" Smith) long before it
provisation, which are characteristic of became famous in the world at large (c.
both HotJazz and Ragtime (and may 1936) with Albert Ammons and Meade
exist to some extent even in Sweet Jazz), "Lux" Lewis ("Honky Tonk Train
are matters which defy notation and are Blues"). This type of playing is character-
lost to us in the case of Ragtime whose ized by an ostinato bass figure, usually
reign antedated the phonographic record- sharply rhythmic, against which the right
ing of much music in this category hand rhapsodizes freely, the sections usu-
though they are preserved in the case of ally comprising 12 measures and the treat-
Hot Jazz, whose early records have be- ment often being contrapuntal (some-
come collectors' items among enthusiasts. times in only two widely-spaced parts),
Jam sessions, i.e., impromptu perform- with repeated tones, broken-octave trem-
ances, with their emphasis on melodic olos, and short figures reiterated in great
interpolations (often lasting through sev- rhythmic variety.
eral choruses) by various soloists collec- V. From about 1935 on, with the rise
pet) approach a type of vocal declama- Lomond" by the Negro singer Maxine
tion; (5) a return to the creative function Sullivan) takes place, and with the in-
of the performer (as improviser). crease in numbers (big bands) and varie-
On the East Coast the pioneers in Hot ties of instruments (vibra-harp, electric
Jazz numbered Fletcher Henderson (who guitar, harpsichord), the cultivation of
developed [c. I93off] the modern tech- crispness of attack (especially in the
nique of Jazz orchestration by giving his "rhythm" section), as well as of precision
arrangements the effect of improvisations in ensemble (Goodman), and of per-
in characteristic Jazz idioms), the white formance divorced from dancing (Swing
drummer Ben Pollock and his orchestra, concerts), Swing gives occasional indica-
and, above Negro band leader and
all, the tions of rounding out a cycle similar to
that from Ragtime to Symphonic Jazz
composer ("Mood Indigo") "Duke" El-
lington, whose arrangements (some in almost two decades earlier.
the growling VI. Occasional claims to the contrary
"jungle style" calling for
effect produced by "wa-wa" trumpet notwithstanding, Jazz shows no signs of
[378]
JAZZ JEWISH MUSIC
becoming the American art music of the scrapers (fox trot rhythms, blues melo-
future, perhaps because, despite the in- dies)
terest and stimulation it affords, its appeal 1926 Aaron Copland, Concerto for piano
is too
primitive and immediate. Never- and orchestra (Charleston and other
theless quite apart from the essays in jazz rhythms; special jazz mutes for
the traditional larger forms by Jazz com- trombone)
posers themselves (Gershwin's "Concerto 1927 Maurice Ravel, Sonata for violin and
in F" for piano and orchestra, 1925; Mor- piano (second movement: "Blues")
ton Gould's "Chorale and Fugue in Jazz," 1928 Constant Lambert, Rio Grande for
1936) Jazz has contributed at least a voices and orchestra (jazz rhythms)
variety of rhythmic and instrumental ef Lit.: W. Sargent, Jazz Hot and Hybrid
fects tomusic in general, and direct imita-
(1938; bibl.); Ch. Delaunay, Hot Dis-
tions as well as more subtle influences
cography (1941); R. Goffin, Aux iron-
from this type of music are found in the du jazz (1932); B. Goodman and I.
tieres
work of more serious composers from the Kolodin, The Kingdom of Swing ( 1939) ;
1917 Erik Satie's ballet (for Diaghileff) no. 4 and xiv, no. 3 (on Swing). L. H.
Parade ("Rag-Time du paquebot")
1918 Igor Stravinsky, Histoire du soldat Jete [F.]. See *Bowing (e).
(movement "Ragtime" for solo violin
Jeu [F., play]. In
organ music, jeu
and other instruments) means de jonds, foundation stop;
stop; jeu
1918 Igor Stravinsky, Ragtime for eleven
jeu de mutation, mutation stop; jeu a
instruments
bouche, flue stop; jeu d'anche, reed stop.
1920 Darius Milhaud's ballet Le Boeuf
Jeu de timbres, *Glockenspiel. Jeu-partie,
sur le Toit (jazz rhythms)
see *Tenso.
1922 Paul Hindemith, 1922 Suite fur
Klavier (movements "Shimmy" and Jewish music. I. The
Original Tradi-
"Ragtime") tion. The
frequent references in the Bible
1922 John Alden Carpenter's ballet (jazz to musical instruments have been put to-
pantomime) Krazy Kat ("Fox trot," gether by modern scholars (Idelsohn) into
"Blues") a lively picture full of interesting traits.
1923 D. Milhaud's Ballet negre La Crea- The music of the temple (the "High-
tion du Monde (jazz rhythms and in- Church" in Jerusalem, comparable to St.
strumentation; blues intonations) Peter's in Rome) was in the hands of pro-
1924 Louis Gruenberg, The Daniel Jazz fessional musicians, the Levites. It would
for small ensemble and solo voice, to seem that instruments such as the hasosra
text by Vachel Lindsay (chatzotzra, a silver trumpet, used in
1925 A. Honegger, Concertino for piano numbers up to 120 in Solomon's time),
and orchestra (jazz rhythms) the *magrepha (a pipe organ of a very
1925-26 E. Krenek's opera Jonny spielt powerful sound), the tziltzal (cymbals),
auf ("Shimmy," "Blues," "Spiritual") and others chiefly served for signaling
1926 John Alden Carpenter's ballet purposes, i.e., to announce the entrance
[379]
JEWISH MUSIC JEWISH MUSIC
of the priests, to give the sign for the con- drawn from these facts is that these melo-
gregation to prostrate themselves, etc. dies date back to a period anterior to the
Many instruments mentioned in the Scrip- destruction of the temple and that they
tures have an Egyptian ancestry, the e.g., have been preserved for about 2000 years
nevel (probably a large harp,
played with with only slight alterations. They may
the fingers), the fynnor (a therefore be held to approximate very
lyre, played
with a plectrum, similar to the Greek
closely the Jewish chant of the pre-Chris-
kithara; see *Harp III), the halil (prob- tian era. No less interesting is the close
ably a double-oboe and, like the Greek resemblance between some of these melo-
aulos, used for highly exciting and virtu- dies and certain melodies of Gregorian
oso-like music; it had to be banned from chant. For instance, a chant used by the
ritual use), etc. The
only instrument to Jews of Yemen for the recitation of the
survive up to the present is the *shofar, a Pentateuch (as well as of certain psalms)
ram's horn which also belonged (and still shows a striking similarity to the Gre-
belongs) to the class of signaling instru- gorian psalm tones [Ex. i].
ments. [Cf. the detailed study of the
Biblical instruments in SaHMI, 106-127.]
The instrumental music of the temple a
fell into oblivion after destruction, in
its
II. The Main Types of Jewish Chant.
A.D. 70. The chanting, however, of the
The oldest type of Jewish ritual music is
Bible (believed to have been established in
the chant used for the reading of the prose
the 5th century B.C.) survived in the vari-
books of the Bible, such as Pentateuch,
ous synagogues and to the present day,
Prophets, Ruth, etc. This chant, usually
representing the oldest extant type of Jew- referred to as cantillation, consists of a
ish music[see section II]. Particular in- succession of stereotyped melodic for-
terest attaches to the singing of the
psalms mulae each of which is represented steno-
which expressly indicated in inscrip-
is
graphically by a sign written above or
tions such as "To the chief Musician on
below the scriptural text. These signs,
Neginoth" [for a correct interpretation of the taamim or accents, developed, no
these inscriptions, see *Psalms] The sing-
.
JEW m
estant chorale "Nun freut Euch Ihr from-
"ir J| men Christen," and one of the melodies
a hv ha-4.e-ba.-rtm. ha- l- leh
for Adonai Melek is borrowed from Ver-
* di's opera La Traviata.
III. Semi-religious and Folf( Song. To
A-hA hsk4.tba--n.rn Ka-elUh
[381]
JEWISH MUSIC JEWISH MUSIC
ghetto. Abramodall'Arpa Ebreo was a propriateness, his compositions and ver-
famous singer at the court of Mantua, sions of songs leave much to be desired,
from 1542 to 1566. Allegro Porto Ebreo because they represent current European
published a book Nuove music he in 1619 idioms rather than Jewish tradition. A
and two collections of madrigals in 1625. similar statement is true with regard to
The most important of these Jewish com- Louis Lewandowski (1821-94) whose
posers was Salomone Rossi (d. 1628), who thorough training in musical theory, har-
was one of the pioneers of violin music mony, etc., enabled him to write choruses
[see *Sonata B, I; *Romanesca; *Rug- in the character of Mendelssohn's oratorio
giero] and who was the first to compose style. His complete service, Kol Rinnah
polyphonic music for the Jewish service, (1871), has been widely adopted, on ac-
in his Hashirim Asher Lishlomo of 1622. count of the facile and pleasing nature of
Needless to its tunes. In America, synagogue music
say, these compositions, writ-
ten for chorus and soloists, completely started by imitating the current European
break away from the Jewish tradition. exnmnles (Alois Kaiser of Baltimore;
His procedure remained without imme- Max Spickler and William Sparger of
diate succession. New York; Edward Starck of San Fran-
Around 1700 some of the wealthier cisco). Recently, however, there has been
German synagogues employed instru- a remarkable movement towards inde-
mental music for the Friday-evening serv- pendent development, represented by a
ice and had organs installed, and choirs number of choral compositions of a dis-
were fairly generally employed. Since tinctly Hebraic character, mostly for the
there was no traditional music available Sabbath Service. Among the contributors
for such performances, the current reper- we find Ernest Bloch, Frederick Jacobi,
toire of non-Jewish music was used, and Lazare Saminsky, and Isadore Freed.
the lack of tradition and authority in this Throughout the i9th and 20th centu-
matter easily accounts for the rapid in- ries,Jews have played an active part in
trusion of secular and even operatic ele- the development of European music, as
ments, of dance-tunes and Rococo-arias. composers (Giacomo Meyerbeer, 1791-
Ahron Beer (1738-1821), one of the first 1864; Jacques Halevy, 1799-1862; Felix
chazzans who possessed some musical Mendelssohn, 1809-47; Jacques Offen-
knowledge, made an extensive collection bach, 1819-80; Karl Goldmark, 1819-80;
of compositions for the service and of Gustav Mahler, 1860-1911; Arnold Schon-
traditional Jewish songs, including two berg, b. 1874; Ernest Bloch, b. 1880; Da-
versions of the Kol Nidre, marked 1720 riusMilhaud, b. 1892; George Gershwin,
and 1783. A
different linewas followed 1898-1937; Aaron Copland, b. 1900, and
by Israel Jacobson (1768-1828), who was many others), and even more prominently
an exponent of the reform movement and as performers and conductors (Joachim,
who, in the first Reform Temple (Seesen, Kreisler, Heifetz, Menuhin, Godovsky,
Westphalia, 1810), not only used organ Schnabel, Serkin, Myra Hess, Damrosch,
and bells, but also German chorales, pro- Bruno Walter, Klemperer, to name only
vided with Hebrew texts [cf. Idelsohn, the most outstanding).
p. 237]. The natural reaction against In the past twenty years there has been
Jacobson's complete Christianization of a movement to create what might be
the Jewish service led to the moderate re- called a "Jewish national music," com-
form of Salomon Sulzer (1804-90), who parable to the national music of other
declared that the "restoration should re- countries and races. The leader of this
main on grounds" and that "the
historical movement is Ernest Bloch who, in his
old tunes should be improved, selected Israel Symphony (1915), Symphonic
and adjusted to the rules of art" (Den\- Orientale, and other works, has used dis-
schrift, 1876). Although Sulzer succeeded tinctly Hebraic idioms.
in bestowing upon the musical service a Lit.: A. Z. Idelsohn, Jewish Music in its
[382]
JEW'S HARP JOTA
^Thesaurus of Hebrew Oriental Melodies, mous clowns of the comedy. The
English
10 vols. (i9i4ff); S. B. Finesingcr, Music "Nobody's Jigg" which appears in vari-
Instruments in the Old Testament (1926) ; ous sources is the
jig of the clown R. Rey-
L. Saminsky, Music of the Ghetto and the nolds who played the role of
"Nobody" in
Bible (1935); G. Salesky, Famous Musi- the popular
comedy Somebody and No-
cians of a Wandering Race
(1927); LavE body. The English comedians who, in the
i.i,67; ii.4, 2287; Richard Wagner, Juda- early I7th century, invaded the Nether-
ism in Music (1850; transl. 1910); P. lands, Scandinavia, and Germany, intro-
Nettl, "Some Early Jewish Musicians" duced the jig into these countries. Accord-
(MQ xvii) L. Sabaneev, "The Jewish Na-
; ing to a recent theory, the jigs were also
tional School in Music" (MQ xv); A. Z. introduced into America where they were
Idelsohn, "Parallclen zwischen gregoriani- imitated by the Negroes and gradually
schen und hebraisch-orientalischen Ge- transformed into the grotesque dances of
sangsweisen" (ZMW iv); id., "Parallels the minstrel shows. In this respect, it is
between the Old French and the Jewish interesting to note the "jazz-like" rhythm
Song" (AM v, no. 4; vi, no. i); id., [see *Dotted notes III] in our example
"Deutsche Elemente im alten Synagogen- [Mr. Slaggin's Jigg, from The Dancing
gesang" (ZMW xv); id., in viii;ZMW
H. Loewenstein, in ZMW
xii. Additional
Jew's harp or trump [F. guimbarde\ Master (1686); cf. M. Danckert, Zur
G. Maultrommel], A primitive instru- Geschichte der Gigue (1924), p. 17].
ment consisting of an elastic strip of metal
fixed in a small iron frame in the shape of Jingling John. See *Crescent.
a horseshoe. The frame is held between
the teeth (the name Jew's harp is Jodel. See *Yodel.
prob-
ably a perversion of Jaw's harp), and the
Jongleur. See *Minstrel; *Troubadours.
elastic strip is made by a twang
to vibrate
Also reference under *Estampie.
of the fingers. Although the instrument
as such produces only one sound, the dif-
Joropo. The most characteristic dance
ferent partials can be made prominent by of Venezuela. It is in quick % -meter with
shaping the mouth in different ways. The short melodic phrases and strongly ac-
instrument is very ancient and wide- cented accompaniment in simple rhythms,
spread. It is mentioned and depicted in a occasionally (particularly in the coastal
Chinese book of the i2th century, and
regions) with some syncopation.
specimens have been found in Japan,
Borneo, Siberia, North-Germany (i4th Jota [Sp.]. A
dance of Aragon (north-
century),Norway, etc. In the early i9th ern Spain) in rapid triple time, performed
century it was temporarily revived by by one or more couples and accompanied
virtuosos who used larger instruments by castanets. One of the most popular
with several vibrating reeds. Cf. SaHMl\ melodies has been used by Liszt in his
bibl., p. 471; M. Heymann, "La Guim- Spanish Rhapsody no. xvi (Folies d'Es-
barde" (RM iv). pagne et Jota Aragonese) and by Glinka
in his orchestral overture Jota Aragonesa.
Jig. An English popular dance of the Other examples occur in Falla's The
i6th century which is especially impor- Three-cornered Hat and in compositions
tant as the forerunner of the *gigue. of Saint-Saens, Albeniz, etc. Statements
Probably the name is not derived from regarding the medieval or Arabic origin
the
medieval giga [see *Gigue (i)], but is of the Jota [cf. J. Ribera, La Musica de lo
an old English word [L. jocus] denoting Jota Aragonesa (1928)] are, needless to
some sort of farcical ballad. Names such say, entirely unfounded. Cf. G. B. Brown,
as Kemp's Jig, Slaggin's Jig,
refer to fa- in BAMS ii; Ex.
in LavE 1.4, 23731!.
[383]
JUBILUS JUST INTONATION
Jubilus. The long melismatic vocaliza- 1891]. A selection of these tones is
given
tion of the Alleluias, sung to the final under intervals, Calculation of, VI.
vowel a--- [e.g., GR, 5]. See * Alleluia; Just intonation has the advantage of giv-
*Neuma; *Sequence. ing the three fundamental triads: c-e-g,
f-a-c', and g-b-d' as "natural triads"
Jupiter Symphony. Mozart's Sym-
(characterized by the ratio 4:5:6; e.g.:
phony in C major, K.V. 551, composed in = 4:5:6), which are more "eu-
24:30:36
1788. The name is unauthentic, but aptly
phonious" than those in *Pythagorean or
expresses the "majestic" character of the in *well-tempered tuning. However, its
symphony which offers a striking contrast disadvantages are much more numerous
to the G
minor Symphony (K.V. 550)
and, in fact, so serious as to make it prac-
written in the same year.
tically The chief disadvantages
useless.
are: (a) The
tones of the C-major scale
Justiniane. See under *Villanella.
include one "dissonant" fifth, namely d-a,
Just intonation [G. Reine or natur- 40 /8(K
-3 /81 /, v
Stimmung] A system of intonation
. .
i .
i , L N
liche . which is
( ) instead of ( ). (b)
and tuning in which all the intervals are
derived from the natural (pure) fifth and
The C-major scale has two different whole
* Acoustics
the natural (pure) third [see -9 / \
tones, (major tone) and
10 / .
(minor tone)
\ , .
c c( = T) f(=-T) a( = T-F)
5
1 9 3
Reduced into the normal octave, they be- ever, the principle of pure triads can be
come: maintained only at the expense of a con-
_ 5 4 s 5 15
fc
c
i:i~-j--gg-2 example were sung in pure triads, the
= 24: 24 27 30 32 36 40 45 48
r
Intervals:
,
9
-5
_ _
10 16
-9 _
10 9
^
_
16
Owing to the presence of two constituents notes indicated by black heads would have
(F and T) the complete system of just in-
tonation forms a two-dimensional infinite the following frequencies: c = i; a =-;
multitude of tones [G. Tongcwebe\ cf. C.
d
Eitz, Das mathematisch-reinc Tonsystem, 27
[384]
JUST NOTE AND ACCENT KANCN
~ 40 vx 2 80 Thy worth and skill exempts thec from the throng,
c
"27
^ "a
^ si*
.
1'e *)
.
"ie syntomc com- With praise enough for envy to look wan;
To after age thou shalt be writ the man
ma (~) lower than the initial c. Since That with smooth aire couldst humor best our
tongc.
harmonies including the supertonic (this Whatever Milton may have had in mind
chord is responsible for the lowering of and his judgment certainly was not
pitch) are particularly frequent in the entirely objective, inasmuch as Henry
Palestrina style, just intonation proves un- Lawes set music to the poet's masque
satisfactory for exactly that type of music Comus in the sense in which the phrase
for which it has frequently been recom- "just note and accent" is now generally
mended. The conclusion to be drawn taken, much more is implied than the
from all these facts is that the interest of mere coincidence of a normally accented
just intonation lies only in the theoreti- word or syllable with a strong or second-
cal field, and that its application to actual ary strong beat; indeed, all the subtleties
performance is limited to occasional of text setting are suggested: variations of
chords (initial, final triads) in a capella meter within the bar which supply flexi-
music. bility of declamation; the selection of a
Lit.: J. M. Barbour, "Just Intonation note in the melody which does not lay too
Confuted" (ML xix); id., in ii; BAMS much stress upon a relatively unimportant
L. S. Lloyd, "Just Temperament" (ML bit of text, general, the whole
and, in
*
xx). See also under Acoustics; *Tem- character of the melody as it partners and
perament; *Intervals. interprets the words to which it is set.
Both William and Henry Lawes followed
Just note and accent. These words the tradition of text treatment established
occur in Milton's sonnet "To Mr. H.
in the earliest Italian operas, applying
Lawes on his Airs." The first eight lines
those principles to the English language.
are as follows:
See *Text and Music. Cf. E. J. Dent,
Harry whose tuneful and well measur'd Song Foundations of English Opera (1928);
First taught our English Music how to span
Words with just note and accent, not to scan H. C. Colics, Voice and Verse (1928).
With Midas Ears, committing short and long; A.T.D.
K
K. Sometimes used instead of *K.V. Kanon. (i) German for *canon. (2)
A type of medieval Byzantine poetry [see
Kadenz [G.]. (i) *Cadence; (2) *Ca-
*Byzantine chant II] .
(3) See *Kanun.
denza.
Kantate [G.]. *Cantata.
Kaiserquartett [G.]. See *Emperor
Kantele. See under *Finnish music.
Quartet.
Kalevala. The Finnish national epic Kantorei [G.]. In the i5th and i6th
centuries a singing group in the employ
[see ^Finnish music]. Sibelius has com-
of a church or of a prince's court; subse-
posed a number of ^symphonic poems
based on stories from this epic. quently groups of amateurs who provided
music for the service of their communities.
Kalt [G.]. Cold. For literature cf. MoML 384. 9
Kanzone [G.]. (i) *Canzona. (2) writers maintain that there is a subtle
*Canzo. difference between key and tonality, but
usually fail to make this distinction suffi-
Kapelle [G.]. *Chapel, usually in the There is,
ciently clear [see *Tonality].
connotation of "private or small orches-
however, a distinct differencebetween
tra," e.g., Hoj\apelle (court orchestra), key and scale, the former term encom-
Militarkapelle (military band). Kapell-
passing many melodic and harmonic
meister, originally an honorable title formations which are not contained in
(Bach served as a Kapellmeister to Prince the scale the sixth
Ernst of Cothen, from 1717 to 1723), is
(e.g., Neapolitan
f-ab-db' in C major).
now an old-fashioned provincialism for
According to the 12 tones of the chro-
Dirigent (conductor). The term Kapell- matic scale, there are 12 keys, one on C,
meistermusi^ is a derogatory designation one on C-sharp, etc. (this number is in-
for compositions of a formally correct
creased to 14 or 15 by the notational dis-
design, but lacking in imagination and between ^enharmonic keys, such
tinction
originality as the pieces of the Kapell-
and D-flat, G-sharp and A-flat).
as C-sharp
meister were.
With any given key there is a choice of
Kapodaster [G.]. *Capotasto. *modality, i.e., of certain variations in the
tones which form the scale. E.g., in C we
Katzenmusik [G.]. *Charivari. have the choice between major (mode):
c d e fc'; minor (mode)
ga b c d eb f g
Kazoo. See *Mirliton.
:
parable devices, i.e., the levers covering eighty-eight keys for seven full octaves,
the side-holes [F. clef} G. Klappe; It. from G! to c'"", and a quarter octave
chiave}. added at the lower end of the compass.
KEYBOARD KEYBOARD
In each octave there are seven white and in 1794, madethe first keyboard (piano-
five black keys, arranged as illustrated in forte) with six octaves, from Ci to c"";
Ex. i. This arrangement is the natural this was the compass of the Broadwood in-
result of the fact that the fundamental strument used by Beethoven from 1817 on.
III. Modern Reforms. Within the past
scale ofEuropean music consists of seven
tones which are given to the white keys. fifty years various unsuccessful attempts
Except for the steps e-f and b-c' the in- have been made to improve the keyboard.
tervals between these tones are whole- The Jan f(o J(ey board (patented 1882) had
tones each of which admits the introduc- six rows of short keys arranged somewhat
tion of a semitone in between, represented similarly to the keys of a typewriter.
each by a black key. Although the intro- Each row included the keys for a whole-
duction of equal temperament, by per- tone scale, that beginning with C in the
linguae (tongues), which were pulled out innovation was identical fingering of, e.g.,
and pushed in. The trustworthiness of the ascending scale, for both hands. The
reports that keys of organs were so large Clutsam keyboard (1909) arranged the
and heavy that they were played with the keys in a sligihtly curved instead of a
fist is rather doubtful. Around 1200, the straight line, taking into account the fact
keyboard covered nearly three octaves that thearms of the player move in arcs.
(from G to e"; see *Hexachord). From This arrangement has become widely
then on, its compass as well as the number adopted for organ pedals. Moor's Duplex
of chromatic keys steadily increased. The Coupler Grand Piano imitates the two
early 14th-century organ pieces from the manuals of the harpsichord. The upper
Robertsbridge Codex (Brit. Mus. Add. of the two keyboards, otherwise normal,
28550 ) make use of all the chromatic tones gives the tones of the higher octave, and
in at least one octave. A normal device of can be coupled with the lower. This key-
all the old keyboards was the *short oc- board greatly facilitates the execution of
tave. The 16th-century experiments in the the usual virtuoso effects and permits the
field of enharmonic music (Vicentino) execution of many others not possible on
led to the construction of keyboards with the usual keyboard. Its failure to win ac-
separate keys for C# and Db, etc. [see ceptance might be ascribed to the decreas-
*Arciorgano]. In the iyth century, key- ing interest in purely virtuoso playing. If
boards had an average compass of four invented 50 years earlier it would prob-
octaves, with all the chromatic notes, ex- ably have been a great success. Another
cept for the lowest range. Bach's harpsi- use of two keyboards is made in the
chord had over five octaves. Broadwood, quarter-tone {ey boards (Haba, 1923;
[387]
KEYBOARD INSTRUMENTS KEY SIGNATURE
Stoehr, 1924), in which the upper key- chord; instrument; *Klavier; *Piano-
board is a quarter-tone higher than the forte music; *Organ music.
lower. At
present, it would seem that at- V
Key bugle. See *Brass instruments
tempts to enlarge the traditional keyboard
(c).
are less likely to succeed than those lead-
ing in the opposite direction, by eliminat- Keynote. Same as *tonic.
ularly used with reference to the periods appearing beginning of each staff
at the
prior to 1750 in which there was frequent- which indicate the *key of a composition.
ly no clear distinction between music for
the organ, harpsichord, or clavichord. In
modern German writings the term Kla-
occasionally used in the same
viermusi^
meaning.
is tecla
is
A
[cf.
16th-century Spanish term
A. de Cabezon's Obras de
"I'u r .P> ^
musica para tecla, harpa y vihuela (1574), A given signature indicates one of two
"Musical works for keyboard, harp, and keys, a major key or its relative minor
lute"]. Regarding the numerous at- key; these are designated in the accom-
tempts not wholly successful of panying tableby a white or a black note.
modern scholars to draw clearer lines of Memorizing scheme is facilitated
of this
distinction within the realm of early key- if it is observed that in a sharp signature
board music, particularly between the the keynote is immediately above the last
repertories of the harpsichord and the sharp if the key is major; below, if it is
clavichord, cf. N. Wilkinson, in iv, ML minor; and that in a flat signature the
no. 2; L. A. Coon, in PAMS, 1936; K. keynote is that of the penultimate flat if
no. 2; R. Buchmayr, in Bach Jahrbuch, minor (e.g., three sharps, ftf, c#, g#: A
1909; various authors in Bach Jahrbuch, major or F-sharp minor; three flats, bb, eb,
1910. Sec also *Clavichord; *Harpsi- ab: E-flat major or C minor). Normally
KEY TRUMPET KLAPPE
the number
of key signatures is twelve, Kit [F. pochette; G. Taschengcigc]. A
corresponding to the twelve chromatic small, narrow riddle to be carried in the
tones of the octave. This number is in- pocket, and used by the dancing masters
creased, however, to 13, 14, or even 15 by of the 1 8th and early ipth centuries. It
the notational distinction between *en- existed in two different types, one a dimin-
harmonic keys, e.g., C-sharp and D-flat. utive violin, the other a descendant of the
See also ""Circle of fifths. medieval *rebec. 111. on p. 800.
[390]
KREUZ LAI
Bridgetower (1780-1860) whom Beetho- K.V. Abbreviation for Kochel-Vcrzeich-
ven accompanied on the first perform- nis, that is, the chronological list of all the
ance. Beethoven, however, dedicated the works of Mozart which was made by L.
composition to the violin-composer and von Kochel (published in 1862, revised
virtuoso Rodolphe Kreutzer (1766-1831). edition of Einstein in 1937; supplements
Kreuz
in MR i, ii). Mozart's compositions are
[G.]. Sharp.
usually referred to by the numbers of this
Kriuki (Krjuki). See *Russian music list, e.g., K.V. 357, or K. 357.
I; *Znamcnny chant.
Krummhorn see
Kyriale. See *Liturgical books.
[G.]. *Cromorne;
*0boe III.
Kyrie [Gr. Kyrie eleison, Lord, have
Kuhreigen [G.]. *Ranz des vaches. mercy]. The first item of the
Ordinary
of the *Mass. Its full text is: elei-
Kujawiak. A Polish dance from the Kyrie
son; Christe cleison* Kyrie eleison. Each
province of Kujawy. It is a rapid variety of these three invocations is sung three
of the mazurka. Chopin's mazurkas op.
times, usually with the melodies repeated
6, no. 6; op. 30, no. 4; op. 41, no. i are
according to the scheme: aaa bbb ccc
kujawiaks.
[cf. GR, 1 8*], or aaa bbb ccc', the last
Kunst der Fuge. See *Art of Fugue. reiteration being slightly extended [cf.
Kunstlied A term used in
GR, 8*]. Another frequent scheme,
[G.].
America rather than in for
probably of later origin, is: aba cdc efe
Germany [cf. GR, ii*]. In the loth and iith cen-
the "art songs" of German composers
turies the Kyries were frequently troped
such as Schubert, Schumann, Brahms, in
(farced Kyrie) by the interspersion of
contrast to German folk songs. It is also
attributes, e.g., Kyrie lux et origo eleison
applied to the 16th-century polyphonic
[see *Trope (4); *Farce] Although these .
La. See *Solmization; *Pitch names; chords (enge or wcite Lage, i.e., close or
*Hexachord.
open position); or to ranges of voices and
Labial pipes [G.Labialpjetfen]. Same instruments (hohe or tiefe Lage, i.e., high
as *Flue stops. or low range; gute or schlechte
Lage, good
or bad range).
Landler. An Austrian dance in the
character of a slow waltz. It was Lagnoso [It.]. Doleful.
very
popular in the early ipth century, before Lai, Lay [G. Leich-, not to be confused
*
the waltz came Mozart (K.V.
in vogue. with *Lcis(e) or *Laisse]. A form of
606), Beethoven (ii Modlinger Tarize, medieval French poetry and music char-
1819), and Schubert (op. 171) wrote col- acteristic of the *trouveres of the I3th
lections of Landler. See *Dance music IV. the German
century, adopted later by
[391]
LAI LAMENTATIONS
Minnesinger (i4th century). From the It is interesting to note that Machaut's lai,
standpoint of text the lais are poems (usu- the lastexample of the French repertory,
ally addressed to the Virgin or to a lady) is written in a form which is still closer
consisting of 60, 100, or more lines of to that of the sequence, in which the first
from 4 to 8 syllables each; the whole fall- and the last melody usually were sung
ing into irregular stanzas of from 6 to 16 only once. In fact, the scheme A BB CC
or more lines each. Each stanza is based DD . . PP Q
strictly observed by
. is
on one or two rhyme-syllables, and there Machaut, the only modification being that
is a
great variety in the schemes of meter A and Q
are sung twice instead of once,
and rhyme to be found
in the various B-P four times, instead of twice.
4 4 7 4 4 7 4 4 Lit.: A. Jeanroy, L. Brandin and Pierre
stanzas, for instance: a a b a a b a a
b 7 b 7 b 7 b 7 b 7 b 7 b 7 (the letters indicate Aubry, "\Lais et descorts jranqais (1901);
lines with the same rhyme; the figures F. Wolf, Ueber die Lais, Sequenzen und
give the number of syllables in the line). Leiche (1841); F. Gennrich, "Das Form-
The musical structure of the lai is es- problem des Minnesangs" (Deutsche Vier-
sentially that of the sequence [see *Se- teljahrsschrift fur Literaturgeschichte, ix,
quence (2)] from which it evidently de- 319). P. Runge, "\Die Sangesweisen der
rived, but with certain additional traits Colmarer Handschrtft (1896); G. Hase,
of elaboration or modification, such as Der Minneleich Meister Alexanders
one may expect to find in the later stages (1921); Holz-Saran-Bernouilli, fD/V /<?-
of a development. Instead of the double naer Lie der handschrijt (1901); DTOe
versicles of the sequence, there are
triple (Frauenlob and others); H. Spanke,
20.ii
versicles and quadruple versicles
(a mel- in ZMW xiv;
J. Handschin, in xii. ZMW
ody three or four times repeated), as well See also the general literature under
as "single versicles.,"
involving no repeti- *Trouveres and *Minnesinger.
tion. Following is the scheme of one of
Laisse. See *Chanson de geste.
the shortest lais, Guillaume le Vinier's
"Espris d'ire et d'amour" [Jeanroy, no. 8; Lament. Scottish and Irish music for
cf. HAM, no. 19 e] :
bagpipes and, sometimes, song, used at
I II III the funeral of members of the clan or at
A B C D E other occasions of a mournful character.
a a bj ba b x b a c c d d d c x ea c t ca Each clan had its traditional tune. Cf.
IV V GD iii, 79; see also *Ho-hoane.
F G H I
f f g h h h i
Lamentations. Music set to the La-
(a, b, etc., are the versiclemelodies; A, B, mentations of Jeremiah. In the Roman
etc., the musical sections; I, II, etc., the Catholic service the lamentations are
poetic stanzas, according to Jeanroy; bi, sung at the office of matins on Thursday,
b2 denote different endings for the same Friday, and Saturday of Holy Week
melody.) Another name for the lai is (*tenebrae), in a simple recitation-tone
descort ("disorder"), a term which has
[LU 9 626, 669, 715]. characteristic A
been interpreted as referring to the ex- feature of the text, taken over from the
tremely variable structure of the lai in Bible, is the enumeration of the verses by
contrast to the "fixed forms," such as the Hebrew letters: Alcph. Quo modo sedit
ballade, rondeau, etc., or to some other ele- . . . Beth. Plorans ploravit . . .
, etc. From
ment of irregularity [cf.
RcMMA, 225], the mid-i5th throughout the I7th cen-
The German counterpart of the lai is tury, many composers wrote polyphonic
the 14th-century Leich. Here the double- famous
settings of the text in order to en-
versicle structure of the sequence is, as a hance the dramatic character of tenebrac.
rule, rigidly observed. For instance, Hein- A simple chordal style similar to that of
rich Frauenlob's "Unser Frauen Leich" the *passions was preferred. The earliest
[cf. Runge, p. i] consists of 44 stanzas is In
example by Ockeghcm (1474).
("lieder") sung to 22 melodies ("tone"). 1506, Petrucci published two volumes,
[392]
LAMENTO LATIN AMERICAN MUSIC*
Lamcntationes Jeremie Prophete, which tone (b) and the octave (c'). Frequently
include settings by Johannes Tinctoris, the altered fourth (fit) appears in the
de Orto, Tromboncino, and others. In middle part, as a leading tone to the
1532, a setting by Carpentras (real name dominant (g) [see Ex., a], a formation
Elzear Genet, c.
1475-1548) was pub- which properly belongs to the Lydian
lished which was used until 1587 at the mode [Ex., b]. The use of this cadence
Papal Chapel instead of the ancient plain- is much more extended than is
suggested
song. In 1557, Leroy and Ballard pub- by its name. It occurs in the works of G.
lished a collection of settings (Piissimae de Machaut (1300-77; cf., e.g., SchGMB,
et sacratissimae lamentations s Jeremiae no. 26, "loyaument"), is used frequently
prophetae) which, in addition to Car- by Landini, and forms a characteristic
pentras' composition, included others by feature of the music of the *Burgundian
Pierre de la Rue, Fevin, Arcadelt, Festa, School, usually in the ornamented variety
and Claude le Jeune. In 1588, Palestrina illustratedunder c. There are cases,
published his Lamentationum liber pri- however, in which the "flatted" formula
mus [complete ed., vol. 25] which sup- [Ex., d] would seem to be required [cf.
planted Carpentras* composition in the ApNPM, 106]. See *Cadence II.
published, 1935, '36, '37, '38, '42, with poem, consisting of several (from two to
musical supplements); G. Chase, The ten and more) stanzas (S) of four or six
Music of Spain (1941; chapter on "His- lines each, alternating with a refrain
panic Music in the Americas," with bibli- (*ritornello, R) of usually two lines:
ography and record list); G. Duran, Re- R S R S . . . S R. Music is
provided for
cordings of Latin American Songs and the refrain and the stanza, and that of the
Dances (Music Division, Pan American latter usually borrows some melodic mem-
Union, Washington, 1942); E. Hague, ber from the former, in a great variety
Latin American Music (1934); Hand- of schemes, e.g.: ABabab, ABcdab,
boo\ of Latin American Studies, an an- ABcdeb, ABccdb, ABccab
nual bibliographical guide published by (capital letters indicate the refrain). The
Harvard University Press, includes a sec- last scheme, which may also be repre-
tion on music; F. C. Lange, Latin-Ameri- sented thus: Abba (or, with repetition
can Art Music for the Piano (1942); of the refrain, A b b a A) is that of the
Partial List of Latin American Music French *virelai (or of the Italian *ballata).
Obtainable in the United States (Music This form, however, plays a much less
Division, Pan American Union, Wash- prominent part in the laude than some
ington, 1942). K. G. Izikowitz, Musical scholars have maintained. Only about a
. . Instruments
.
of the South American dozen of the laude are cast in the form of
Indians (in Goteborgs Kungliga Veten- the virelai, and most of these show con-
sfops . . .
Samhallet, vol. v, 1936). See siderable modifications in the repeated
also bibliographies under ^Central Amer- phrases, such as are not found in the vire-
ica; *Cuba; *Libraries II. G. C. lai proper [cf. Sancto Lorenzo in AdHM
i, 21 1 ] . One of the few examples of strict
Laube Sonata. See *Moonlight Sonata. virelai form is given in HAM> no. 2ib.
The usual transcription in four-four me-
Lauda [It., pi. laude\ praise; the less ter [Liuzzi; BeMMR, 153^ is, to say the
correct forms laude (sing.), laudi (pi.), least, hypothetical [cf. Y. Rokseth, in
are also used]. Hymns of praise and de- Romania (Paris) Ixv, no. 259; see also
votion in the Italian language which from under *Vierhebigkeit]. The original
the 1 3th century down to the middle of MSS are in *plainsong notation.
the 1 9th century played an important part There is a wide difference in time and
in the religious life of the Italian people. in style between the ^th-century laude
Their origin and early development were and the next ones preserved, contained in
closely connected with the activity of collections by Petrucci from the early
St. Francis of Assisi (1182-1226) as well years of the i6th century. These are
as with that of the many penitential fra- polyphonic, in a simple chordal style bor-
ternities (flagellants; see *Geisslerlieder) rowed from the *frottola [Ex. in BeMMR,
of the I3th and i4th centuries. Later, nu- 218]. In the second half of the i6th cen-
merous congregations, called Companie tury Fra Serafino Razzi inaugurated a
de Laudesi, or Laudisti^ were founded vast literature of laude in the popular
who devoted much of their activity to the styles of the villanella, canzonetta [Ex. in
cultivation of devotional singing among SchGMB, no. 120] .
Frequently folk songs
the Italian people. The musical and dra- and dance melodies were used for the re-
matic representations which took place ligious texts, a procedure which shows a
in their meeting-halls led, in the i6th striking similarity to the methods of the
century, to the *oratorio. Till the middle Salvation Army. The numerous publica-
of the 1
9th century the laudesi continued tions of the i
yth century are important
to be centers of religious life. sources of early Italian folk song [see
The laude of the i3th century are mo- reference under *Ruggiero] .
nophonic songs which show a certain in- Lit.: F. Liuzzi, fL* Lauda e I prlmordi
[394]
LAUDES LEDGER LINES
della melodia italiana (2 vols., 1935); N. Leader, (i) Conductor (in America)
Garzi, Lc Laudi di cod. Cortenese ( 1936) ; or concertmaster (in England). (2)
K. Jeppesen, Die mehrstimmige italien- See *Fugue I (g).
ische Lauda um 7500 (1935); D. Alale-
one, "Le laudi nei secoli XVI e XVII"
. . .
Leading motive. See ^Leitmotif.
(RMI xvi); E. J. Dent, 'The Laudi Spiri- Leading tone or note [F. note sen-
tual! . ." (PMA xliii); K. Jeppesen, "Die
.
sible;G. Leitton}. The seventh degree of
neuentdeckten Biicher der Lauden . . ." the scale, a semitone below the tonic; so
[see*Trope( 4 )].
Lauf [G., run; pi. Laufe]. rapid pas- A
sage, particularly in scales. For Lau]wcr\
see ^Mechanical instruments III.
isticstep of the regular cadence in major
Launedda. A
Sardinian triple clarinet, as well as minor [see Ex., a] and is, there-
*Clari-
evidently of Oriental origin [see fore, extremely frequent in music of the
net IV]. It consists of three pipes made 1 7th to the1
9th century.
of cane, the two longer of which are tied The consistent and compulsory use of
together. The two highest pipes
have the leading tone is one of the chief fea-
four holes each, the lowest one is an un- tures of modern major and minor, as
changeable bourdon. The music played to the modes, most of which
opposed
on the launeddas is, therefore, in twoparts (Dorian, Phrygian, Mixolydian, Aeolian)
over a sustained pedal. Cf. G. Fara, in have a whole tone (subtonium) below the
RMI xx, xxi, xxv. For the peculiar tech- tonic, not a semitone (subsemitonium)
nique of blowing, cf. SaHMI, 91; also [see Ex., b]. Although in modal music
*Oboe family III. the subsemitonium, i.e., the leading tone,
could be introduced by sharpening the
Laute [G.]. Lute. Lautentabulatur,
this did not result in a com-
subtonium,
lute tablature.
plete suppression of the diatonic seventh
A harpsichord [see *Musica fictal. Thus, earlier music
Lautenclavicymbel.
with gut strings, instead of the usual usually wavers between the natural and
the sharped varieties, as illustrated in our
metal strings. The tone was very much
example (c). In the I4th and early I5th
like that produced by the gut strings of
a centuries the sharped degrees were more
the lute (the reference to "checking by
of cloth" iii, 115 GD
is evi- frequent than they were during the en-
damper
of suing period of Flemish music (1450-
dently a confusion with the lute-stop
the ordinary harpsichord). Such harpsi- 1600) [see *Landini cadence]. Cf. L. H.
chords are mentioned as early as 1511, by Skrbensky, Leitton und Alteration in der
abendldndischen Musi\ (Diss. Prague
Virdung. For the description of an in-
strument of 1718, cf. SaRM, 239. In 1740 1938).
Bach had such an instrument made for League of Composers. See *Societies,
his own use which, according to Adlung, Musical I, 4.
Musica mechanica ii, 139, produced a
sound like a theorboe or, if damped by the Lebendig, lebhaft [G.]. Lively.
lute-stop, like a lute. Cf. O. Fleischer, in
Ledger lines. Short lines drawn
ZIMi.
through the stem of notes which arc too
Lavolta. See *Volta (i). high or too low to be represented on the
staff. They are usually avoided in early
[395]
LEERE SAITE LEITMOTIF
higher clefs. The earliest source in which player of the hurdy-gurdy (not of the
they are extensively used is Marcantonio street organ; see *Leierkasten).
da Bologna's organ book Ricercare, mo-
tettiy canzoni of 1523 [cf.
Leierkasten [G.]. Street organ.
ApNPM, 4].
Leere Saite Leise [G.]. Soft.
[G.]. Open string.
To be performed
Leise [G.]. Medievalcongregational
Legato [It., bound].
without any perceptible interruption be- hymns in the German
tongue, so called
because of their refrain: kyrie eleis(on)
tween the notes (a), as against leggier o
which was abbreviated into fyrleis or leis.
The oldest specimen, Unsar trohtin, dates
from the pth century. Several Protestant
chorales belong to this category, e.g., Nun
bitten wir den heiligen Geist, and Christ
isterstanden [cf. AdHM, 448]. There is
frequent confusion of the terms Leise and
or non-legato (b), portato (c), and stac-
*Leich [cf. CD1,636].
cato (d). Legatissimo is either a more Leiter [G.]. (i) Scale (Tonleiter).
forceful indication of legato, or a sort of
(2) Leader of an orchestra.
super-legato in which the preceding note
is held for a short moment
together with
Leitmotif [German spelling Leitmotiv,
the following one (e). The first line in leading motive].
i.e., A
term coined by
the illustration shows the notes as written; R. Wagner's friend H. von Wolzogen (in
the second line shows the approximate "Motive in Wagner's Gotterdammerung,"
effect. Musi\aUsches Wochenblatt, 1887; Wag-
ner himself had used the term Grund-
Legende, legende [G.,F.]. Romantic thema, basic theme) to denote the funda-
name for compositions based upon, or
suggestive of, a devotional or legendary
narration. For F. Liszt's Die Legende
von der heiligen Elisabeth, see under
*Oratorio IV.
Although Wagner was the first to make The term does not imply any special con-
consistent use of the leitmotif, his method notation of form or style, nor necessarily
is adumbrated in various earlier
composi-
a pedagogical purpose; in fact, it would
tions. In Gretry's Richard Coeur de Lion seem to be just as general and, therefore,
(1785) the theme "Une fievre brulante" meaningless, as the modern term "piece."
In the 1 7th century the term is frequently
[cf. AdHMy 747; Beethoven wrote varia-
tions on it] appears nine times. Mozart used for a suite (Suite of Lessons), e.g.,
in his Don Giovanni
uses the same mo- in Matthew Locke's Melothcsia, A Choice
known example, though outside the field the indication of tones restricted today
is
in den Tondramen R. Wagners (Diss. more advanced character are given below:
Vienna 1932); L. Sabanew, "Remarks on (1) a b c d c f g h i
Leonora Overtures. The three over- letters were used in various books of Gre-
tures which Beethoven wrote for his op- gorian chant to clarify the pitch ot the
era *Fidelio, prior to the final overture, neumatic signs, e.g., in the Antiphonarium
known as Fidelio (or, somewhat incor- Montpcllier, H. 759 [cf. 'Editions XXIII,
rectly,Leonora no. 4) Overture. Leonora A, 7,8; also WoHN i, opp. p. 44], as well
no. 2 was written for a performance in as for the setting down of early two-part
1805, no. 3 for one in 1806, no. i for a compositions [cf. ApNPM, zojt]. The
performance planned at Prague, in 1807. system (2), usually known as Guidonian
The name refers to the original title of letters, already occurs in the treatise of
[397]
LEUTO LIBRARIES
Oddo Clugny [see *Theorists] and is
of la Rue[cf. HAM, no. 92], Pipelaere,
therefore more properly termed Oddonic Senfl, de Orto, Morales, Palestrina, and,
(Odoistic) letters. This system was uni- in the i7th century, Carissimi. In 1930,
versally adopted for theoretical and de- Joh. N. David composed a "Fantasia super
monstrative purposes, for which it is used, L'homme arme." Cf O. Strunk, in
. BAMS
with minor modifications, to the present ii; O. Gombosi, in ZMW x, xi, xii.
day. In the i6th century, however, it
attained practical significance in the Libraries. The making known of the
German keyboard tablatures and in the contents of music libraries on a compre-
French lute tablatures [see *Tablatures]. hensive scale is one of the uncompleted
Sec also *Romanian letters. tasks of musicology. A beginning was
made by Robert Eitner in his Biogra-
Leuto. Old Italian spelling for lauto,
phisch-bibliographisches Quellen-Lexifon
lute.
(Leipzig, 1900-04, 10 vols.) and its sup-
Levalto. See *Volta (i). plement, Miscellanea musicae bio-biblio-
graphica (Leipzig, 1912-16, 3 vols.),
Levare [It.]. To
take off. Si levano i which together and locate in libraries
list
sordiniy take off the mutes. the principal MS and early printed
sources for the period up to about 1800.
Levatio, levazione [It.]. *Elevation.
The discovery of much new material and,
L.H. Left hand. in particular, the rapid development of
United States collections since the turn
L'homme arm6 [p., "The armed
of the century have made the Q-L,
man"]. A
15th-century French folk song
though still indispensable, inadequate for
[according to Pietro Aron's Toscanello
contemporary needs.
(1523) by Busnois, who probably was the The compilation of a new "world-
first polyphonically] which rose
to set it
Eitner" would take account, as he did, of
to immortality because of its frequent use
the necessary preliminary work of organ-
as tenor of polyphonic Masses [see
a
izing and cataloguing collections of mu-
*Mass B, II (b) and'(d) ] The tune, with .
and the publication
sic of their catalogues.
A "Catalogue of music catalogues," which
might well be a first step in this program,
has been in the course of compilation at
Lhom-mc Ihom-we Ibommear- me
the headquarters of the International So-
ciety for Musicology in Basle [cf. v, AM
141].
In the absence of a modern Q-L, the
musicologist must rely on a knowledge
of the principal general and
On a CW djas-oun se special union
par tout crUcr
lists now available, a
-pair
practical working
knowledge of the contents of the principal
collections of musical material,
familiarity
5 mer Dun
W-bre-gon de fer.
with the existing published catalogues of
these collections, and acquaintance with
its recently discovered text [cf. D. Plame- the principal literature on music library
nac, in Rapport sur Ic congres archcolo- resources.
gique et historique (Bruges, 1925)], is In the lists below an attempt is made to
here reproduced. There exist more than present this information systematically
thirty Masses based on this melody (Missa for the principal
geographical regions.
I'homme arm). Among the composers Mention is made, however, only of the
were Dufay [cf. HAM, no. 67], Busnois, few most outstanding collections of re-
Caron, Ockeghem [cf. HAM, no. 73], search materials in each
country. For the
Obrecht, Tinctoris, Josquin, Brumcl, de others, the cited literature must be con-
[398]
LIBRARIES LIBRARIES
suited. In the case of the United States, sic isincluded are the filming by the Li-
the information is
preceded by an account brary of Congress of Americana in United
of some general developments of library States libraries, and the copying of irre-
resources and services. placeable material in English libraries
I. United States. At the time of the which was begun in the summer of 1941
ap-
pointment of O. G. Sonneck as chief of with the financial support of the Rocke-
the music division of the Library of Con- feller Foundation. American musicolo-
gress (1902), only a few libraries in the gists have supplied lists of desiderata for
United States possessed notable research both projects. In both, negatives will be
material in music [cf. Sonneck in SIM v, deposited in the Library of Congress and
3291!]. The development of these re- copies made available to other libraries
sources at the Library of Congress by and to scholars.
Sonneok and his successors, Carl Engel, A special project in music is the Music
Oliver Strunk, and Harold Spivacke, has Microfilm Archive, Otto E. Albrecht, di-
been the most notable of any single United rector, which is
supplying subscribers,
States Library.Other public reference with 2500 frames a year. Material to be
collections have grown substantially, how- copied is selected from an as yet unpub-
ever, and while libraries in the United lished census of European music MSS in
States can never be expected, in the nature the United States, compiled by Dr. Al-
of the case, to equal the richness of Euro- brecht. Material which has been filmed
libraries have taken advantage of this in- stantially through its College Music Set
expensive method of securing copies of (catalogues 1933 and 1937). This con-
rare material, and several cooperative tains a basic stock of books, music, and
projects among United States libraries records, and has been presented to insti-
have resulted in the copying of very large tutions to enable them to expand their
quantities of early material in history and music instruction. The phonograph rec-
literature. General projects in which mu- ord is also the medium for the collection
[399]
LIBRARIES LIBRARIES
and preservation of a vast folk song litera- the New York
Public Library, of the Li-
ture. The largest collection is in the Ar- brary of Congress* Catalogue of Early
chive of American Folk Song, Division Boof^s on Music as a union list of this
of Music, Library of Congress (cf. its material in United States libraries.
Chec\ List of Recorded Songs in the Eng- E. General Literature on United States
lish Language to July 1940, Washington, Music Collections, Music Teachers' Na-
1942, 3 vols.), from which copies are tional Association, Music Departments of
available to libraries and scholars. The Libraries (1922; Bulletin, 1921, no. 33, of
contents of other United States collections the U. S. Bureau of Education); "Libra-
arc summarized in George Herzog's Re- riesand Collections of Music United
. . .
search in Primitive and Folf^ Music in the States of America" (GD iii, 185 and
United States, Washington, 1936 (Bulle- Suppl. Vol., 360); O. Strunk, State and
tin no. 24 of the American Council of Resources of Musicology in the United
Learned Societies). States (1932; Bulletin no. 19 of the Amer-
C. Music Library Association. This ican Council of Learned Societies), sup-
association, founded ir 1931, aims to fur- plemented by the Council's Report on
ther the development of collections of Publication and Research in Musicology
music in the United States and Canada. (1938); L. R. McColvin, Music Libraries,
It has contributed substantially to the so- vol. 2 (1938, pp. 274-292) O. E. Albrecht,
;
lution of technical problems and has in- "Music Libraries in Philadelphia" (Over-
itiated important projects in cataloguing tones, Dec., 1939 and reprinted).
of music and phonograph records, bibli- F. Principal Public Reference Collec-
ography, indexing of periodicals, micro- tions. Library of Congress, Division of
filming, etc. Its publication, Notes, 1934-, Music. In extent (c. 1,500,000 volumes
issued four times yearly, should be con- and pieces) and richness of resources, one
sulted fornumerous articles on Associa- of the greatest music libraries of the world.
tion projectsand activities. To virtually complete American ma-
its
terlibrary Loan (1930) and I. G. Mudge, Coolidge and Whittall foundations in the
Guide to Reference Boof(s (6th ed,, 1936, Division have made it a center for the
and supplements, 1939 and 1941). Some advancement and performance of cham-
of those most important and useful for ber music, and have also enriched its
the musical material they contain are: notable collection of holographs, most
the union catalogue at the Library of Con- recently with those belonging to the late
gress (contains literature only, not music, Jerome Stonborough of Vienna. The Ar-
with location of copies in United States chive of American Folk Song is a section
de Ricci, Census of Medie-
libraries); S. of the Music Division. One copy of each
val and Renaissance Mss. in the United of the Library's printed catalogue cards is
States and Canada (1935-40, 3 vols.); contained in the Library of Congress de-
M. B. Stillwell, Incunabula in American pository catalogues, which are available
Libraries (1940); Union List of Serials in in the larger public and university libra-
Libraries of the United States and Canada riesthroughout the country. This author
(1927, and 2 supplements, 1931-33; new catalogue is being lithoprinted and will
edition in press, Summer, 1942); Union be available in book form, covering hold-
List of Microfilm (literature and music, ings as of June 30, 1942. Like the deposi-
with locations of originals and of film tory catalogue it will contain an entry for
copies). Catalogues of this kind devoted every title for which cards have been
especially to musical material are the Al- printed, that is, for nearly all of the Li-
brecht Census mentioned above and a brary's books about music but almost
revision (1934), in the Music Division of none of its music, Special catalogues, all
[400]
LIBRARIES LIBRARIES
prepared by or under the direction of Son- probably the strongest in the United
neck, are: Dramatic music, full scores, States: English music printed before 1640
1908; Orchestral music, scores, 1912; Ear- and musical incunabula. Catalogues:
ly books on music to 1800, 1913; Opera Printed Music, 14671800, in the Hunt-
librettos printed before 1800, 1914, 2 vols. ington library (2500 items), compiled by
(the world's largest collection of this ma- Edythe N. Backus (to be published);
terial). Early English Music, 1540-1640 (90
Lit.: Reports of the chief of the music items), No. 7 of the Library's price lists
division are contained in the annual re- of photostats. Cf. E. N. Backus in Music
port of the Librarian of Congress, 1903-, Library Association, Notes, no. 7, May,
and were also separately reprinted from 1940,and no. 14, Aug., 1942.
1928/29 to 1939/40. These are the best Folger Shakespeare Library, Washing-
sources of information on the growth of ton. Notable for its substantially com-
the collection and the expansion of its plete collection of original editions of
services. English music and musical theory of the
New Yor% Public Library. The music period 1588-1623.
division of the reference department has G. Colleges and Universities. few of A
a collection of more than 110,000 volumes the larger university collections of music
and pieces, including valuable early theo- are equal in size and importance to some
retical works, tablatures, and opera and of the principal reference collections
orchestral scores. Special collections in- named above. The Sibley Musical Library
clude United States music, songs, and of the Eastman School of Music, Univer-
portraits of musicians. The Division has sity of Rochester, contains more than
published scores and parts of otherwise 40,000 volumes, including an exceedingly
unavailable early music from its own and well-developed general collection and
other collections, including Early Psalm- much important source material. Cf. C,
ody in America, Series I III. Cf. Cata- Engel, in AM
v, no. i (a list of recent
logue of Music Available in Blac^ Line accessions), and the annual reports of tta
Cf. H. Botstiber, in SIM iv; O. Kinkel- Harvard and Yale are also outstanding
dey in Library Journal 40: 589-592 (Aug., among university libraries, the former
1915); and the annual Report of the Li- especially for its Isham Library of organ
brary, especially Kinkeldey in vol. 36 and early keyboard music, containing
(1932) on the accessions at the Wolff- photostatic copies of the principal MS
heim sale. and early printed works in the field. A
Boston Public Library. An
important special collection at Yale is the Loweh
general collection of more than 43,000 Mason Collection of church music.
volumes, with several European and In addition to Eastman, Harvard, and
United States rarities and autographs. Yale, the best developed collections are al
A catalogue of the reference collection, Columbia, Princeton, Smith, and Vassar
the gift of Allen A. Brown, was published and also at California, Cornell, North
in 1916, 3 vols. and supplement. Carolina, and Wellesley.
Newberry Library, Chicago. A well- The principal conservatory libraries an
developed collection of about 20,000 vol- those of the Curtis Institute of Music
umes with especially good collections of Philadelphia; New England Conservator)
periodicals and American hymnology. A of Music, Boston; Oberlin Conservator)
number of important rarities are described of Music, Oberlin, Ohio; Juilliard School
in the chapter on the music collection in of Music and Institute of Musical Art
the Library's Handbook 1938. New York; and Peabody Conservator)
Henry M. Huntington Library and Art of Music, Baltimore.
Gallery, San Marino, California. Like the H. Public Circulating Libraries. The
general collection, the music is chiefly public libraries of a number of the largei
English and American. In two fields it cities have well-developed general music
is
[401]
LIBRARIES LIBRARIES
collections available for circulation. For Prod'hommc, "Les Institutions musicales
the most part these libraries emphasize ... en Belgique et en Hollande" (SIM
music in practical rather than historical xv); C. van den Borren, "Inventaire des
editions, and musical literature in Eng- manuscrits de musique polyphonique . . .
lish. A
collection of phonograph records en Belgique" (AM v, nos. 2-4; vi, nos.
is
usually provided, and many of these i-3)-
are operated on a circulating basis. The Brussels. Bibliotheque Royale.
prin- A
largest collection of this kind, also notable cipal part of this library consists of the
for its collection of music of the 20th cen- Fdtis collection. Catalogue: Brussels,
tury, is the Music Library of the Circula- 1877. Conservatoire Royale de Mu-
tion Department of the York PublicNew sique. Important 16th-century MSS,
Library. Other well-developed music col- Italian opera librettos of the I7th-i8th
lections are in the public libraries of the centuries, best collection of C. P. E. Bach.
following cities: Baltimore (Enoch Pratt Catalogue by A. Wotquenne, 1898-1912,
Library); Boston (in addition to the ref- 4 vols. and supplement (librettos), 1901.
erence collection described above); Chi- The Hague. The Scheuerleer Museum
cago; Cleveland (including the White houses the greater part of the library and
collection of folklore); Detroit; Los An- instrument collection of the late D. F.
geles; Minneapolis; Northampton, Mass. Scheuerleer (1855-1927). Catalogues
(Forbes Library); Philadelphia (which 1893-1910, 3 vols., and 1923-25, 2 vols.
also houses the unequaled Fleisher collec- B. France. Paris. Bibliotheque Na-
tion of orchestral scores and parts, Cata- tionale. Unrivaled collection of French
logue, 1933); Portland, Oregon; Provi- music, printed and MS, from the earliest
dence, R. I.; St. Louis; and San Francisco. times. Catalogue by J. ficorcheville, 1910
II. Latin America. Although the mu- 14, 8 vols. The books on music are con-
sical contents of some of the archives and tained in the Library's Catalogue
general
libraries in Latin America are unques- des livres imprimes, 1900- (158
vols., A
tionably rich, little is known about them. to Rukser, to 1939). Conservatoire Na-
For a preliminary survey, cf. C. S. Smith, tionale de Musique. Important early and
"Music Libraries in South America" (Mu- general material, with outstanding collec-
sic Library Association, Notes, no. n, tion of holographs.
Catalogues: of part of
Aug., 1941). Further information, when the early material, by J. B. T. Weckerlin,
available, may be expected to appear in 1885; of the Fonds Blancheton (impor-
the music and libraries sections of the symphony), by L. de La
tant for the early
[403]
LIBREMENT LIEBESGEIGE
1909 catalogues of early music and theo- Lorenzo da Ponte, 1749-1838 (for Mo-
retical works, printed and MS, existing in zart's Figaro, Cosl fan tuttc, and Don
Italian libraries and archives, public and Giovanni)', EugeneScribe, 1791-1861
private. In 1930-31 Albert Smijers began (for Auber, Meyerbeer, Halevy, Boil-
preparation of a card catalogue of MS dieu); Arrigo Boito, 1842-1918 (for
compositions by Netherlands composers Verdi'sOtello and Falstaff); Hugo v.
of the 1 5th and i6th centuries which are Hofmannsthal (for R. Strauss); William
in Italian libraries. Copies are at the Gilbert, 1836-1911 (for Sullivan). Rich-
Netherlands Historical Institute in Rome ard Wagner set a new turn in the history
and at the musicological institute of the of the libretto by writing his own texts,
University of Utrecht. Cf H.
. Antcliffe in and by insisting upon a degree of uni-
Chcsterian xvii, 112-115 (March, 1936). fication between text and music thereto-
Bologna. Liceo Musicale. One of the fore unknown. His example was fol-
principal collections of the world, com- lowed by Cornelius, Pfitzner, Schreker,
prising, among others, the library of Padre and others.
Martini. Catalogue, by G. Gaspari and Large collections of librettos of early
divided into the following periods: I. 1583, etc.; cf. the complete ed., vol. xxi],
Minnesinger and Meistersinger (c. 1250- In the works of the foreigners, Mattheus
1550); II. The polyphonic Lied (i5th/ Le Maistre (d. 1577), Antonio Scandello
i6th century); III. The accompanied Lied (1517-80), and Jacob Regnart (1540-99),
("Generalbass-lied") of the Baroque the lighter vein of the Italian *canzonette
(1600-1750); IV. The "volkstiimliches and the "Bauernharmonie" (peasant har-
Lied" (1775-1825); V. The "German mony) of the *villanella superseded the
Lied" of the ipth century. polyphonic style of the earlier period [cf.
I. See *Minnesinger, *Meistersinger. ^Editions XXVI, 19; SchGMB, no. 139].
II. The 15th-century composers Os- The two great masters from the end of
wald von Wolckenstein (1377-1445) and the 1 6th century, Leonhard Lechner
the Munch von Salzburg (fl. c. 1400) (1553-1606; Neue Teutsche Lieder, 1582,
were the first to write polyphonic songs, new ed. by E. F. Schmid, 1926) and Hans
rather primitive imitations of 14th-cen- Leo Hassler (1564-1612; Canzonette and
tury French models or of still earlier styles Neue teutsche Gesdng, 1596, new ed. in
[cf. O. Ursprung, in AMW iv, v; DTOe DTB 5.ii; Lustgarten, 1601, new ed. cf.
tation), thus leading to the masterly com- A. Priifer, vols. i, ii; also SchGMB, nos.
positions of Heinrich Isaac (1450-1517; 187, 188).
cf. DTOei4.i; HAM,
no. 87), Paulus III. The accompanied solo-Lied of the
Hofhaimer (1459-1537; cf. H. J. Moser, Baroque period ("Generalbass-lied," i.e.,
Paulus Hofhaimer, 1929; HAM, no. 93), song with thorough-bass accompaniment)
Stoltzer (1480-1526; DdT 65; HAM, no. made its first appearance in Johann Nau-
1
08), and Ludwig Senfl (i49o-after 1540; wach's 1595-?) Erster Theil teutscher
(c.
cf. DdT, no. 34; *Editions XII A, 10; Villanellen mit /, 2 und 3 Stimmen
HAM, no. no). Isaac's "Innsbruck ich (1627), in Johann Staden's (1581-1634)
muss dich lassen" became one of the oldest Hertzenstrosts-Musica (1630) and Gcist-
and most beautiful folk songs in the Ger- licherMusi^-Klang (1633), in Thomas
man language. Important sources of real Selle's(15991663) Deliciorum juvcni-
German folk song are SenfTs *quodlibets lium decas (1634), and Monophonetica
in which many popular songs of his day (1636) [cf. H. J. Moser, ^Alte Meister des
are cited.Important collections of poly- deutschen Liedes, 1931 ] With H. Albert's .
phonic songs are G. Forster's five books (1604-51) Arien (1638/50; DdT 12, 13;
Ein Ausszug guter alter und neuer teut- cf. also HAM, no. 205; SchGMB, no. 193)
his never-failing imagination and dexter- DdT 19; H. OsthofT, Adam Krieger,
ity [Newc Teutsche Liedlein mit funff 1929; HAM 9 no. 228; SchGMB, no. 209)
[405]
LIED LIED
who used the instrumental ritornello to German Lied stands Franz
period ot the
be played at the end of each stanza. This Schubert (1797-1828) who, after a few
"ritornello-Lied" was also cultivated by preliminary songs in traditional style,
Johann Erasmus Kindermann (1616-55; opened a new era with his Grctchen am
cf.DTB 21/24), Johannes Theile (1646- Spinnrad (Oct. 19, 1814,
4<
the birthday of
1724; cf. SchGMB, no. 210), and Philipp the German Lied"), a miracle of musical
Heinrich Erlebach (1657-1714; cf. DdT art as well as of psychological intuition,
46/47). Towards the end of the century being the work of a seventeen-year-old.
the religious song found a master in There followed quickly a flood tide of
Johann Wolfgang Franck (1641-^. 1700; immortal masterworks, including the
Geistliche Lieder, 1681-1700; new ed. Erl^onig, Wanderers Nachtlied, Der
DdT 45). The Bach and Handel
arias of Tod und das Madchen, Der Wanderer
deserve only passing mention here since (1815/16), later the song cycles Die
they do not properly fall under the cate- Schone Mullerin (1823), Wintetreise
gory Lied. In fact, during the first half (1827), and Schwanengesang (1828).
of the century the Lied practically
1 8th Measured by the artistic perfection of
ceased to exist, giving way to the elaborate these songs, even the most beautiful Lie-
treatment of the aria. On the other hand, der of Schumann and Brahms seem to be
a greatnumber of Lieder occur, under the somewhat slight in imagination, and only
name aria, in the operas of Joh. Sigismund Hugo Wolf's compositions stand the proof
Cousser [SchGMB, no. 250], Reinhard of comparison. It will suffice to add to the
Keiser [SchGMB, nos. 268, 269], Tele- just-mentioned names those of Mendels-
mann, etc. Sperontes' Singende Muse an sohn, Liszt, Wagner, Robert Franz (1815-
der Pleisse, 1742/45 [DdT 35, 36; cf. 92), Peter Cornelius (1824-74), Gustav
SchGMB, no. 289] gives a good cross Mahler (1860-1911), Richard Strauss (b.
section of the period of deterioration and 1864), Hans Pfitzner (b. 1869), and Max
disintegration of the Generalbass-lied. Reger (1873-1916), in order to outline
Cf. also DdT57 for songs (Oden) by the development of the Romantic Lied.
Telemann and Corner. The revolutionary tendencies of the
IV. Matters took a new turn after 1750 2oth century found their first clear ex-
when Johan Adam Hiller (1728-1804), pression in Schonberg's George-Lieder
the founder of the *Singspiel, replaced (op. 15, 1907 and later) which, in addition
the worn-out pathos of the late Baroque to their novel harmonic style, show a new
by an affected expression of naivete in type of vocal (or, rather, un-vocal) line, a
songs which he frequently addressed to sort of speech-like declamation in which
children [Lieder fur Kinder (1769); the rise and fall of the speaking voice is
Geistliche Lieder fur Kinder (1774); Der reflected in wide "atonal" steps of aug-
Kinderfreund (1782); cf. Moser, Alte mented fifths, octaves, etc. Hindemith's
Mcister]. J. A. P. Schulz (1747-1800) masterly Marienleben (op. 27, 1924), in-
found a more genuine expression of folk- spired by the constructive ideals and the
like simplicity (Volt(ston\ see *Volks- polyphonic style of Bach, is a landmark
tumliches Lied), while other members which may well indicate the road to a new
of the second *Berlin School, such as J. F. future of the Lied.
Reichardt (1753-1814) and K. F. Zelter Lit.: O. Bie, Das deutsche Lied (1926);
[406]
LIEDERBUCH LIGATURES
M. Breslauer, Das deutsche Lied bis zum voice composition). The two other col-
18. Jahrhundert (1908; bibl.); A. Priifer, lections contain, in addition to vocal
/. H. Schein und das weltliche Lied\ R. pieces, instrumental dances
interesting
Velten, Das dltere deutsche Lied unter [see *Dance music II] and canons. For
dem Einftuss der italienischen Musi\ literature see under *Lied (i5th century);
(1915); H. Rosenberg, Untersue hun gen also BeMMR, 229.
tiber die deutschen Liedweisen im 75. Important 16th-century publications
Jahrhundert (Diss. Berlin 1931); H. H. are Oeglins Liederbuch of 1512 and Ott's
Rosenwald, Das deutsche Lied zwischen Liederbuch of 1544, both containing 4-
Schubert und Schumann (Diss. Heidel- part arrangements of songs [new ed. see
Gerber, in JMP xxxix (Brahms). 20th i9th century. More recently the name has
cent.: H. Nathan, in MM
xiv, no. 3. See
been superseded by Mannergesangvercin.
also under ^Minnesinger; *Meistersinger.
Liedform [G.]. *Song-form.
[407]
LIGATURES LIGATURES
"ascending" forms (2 and 4). Although opposita proprietate (B = brevis\ L -^
[408]
LILLIBURLERO LITURGICAL BOOKS
Lilliburlero. A 17th-century political Lip. See *Embouchure.
tune the melody of which appeared first
under the name "Quickstep" in The De- Lippenpfeife [G.]. Labial pipe.
Linear counterpoint. A term intro- 117*), or to the Saints (AR, 74*), etc.
duced by E. Kurth (Grundlagen des line- They open with the Kyrie eleison, con-
The term is also used as a designation for exposition of the Blessed Sacrament at
what the Germans call Benediction, and at many popular serv-
ruc\sichtsloser
(reckless) Kontrapunty, i.e., the modern
ices where they sung by the whole
are
Lining. In American and English psalm 26], by Lasso [see ^Editions XX, 4], and
and hymn singing, the practice of having others. Cf. GD iii, 217.
each line read by the minister or some The Anglican is a very extended
Litany
other person before it is sung by the con- prayer consisting of recitations by the min-
gregation. This custom, which sprang up ister, interspersed with short choral an-
from the insufficient familiarity of the swers, such as "Spare us, good Lord,"
people with the prevailed through
texts, "Good Lord, deliver us," etc.
the end of the I9th century. In England
I. Under this head-
it was known as "deaconing." See *Psal- Liturgical books.
ter. ing the most important books of the Ro-
man Catholic service are briefly described,
Linke Hand [G.]. Left hand. (a) The Missale (missal) contains the full
service of the Mass; the smaller current
Linz Symphony. Mozart's Symphony editions contain the texts only; the larger
in C, no. 36, K.V. 425, believed to have editions as well as the early MSS include
been written at Linz in 1783. also the chant (chiefly recitation) for the
[409]
LITURGICAL BOOKS LITURGICAL DRAMA
celebrating priest, but not that for the was revived [see *Cecilian movement]
choir (schola).--(b) The Breviarium F. X. Haberl unfortunately reintroduced
(breviary) contains the service for the the Mediccan versions in his Editio Ratis-
Office, similar arrangements.
in bonensis (Regensburg, 1871-81). Owing
(c)
The Graduate Romanum (GK) contains to the initiative of the monks of Solesmes
that part of the Mass which is this edition was replaced in 1908 by the
by thesung
choir, i.e., the Graduals, Introits, etc. [see Editio Vaticana which is based on the
*Mass], (d) The Antiphonale Ro- earliest available sources, from the loth
manum (AR) contains the choir-chants to the 1 2th century. See *
Gregorian
for the Office, i.e., the entire musical serv- chant VII; *Solesmes; *Motu proprio.
ice other than the Mass.
(e) The Liber
Usualis (LU) is a modern combination Liturgical drama or play. Medieval
of the Graduate and the plays (chiefly i2th and i3th centuries)
Antiphonale in
which the items of the Office and of the representing Biblical stories with action
Mass are given in their proper order of and music. They never formed a part of
the day, together with the (changeable) the official liturgy, and therefore would
lections, etc., from the Missale. It is more be more properly called religious drama.
handy for the layman, and clearer par- They developed, during the loth and nth
ticularly in the rendition of the psalm centuries, from *tropes to the Introits for
singing [see *Psalm tones]. It also in- Christmas and Easter which were written
cludes the service of *Matins (for the in the form of a ^dialogue (so-called dia-
great feasts) which, unfortunately, is logue tropes), i.e., of question and an-
omitted in the other two books because it swer. One of the earliest examples is the
is
rarely held in ordinary Churches [see trope Hodie cantandus est (possibly by
*Gregorian Chant I] (f) The Kyriale
.
Tuotilo, d. 915) to the Christmas Introit
is a
reprint of the last section of the Grad- Puer natus est [Schubiger, p. 39; abridged
uale,and contains only the Ordinary of in SchGMB, no. 3; cf. GR, 33]. A more
the Mass (beginning with Kyrie). (g) fully developed type, in fact a real play, is
*Tonarium or Tonale is a medieval book the loth-century trope Quern queritis for
in which the chants are arranged accord- the Mass of Easter [SchGMB, no. 8; cf.
ing to the eight modes. (h) Sacra- ReMMA, 194 for an account of how it
mcntary is an earlier form of the Missal, was performed at Winchester, in the mid-
with the Epistles and Gospels omitted, as dle of the loth century]. Later plays,
these were sung or read from other books mostly of French origin, deal with the
(Epistolarium, Evangelistariurn) by the story of Daniel, the Plaint of Rachel, the
assistant ministers. (i) The Pontificate Massacre of the Innocents, the Foolish and
contains the services used in functions the Wise Virgins (Sponsus Play), etc. [cf.
where a bishop or prelate officiates, e.g., AdHM 170]
i, A
favored subject of later
.
the consecration of a church, or ordina- plays (i4th century) was the miracles of
tions. (j) The Processionale contains Saints, particularly of St. Nicholas (mir-
the chants for use in processions. (k) acle play).
[410]
LITURGICAL HOURS LONDON SYMPHONIES
zione, in Spain and Portugal as *auto. murdered her brother Gottfried, but is
It is chiefly from these the victoribusly defended in an ordeal of
plays that
European drama developed. See also combat by a strange knight arriving on a
*Opera II. boat drawn by a swan Lohengrin
Lit.: A. Schubiger, Die Sangerschule St. (Tenor) who makes the condition that
Gallens (1858); id., in ^Editions XXVI, she shall never ask his name (Act I).
5; C. Coussemaker, "\Les Drames litur- Telramund and his the heathen
wife,
giques du moyen dge (1860); A. Gastoue, magician Ortrud (Mezzo-soprano), are
Le Drame liturgique (1906); J. Comba- deprived of their former status and plan
rieu, Histoire de la musique (1913-20) i, revenge. The latter accuses Lohengrin,
282-328; GeHM, 232ff; ReMMA, 1938', when about to enter the church with Elsa,
J. Handschin, "Das Weihnachts-Mysteri-
of being a magician who conceals his
um von Rouen ." (AM
.
vii); O. Ur-
.
identity for evil reasons. Elsa, however,
sprung, "Das Sponsus-Spiel" (AMP iii); assures Lohengrin of her confidence and
J. B. Trend, "The Mystery of Elche" the marriage takes place (Act II). Lohen-
(ML i). For additional bibliography cf. grin and Elsa express their love for each
ReMMA, other, but Elsa, influenced by Ortrud's
accusations, cannot resist asking the fate-
Liturgical hours. See *Office hours. ful question. Lohengrin reveals his name
and sorrowfully announces that he now
Liturgy. The officially authorized serv-
must return to the Holy Grail, the castle
ice of the Christian Churches, particularly
of his father Parsifal: The swan reappears
of the Roman Catholic, as distinguished
and, upon Lohengrin's prayer, takes on
from extraliturgical services, such as pro- the form of Elsa's brother who had been
cessions, or the *benediction. See *Gre- transformed by Ortrud. A
dove descends
gorian chant; *Mass; *Office hours; *Li- and leads Lohengrin away.
turgical books; also ^Liturgical drama.
Lohengrin marks the transition from
Lituus. (i) A
Roman trumpet; see Wagner's early operas (Rienzi, The Fly-
*Brass instruments V ing Dutchman, Tannhauser) to the late
(a). (2) Seven- master works (Ring, Tristan, Meister-
teenth-century Latin name for the *cor-
singcr, Parsifal). Here Wagner for the
netto, or for the *cromorne. The two litui
time made consistent use of his "con-
first
in Bach's Cantata ne. 119 are obviously
tinuous melody," as against the "number"
tenor-trumpets in B-flat [cf. SaRM, 244].
style [see *Number opera] which still
Liuto [It.]. Lute. occurs in the Tannhduser. There is also
a modest use of *leitmotifs, to charac-
Livret [F.]. Libretto. terize the most important personages and
Lo. Abbreviation for loco emotions. On the whole, the style is
lyri-
[It., place],
used to indicate return to the normal oc- caland soft, a notable exception being the
ominous scene between Friedrich and
tave, after *all' ottava or similar designa-
tions.
Ortrud which foreshadows the atmos-
phere of the Ring.
Lochamer Liederbuch. See *Lieder-
buch. Lombardic style. See *Dotted notes III.
[413]
LUTE LUTE MUSIC
The on Persian
short lute appears first und Geschichte der europaischen Laute"
clay figures from about 800 B.C. and on (ZMW x); M. Brenet, "Notes sur 1'his-
Indian reliefs from the first centuries A.D. toire du luth en France" (RMI v, vi); F.
At about the latter time we find it in Behn, "Die Laute im Altertum und
China, under the name *p'ip'a [Japa- friihen Mittelalter" (ZMW i); M.
nese: biwa\. In these early instruments Brondi, "II Liuto e la chitarra" (RMI
the neck is formed by the tapering body, xxxii, xxxiii); G. Kinsky, "Alessandro
a form which still occurred with the Piccinnini und sein Arciliuto" (AM x).
Arabic short lute of the medieval periods,
9
called ud (or al'ud, Spanish laud, hence
Lute harpsichord. See *Lautenclavi-
cymbel.
lute). The transformation into an instru-
ment with a distinct neck and a central Lute music. Lute music, as preserved
soundhole, the European lute (the *ud in the numerous lute books (*lute tabla-
had two crescent-shaped soundholes, like tures) of the 1 6th and i7th centuries,
the early viols), probably took place in forms an important repertory of early in-
Spain, not very long before the i5th cen- strumental music, second only to that of
tury. From Spain, the instruments spread the organ and harpsichord. Particularly
to the other European countries. during the i6th century, the lute occu-
Other Types. Numerous varieties
III. pied a prominent place in musical cul-
of the lute were used during the i6th and ture, as the chief instrument of domestic
1
7th centuries. The mandola or mandore music, comparable to the piano of the
had a long pegbox slightly curved and present day.
with a head-scroll reminiscent of that of The preserved literature for the lute ex-
the violin [cf. SaHMI, 245; GD iii, 252]. tends from 1507 (Intabolatura de lauto,
A diminutive form of this instrument is printed by Petrucci) to about 1770. It
the * mandolin. The angelica was a xyth- includes a vast number of printed books
century variety with 17 different strings and manuscripts of Italian, French, Ger-
for the tones of the diatonic scale, so that man, Spanish, and English origin [cf. the
stopping wac largely avoided. During the practically complete lists in WoHN ii,
1
7th century the increasing demand for 27, 66, 95]. The sources of the i6th cen-
bass instruments led to the construction tury contain dances (*bassadanzas, *pa-
of archlutes [G. Erzlaute; It. arciliuto], vanes, *gaillards, *passamezzos, *salta-
i.e., of double-neck lutes with a second rellos, etc.), pseudo-contrapuntal *ricer-
pegbox which carried the bass-courses. cares and
*fantasias, ^variations (mostly
There existed a "short" archlute, the in the Spanish books), and free *preludes
theorboe, and a "long" archlute, the (called ricercares in the earliest Italian
chitarrone. For a third type, the liuto books), in addition to a disproportion-
tiorbato, cf. SaHMI, 372. ately large quantity of *lntabulierungen
All the above instruments have the of vocal music (motets and chansons).
round back characteristic of the lute. The The most outstanding composers are (the
instruments with a back are treated
flat figures indicate dates of publications):
under the heading *Guitar family. Only the Spanish Luis Milan (1536), Luis de
one of them, the Spanish *vihuela, may Narvaez (1538), Enriquez de Valder-
be mentioned here because its musical rabano (1547), Diego Pisador (1552),
repertory is
closely allied to that of the Miguel de Fuenllana (1554); the Italian
lute [see *Lute music; *Lute tablatures]. Dalza and Spinaccino (1507, '08), Fran-
The term lute is also used as a scientific cesco da Milano (1536, '46, '48, '63), An-
denomination for a large class of stringed tonio Rotta (1546), Paolo Borrono (1546,
instruments. See Instruments IV, B. '48, '49, '63), Giacomo Gorzanis (1561,
Lit.: F. Zuth, Hand buck der Laute und Vincenzo Galilei ( 1563),
'63, '64, '65, '79),
Guitarre (1926); N. Bessaraboff, Ancient Fabritio Caroso (1581), and Giov. Ant.
European Musical Instruments (1941), Terzi (1593, '99); the French Attain-
pp. 22off; K. Geiringer, "Vorgeschichte gnant (publisher, 1529, '30), Adrian le
LUTE MUSIC LYDIAN
Roy (1551, '52, '62), Guillaume Morlaye (French); XXV, 2 (Spanish); III, i, 7,
(1552, '54), Albert de Rippe (1553* '54> 8, 9 (Italian).
'58), to whom the Hungarian Valentin O. Korte, Laute und
B. Bibliography.
Greff (pseud. Bacfarc, 1552, '64, '65, '68) Lautenmusi\ zur Mitte des 16. ]ahr-
bis
may be added; the German Arnolt hunderts (1901); E. Engel, Die Instru-
Schlick (1512), Hans Judenkunig mental]or men in der LautenmusiJ^ des
(1523), Hans Gerle (1532, '33, '52), Hans 16. Jahrhunderts (1915); L. de la Laur-
Neusiedler (1536, '40, '44), Wolff Heckel encie, Les Luthistes (Les Musiciens cele-
(1556), Melchior Neusiedler (1574), bres, 1928); J. Zuth, Handbuch der Laute
Matthaeus Waisselius (1573, '91, '92), und Guitarre (1926/28); F. Dodge,
and Sixtus Kargel (1586); the English "Lute Music of the XVIth and XVIIth
John Dowland (1597, 1600) and Thomas Centuries" (PMA xxxiv); H. M. Fitz-
Morley (1597, 1600), who, in the early gibbons, "The Lute Books of Ballet and
1 7th
century were followed by Francis Dallis" (ML xi); J. Bal, "Fuenllana and
Pilkington (1605), Thomas Campion the Transcriptions of Spanish Lute
(1606), and Robert Dowland (1610). Music" (AM xi); R. Newton, "English
In the 1 7th century, lute music per- Lute Music Ixv); A. Koczirz,
. . ."
(PMA
sisted chiefly in France and in Germany "Verschollene neudeutsche Lautenisten"
while Italy and Spain turned to the more (AMW iii); H. Neemann, "Die Lauten-
Francisque, Tresor d'Orphee, 1600 ern point of view it assumes the character
It was
of a turtle. played with a plectrum
[ill. under Zithers; the drawing in GD
ifc iii, 259 is a kithara]. The lyra persisted
* Al-U- lu.- in the early Middle Ages, probably under
the name *rotta, while the term lyre was
adopted for several instruments which
have only a remote relationship to the
Greek lyra, namely: (2) a medieval
* rebec
fiddle, similar to the (hence the
name *lira for a 16th-century violin; see
*Violin II); (3) the *hurdy-gurdy,
particularly in the connection lyra rustica
Usually, Lydian occurs in
Gregorian
(peasant's lyra) and lyra mendicorum
chant as a "mixed'* tonality, using the
(beggar's lyra). (4) In modern Ger-
B-natural (preferably for descending mo-
man usage, the military ^Glockenspiel,
tion) as well as the B-flat (for ascending on account of the shape of the frame
motion). A similar situation exists in which is similar to that of the Greek lyra.
polyphonic music from c. 1200 to 1550. The "Lyra" used in several compositions
Ex. 2 shows a purely Lydian passage
by Haydn is not the lira da braccio [cf.
from a 13th-century motet [cf. SchGMB,
GD 584], but the *hurdy-gurdy.
ii, See
no. 19], while Ex. 3 [c. 1470; cf. ApMZ
also *Lyre. Cf. H. Panum, "Lyra und
i, 4] illustrates the more frequent occur- Harfe im alten Nordeuropa" (SIM vii).
rence of a tonality mixed of F major and
Lydian idioms, melodic as well as har- Lyrafliigel. An early 19th-century va-
monic. This mixed which is
tonality, riety of the upright piano, with a case
very characteristic of polyphonic music shaped in the form of the Greek lyre.
prior to 1550, should not be destroyed by
Lyra viol. See *Viol IV, 3.
editorialaccidentals [see *Musica ficta
(Ex. 8); *Partial signature]. particu- A See under *Viol IV
lar Lydian formation is the raised fourth
Lyra way. (3)
of the Burgundian cadence [see *Landini
(Lyra viol).
M
M. In organ music, manual or manu- Machicotage [F.; L. macicotaticum].
aliter. See also *Metronome. A French practice of ornamenting plain-
song by the insertion of improvised grace
Maatschappij. See *Socicties II, 5. notes or coloraturas between the authentic
notes of Gregorian chant. The term
Machete. See *Guitar family; ''Uku- comes from machicot, a designation for
lele, church officials of a rank superior to that
MADRASHE MADRIGAL
of the ordinary singers. The practice of These lyrical texts were composed usu-
machicotage is documented as far back ally intwo, sometimes in three voice parts,
as 1391[cf. Godefroy, Dictionnaire de and in a form which follows closely that
la langue fran$aise] and continued of the poetry, the same music (a) being
throughout the i8th and early ipth cen- provided for the three strophes and differ-
turies. Usually machicotage was used ent music (b) for the ritornello, so that
with the solo songs while the chants of the form a a a b for the u-line madrigal,
the schola (choir) remained unadorned. or a a b for the eight-line madrigal, results.
The adoption of the Solesmes versions The latter form is similar to but
has made an end to this corruptive prac- probably not directly derived from
tice. See also ^Plain-chant musical. that of the French *ballade [see also
*Barform]. Madrigals were composed
Madrashe. See *Syrian chant. chiefly by the members of the early
Italian School, e.g., Jacopo da Bologna
1 6th century is a free imitation, without for devotional use [e.g., by Palestrina;
any form, of the 14th-century mad-
strict complete ed., vol. 29]. (c) The Late
which Italian humanists (Cardinal
rigal Madrigal: Luca Marenzio, Gesualdo,
Bembo and his followers) used as a point Monteverdi (publications between 1580
of departure in their endeavors to arrive and 1620). Here, the development leads
at a poetry of a more refined
quality than to a highly elaborate type of music, even
that of the previous period (*frottola, exaggerated and mannered, in which all
*strambotto). Although these antiqua- the experimental tendencies of the fin de
rian attempts were not very profitable siecle found refuge: chromaticism, word-
from the point of view of poetry, the painting, coloristic effects, declamatory
movement proved to be a great stimulus monody, virtuosity of the solo-singer, dra-
to musical activity. The musicians of the matic effects all treated with the great-
early i6th century, at first Netherlands est superiority and ease. Particular im-
composers working in Italy (Verdelot, portance attaches to the fact that, at this
Willaert, Arcadelt), cooperated with the late date, the madrigal was malleable
poets in order to arrive at a new style of enough to drop its traditional polyphonic
courtly refinement and of artistic expres- textureand to adapt itself to the novel
sion. Naturally, they did not take their methods of stile concertante and stile rap-
cue from 14th-century music which was presentativo [see *Stile]. The transition
in three or four parts; the expression is 1550. William Byrd (1543-1623) would
quiet and restrained. (b) The Classic appear to have been the first English
Madrigal: Adriaen Willaert (properly composer to fully grasp the importance
intermediate between a and b), Cypriano of the madrigal [see ^Editions X, 14 and
de Rore, Andrea Gabrieli, Orl. Lasso, 15]. He, together with Th. Morley
Philipp de Monte, Palestrina (publica- (1557-^. 1603), represents the earlier
tions between 1550 and 1580). Here the period of the English madrigal, the style
writing is in four to six (usually five) of which corresponds to a certain extent
parts, the style is more genuinely poly- to that of the second Italian school. None-
phonic and imitative, approaching that from its very outset the English
theless,
of the contemporary motet, the expres- madrigal became "naturalized," owing to
MADRIGAL MADRIGAL COMEDY
the peculiarities of the English language Madrigaux a voix seule de Luzzascho
as well as to the instillation of an unmis- Luzzaschi" (RM xiii); H. J. Moser, "Ves-
takable touch of English merriment or tiva i Colli" (AMF iv).
melancholy. The publication of the Mu-
sica
Transalpina (a collection of Italian Madrigal comedy. Modern designa-
madrigals provided with English text, tion for an alleged "pre-operatic" type of
published by N. Yonge, 1588, a few the late i6th century in which an entire
months after the appearance of Byrd's play [It. commedia] was set to music in
first book)
gave the movement new im- the form of madrigals and other types of
petus and a different direction. The contemporary polyphonic vocal music.
younger Englishmen, notably Thomas Among the first and most famous exam-
Weelkes and John Wilbye, tended more ples is the
Amfiparnasso by Orazio Vecchi
clearly towards Italy, and exploited the (performed in Modena, 1594, printed
innovations of Marenzio and Gesualdo, 1597). According to current opinion the
though in a somewhat more conservative inner contradiction between the ensemble
manner. The English madrigals ap- character of the music (which is in five
peared under a variety of names, such as parts throughout, without instruments)
Songs, Sonets, Canzonets, Ayres. See and the solistic demand of a theatrical
^Editions X. performance was solved by a queer com-
IV. Other Countries. In Germany, the promise: when the plot called for single
influence of the madrigal appears to some characters, the singers of the other parts
extent in the works of Le Maistre, Scan- were made to sing behind a curtain. This
dello, Regnart, Lassus [see *Lied II], all surmise, however, is utterly unlikely, not
of whom which
were foreigners, a fact only for practical considerations, but
may account for the failure of the move- mainly because Vecchi states expressly in
ment to gain artistic significance com- the preface that "this spectacle (spetta-
parable to that of Italy or England. Hans colo) appeals to the imagination (mente)
Leo Hassler [DTB n.i] may be men- through the ear (orecchie), not the eye
tioned as the outstanding German repre- (occhi)." The Amfiparnasso, therefore,
sentative, although many of his madri- isnot a pre-operatic type, but an idealized
gals have Italian texts. Spanish madrigals presentation of a loosely knit dramatic
were published by Pedro Vila (1561), plot,comparable in a way to the presenta-
Juan Brudieu (1585), and Pedro Rui- tion of an oratorio. This plot is more
monte (1614) [cf. LavE $.4, 2015$]. clearly designed here than in other, sim-
Lit. (other than that given in GD iii, ilar works by Vecchi, the Selva di varia
279, 282, 283; GD, SuppL Vol., 413; and ricreazione (1590), the Convito musicale
AdHM 373): E. B. Helm, The Begin-
i, (1597), anc* the Veglie di Siena (1604),
nings of the Madrigal and the Wor\s of each of which, however, includes a num-
Arcaddt (unpubl. Diss. Harvard 1939); ber of dramatic "scenes." The Amfipar-
H. Heinrich, John Wilbye in seinen nasso is a mixture of comical and senti-
Madrigalen (1931); E. Dent, "The Mu- mental portions. Alessandro Striggio's
sical Form of the Madrigal" xi, no. (ML //Cicalamento delle donne al bucato (The
3); id., "William Byrd and the Madrigal" Babbling of the Women on a Wash-day,
(Festschrift fur /. Wolf, 1929); A. Ein- 1567) may be considered as a predecessor
stein, "Das Madrigal zum Doppelge- of the former; Simone Balsamino's Novel-
brauch" (AM vi, no. 3); id., "Dante im lette (after Tasso's Aminta, printed 1594),
Madrigal" (AMW iii); id., "Narrative of the latter. Other models exist in the
of Andrea Gabrieli and
Rhythm in the Madrigal" (MQ xxix, 4); *Greghesche
H. Engel, "Marenzios Madrigale . . ." other Venetian composers. An imitator
(ZMW xvii; also in AM viii); id., "Con- of Vecchi was, among others, Adriano
tributo alia storia del madrigale" (LRM Banchieri [cf. RiML i, 104; example in
iv); Ch. van den Borren, "Les Madrigaux HAM, no. 186].
de Jean Brudieu" (RM vi); J. Racek, "Les Lit.: E. J. Dent, in SIM xii; A. Heuss,
MACHTIG MAGNUS LIBER ORGANI
in SIM iv, 175, 404. Re-publication of the based on the entire text, Obrecht com-
Amfiparnasso in ^Editions II, and4 posed the even-numbered verses only, the
XXVI, 26. A.E. odd-numbered being sung in plainsong
a practice which was widely adopted
Machtig [G.]. Mighty, powerful.
by the later composers. Numerous 16th-
Mannergesangverein [G.]. Male century composers (Senfl, Lasso, Pales-
choral societies, similar to the American trina, de Kerle, Le Maistre, Mahu, Mo-
*Apollo-clubs and the French *Orpheon. rales) have provided compositions of the
famous text. Later composers of the Mag-
Massig [G.]. Moderate. nificat are Schiitz, Steffano Bernardi
(DTOe 36.i), Rudolf Ahle (DdT 5),
Maestro [It., master]. Honorary title
twenty strings on which playing in oc- provided organ settings for the even-
taves was possible. The strings were ap- numbered Such Magnificat-*ver-
verses.
parently arranged in ten courses, each of sets for the organ occur in Attaingnant's
which gave the fundamental and its oc- Magnificat sur les hult tons (1531; . . .
tave (as was customary with the lutes of new ed. by Y. Rokseth); in Cavazzoni's
the 1 6th century). The term "magadiz- Intavolatura .
(1543); in Cabezon's
. .
of the 1
5th through the i8th century the (CS i, 342), the title of the collection of
composition of the Magnificat in eight two-voice *organa for the entire ecclesias-
different modes (corresponding to the tical year which was composed by Leoni-
eight tones of plainsong) has played a nus and partly re-written by his successor
prominent role. Among the earliest com- Perotinus (around 1200; see *Ars An-
posers of the Magnificat are Dunstable, tiqua). The collection includes 34 pieces
Dufay, Binchois [cf. SchGMB, no. 43], for the Office ("de antiphonario") and
and Obrecht. While Binchois' composi- 59 pieces for the Mass ("de gradali"; see
tion (other settings in J. Marix, Les Mu- *Mass B, I) [for a 16th-century collection
siciens de la cour de Bourgogne, 1937) is of similar scope see *Choralis Constan-
[420]
MAGNUS OPUS MUSICUM MAJOR, MINOR
tinus]. Three 13th-century MSS, from Majeur [F.]. Major.
Florence (Ft) and Wolfcnbuttcl (Wi,
W 2 ) contain the Magnus liber organi in
Major, minor [F. majeur, mineur\ G.
a more or less complete form, together Dur, Moll-, maggiore, minor-e]. Op-
It.
with numerous other pieces (clausulae, posed terms used (i) for the distinction
of intervals, e.g., major second (c-d), and
conductus, motets). A
list of the collec-
Magrepha. The Hebrew name of the (bb) and sixth (ab) in addition to the
Greek water organ (*hydraulis). Various flatted third [Ex. 2] . The aesthetic justifi-
Talmud ic treatises describe it and its use cation for this lies in the fact that, without
in the Cf. SaHMl, See the flatted seventh and sixth, the descend-
Temple. 124.
*Organ XII. ing minor scale would sound like a major
scale until its sixth tone is reached. Since
Magyar music. See *Hungarian music. the minor scale just described is evolved
from melodic considerations (upward
Main [F.] . Hand. Main droite (gauche}, and downward movement), it is called
right (left) hand. A
deux (trois, quatre) "melodic minor scale." There exists an-
mains, for two (three, four) hands. other minor scale which, ascending as
well as descending, combines the flatted
Maitres Musicians de la Renais-
sixth with the unaltered seventh [Ex. 3],
sance Frangaise. See *Editions, His-
This scale is termed "harmonic minor
torical, XVI.
scale/' because it is built out of the tones
Maitrise [F.]. The choir school and contained in the three main harmonies of
the choir of a French church. These in- the minor key [Ex. 5].
stitutions, which go back to the i5th cen- A key is called major or minor accord-
tury, if not earlier, were under the direc- ing to whether it is based upon the major
tion of a "maitre de chapelle," and pro- or minor scale. In the major key, the three
vided board as well as education, general main triads, tonic (T), dominant (D),
and musical. They resembled in organi- and subdominant (S; see *Scale degrees),
zation and purpose the conservatorii of are all major triads [Ex. 4]. In a minor
Italy. In the French Revolution (1791) key, T and S are minor, D is major [Ex.
they were suppressed and replaced by the 5]. See also *Mode.
conservatoires. Today the name denotes The establishment of major and minor
church-choirs, without any educational as the tonal basis of music took place dur-
approximating the major key are much fifths. It played with a plectrum of
is
more scarce in early music and, for this tortoise shell or other flexible material.
reason, have attracted the special atten- The tones are rendered as a sustained
tion of historians [see, e.g., *Sumer is tremolo which is
produced by a quick
icumen in]. The major mode has been vibrating movement of the plectrum. An
claimed to be of "popular" origin or to older type, the Milanese mandolin, forms
be a characteristic attribute of the north- the transition from the *mandola to the
ern races. For an unbiased study of these modern Neapolitan type. The mandolin
claims cf. the article by C. Sachs. has been occasionally used in art-music,
Lit.: C. Sachs, "The Road to Major" Handel's Oratorio Alexander Ba~
e.g., in
(MQ xxix, no. 3); A. H. Fox-Strangways, lus (1748), in Gretry's L'Amant jaloux
"The Minor Chord" (ML iv, no. i);Dom (1778), in Paesiello's // Barbiero de Se-
Jeannin, "Etude sur le mineur et le ma- villa (1780), in Mozart's Don Giovanni
jeur" (RM1 xxii); H. J. Moser, "Der (1787), in Verdi's Otello (1887), and in
Durgedanke als Rassenproblem" (SIM Mahler's Seventh Symphony (1908). Five
xv). pieces by Beethoven for mandolin and
piano are contained in the supplementary
Malaguena [Sp.]. According to avail- volume of the B.-H. edition [cf. also
able information the term denotes three
BSIM viii, no. 12, p. 24]. Illustration on
different types of southern Spanish folk
p. 413.
music, all localized in the provinces of Lit.: J. Zuth, "Die Mandolinhand-
Malaga and Murcia:
Usually a (i) schriften in dcr Bibliothek der Gesell-
local variety of the *fandango. (2) A schaft Musikfreunde in Wien"
der
type of highly emotional song, in free style
and rhythm [cf. LavE, 1.4, 2390].
(ZMW xiv); de Saint-Foix, "Un fonds
G.
(3) inconnu de compositions pour mando-
An older type of dance music, based upon
line" no. 47).
the ostinato-like repetition of the harmo-
(RdM,
nies VIII-VII-VI-V (in minor), played Maneria [L.]. A
term used by some
in parallel triads,and with an improvised early writers on plainsong to denote the
melody on top [cf. RiML] thus, a passa- ;
*church modes in their authentic as well
caglia on the descending tetrachord, as as plagal variety. Thus there are four
were written frequently during the iyth maneriae: protus, deuterus, tritus, and
century [see *Chaconne and passacaglia, tetrardus. Cf. ReMMA, 153.
Ex.2].
Maneries [L.]. A thirteenth-century
Malinconia melancholy]. A com-
[It., term for modus, i.e., rhythmic *mode,
position in a melancholic mood. Beetho- mentioned by Garlandia (CS i, 175),
ven thus called a short introductory move- Pseudo-Aristotle (CS i, 279), and Anon.
ment before the finale of his Quartet op. IV(CSi, 3 2 7 ).
1 8, no. 6.
Manica [It.]. Shift of position in violin
Malinconico [It.]. Melancholic. playing.
Manico [It.]. Finger board of the vio-
Man. Short for *manual.
lin, etc.
[4*2]
MANIERA MANNHEIM SCHOOL
by numerous theorists and used to denote tation, was also applied to certain styles
the aesthetic basis of contemporary mu- of the musical past. Thus, musicians of
sical
composition. It was established the 1 6th century grew fully aware of sty-
shortly after the death of Josquin des listic nuances in the works of earlier com-
Pres, probably in Italy where it was main- posers. On ground, the striking turn
this
tained throughout the i6th century. The made by Palestrina in the late 50*5 toward
maniera constitutes an idealistic type of the old school of Ockeghem acquires a
composition, in so far as the composer new significance. Cf. L.
Schrade, in
was guided by an imaginative ideal con- ZM W xvi, 3-20, 98-117, 152-170. L. S.
cerning musical style and culture, thus
Manieren [G.]. An eighteenth-century
fixing a classical standard for his work.
There was also a distinct perception of German name for ornaments of restricted
the evolutionary process in the history of
melodic range, approximately equivalent
to *agrement. In modern German usage,
human culture (Glarean, Zarlino, Vasari,
the term Manier (manieriert) means
Vincenzo Galilei, and others).
"mannerism" ("mannered").
The
theory of the maniera centered
around the "concetto" (concept). This Mannheim School. An important Ger-
regulated the relationship between the man school of the mid-i8th century, lo-
work of musical art and the world of na- cated at Mannheim and connected with
ture. Since, according to this theory, the the orchestra of Karl Theodor (1743-99),
work of art originated by way of imitat- Elector of Pfalzbayern (hence also the
ing nature, imitation was the creative and name Pfalzbayrische Schule). Johann
formative quality that made it an "opus Stamitz (1717-57), who joined the or-
supranaturale." The imitation of nature chestra in 1745 and soon became its con-
worked two ways: either as deviation ductor, inaugurated here an entirely novel
from nature musically this produced style of orchestral music and of orchestral
an asymmetrical, "anti-natural," struc- performance, thus laying the foundation
ture; or as exact copy literal realism for thesymphonic style of the Viennese
was then the result by which the musical classics at the time when the tradition of
work was supposed to compete with na- Baroque music reached its culmination
ture (Zuccari, Zarlino, Danti, Galilei, point in the late works of Bach and Han-
Lomazzo; in part also Zacconi). del. Conspicuous features of the new
Since music has no given objects in style are: melodic prominence of the vio-
nature to imitate, except for the "numero lins in an essentially homophonic, non-
sonoro" (sounding number, i.e., the nu- contrapuntal texture; abandonment of
merical relationships between the inter- imitation and fugal style; presto-character
vals), it was the first task of the com- of the quick movements; use of dynamic
poser to establish such "objects." This he devices such as extended crescendos, un-
did in the "soggetto" (musical subject, expected fortes and fortissimos; general
theme) whose "modi" (modes, manifes- rests (*Generalpause)\ a novel type of
tations) were said to be infinite, from the subjects and figures which quickly rise
"numero in musica" (sounding number) over a wide range, usually in broken
down to the "soggetto delle parole" (sub- chords, the so-called "Raketen" (rockets,
ject based on the text) and the "soggetto Roman candles); orchestral effects such
della cantilena" (cantus firmus, borrowed as the tremolo and broken chords in quick
or invented, in full or in part). After notes; replacement of the thorough-bass
having fixed the soggetto, the composer accompaniment by written-out orchestral
1
had to reveal its inner capacities, that is, parts. Johann Stamitz activity was con-
the "verita del soggetto" (truth of the tinued by Ignaz Holzbauer (1711-83;
subject). This could only be done by way
came to Mannheim in 1753), F. X. Richter
of imitation which always gave rise to (1709-89; came to Mannheim in 1747),
the work of art. and by a younger generation including
The basic idea of the maniera, i.e., imi- Anton Filtz (c. 1730-60), Franz Beck
MANNHEIM SCHOOL MARACAS
(1730-1 809), Christian Cannabich ( 1731- nata-form, the Viennese composers were
98),and Johann Stamitz' sons Karl Sta- definitely much more advanced than the
mitz (1746-1801) and Anton Stamitz Mannheimers in the establishment of the
challenged by other historians who have provided for the hands, in contradistinc-
been pointing to similar tendencies in tion to the *pedal [see *Organ III]. In
Vienna (Georg Monn, 1717-50; Georg German organ pieces Man. I, II, III, and
Wagenseil, 1715-77; cf. G. Adler in pref- IV designate the Great manual, the Swell
ace to DTOe i5.ii), Italy [cf. F. Torre- organ, the Choir organ, and the Solo or-
franca, Lc Origini italiane del romanti- gan respectively. The two keyboards of
clsmo musicale, 1930], and Bohemia [cf.
the harpsichord are also distinguished as
W. Helfert, in AMW vii] No doubt, the
. firstand second manual. Manualiter
novel ideas of style and form were "in the means playing with the hands only.
air" around 1740 and a great number of
musicians, among whom Sammartini Manualkoppel [G.]. Manualcoupler;
[4*4]
MARCATO MARSEILLAISE
Marcato [It.]. Marked, emphasized. kofiev has frequently been noted for his
propensity for march-like rhythm and
March. Music designed to promote or- structure.
derly marching of a large group, espe- Lit.: K. Strom, Beitrdge zur Entwic^-
cially soldiers. Marches are, of course, lungsgeschichte des Marsches (Diss. Mu-
always in simple rhythm and regular nich 1926).
phrases. The standard form, derived from
the minuet-with-trio, is that of a march Marche [F.]. *March. Marche harmo-
*
repeated after one or several trios of a nique, sequence (i).
more melodious character and frequently Marcia [It.]. *March. Marcia junebre,
in softer orchestration: M, or MT MT funeral march. Alia marcia, in the man-
MTM. ner of a march.
The earliest traces of the march as an
art form are found in the numerous *bat- Marien-antiphon [G.]. Name for the
taglias of the i6th century. More definite Antiphons B.M.V.; see *Antiphon (2).
examples are various virginal pieces con- Marimba. An African and South Amer-
tained in Lady Ne veils Eoo\ [see
My ican *xylophone, consisting of a number
* "The March before
Virginal books] :
of wooden plates of different size and
the Battle," "The March of the Horse-
thickness fixed in a frame and played with
men," "The March of the Footemen," etc., two drumsticks, sometimes by two play-
pieces which would seem to indicate that ers simultaneously. Underneath each
the English musicians of the i6th century
plate there is a tuned resonator, made of
were more military-minded than their
gourds, of cedar boxes, or, more recently,
colleagues of other nationalities. Many of metal tubes. See *Percussion instru-
examples of march music, usually digni- ments A, 4.
fied and ceremonial rather than military
in character, are contained in the operas Marimbaphone. An improved ma
of Lully, Handel, etc. (Handel's Scipio rimba, invented by the American Deagan.
contains a march which is to the present Percy Grainger used it in his suite In a
day the parade march of the British Gren- Nutshell
adier Guards.) There are two charming
Marine trumpet. See *Tromba Ma-
little marches probably not by Bach rina.
in the Notenbuchlein der Anna Magda-
Una Each. Similar pieces occur in the Markiert [G.]. Marked, accented, em-
suites of J. Ph. Krieger, of J. K. F. Fischer, phasized.
etc. Mozart exemplifies two different
Markig [G.]. Vigorous.
types ofmarch music in his Figaro (Non
piu andrai) and in his Magic Flute Marriage of Figaro, The. See *Nozze
di Figaro, Le.
(March of the Priests). The movement
"Lebhaft, Marschmassig" in Beethoven's Marsch Marche. Marschmassig,
[G.].
Sonata op. 101 represents the highest in the character of a march.
artistic transfiguration of the march.
Schubert's Marches Militaires deserve Marseillaise [F.]. The famous song
mention for their admirable variety and of the French Revolution, "Aliens cnfants
century operas. A
special type is the fu- troops. Cf. the detailed article in iii, GD
neral march (marcia funebre), of which 329; additional bibliography in RiML,
well-known examples exist in Beethoven's 1 1 20, and in MoML, 710 (Rouget de
Eroica and in
Wagner 's Gotterdamme- Lisle); L. Fiaux, La Marseillaise, 1918
rung. Among modern composers, Pro- (bibl).
MARTELfi MASQUE
Martele [F., from marteau, hammer]. sisting of a combination of poetry, vocal,
A special method of violin bowing; see and instrumental music, dancing, acting,
*Bowing (c). Martellando, martellato etc., applied in the most lavish way to the
[It.] designates either the martele of the representation of mythological and alle-
violin, or a somewhat similar technique gorical subjects. The masques originated
of piano playing in which the hands act in Italy and France where the members
like hammers, usually in rapidly alternat- of the court played an active part in their
ing octaves. preparation as well as performance. B.
de Beaujoyeulx' famous "Ballet comique
Martellement [F.]. In the iyth cen-
de la Royne" [see *Ballet I], performed
tury a *mordent performed on stringed in the Louvre in 1581, was one of the first
instruments. In the i8th century a mor-
plays in which there was a unified plot
dent or a short trill preceded by a long
going through all the scenes.
appoggiatura. The masque was introduced into Eng-
See *Byzantine Chant III. land during the i6th century and re-
Martyrion.
mained in great favor here during the
Marziale [It.]. Marchlike. 1 7th century. A
famous writer of masques
was Ben Jonson who, from 1605 till
1631,
Mascherata. See under *Villanella.
exercised a privilege to provide the court
Masculine, feminine cadence. A with masques. A
specialty of his plays
cadence or ending is called masculine if was the antimasque, i.e., intermediate
the final chord occurs on the strong beat scenes of a grotesque character (similar
[Ex. i ] , feminine, if it is postponed to fall to the operatic *intermezzo). The earliest
on a weak beat [Ex. 2, 3] The masculine
. known composers of music for masques
areThomas Campion (1567-1620), Al-
fonso Ferrabosco II (1575-1628), Robert
jiftWltftffl Johnson (d. about 1634), and John Co-
prario (c. 1570-1627). While the music
of these consists of *ayrcs and
masques
composers, such as Nico-
*ballettos, later
las Laniere (1588-1666), Henry Lawes
ending must be considered the normal
one, with the feminine preferred in more (1595-1662), and William Lawes (d.
"Romantic" styles. It is interesting to note 1645), introduced the "stile recitativo."
that feminine endings appear for the first Henry Lawes wrote the music to Milton's
time around 1600, thus forming one of masque Comus, produced in 1634 [republ.
the various novel features of the Baroque by the Mermaid Society, 1904; example
era. One of the earliest examples known in HAM, 203]. After the Civil War
to this writer is a "Sarabrande" by Gib- (around 1660) the opera gradually super-
bons [see the above Ex. 2; cf. M. H. Glyn, seded the earlier plays which deteriorated
Orlando Gibbons, Complete Keyboard into mere fancy dress balls. One of the
WorJ{s, vol. ii]. It may well be this novel masques was Freyas Gift, text by
latest
nine endings in his late style. The femi- on a Collection of Masque Music" (ML
nine cadence is a typical feature of the iii,no. i); Campion, Masque in Honour
of the Marriage of Lord Hayes (sec *Edi-
*polonaise.
tions XXII, i); P. Reyher, Les Masques
Masque, mask. Sixteenth- and lyth- Anglais (1909); W. W. Greg, A List of
century stage productions, designed for Masques (1902); A. H. D. Prendcr-
. . .
[426]
MASS MASS
Mass [L. missa; F. messe; G. Messe\ It. Evangelium, etc.) are giv-
texts (Oratio,
messa]. The most solemn service of the en with the different Masses, e.g., pp.
Roman Catholic rites, representing the 3i8ff of LU, while the recitation tones of
commemoration and mystical repetition the items 4, 5, 8 are found in LU, 98-111
of the sacrifice of Christ on the Cross. or in GR, 109*-! 21*. The items la with
The name is derived from the words "Ite, their melodies are given with the different
missa est (congregatio)," i.e., "Depart, Masses, e.g., LU, 3i8ff (GR, iff), while
the congregation is dismissed," sung at those for Ib are found in LU, 11-94 (G#>
the end of the service [cf., e.g., GR, 28*]. i*-94).
The subsequent explanations refer to its Naturally, the items of the classes la,
full form known as
High Mass [see Ib are those interesting to the musician,
*Missa solemnisj. and it is to these exclusively that reference
A. The Mass in Gregorian Chant. The ismade in the studies of Gregorian chant,
Mass has a complex structure, consisting as well as in the following explanations.
of anumber of items some of which vary What is usually known to the music stu-
from day to day (this is the Proper of the dent as "Mass" are the items of the rubric
Mass, proprium missae), while others Ib, the(sung) Ordinary of the Mass. The
remain the same in every Mass (Ordinary reason for this narrow and actually mis-
of the Mass, ordinarium missac). An- leading conception is the fact that these
other classification can be made according alone (with the exception of the Ite missa
to whether the item is (a) recited to a est,however) were composed polyphoni-
*monotone or in an elevated speech, or cally after1300 [see under B]. From the
(b) sung to a distinct melody. The for- point of view of the plainsong, the Proper
mer of the Mass (la) is much more important
category falls to the celebrant priest
and his assistants, the latter to the choir and musically interesting. These chants
(schola). The following table shows the and their texts are also much older than
normal structure of the Mass, with the those of the Ordinary as appears from the
items classified under four categories, la: fact that they are all derived from the
Proper sung; Ib: Ordinary sung; Ha: psalms [see *Psalmody]. Thus, the In-
troit originally was a psalmus ad in-
Proper recited (or spoken); lib: Ordinary
spoken. troitum, the Communio a psalmus ad
Sung Recited or Spoken communionem, etc. Around 500, the
Mass consisted only of the chants of the
la Proprium Ib Ordinarium Ila Proprium lib Ordinarium
i. Introitus Proper, alternating with lections from
2. Kyric
Gloria
the Epistles, etc. Gradually, the chants of
3.
4. Oratio (prayers, the Ordinary were introduced, probably
collect)
5. Lectio (Epistle) in the following chronological order:
6. Graduate
7. Alleluia or
Sanctus, Kyrie, Gloria, Agnus Dei, Credo.
Tractus B. The Polyphonic Mass. I. 1200-
(with Sequence)
8. Evangelium 1400. The earliest polyphonic settings of
(Gospel) the Mass chants are those of the Proper.
9. Credo
'0. Offcrtorium During the I2th and i3th centuries a
11. Secreta
12. Praefatio great number of the chants of the Proper
(Preface) of the Mass were composed, as *organa.
13. Sanctus
14. Canon The "de gradali"-section of the *Magnus
15. Agnus Dei
1 6. Communio liber organi, e.g., contains 59 such com-
Post-communio
positions, all Graduals or Alleluias.
17.
18. Ite missa cst (For
or Benedicamus details regarding the composition, see
Domino
*Organum, particularly the scheme for
Regarding the texts of the items Ib and Viderunt.} Under Perotinus (c. 1160-
lib (and other not included above)
texts 1225), the repertory of compositions for
the student Ordo Missae,
is referred to the the Proper was considerably enlarged by
Two-part compositions of troped and Mass type. Examples are the Mass of
plain Kyries as well as a three-voiced Et Reginald Liebert [Trent Codices; cf.
in terra occur in the Codex Huelgas from DTOe 2j.i], Morales' Missa de beata
c. 1275 [cf. H. Angles, El Codex Musical Virgine, and Palestrina's Missa pro de-
de las Hudgas, 3 vols., 1931]. The first junctis.
example of a complete Mass (Ordinary) b. Cantus-firmus Mass. This term is
is the Messe de Tournai of c. 1300 which, commonly used to denote Masses in which
however, is probably a compilation of in- all the movements are based on one and
dividual compositions written at differ- the same melody, usually in the tenor [see
ent periods [new ed. in E. Coussemaker, *Tenor Mass]. (It will be noticed that
Messe du XIHe siecle, 1861]. Machaut's the terms "plainsong Mass" and "cantus-
Mass (said to have been composed for the firmus Mass" are far from being correct
coronation of Charles V
in 1364, but prob- and proper designations: the "plainsong"
ably of a considerably earlier date, judg- of the former category is usually a can-
ing from its Ars antiqua style) is the first tus firmus, and the "cantus firmus" of
[428]
MASS MASS
Particularly popular were French chan- highly developed; the cantus firmus may
sons (chanson Mass), above all, the fa- be completely absorbed throughout the
mous *L'homme arme. Other examples polyphonic texture, so that a derivative
arc Ockeghem's Missa De plus en plus Mass indistinguishable in style from a
is
and Obrecht's Missa Fortuna desperata. composed one. A
freely frequent device
In England the tune Western Wynde was of cyclical treatment is the use of the same
popular (Shepherd, Taverner, Tye). motive at the beginning of all the move-
Isaac'sMissa carminum is an example of ments [cf. HAM, no. 77]. See also *Or-
the *quodlibet Mass in which several sec-
gan Mass.
ular melodies are combined. Around 1500 III. i6oo-present. After 1600 the com-
the use of "invented" cantus firmi became
position of the Mass lost its former im-
popular, either of a *soggetto cavato, e.g., portance. In Italy [see *Roman School]
Josquin's Missa Hercules Dux Ferrarie, the a-cappella tradition of Palestrina
or of the *hexachord, e.g., Palestrina's
(stile antico) was continued by composers
Missa Ut re mi fa sol la (Missa super voces such as Steffano Bernardi (d. 1628; cf.
musicales). DTOe 36.}), Antonio Draghi (1635-
Parody Mass. See separate entry.
c.
1700; cf. DTOe 23.i), and Antonio Lotti
d. The freely invented Mass. For freely
(1667-1740; cf. DdT 60), while others
invented Masses, which form a relatively enlarged the vocal resources to gigantic
small group, general designations such as choirs of 32 and 48 voice-parts (Orazio
Missa quarti toni (Vittoria), Missa cuius- Benevoli, 1605-72; cf. DTOe lo.i). In
vis toni (Ockeghem), Missa sine nomine Germany the development followed more
(Obrecht; cf. HAM,
no. 77), Missa brevis progressive trends, by the inclusion of
(Palestrina) were used. It must be noted, the orchestra and of the 17th-century
however, that the complete originality of styles of the concerto, aria, etc. (stile mo-
any Mass written during the period is pos- derno). The Masses by Biber, Schmelt-
sibly open to question, and that a cantus zer, and Kerll [cf. DTOe 23.!] may be
firmus is often used where none is indi- mentioned as landmarks on the road
cated in the title. This is especially true leading to Bach's B minor Mass (1733-
for Masses composed after the *Council 38). Concomitant with'the tendency to a
of Trent at which the use of secular cantus greater variety of styles was the division
firmi was forbidden. For instance, Pales- of the Mass into a greater number of
trina's Missa quarta (1582) is based on movements, particularly within the Glo-
Uhomme arme. ria and the Credo. Following is the
Naturally, within each of these cate- structure of Bach's Mass:
gories the treatment varies considerably Kyrie
according to the period of composition. Kyrie eleison (Lord, have mercy)
The type (though by no means
earliest Christi eleison (Christ, have mercy)
restricted to the early period) is the use of Kyrie eleison (Lord, have mercy)
Gloria
the cantus firmus, without alterations, in Gloria in excelsis Deo (Glory be to God on
long notes [*Pfundnoten] in the tenor. high)
Later we find the cantus firmus shared Lau damns te (We praise Thcc)
Gratias agimits tibi (We give Thee thanks)
among the other voices and also omitted
Domine Deus (Lord God)
the
altogether in certain sections, e.g., in Qui tollis pcccata mundi (Who takest away
Christe eleison and in the Credo. An- the sins of the world)
other modification is the use of a melodi- Qui sedes ad dexteram patris (Who sittest
at the right hand of the Father)
cally and rhythmically
altered cantus
Quoniam tu solus sanctus (For Thou only
firmus, a sort of free variation of the bor- art holy)
rowed melody which was used not only Cum (With the Holy Spirit)
sancto spiritu
as a tenor but also as a soprano melody Credo
Credo in untim Deum (I believe in one God)
[see *Discant Mass]. the end of the
By Patrem omntpotentem (Father almighty)
of variation
1
5th century the techniques Et in unum Dominum (And in one Lord)
upon a borrowed tune are extremely Et incarnatus est (And was incarnate)
[429]
MASS MAZURKA
Crucifixus (Crucified) id., "Zur Kolorierungstechnik der Trien-
Et remrrextt (And rose again)
ter Messen" (StM vii); H. B. Collins,
Et in Spintum Sanctum (And [I believe] in
the Holy Spirit) "John Taverner's Masses" (ML v); F. X.
Confitfor unum baptisma (I confess one Haberl, "Die Messen Adriaen Willaerts"
Sanctus
baptism) (MfM iii); J. Schmidt, "Die Messen des
Clemens non Papa" (ZMW ix); see also
Sanctus (Holy)
Hosanna in excelsis (Hosanna in the high- *Organ mass: *Parody mass. To B,
est) III: G. Adler, "Zur Geschichte der
Bencdictus qui venit (Blessed is He that Wiener Messkomposition ." (StM . .
cometh)
iv); H. A. Sander, Italienische Messfom-
Agnus
Agnus Dei (Lamb of God) positionen des ij. Jahrhunderts (Diss.
Dona nobis pacem (Give us peace) Breslau 1932). To B, IV: A. Schner-
The Masses by Francesco Durante ich, Messe und Requiem seit Haydn und
couples, with a great variety of steps, often an accent. Such groups, in numbers of
improvised. two, three, four, or, occasionally, five
The mazurka appeared in Germany in each, recur consistently throughout the
the mid- 1 8th century, spreading to France composition and are marked off from one
around 1800 and to England around another by bar-lines. The basic scheme of
1830. Chopin was the first to introduce note-values within a measure is called
the dance into the realm of art music. *meter or time (duple, triple, 6/8-meter,
His mazurkas are particularly interesting etc.). Occasional deviations from the
because of the occasional use of modal regularity of accent, e.g., *syncopation,
idioms, the earliest indication of the 19th- emphasize rather than destroy the general
century use of *modality as a folkloristic scheme of measure and time.
device. Later composers of mazurkas are As appears from these explanations, the
Glinka, Tchaikovsky, and Szymanowski. concept of measure stands or falls with
See Kujawiak; *Dance music IV. the principle of regular accent, a principle
which is of primary importance in almost
M.d. Abbreviation of main droite [F.]
all music generally known today. By no
ormano destra [It.], i.e., right hand.
means, however, has music always em-
Meane, mene. In i5th- to lyth-century bodied this principle. Disregarding dance
English music, a middle part of a poly- music which, for obvious reasons, is
phonic composition. See, e.g., the follow- nearly always "measure-music," one may
ing passage from a 15th-century MS [cf. divide the history of European music into
G. Schad, MusiJ^ und Musifausdrucfe four periods alternating from "measure-
in der Mittelenglischen Literatur (19-?), free music" to "measure-music," namely:
applied to instruments (viols) playing such a group. See also *Rhythm II (a).
the middle part as well as to the two mid-
dle strings (small meane, great meane) Mechanical composition. Cf. H.
of the viol. Gerigk, "Wiirfelmusik" (ZMW xvi).
MECHANICAL INSTRUMENTS MECHANICAL INSTRUMENTS
Mechanical instruments. I. Appli- up to recently. Mason, in his Essays, His-
ances designed to produce musical per- torical and Critical, on English Church
formance mechanically, i.e., without an Music (1795), says that he prefers "the
actual performer. Prior to the end of the mechanical assistance of a Cylindrical or
i9th century such apparatus were always Barrel Organ to the fingers of the best
based upon the principle of the barrel- parochial organists" a statement which
and-pin mechanism. The hand, or a me- reflects on the skill of the parochial organ-
chanical clockwork, turns a wooden cyl- ists rather than on the barrel-organ. See
inder bearing pins acting against levers also *Serinette; *Orgue de barbaric.
or similar gadgets, which in turn operate III. Towards the end of the i8th cen-
upon the hammers of a keyboard instru- tury various small instruments called
ment, the clappers of a set of bells, the Flotenuhr (flute-clock) were made (by
mouthpieces of organ pipes, etc. As early P. Niemecz, librarian to Prince Ester-
as the 1 4th century, carillons were oper- hazy), which combined an ordinary clock
ated by such a mechanism. In the i6th with a set of small pipes and bellows op-
century the same principle was applied to erated by the clockwork. For these instru-
harpsichords and organs. In the collec- ments (also called Laujwerfy Haydn
tion of instruments left by Henry VIII at wrote a number of charming pieces [cf.
his death in 1547 was a "virginal that E. F. Schmidt, -fWerfe fur LaufwerJ^
goethe with a whele without playing (1931), and in ZMW xiv].
uppon." As a curiosity an instrument Passing referencemay be made to the
may be mentioned which was sent by well-known "musical boxes" (boite a
Queen Elizabeth to the Sultan of Turkey musique\ tabatiere de musique\ Spiel-
in 1593, and which included an organ, a dose) whose whimsically high and thin
carillon, "trumpeters," "singing byrds," tones have frequently been imitated in
etc., and which had the
particular distinc- piano pieces, e.g., by Liadov, Leschet-
tion of going into action automatically itzky, and, ironically, by Stravinsky in his
every six hours. About the same time Petrouch\a (Valse). A truly remarkable
Hans Leo Hassler took an active interest specimen was a "musical bustle" which
in the fabrication and sale of musical was presented to Queen Victoria in 1887
clockworks. Of particular interest is a and which was "so designed as to provide
mechanical spinet which is preserved a performance of the National Anthem
with six pieces from the early i8th cen- (God Save the Queen) whenever the
tury, probably the earliest examples of wearer sat down."
"phonographic" music [cf. P. Nettl, in In the early i9th century a number of
ZMW ii, 523]. Mozart wrote three com- instruments were built for the mechanical
positions for the mechanical organ (Or- reproduction of entire orchestras, e.g.,
gelwalze), an Adagio and Allegro in F Maelzel's Panharmonicon (1804), for
minor (K.V. 594), a Fantasia in F minor which Beethoven originally wrote the
(K.V. 608), and an Andante in F major "Sieges-Symphonic" of his Battle of Vit-
(K.V. 616). toria (1813), the Apollonicon built
by
II. Theonly instrument of the barrel- Flight and Robson (1817), the Orches-
and-pin type which attained considerable trion (Kaufmann, 1851), and numerous
practical importance was the English bar- others the descendants of which are still
UP!
MECHANIK MEISTERSINGER
the tones of the composition to be repro- Medicinale. See *Psaltery.
duced. This passes over a cylinder fur-
nished with numerous small apertures
Medieval music. See *Middle Ages.
(similar to those of the mouth harmon- Medium [L.,half]. Cantus per medium
ica) which are connected by pipes with in
is, 16th-century theory, singing in
the action of a pianoforte. As often as an "halved" values, i.e., in proportio dupla
opening in the cardboard passes over the [see *Proportions] or, in modern par-
cylinder, a stream of air is pushed (or lance, alia breve.
drawn) through the corresponding pipe,
thus setting the hammer in motion. This Medley. Same as *potpourri. The term
was already used by the
principle has been applied with a consid- virginalists.
erable degree of perfection in instruments
Mehr- [G., more, several]. Mehrchorig,
such as the Player-piano, the Welte-Mi-
The polychoral. Mehrstimmig, in more than
gnon, the Pianola, the Phonola, etc.
one part, i.e., polyphonic. Mehrstimmig-
player-rolls are usually reproductions of
f(eit y polyphony.
performances by famous virtuosos. In
most of the instruments the rendition can Meistersinger [G., mastersingers].
be modified according to the taste of the I. A and musical movement of
literary
player who can regulate to a certain de- the 1 5th and i6th centuries which was
gree the speed and the dynamic details. cultivated by the guilds of the German
Needless to say, the possibility of beating craftsmen, and which represents the mid-
the speed-record of world-famous pianists dle-class continuation of the activity of
has added considerably to the commer- the aristocratic ^Minnesinger of the i2th
cialvalue of these instruments. Some to the 1 4th century. The desire of the
modern composers (Hindemith, Toch) Meistersinger to emphasize the aura of
have written original compositions for such a lineage led to a store of naive leg-
such mechanical pianofortes, availing ends concerning the origin of their move-
themselves of the possibility of producing ment. A. Puschmann, e.g., in his Griind-
sound effects which are not obtainable by licher Bericht des deutschen Meisterge-
a pianist, e.g., chords consisting of thirty sanges und der Tabulator (1574; new ed.
and more notes, or the simultaneous use by R. Jonas, 1888), relates that the Meis-
of the lowest, the middle, and the highest tergesang was founded, upon the initia-
registers.
tive of the Roman Emperor, Otto I, at
The extraordinary success of the *pho- Paris in 962 by twelve "first masters"
nograph and the radio has put all these among whom were Walther v. d. Vogel-
attempts into eclipse. weide and Heinrich Frauenlob men
Lit.: H. Leichtentritt, in MQ xx; LavE who actually flourished around 1200 and
ii.3, 2117;
G. C. A. Jonson, in PMA xlii; 1300 respectively! The statement that
G. L. Jaccard, in Hobbies 43, nos. 8, 9. Heinrich Frauenlob was the first Meister-
singer is still
frequently found in modern
Mechanik [G.]. The action of a piano-
writings, although the accuracy of this
forte, etc. tradition was already questioned by the
German professor Chr. Wagenseil,
Medesimo tempo [It.]. The same J.
in his De Norimbergi commen-
civitate
tempo.
tatio, 1697, the source book of Richard
Medial cadence. See *Cadence I. Wagner's Meistersinger libretto. Actu-
ally not until the early i5th century
it is
cea] . See *Liturgical books II. singer, falls outside the category proper,
[433]
MEISTERSINGER MEISTERSINGER VON NttRNBERG
sincehe conducted a traveling life like EiBM, no. 9; BeMMR, 271; SchGMB, no.
the bards whereas the Meistersinger 78] . On the whole, however, the Meister-
were resident members of reputable city singer melodies are clumsy and barren,
guilds, united in local schools. Real often overcrowded with meaningless col-
Meistersinger are: Conrad Nachtigall; oraturas (Blumcn).
Hans Sachs (1494-1576); Hans Folz (all Recent investigations have shown that
in Nuremberg); Sebastian Wilde (in the Meistersinger probably derived ele-
Augsburg); Adam Puschmann (1532- ments of their ceremonial not only from
1600, in Breslau). In the i6th century the Minnesinger, but also from the
the movement spread over almost all of scholastic procedure of medieval doctor
Germany, but declined rapidly during examinations, from pious fraternities,
the 7th century. Certain schools existed
1 similar to the Italian *laudesi [cf. the
throughout the i8th century; that of Ulm prevailingly Biblical repertory of the
was dissolved in 1839. Meistersinger], and possibly from the
II. Characteristic features of the Meis- French *puys.
tergesang are the rigid and pedantic rules Lit.: H. J. Moser, Geschichte der deut-
which regulated the procedure at their schen Musi\ i (1930), 303-318; P.
weekly meetings (Sunday, after church), Runge, fD/> Kolmarer Liederhandschrijt
the establishment of competitions and of (1896); G. Miinzer, ^Das Liederbuch
prizes, the promotion of the members into des Adolf Puschmann (1907); R. Staiger,
various classes (Schiller, Schulfreund, "fDie Liederhandschrijt des Benedict von
Singer, Dichter, Meiser, i.e., pupil, Watt (B1M II, 13); H. Thompson, Wag-
friend, singer, poet, master), etc. The ner and Wagenseil (1927); G. Miinzer,
rules were set down in the so-called "Hans Sachs als Musiker" (DM v.i9);
Tabulator (tablature). The title Dichter P. Runge (also G. Miinzer, E. Bernoui-
was given for the invention of a new lli), "Ueber die Notation der Meister-
poem (called Lied, Gesang), the title
singer" (KIM, 1906, p. 17; 1909, p. 84).
Meister for a new melody (called Ton,
Weise). Most of the numerous poems Meistersinger von Niirnberg, Die
were sung to standard melodies the ("The Mastersingers of Nuremberg").
names of which referred to their com- Opera in three acts by Richard Wagner
posers (e.g., Brant-weise\ Der Wilde (1813-83), to his own libretto, first per-
Ton) or to other characteristics of a more formance, Munich, 1868. The plot, which
or less obscure nature(e.g., Rosenton, is based on careful studies of
original
Grasmiic}(enwcise "warbler-melody"), sources (Wagenseil, 1697), reveals a true
while names such as Schtvartz-Dinten- and lively picture of the life and customs
wcis ("black ink melody"), Kurtzc- in the Mastersinger guilds of the i6th
*
Aftenwcis ("short monkey melody"), century [see Meistersinger], with the
show that the Meistersinger did not lack cobbler-poet Hans Sachs (Baritone) as
a sense of humor. The whole setup has the central figure. The dramatic action
been most vividly (and accurately!) de- is carried
chiefly by the young knight
scribed by Wagner in his Die Meister- Walther von Stolzing (Tenor) who, in
singer von Numberg [particularly Act I, the first scene
(Church), falls in love
David and Kothner] . with Eva (Soprano) and enters the guild
III. The musical repertory of the in order to compete (victoriously, of
Meistersinger, as it is preserved, consists course) at the contest where he wins the
of a great number of monophonic mel- hand of Eva through his prize-song
odies, written in *plainsong notation in a "Morgenlich leuchtend im
rosigen
more or less free rhythm. Practically all of Schein," in spite of the intrigues of his
them are in the *Barform, the traditional rival BecJ(messer (Bass buffo).
form of the Minnesinger. Among the The Meistersinger represents an artis-
songs of Hans Sachs there are several at- tic peak in Wagner's work comparable
tractive melodies [cf. HAM,no. 24; to that represented by the Waldstein
[434]
MELISMA MELODY
Sonata and the Emperor Concerto of However, melodramatic accompaniment
Beethoven: the sovereign and assured has been effectively used as an occasional
maturity of his middle period. In its contrast to song, e.g., in the grave-digging
perfect balance of means, in its "C-major scene of Beethoven's Fidelio, in the in-
atmosphere," in its
happy variety of cantation scene of Weber's Der Frei-
scenes and expressions, the opera offers a schutz, in the final scene of Busoni's Doc-
striking contrast to the earlier Tristan tor Faust, etc.
(1865) with its exuberant chromaticism More specifically, the term melodrama
and over-passionate expression of tragic (also monodrama, duodrama) applies to
love-madness. The overture to the Met- complete plays written in this style, as
stersinger, frequently performed in con- was repeatedly done in the i8th century:
certs, is one of the greatest examples of J. E. Eberlin
(1706-62), Sigismundus
19th-century instrumental music and one [cf. DTOe J. J. Rousseau, Pyg-
28.!];
which makes us regret that Wagner con- malion (1762); Georg Benda, Ariadne
centrated his interest exclusively on the auf Naxos (1775; new ed. by A. Einstein,
opera. See *Opera X. Cf. H. Thompson, 1920; cf. AdHM, 752) and Medea (1778).
Wagner und Wagenseil (1927). The made quite
latter 's plays, especially,
a sensation, and caused Mozart to intro-
Melisma. (i) An
expressive vocal pas- duce two long melodramatic monologues
sage sung to one syllable, in contradistinc- in his Za'ide (1780). Around 1800, bal-
tion to the virtuoso-like and frequently lads were frequently recited to a piano-
stereotyped *coloratura. The term is used forte accompaniment; an interesting ex-
[435]
MELODY MELODY
and the elements of the musical
vertical melodic music in Gregorian chant in or-
*texture. By very nature melody can-
its der to refute so utterly false a conception.
not be separated from rhythm. Each II. Although the present interest in
musical sound has two fundamental qual- polyphonic music has resulted in a revi-
ities, pitch and duration, and both of sion of the greatest misconceptions, the
these enter into those successions of real importance of melody is still far
pitch-
plus-duration values which we call melo- from being fully and generally recog-
dies. To consider melody and nized. It must be observed that among
rhythm as
separate, or even as mutually exclusive the various components of the musical
phenomena as is usually done is composition, such as melody, harmony,
misleading. If a distinction between the rhythm, orchestration, the first-men-
pitch quality ("high-low") and the time tioned is, from the historical as well as
quality ("long-short") is needed, the from the creative point of view, far
proper terms are *motion and rhythm. superior to all the others, so superior in-
Melody may thus be said to consist of deed that the others can hardly be con-
motion plus rhythm, and every melody sidered as being on the same plane of im-
can be separated into a motion skeleton portance. The 19th-century development
and a rhythm skeleton, as the accompany- of music, with its growing emphasis on
ing example illustrates. the exploitation of novel harmonies, of
and of rhythm as an in-
orchestral colors,
[437]
MELODY-TYPES MfiNESTRANDISE
qucntly been indifferent to (or incapable Weisen or Tone of the Meistersinger [see
of?) melodic creation, interesting them- *Greek music, etc.].
the entries
selves chiefly in tone color, or Former writers have usually consid-
harmony,
rhythm, a distinct emphasis on the me- ered the ragas, maqams, echoi, etc., as
the "modes" of Hindu, Arabian, Byzan-
tine, etc., music. Actually, they represent
an earlier stage of development in which
the "model" prescribes not only a scale
with a given ambitus and center-tone
as does a mode but also typical motives
and tone-progressions. (For an example,
see under *Hindu music; a Syrian exam-
Melody-types. A
term used in mod- 15, 25, 28, 34, 331, etc.]. An exhaustive
ern writings on exotic and on early Euro- study of melody-types (timbres} in the
pean music to denote a practice of funda- latesequences is contained in E. Misvet
mental importance in the more primitive and P. Aubry, Les Proses d'Adam de
stages of music, that is, the existence of a Saint-Victor (1900). Cf. AdHM 191".
bian and Indian musicians a proced- Menestrandise. Early Frencn term for
ure which largely accounts for the ab- the guilds of professional musicians
sence of the evolutionary element in (menestrel, i.e., minstrel). Francois
Oriental music. To the category of mel- Couperin pictured a procession of min-
ody-types belong the ancient Greek strels, jongleurs, beggars, and acrobats
nomos, the echos of Byzantine and Ar- with their bears and monkeys in a piece
menian church music, the Syrian risqolo, called "Les Pastes de la grande et anci-
the Javanese patet, the Hindu raga, the enne Mxnxstrxndxsx" [cf. his Pieces de
Arabian maqam [see also *Psalms], and, clavecin, ed. by J. Brahms and F. Chrys-
in Europe, the Russian popievty and the ander, ii, 208],
[438]
MENO MENSURAL NOTATION
Meno [It.]. Less. Meno ntosso, less tation it is advisable not to use the
quickly. exact equivalents =
(S whole-note, etc.),
Mensur [G.]. (i) Measure, meter, MX L B 8 11 Sm F Sf
mensuration. (2) In organ building,
same as *scale, scaling (2). Notes: * M i I
*=) i() f()
with reference to the white shapes of the next-smaller value, in mensural notation
larger note-values used instead of the the chief notes, namely L, B, and S, may
former black shapes. See remark under equal either two or three. This dichotomy
*Proportional notation. is indicated by the terms
imperfect and
I. Notational Signs. These fall into perfect. Omitting the modus which is
two classes: single notes and ligatures. usually imperfect, there result four com-
The single notes are: maxima (M*), binations of tempus and prolatio (e.g.,
longa (L), brevis (B), semibrevis (5), tempus perjectum cum prolatione imper-
minima (M), semiminima (Sm), fusa fecta) which constitute the four main
(F), and semifusa (Sf). On the next mensurations of mensural notations and
column is a table of the single notes and which are indicated by special signs.
the corresponding rests, together with the They are the exact equivalent of four
modern forms derived from them. basic meters of modern notation, as indi-
For the transcription into modern no- cated below:
[439]
MENSURAL NOTATION MENSURAL NOTATION
The subsequent explanations refer groups of three S (perfection). Other
chiefly to the mensuration II. As a mat- specifications, such as punctus perfec-
ter of fact, in I the metrical relationships twnts, imperfectionis, alterationis, are
between the various notes are the same as both superfluous and confusing. The dot
in modern notation; this mensuration, is also used, however, in an entirely dif-
therefore, presents no problems, aside ferent meaning, that is, as a punctus addi-
from the use of ligatures and of colo- tionis which is identical with the dot of
ration [see V.]. The principles for the modern notation. The distinction be-
mensuration can easily be derived
III tween the two meanings of the dot is fa-
from those for II, by replacing each note cilitated by the observation that a dot
by the next-smaller note, e.g., the B by which follows upon a perfect note is nec-
the 5, the tempus by the prolatio, etc. essarilya punctus divisionis, and that,
The mensuration IV practically never oc-
on the other hand, a punctus additionis
curs in the sources of white notation and must always be complemented sooner
is rare even in the i4th century. or later by a single note equal to the
III. Imperfection and Alteration. The value of the dot, i.e., half of the value of
normal values of the B and S, i.e., three the dotted note. In the accompanying ex-
and one S respectively, are frequently ample the first and fifth dots are puncti
modified according to principles known divisionis, the others are puncti addi-
as imperfection and alteration. By im- tionis.
shows that a B may also be "imper- the courantes of the iyth century [see
pies
fected" by a preceding 5, a process which *Hemiola] :
[44!
MENSURAL NOTATION MESSEL
tion S-M
in blackened notes. Originally, "Die Probleme der
spatmittelalterlichen
thisindicated triplet rhythm, as above Mensuralnotation ." (ZMW xi); A.
. .
under (c). Owing to the shortness of the M. Michalitschke, "Zur Frage der longa
notes, however, its into in der Mensuraltheorie des
meaning changed 13. Jahrhun-
a dotted rhythm, as illustrated under (e). derts" (ZMWvii); id., in xii. Sec ZMW
It is frequently followed
by a series of also under Notation, etc.Ligatures,
Sm, as under (f). In a combination like
this it should be observed that, notwith- Mensuration. See Mensural notation
II.
standing their identity in shape as well as
rhythmic value, the first of the stemmed Mensuration canon. See *Canon II.
notes is a blackened A/, while the others
Mensurstrich [G.]. See under *Bar-
are "white" (i.e., normal) Sm.
The accompanying example serves to line.
voice]. A
special vocal technique of the
18th-century *bel canto, consisting of a
gradual crescendo and decrescendo over
a sustained tone; see *Expression III.
[442]
METTE MEXICO
marked M.M. J = 80 the duration of the life was full of elaborate
of the Aztecs
ritual and ceremony, in which music
half note will be
^-=~ second. played an indispensable role. On public
occasions many thousands participated in
Metronomic indications can be used to
the ceremonial dances and chants, accom-
estimate the approximate duration of a
,, n Xt panied by numerous percussion and wind
piece. The formula
f , .
is -
,
where M is instruments. The former consisted of
M ,
J.
stick
n 3x160 widely used as musical instruments, pro-
= 90 will last
,
90
= 5% 1 / .
minutes, or
ducing, in the words of a Spanish chron-
5 minutes and 20 seconds. icler, "musica muy triste" (very sad mu-
The first composer to use the metro- sic). The ancient Mexicans had two
nome was Beethoven. In 1817 he pub- principal types of drum. One of these
metronomic indications for all the
lished was the huehuetl, a cylindrical drum
movements of his (then) eight sympho- about two feet in diameter and about five
nies (Allgemeine Musi\alische Zeitung, or six feet high, generally made out of a
1817, no. 51). Unfortunately, the tempi single piece of hollowed-out wood. It
indicated in his Hammerklavier-sonata was placed vertically; authorities differ as
and Ninth Symphony are almost impos- to whether it was played with a stick or
with the bare hands. The teponaztli, or
sibly fast, as are those indicated in the
works of Schumann. See *Tempo. slit-drum, was shorter, and was placed
Lit.: R. E. M. Harding,
Origins of horizontally. It was beaten at the center
Musical Time and Expression (1938); instead of the end. It had a narrow slit
R. Kirkpatrick, "Eighteenth-century Met- on the top, in the form of a letter H,
ronomic Indications" (PAMS, 1938); which formed two tongues facing each
E. Borrel, "Les indications metrono- other. As they were of different thick-
miques . . . du xiiie siecle" (RdM, no. nesses, each of these tongues produced a
27); R. Kolisch, "Tempo and Character
different tone when struck. The tepo-
in Beethoven's Music" xxix, nos. 2 (MQ naztli, therefore, was really a sort of xylo-
and 3). phone. As to the actual form and struc-
ture of ancient Aztec music, we can only
Mette [G.]. *Matins. rely on conjecture, supported by such evi-
dence as may be supplied by musical in-
Mettez [F.]. Draw (an organ stop). struments that have been preserved. Az-
Metzer Neumen tec music was monophonic and its melo-
[G.]. Messine (Mes-
*Neumes dic possibilities were very limited. It ap-
senian) neumes; see I.
century and in A.D. 1325 founded the sic in Mexico inevitably underwent a pro-
city of Tenochtitlan (Mexico), which found transformation. The missionary
became the capital of their powerful em- zeal of the Spaniards entailed an inculca-
tion of European musical methods, espe-
pire. The social, political, and religious
[443]
MEXICO MEXICO
cially as related to the ritual of Christian much greater technical competency than
worship. Only three years after the cap- had any of the Mexican composers of the
Mexico City by Cortes (1521), the
ture of previous generation. Two of his operas,
firstEuropean school of music was Atzimba and La Leyenda de Rudel, were
founded in Texcoco by Pedro de Game, produced in Mexico City.
a Franciscan missionary. The Indians It was not until after the turn of the
were taught the elements of plain-chant, century that musical nationalism began
and they not only learned to play various to emerge in Mexico. The initiator of
European instruments, but were also this movement was Manuel M. Ponce (b.
taught to construct them. While the 1886), whose Canciones Mexicanas for
friars were teaching the Indians to form piano were written in 1905. Ponce made
choirs for the churches that were spring- his reputation abroad with his styliza-
ing up throughout the land, secular tions of Mexican popular songs, of which
forms of music also were cultivated, and Estrellitais the best-known
example. He
as early as 1526 we hear of a certain Ortiz has also published many pieces for piano
who played the guitar and taught danc- based on Mexican traditional themes and
ing. In 1539 a printing press was estab- rhythms, such as his Danzas Mexicanas.
lished in Mexico City, and in 1556 there His larger works include the symphonic
appeared the book with music
first poem Chapultepec (1929), a Concerto
printed in America, an Ordinary of the for piano and orchestra, and a Concerto
Mass. The first choirmaster of the Ca- for guitar and orchestra. He has been
thedral of Mexico City was Juan Juarez, widely active as teacher, editor, conduc-
appointed in 1538. tor, and pianist. Contemporary with
Notable among composers of the Co- Ponce are Jose Rolon (b. 1883) and Can-
lonial period was Antonio de Salazar, delario Huizar (b. 1888), who fluctuate
choirmaster of the Cathedral from about between nationalistic and universal tend-
1685 to 1715. He was succeeded by encies. Occupying a unique position is
Manuel de Sumaya, who wrote the first Julian Carrillo (b. 1875), champion and
opera composed in Mexico. Other Co- practitioner of a new system of musical
lonial composers were Jose de Torres, composition which he calls "Sonido 13,"
Jose Maria Aldana, and Antonio Juanas. based on fractional tones (1/4, 1/8, and
During the I9th century Mexican mu- 1/16).
sic was largely dominated by Italian opera Two composers born in the same year
and by pseudo-romantic salon patterns. (1899) but differing widely in tempera-
Among composers born during the first ment and technique are Silvestre Revuel-
half of the century the most prominent tas and Carlos Chavez. The former, who
were Aniceto Ortega, Cenobio Paniagua, died prematurely in 1940, identified him-
Melesio Morales, and Julio Ituarte. self spontaneously with the spirit of Mex-
Toward the close of the ipth century ico's popular music, producing works that
thetwo most prominent composers were are highly original and at the same time
Gustavo E. Campa (1863-1934) and Ri- entirely unaffected. He became interna-
cardo Castro (1864-1907), both of whom tionally known through music for the
his
were entirely under European influences. film Redes (The Wave). He also com-
However, they broke away from the Ital- posed the symphonic poems Caminos,
ian influence that had so long dominated CuanahuaCy Esquinas, and Sensemaya
Mexican music, substituting instead that (with chorus); several ballets, chamber
of France (in the case of Campa) and Ger- music, and piano pieces. Chavez, founder
many (in the case of Castro). Castro was and conductor of the National Symphony
an excellent pianist and as such attained Orchestra of Mexico (1928), is the lead-
conspicuous success in Europe and the ing modernist of Mexico and is also an
United States. In his compositions he re- ardent exponent of musical nationalism,
peated the formulae of German Romanti- seeking to incorporate indigenous ele-
cism, and at the same time he revealed a ments and pre-Hispanic traditions into
U44]
MEZZO MI-FA
his art. He has appeared frequently as Micanon. See *Psaltery.
guest-conductor with leading orchestras
in the United States. his best-
Mi contra fa. Sec *Mi-fa.
Among
known two symphonies,
compositions are Micrologus. A treatise by Guido of
Sinfonia India and Sinfonia de Antigona\ Arezzo (d. 1050; see *Theory) which ic
the ballets H.P. (Horsepower) and Los an important source for the development
Cuatro Soles; Energia for small orches- of organum [see *Organum II]. Re-edi-
tra.A number of his smaller works have tion by A. Amelli (1904); German trans-
been published in the United States by lation by R. Schlecht in MfM v.
the "New Music" edition,
Mexico has a group of outstanding Microtone. Any interval smaller than
young composers, comprising Luis Sandi a semitone, e.g., the *chroai of Greek
(b. 1905), Daniel Ayala (b. 1908), Pablo music or th? sruti of the *Hindu scale.
Moncayo 1912), Salvador Contreras
(b. During the last fifty years there has been
(b. 1912), and Bias Galindo (b. 1911). Of much experimentation with microtones:
these, the first three are mo:t definitely quarter-tones, sixth-tones, eighth-tones,
nationalistic. Ayala is of pure Mayan and even sixteenth-tones (Haba, Busoni,
(Indian) blood and seeks a direct racial Juan Carillo). Only in the field of quar-
expression in his music. Another young ter-tone music have definite results been
*
composer who holds a distinctive place is gained [see Quarter-tone].
Miguel Bernal Jimenez (b. 1910), who
was trained in Italy and represents the Middle Ages, Music of the. The
Catholic tradition in contemporary Mexi- music of the Christian era prior to the
can music. He has written much church Renaissance, thus roughly comprising the
millennium from 500 to 1500 (1450). In
music, also the opera Tata Vasco (Mex-
view of the extension of this period it is
ico, 1941), based on the life of the famous
[445]
MILANESE CHANT MILITARY BAND
*
lowing table, showing the mi's and fas sic [see Janizary music] resulted in the
of the three hexachords, it appears that adoption of noise-making instruments
the combination mi-fa designates a semi- such as cymbals, triangles, the military
tone if the two syllables are taken from Glockenspiel, and the crescent. Infantry
the same hexachord, a tritone, if from regiments under Napoleon had bands
successive hexachords (see the diagonal consisting of one piccolo, one high clari-
lines) :
net, and sixteen ordinary clarinets, four
Mi Fa bassoons, two serpents, two trumpets, one
Hexachordum durum (on G) B c
Hexachordum naturale (on C) e "v^^f
:
^^ bass trumpet, four horns, three trom-
bones, two side-drums, one bass drum,
:
(G. Feldtrompeter) and were endowed which became widely known through its
with many privileges which distinguished concert tours in America and Europe
them from the Kammertrompeter, i.e., (1878: Liverpool, Dublin, London, Paris,
the members of the civilian orchestras. etc.). Sousa was leader of a band of the
The kettledrummers were expected to United States Marine Corps from 1880 to
use all sorts of extravagant and affected 1892, when he resigned and organized
movements such as survive to the present his own world-famous band (first con-
day with the drum majors and majorettes cert, 1892, in Plainfield, N. J.; world tour
[cf. SaHMI, 330]. The music of these 1910/11).
groups was, of course, limited to signals, The composition of a military band
and it was not until the advent of the i8th varies in different countries and even in
oboes, clarinets, horns, and bassoons. its Story (1912); M. Brenet, La musiquc
Around 1800, the vogue of Turkish mu- militaire (1921); P. Panoff, Militdrmusi\
[446]
MILONGA MINNESINGER
in Geschichteund Gegenwart (1921); G. "troubadours (rather than the *trou-
Dyson, "The Composer and the Military veres), became
the leading in fact,
Band" (ML ii, no. i); M. Brenet, 'Trench practically the sole representatives of
Military Music in the Reign of Louis German music during the Middle Ages.
XIV" (MQ iii); H. E. Adkin, Treatise The start of the movement is usually
on the Military Band, 3 (1931); St. traced
vols. to the
marriage of Frederick Bar-
Gallo, The Modern Band (1935); G. barossa to the French princess Beatrix of
Pares, Traiti d' instrumentation des . . .
Burgundy, 1156. The close relation-
in
[447]
MINOR MINSTRELS
Virgin. The melodies are more marked- Minstrels [from L. ministrellus, serv-
ly modal (church modes) than the French ant]. Originally and properly, the pro-
ones and many of them are conspicuous fessional musicians (instrumentalists) of
for their extensive use of the interval of the Middle Ages, especially those who
the third an example, see under
[for were employed in a feudal household.
"Third] Textual considerations as well
.
Today the term is used as a generic de-
as a certain "Teutonic massiveness" of nomination for the entire field of popular
the musical line forbid the application of music entertainment, from the mimes of
*modal interpretation (%-meter) which antiquity to the show-business of the
is
generallyaccepted for the trouvere present day.
songs. Finally, the French refrain forms, The earliest known representatives of
the *virelai and the *rondeau, are absent this field were the Roman mimes
in the German repertory, which uses only (mimus), the actors of the late Roman
two forms: the *Barform, derived from theater. After its decline, during the Mi-
the French *ballade, and the *Leich, de- grations, thesemimes, who already in
rived from the French *lai. Owing to the Roman law were considered as outcasts
large number of preserved songs and the (injami), devoted themselves to various
individual charm of his melodies, Nei- activities frequently of a dubious na-
thart von Reuenthal stands out as the cen- ture among which was the playing of
tral figure ofMinnesinger music, though instruments. The efforts of Church and
from the literary point of view he already State authorities to suppress their influ-
1902); F. Ebert, Die Liedweisen der in guilds similar to those of the medieval
Colmarer Liederhandschrijt (Diss. Gb't- craftsmen and known as *mtnestrandise.
tingen 1932); F. Gennrich, Das Form- In England, a class of acrobat-musi-
problem des Minnegesangs (1931); H. J. cians was known as gleemen, in Ger-
Moser, in ZMWvii; id., in KIM, 1924; many, as Gaudier. A vivid description of
E. Jammers, in ZMW vii; O. Ursprung, their activities given in a German re-
is
ReMMA, 241.
small (steps); or, more likely, from "Dans nos bois," as given in d'Anglebert's
*amener]. A
French dance of rustic Pieces de clavecin [see ^Editions XXIV,
origin which was introduced at the court A, 8]) shows the graceful dignity which
of Louis XIV about 1650. The king him- characterizes the early minuet and which
self is said to have danced "the first" still lives in the famous minuet in
minuet, composed by Lully, in 1653. The Mozart's Don Giovanni. In the sym-
minuet was soon adopted as the official
phonies of Haydn and Mozart, however,
court dance of the regime of the Roi Sol- the minuet took on greater speed and a
eil, and it quickly spread all over Europe, more humorous or whimsical character,
superseding completely the older types gradually leading into the *scherzo. See
(courantes, pavanes) and establishing a also *Dance music and (regarding the in-
new period of dance and dance music. ternal structure of the minuet) *Binary
The fact that a number of early minuets and ternary form II.
Requiem Mass) to a psalm tone with an- Missal [L. missale; G. Missel]. See
tiphon. It is one of the *Penitential *Liturgical books I.
[450]
MISTIC(H)ANZA MODE
Mistic(h)anza [It.]. *Quodlibet. "national"
composers; the last-mentioned
Misura tendency is conspicuous in the works of
[It.]. Measure, beat. Allamisu-
ra, in strict
Debussy [see impressionism] and of
time; senza misura, without
contemporary *neo-classical composers
strict time.
(Hindemith). The accompanying exam-
Mixed cadence. See *Cadence I. ples illustrate the use of modality. Ex. i
[452]
MODINHA MODULATION
modes from the feet of ancient Greek cable resemblance to Russian and gypsy
poetry [see *Poetic meter]. songs. Cf. Mario de Andradc, Modinhas
As applied to musical compositions, the imperials (S. Paulo, 1930).
Third (dactylic): J. j J J-
Modulator. See *Tonic Sol-fa.
| | | |...
Fi
the enharmonic change of one or several frequently used in this connotation. Both
notes. This is frequently achieved modi figure prominently in the theoreti-
cal explanations of mensural notation
through the diminished seventh chord
from the i4th to the I7th century, but
[Ex. 5].
are of little practical significance, on ac-
If the new key is touched upon only
count of the long duration of the note
momentarily, leading quickly into a third
values involved. For the relationship of
key, the modulation is said to be "false"
or "passing." The former term is used if
the modus
mensural to the modus
the third key is the initial key [Ex. 6], (rhythmic mode) of the i3th century cf.
ApNPM, 293f. See also under *Perfect,
the latter, if it is still another key [Ex. 7] .
[454]
MONOCORDO MONOPHONY
movable fret is attached so that the vibrat- true monody, from Caccini's Nuovc
ing length of the string can be varied. musiche, 1602 [for others, cf. HAM, nos.
The monochord is said to have been in- 182-185; SchGMB, nos. 169, 171-173,
vented by Pythagoras (6th century B.C.). 176, etc.; see also *Nuove musiche; *Aria
It was
widely used in Antiquity and the III; *Cantata; *Recitative].
Middle Ages for the investigation and Forerunners of the monodic style are
demonstration of the laws of musical the numerous 16th-century songs with
acoustics, a purpose for which it is still lute accompaniment [Schlick, Tabula-
used in schools [see * Acoustics II]. In turen etlicher lobgesang und lidlein
the later Middle Ages the number of (1512); Luis Milan, El Maestro (1535);
strings was increased to two or three, so Enriquez de Valderravano, Libro de
that intervals and chords could be made Musica de vihuela (1547)] and poly-
audible. Such monochords were the phonic madrigals arranged for a solo
probable ancestors of the clavichord singer and an accompanist for the lower
which as late as the i6th century was parts [e.g., Luzzascho Luzzaschi; cf.
called *monacordo in Italy. SchGMB, no. Bottrigari, in his
166],
Wantzloeben, Das Monochord
Lit.: S. Desiderio (1594; new edition by K.
als Instrument und System (1911); Meyer, 1924), informs us about an exten-
GeHU, 407. sive practice of solo song in the *laudi,
the *intermedii, and in folk singing.
Monocordo. In violin playing, the per- Lit.: A. Schering, "Zur Geschichte des
formance of a piece on a single string. begleiteten Sologesangs im 16. Jahr-
This effect was used first by Paganini, in hundert" (Z1M xiii); E, Schmitz, "Zur
his Sonata "Napoleon" for the G string. Friihgeschichte der Monodie" (JMP
xviii); W. Krabbe, "Zur Geschichte der
Monodrama. See *Melodrama. Monodie im 16. lahrhundert" (Allge-
melne Musi\allsche Zeitung, Jan., 1922);
Monody [Gr. monos, one; ode, song].
P. Nettl, "(Jber ein handschriftliches
Literally, music for one singer. The term
Sammelwerk von Gesangen italienischer
is occasionally used as synonymous with
*monophonic music, or for accompanied
Friihmonodie" (ZMW ii); A. Einstein,
"Firenze, prima della monodia" (LRM
solo song in general. More properly it
vii); L. Torchi, "Canzoni ... ad una
denotes that particular type of accom-
voce nel secoloXVH" (RMI i).
panied solo song which developed around
1600 as the reaction against the poly-
Monophony, monophonic [Gr. mo-
phonic style of thei6th century, and
nos, one; phonos, sound] . Music compris-
which is characterized by the recitativo-
ing only a single melodic line without
additional parts or accompaniment, as
contrasted to *polyphonic, *homophonic,
etc. [see *Texture], Monophonic music
is the purest realization of the melodic
element [see *Melody]. It is the oldest
type of music, being the only one em-
ployed in ancient Greek music, in the
various branches of early church music
(Gregorian chant, Byzantine chant), in
the music of the troubadours, trouveres,
Minnesinger and Meistersinger, in the
Spanish cantigas, and the Italian laude of
the i3th century,and universally in Ori-
and by the
like design of the voice part entaland primitive music as well as in
thorough-bass accompaniment. Accom- European folk music. See remark under
panying is one of the earliest examples of *Monody.
[455]
MONOTONE MORDENT
Monotone. The recitation of a liturgi- mordente]. Amusical ornament consist-
cal text on an unchanged pitch, as in ing of the alternation of the written note
psalms, prayers, lessons, reading from the with the note immediately below it. It is
Scriptures, etc. Usually, the monotonic indicated in the music by one of the
signs
declamation is modified by *inflections, given in Ex. i
(the third sign occurs only
that is, a few ascending or descending
tones at the beginning, middle, or end of
the phrase of the text. See *Psalm tones.
The name "inflected monotone" has also
been applied to rather elaborate chants
which have been interpreted as a highly
ornamented type of monotone [cf. GD
ii, 709; 17,368].
[456]
MORISCA MOTET
particularly vigorous rhythm, should
be dance, partly in a continuous tradition,
performed comparatively slowly, as in partly as the result of a revival made
Ex. 6 [a: Italian Concerto; b: Wt. around 1900. The Morris was danced
Cl. ii, no. i]. Whenmordent and an
a chiefly as a part of the May
games. It in-
appoggiatura occur on the same note the cluded, in addition to six dancers in two
mordent must be delayed until the appog- opposing groups, certain solo characters,
giatura has been held its normal duration, such as the "Mayde Maryan," represented
as in Bach's Chorale Prelude, "Wenn wir by a boy disguised as a girl, or by a dancer
in hochsten Nb'ten sein" [Ex. 7]. After with a hobbyhorse. Cf. GD
iii, 52 iff;
1750 all mordents were performed more also C. Sachs, A World History of the
rapidly than at the time of Bach. The Dance (1940). See also under *Villa-
ornament apparently became absorbed in nella.
the ordinary notation before the classical
Mormorando Murmuring.
period, for it is not found in the works of
[It.].
only the lower auxiliary was quickly re- development. As a rule, a motet is an un-
peated [cf. WoHN ii, 22; ApNPM, 24!. accompanied choral composition, based
For the so-called "inverted mordent" see on a Latin sacred text, and designed to be
under *Schneller. P. A. performed in ihe Catholic service, chiefly
at Vespers. There are, however, lateral
Morisca, Moresca [from Sp. morisco, developments branching out into the sec-
Moor]. A pantomimic dance of the i5th ular field (ijth-century French motet;
and 1 6th centuries, which was executed 15th-century ceremonial motets), as well
in Moorish costumes and other disguises as motets for soloists (13th-century motet;
of a grotesque character, the dancers hav- also in the late i7th century) or with or-
ing their faces blackened and small bells chestral accompaniment and to texts in
attached to their legs. Arbeau, in his the vernacular (i7th century, Germany;
*Qrchesographie (1588), reports having the English motets are called *anthems).
seen the morisca danced in his youthful The history of the motet may be divided
days (around 1530) by "un gargonnet into three periods: A, that of the medieval
machure et noircy, des grelottieres aux motet (c. 1225-1450); B, that of the
jambes." The morisca, which was easily Flemish motet (14501600), as it
might
the most popular dance for the ballets and be called after its inaugurators although
mummeries of the Renaissance, occurs in it became international property after
two types, as a solo dance and as a dance 1550; C, that of the Baroque motet
between two groups representing a (1600-1750).
sword-fight between Christians and Mo- A. The Medieval Motet. I. The me-
hammedans. The latter type was known dieval motet originated in the early I3th
also as Danse des *bouffons [see also century, possibly as early as 1200, by the
*Matasin]. Dances of this type are still addition of a full text to the upper part
known today in Spain, Corsica, and (duplum) of the *clausulae of the Pero-
Guatemala. They have survived particu- tinus period, a procedure which is strik-
[457]
MOTET MOTET
century, led from the vocalized melismas The liturgical background of the 13th-
of the alleluias to the fully texted *se- century motet is furthermore illustrated
quences. Owing to the addition of by the fact that, in the early and in the
"mots," the texted duplum was called classical periods (c. 1225-75), the text of
repertory (usually a gradual, alleluia, or cal poet-musicians to give new and indi-
responsorium) and identified by the same vidual expression to the sacrosanct ideas
word or syllable (*incipit) with which it of the Church that, when the number of
occurs the original plainsong. The
in parts was increased from two to three,
[458]
MOTET MOTET
which, no doubt, represents a phenome- elaboration, length, and rhythmic variety.
non of cultural extravagance, is empha- A feature of special interest is the intro-
sized over the liturgical motet which, far duction of the *isorhythmic principle.
from being incongruous, is a perfect ex- Practically the motets of Guillaume dc
all
(F. Ludwig). For an example showing Beginning with the I5th century, novel
the transition from a clausula to a methods of composition were applied to
(French) motet, cf. ApNPM, 260 and motets. The two characteristics of the
272 (Flos filius)', also HAM, no. 28d medieval motet, that is, polytextuality
and h, also i. and cantus-firmus tenor, were abandoned
III. The explanation, not infrequent in in favor of free composition with the
modern books, of the motet as a *quod- same text in all the parts. Occasionally
libet is
quite misleading. Actually, only motets of this period have a plainsong
a limited number of motets can be shown melody (or snatches thereof) in the so-
to include combinations of different pre- prano. The origin of these novel types of
existing melodies [see *Refrain; *Ente]. motet is found in similar methods of
The rhythmic texture of the motets is in- composition which, in the later part of
variably based on the rhythmic *modes, the 4th century, were applied to hymns
1
the upper parts frequently employing a or to the antiphons B.M.V. Another type
quicker pattern (first, second, sixth of this period is the solo-motet with in-
mode) than the tenor (third, fifth mode), strumental accompaniment evidently
as illustrated (schematically) in our ex- the result of an influence of 14th-cen-
tury French secular song (*ballade). Cf.
u the examples by Dunstable and Power in
SchGMB, nos. 34, 37. For a further study
u ji
of the interesting but complex period of
u. i transition from c. 1400 to 1450, the reader
is referred to the analysis of Dunstable's
ample. Towards the end of the century motets in ReMMA, 414.
the strict modal rhythm (Franco and B. The Flemish Motet. The return to
predecessors) was modified by the intro- sacred music, which characterizes the
duction (Petrus de Cruce) of quick notes, *Flemish School, brought the motet back
four to seven in the place of one brevis into prominence as a musical form second
(quarter-note) and sung syllabically in a in importance only to the Mass. The
quick parlando (Petronian motet; exam- motet now becomes a choral composition
ple in HAM, no. 34). See also *Ars an- of a Latin scriptural text, in four to six or
tiqua. more voice-parts. The cantus-firmus in
IV. In the
1
4th century the motet lost long-held notes [see *Pfundnoten] is still
itsformer dominant position [see *Ars found inmany motets of the period 1450-
nova] but, as a recompense, increased in 1500 one of the most famous examples
[459]
MOTET MOTET
being Josquin's Stabat mater [cf. W. Am- lis, Germany (Senfl, Handl, Has-
Byrd),
bros, Gcschichte der MusiJ^, v, 62] but sler),and France (Goudimel, Regnart).
was gradually superseded by a completely In England the adoption, about 1560, of
free treatment. The first master of this texts in the vernacular led to a special type
particularly in connection with *poly- pation, solo voices, aria style, recitative,
choral treatment. This novel style, which etc.
already occurs in some motets of Gombcrt The earliest examples of the new prac-
(fl. 152040), led to a new type
of motet, tice occur in Viadana's Concerti ecclesias-
die "Venetian motet," as it is called, in tlci (1602, '08) which contain motets for
contradistinctionto the "Netherlands one, two, three, and four voices with or-
motet."
gan accompaniment. While organ ac-
Around 1530 the motet spread through- companiment is already prescribed in the
out Europe, and the Flemish masters Concent ecclesiastici of A. and G. Gabri-
(Josquin, Gombert, de Monte, Lasso) eli (1587) and of Banchieri (1595), Via-
found disciples of equal rank in Italy (A. dana's innovation is the use of solo voices
Gabrieli, Palestrina, Giov. Gabrieli), instead of choral performance, an innova-
Spain (Morales, Vittoria), England (Tal- tion which is particularly conspicuous in
MOTET MOTET
the pieces for one or two voices [cf. An important but little known devel-
SchGMB, no. 168], The solo-motet for opment took place in France,
beginning
two or three singers with
organ accom- with Marc-Antoine Charpentier (c.
paniment prevailed in Italy throughout 1634-1704) and continuing with Lully
the Baroque, side by side with the choral (1632-87), Michel Lalande (1657-1726),
style of the Roman or Venetian tradition; Campra (1660-1744; cf. HAM, no. 263),
not a few motets of this period make use Francois Couperin (1668-1733; HAM,
of both styles, e.g., solistic treatment in no, 266), and Rameau (1683-1764).
the first part, choral treatment in the sec- While Lully's motets are still a-cappella
ond (e.g., Carissimi). Antonio Caldara for double chorus, those by Campra and
(1670-1732) seems to have been one of Couperin are for solo voices with organ or
the first in Italy to use instruments in instruments, and those of Rameau employ
addition to the organ [DTOe 13.!]. chorus, soloists (for the "airs'*), organ,
More interesting is the development in and orchestra.
Germany, the beginning and end of For modern reprints see *Editions,
which is indicated by two composers of particularly V, VII-IX, XV, XX, XXI,
the highest rank, Schiitz (1585-1672) XXVII.
and Bach (1685-1750). Schiitz's Sym- The rather unimportant development
phoniae sacrae (1629, '47, '50) contain an of the motet after Bach may be briefly
inexhaustible treasure of
masterpieces characterized by the names of Hasse,
written in a great variety of styles, incor- Graun, C. P. E. Bach, Mozart (Ave
porating instrumental participation, solo verum), Mendelssohn, Schumann, and,
voices, expressive coloraturas, character- particularly, Brahms (opp. 29, 74, no).
istic motives in rapid notes, echo-like A somewhat more continuous develop-
alternation of two singers or instruments, ment took place in France, under Gou-
realistic effects, trumpet calls, etc. Most nod, Saint-Saens, Theodore Dubois,
of these pieces, particularly those from the Franck, Charles Borde, d'Indy, and
later collections, are written to German other 'members of the *Schola can-
majority of motets
texts, as are also the torum.
written by the successors of Schiitz. It Lit., General: H. Leichtentritt, Ge-
goes without saying that this practice schichte der Motette (1908).
makes it even more difficult, if not impos- To A. i$th century: F. Ludwig, Re-
sible, to draw a line of distinction between pertorium motetorum vetustissimi
. . .
the German motet and other types of stili (1910); W. Meyer, Der
Ursprung
church music, such as the cantata, the des Motets (1897); OH
i, 176!!; ReMMA,
from the selection contained in DdT wig, in AMW v; id. y in SIM vii; J.
[461]
MOTET STYLE MOTU PROPRIO
tions VII]; M. Bukofzcr, in ML xvii, companiment or counterpoint to a mel-
no. 3; H. Besseler, in AMW viii. ody. The "motiva!" technique is there-
To B: W. Stephan, Die burgundisch- fore, generally speaking, much more re-
niederldndische Motette zur Zeit Oc^e- cent than the "figura!" technique. Early
Motetus [L.]. (i) Latin for motet. ("high-low") of the musical sounds, as
(2) In the medieval motet, the voice above distinguished from rhythm which is the
the tenor; see *Motet A, result of their duration quality ("long-
I; *Duplum.
short"). In fact, any melody can be sep-
Mother Goose Suite. See *Sym- arated into a motion-pattern and into a
IV.
phonic poem rhythm-pattern as is shown under *Mel-
Motion See under *Film ody. Motion may be ascending or de-
pictures.
music. scending, in the narrow steps of the scale
(conjunct), or in the wider steps of a
Motive, motif [G. Motiv}. The brief- chord (disjunct). The study of these fea-
and self-contained fragment
est intelligible tures is of prime importance in melodic
of a musical theme or subject. As few as analysis. See *Melody I, IV; also *Primi-
two notes may constitute a motive, if they tive music III.
are sufficiently characteristic, e.g., the The term is also used to describe the
descending fourth at the beginning of relative changes of pitch in two or more
Beethoven's Piano Sonata A major, op. simultaneous voice-parts. Two such parts
2, no. 2; or the descending fifth at the are said to be in * parallel motion, if they
opening of his Ninth Symphony [see the stay in the distance of the same interval
example under *Phrase]. The motives [Ex., a] ; in similar motion, if they move
are the very bricks or germinating cells
of the musical composition. It is through
their highly developed use (repetition in
the same or in other parts; transposition
into other pitches; rhythmical modifica-
tions; contrapuntal combination with in the same direction, but change their
other motives) that Bach as well as Bee- distance [b]; in contrary motion, if they
thoven has bestowed upon his work a move in opposite directions [c] ; in
unique quality of logical coherence and oblique motion, if one part remains sta-
well-motivated organization. In particu- on the same pitch [d].
tionary
lar, the development-sections of the sona-
tas are entirely based upon the motives Moto, Con With motion,
[It.]. quick.
derived from the various subjects of the
exposition. See also *Leitmotif.
Motu proprio [L., of his own motion].
The term "figure" frequently used
is Generally, a Papal decree, referring to the
as synonymous with motive. distinc- A administration of the Church. Particu-
tion could, however, and should be made, larly, a decree issued by Pope Pius in X
namely, that motives are derived from 1903 which contained a new regulation
themes, while figures are not and, there- of the music in the Catholic service. The
fore, are of a more secondary importance, most important points of this decree were:
frequently serving as material
for an ac- (a) Abolishment of the theatrical and
MOUTH HARMONICA MOZARABIC CHANT
worldly style of church music which had certain 16th-century types, e.g., the cro-
spread during the I9th century, particu- mornes, the reed was covered by a wooden
larly in the Roman countries, (b) Return cap which acted as a windchcst (similar
to Palestrina's music as the model of poly- to the reed pipes of the organ) [see
phonic church music, (c) Restoration of Reed].
Gregorian chant according to the princi- (d) Fipple mouthpiece, used with the
ples of the monks of *Solesmes; abolish- ^recorders. This consists of a beak-
ment of the Editio Medicea and introduc- shaped chamber which is stopped by a
tion of the Editio Vaticana [see *Liturgi- plug leaving only a narrow flue to lead
cal books], (d) Suppression of instru- the breath towards the sharp edge of a
mental music save for special occasions side hole. The principle is the same as in
and reduction of organ-playing to a the flue pipes of the organ.
modest role, (e) The admission of mod- (e) Mouth hole, used in *flutes. This
ern compositions (vocal, of course) pro- is a lateral orifice and the stream of air is
vided their character was in agreement directed against its lower edge. Because
with the spirit of the service and the the mouth hole of a flute does not form a
liturgical functions. For the complete separate "piece" of the instrument, it is
text (English) cf. N. Slonimsky, Music not spoken of as a "mouthpiece," but re-
Since 2900 (1937), pp. 523^ ferred to as "embouchure," a term which
is also applied to the class (a).
Mouth harmonica, mouth organ.
See ^Harmonica (2). Mouvement [F.]. (i) Movement.
[463]
MOZARTEUM MUSICA
Visigoths, who brought with them an omphantc" (Pieces de Clavecin^ ordre X),
Arian Christianity, adopted the Catholic where it serves a
pictorial purpose. It
faith of Spain). St. L^ander (d. 599), may be compared with the highly dra-
St. Isidore (c. 570-636), and St. Ildefon- matic "murky" in the first movement of
sus (d. 667) played an important role in Beethoven's Pathetique.
the development of the chant which re-
Murmelnd [G.]. Murmuring.
mained in use, untouched by the Gre-
gorian reforms, until about the nth Musette, (i) The French *bagpipe of
cen-
tury. See *Spanish music I. the 1 7th and i8th centuries. It had two
Lit.: ReMMA, iioff (bibl., 436); A. chanters and a number of drones and bel-
Gastoue', Cours du chant gregorien lows operated by the arm. The instru-
(1917)1 PP- 7 J 79 (examples); P. Wag- ment became fashionable, together with
ner, Der Mozarabische Kirchengesang the vielle [see *Hurdy-gurdy] in French
.
(1928); C. Rojo and G. Prado,
. . El societywhen, during the reigns of Louis
Canto Mozardbe (1929); P. Aubry, in XIV (1645-1715) and Louis XV
(1715-
SIM ix; M. Sablayrolles, in SIM xiii; G. 74), the court circles indulged in a so-
Prado, in Speculum III, no. 2 (1928). phisticated crave for "Arcadia," disguis-
ing themselves as shepherds and peasants.
Mozarteum. An institution at Salzburg
The instruments of this period were
(Austria), headquarters of the Mozart-
splendidly decorated, the bags being cov-
Gemeinde, and devoted to the memory of ered with elaborate needlework, the pipes
Mozart and to the study of his works.
being inlaid with ivory and precious
Mp. Mezzo piano.
stones. Aselection of pieces for musette
and vielles is contained in H. Expert,
M.S. Mano sinistra [It.], left hand. Amusements des musiciens francais du
Muance [F.]. *Mutation (3).
XVHie which in-
siecle (Senart, Paris),
cludes compositions by Jacques Aubert
Miide [G.]. Tired, languid. (1678-1753), Charles Baton (d. 1758),
and Nicolas Chedeville. Cf. also GD, ar-
Muhelos [G.]. Effortless.
ticles Anet; Boismortier. (2) Dance-
Muineira, muneira. A dance of the like pieces of a pastoral character with a
[464]
MUSICA DIVINA MUSICA FICTA
Musica Divina. See *Editions, histor- zur Chromatik des 14. bis 16. Jahrhun-
XX.
ical, derts," StM, 1914]. Musica falsa is sim-
ply the older term (i3th century) which
Musica Enchiriadis [from Or. en- was supplanted by the other in the i4th
cheiridion, handbook]. An important century, probably because its implication
treatise of the pth century (before 867, of falseness became objectionable.
according to J. Handschin, in Deutsche II. The earliest reference to chromatic
Vierteljahrsschrijt fur Literaturwissen- tones found in the writings of Odo of
is
[465]
MUSICA FICTA MUSICA FICTA
postulating that the third or sixth before tion will show that, prior to 1450, the
a fifth or octave should be major if the musical sources are, as a rule, fully
pro-
upper voice ascends, minor, if it descends vided with all the necessary accidentals.
[seeEx.;cf. WoGM i, ii6f]. In the i3th century the tonal resources of
III. In modern musicological writings, polyphonic music are so limited, the har-
musica ficta denotes not so much the the- monies so clearly modal, that very seldom
ory of early chromaticism, but the prob- are accidentals needed aside from a B-flat
lems arising from the very scarce indica- which is frequently found as a signature
tion of chromatic tones in the musical in one of the lower parts [see ^Partial
sources prior to 1600, or, in other words, signature, also *Tritone]. The manu-
from the striking incongruity in this scripts of the i4th century show a strik-
matter between the theoretical and the ing increase of notated accidentals, in
musical sources. Considering the fact conformity with the broadened system of
that W. Odington already discusses most harmonics and "keys." Signs for C-
of the chromatic tonesit is disconcerting, sharp, F-sharp, G-sharp, E-flat, are found
indeed, to find throughout the i6th cen- in considerable
quantity so that additional
tury many long compositions completely editorial accidentals will seldom be found
[466]
MUSICAL BOX MUSICA RESERVATA
ciple outlined at the beginning of this extemporized during his visit to Potsdam
paragraph. in 1747. Thededication copy bears the
The foregoing explanations may be inscription: "Regis lussu Cantio Et Re-
complemented by a number of examples liqua Canonica Arte Resoluta" (By com-
showing unusual but entirely legitimate mand of the king, the theme and other
formations. See also *Leading tone. things developed in canonical art), a
sentence which, if read acrostically, spells
RICERCAR, thus emphasizing the
learned character of the work. In fact,
together with the *Art of Fugue, the
Musical Offering represents the summary
and consummation of three centuries of
contrapuntal art. Particularly interesting
are the various enigmatical canons and
the trio-sonata in the last movement of
which the royal theme appears once in
each part.
Lit.: Ph. Spitta, Bach, Engl. transl., iii,
king's invention, upon which Bach had lehre of the i8th century. See *Maniera.
[467]
MUSICA SACRA MUSIC CRITICISM
Lit.: M. van Crcvel, A. P. Coclico hard, even impossible, for them to do
(1940); A. Coclicus, Compendium mu- justice to others. Schumann was a soli-
sices (1552); G. Zarlino, Istituziones tary exception, inasmuch as he had, in
(1558), cap. 63; Th. Kroyer, "Von der addition to his creative capacity, the fac-
Musica Reservata" (Festschrift fur Hem- ulty of understanding and appreciating
rich Wolffliriy Dresden, 1934); A. Sand- other personalities. Indeed, he had an al-
berger, Beitrage zur Geschichte der bay- most miraculous power of vision, as is
risehen Hoj \apelle unter 0. di Lasso i, shown by his numerous reviews, favor-
5iff; K. Huber, ho de Vento (1918); H. able or adverse, of an op. i or op. 2, e.g.,
Leichtentritt, in BAMS vi; E. Lowinsky, those of Chopin, Berlioz, Brahms. Among
in BAMS vii. the more recent writers of critical studies
we should like to single out D. F. Tovey
Musica Sacra. See *Editions XXI.
in England and A. Halm in Germany.
day, of the works of Josquin, Isaac, and critically discussed in the daily papers.
other masters. About 200 years later we Thus came into existence a new profes-
encounter a more aggressive type of criti- sion, music criticism. Eduard Hanslick,
cism in Mattheson's Critica musica who wrote from 1864 for the Neue Freie
(1722), in Scheibe's Der critische Musi- Presse (Vienna), may justly be called the
cus (1737-40), and in Marpurg's Der father of musical journalism, if only for
Critische Musicus an der Spree (1749- the reason that, in his one-sided attitude
50). The reviews of Robert Schumann against Wagner and for Brahms, he in-
are a highly important landmark in the troduced into music criticism an element
development of music criticism. These, of personal aggressiveness and prejudice
although published in a magazine, the which, unfortunately, was imitated by a
Neue Zeitschrijt fur Musif( (founded by number of later critics. Hanslick's suc-
Schumann and still issued today), may cessor as critic for the Neue Freie Presse
be mentioned here because they are con- was Julius Korngold who, until the rise
cerned with the critical analysis of com- of Hitlerism, exercised great power.
positions rather than with an account of In the 2oth century Berlin acquired the
their performance. Other great compos- leadership in music criticism, in conse-
ers who were also more or less active as quence of this city's rise as the world's
Hugo Wolf, Debussy. In general, how- ing critics were the Wagnerian Wilhelm
ever, creative artists of high rank, in spite Tappert; Leopold Schmidt at the Berliner
of their superior knowledge of musical Tageblatt and his successor Alfred Ein-
art, are not good critics, because their stein; Adolf Weissmann, the champion
subjective point of view makes it
very of modernism; Hermann Springer at the
[468]
MUSIC CRITICISM MUSIC CRITICISM
Deutsche Tageszeitung. In the widely hand, the reviews of famous critics, past
read Frankfurter Zeitung Paul Bekker as well as present, frequently bear the
(d. in New York) and Karl Holl have stamp of presumption and arbitrariness
acquired great authority. Among the rather than of integrity and knowledge.
contemporary English critics Ernest New- Eduard Hanslick is only one of the many
man is best known internationally, from who have greatly misused the ascendency
his long activity on the Manchester inherent in their position. Various efforts
Guardian and the London Sunday Times. have been made by modern writers, e.g.,
III. In the United States music criti- Ernest Newman and M. D. Calvocoressi,
cism began with J. D. D wight (1813- to advance music criticism from the level
93), William H. Fry (1813-64), and of a hit-or-miss reaction of individuals to
John R. G. Hazzard, Fry's successor on the rank of a real science; to establish cer-
the New York Tribune. Toward the tain general principles of approach and
turn of the century there appeared on the judgment which might serve as a com-
scene a galaxy of eminent critics who mon basis for all the members of the pro-
have done honor to the profession. Of the fession. Perhaps Calvocoressi has come
older generation J. G. Huneker (New closest to the establishment of a general
York Times, New
York World), H. E. method by outlining three main consid-
Krehbiel (New York Tribune), W. J. which enter into the mental ac-
erations
Henderson (New York Sun), Lawrence tivity of the critic: (i) "predispositions,"
Gilman (New York Herald Tribune), (2) "direct data," (3) "indirect data."
Philip Hale (Boston Herald), H. T. The first of these is the critic himself, his
Parker (Boston Evening Transcript), R. personality, temperament, experience,
Aldrich (New York Times), have ac- biases, etc. The second the composition
is
quired the greatest reputation. At present, as written and performed. The third
Olin Downcs (New York Times), Os- category includes numerous accessory
car Thompson (New York Sun), Virgil facts, such as knowledge previously ac-
Thomson {Herald Tribune), Samuel quired about the composer from other
Chotzinoff (New York Post), Francis compositions or through outside informa-
Perkins (Herald Tribune), Leonard Lie- tion; about his position within the gen-
bling (New York American), with others, eral development of music or within a
are the best known and most esteemed particular school; about the relationship
critics. An essential difference between of the composition to others of the same
music criticism in the United States and composer, etc. To separate these consid-
in Germany, for example, is the much erations and, in particular, to avoid un-
greater emphasis in America on the jour- due prevalence of the personal "predispo-
nalistic side, which requires the critic to sition" over the factual "data" is the fore-
have his review in the paper the morning most task of the critic.
after the performance. In Berlin, reviews Even more important, perhaps, than
frequently appeared in the form of weekly theories and methods of music criticism
reports, sometimes several weeks after the is the establishment of a living tradition
concert took place. inaugurated by men of outstanding qual-
ities and perpetuated by others who try
IV. It is generally agreed that music
criticism, as practiced today, is, on the to emulate them. These qualities, not
whole, unsatisfactory. cannot be denied
It frequently combined in one individual,
that the average music critic exercises an may be summed up as follows: Practical
arbitrary and undeserved authority, not and theoretical knowledge of music in
backed by sufficient ability, training, and its various fields; literary talent; a wide
spiritual horizon; a great feeling
of re-
experience in the field he represents. In
sponsibility; a character in which
sen-
many places music criticism is assigned to
a reporter who has bare knowledge of sitiveness, benevolence, sincerity, and
music and who is really at home in an fearlessness are coupled with tact and
altogether different field. On the other some degree of diplomacy; finally, that
[469]
MUSIC DRAMA MUSIC EDUCATION IN U. S.
scent for the new, valuable, and impor- taste. Thus, provided children could
tant which is the outstanding trait of the read at sight effectively, the value of the
specific critical talent.
music itself has been held to be of slight
For a list of living critics sec Pierre importance. Book companies have met
Key's Music Year Boo^. these ideals by issuing volumes of inferior
Lit.: M. D. Calvocoressi, The Princi- music, with the result that children,
ples and Methods of Music Criticism wearied by mechanical musical discipline
(1923); S. Langford, Musical Criticism and by an experience of songs that are to
"Composer-Critics" (ML v, no. 3); W. Within the last years great emphasis has
Wright Roberts, "Berlioz, the Critic" been laid on the orchestra and the band,
(ML vii, no. i); J. D. Rorke, "The Per- and in certain school systems applied
sonal Note in Musical Criticism" (MQ music is accorded diploma credit. Courses
xiii); P. C. Buck, in PMA xxxii;A. H. in appreciation and in the technical
Fox-Strangways, in PMA Ixv;M. D. branches are also offered. At the moment
Calvocoressi, in MO ix; A. Schering, "Aus there is evident a tardy disposition to im-
der Geschichte der musikalischen Kritik prove the quality of all school music and
in Deutschland" (JMP xxxv); F. Stege, to adopt a more enlightened pedagogy.
"Die deutsche Musikkritik des 18. Jahr- This appears in the work of most private
hunderts ." (ZMW x); A. Damerini,
. . schools, in a few public school systems,
"Gli albore della musicale Italiana"
critica and it is reflected in the output of one or
(LRM vi); G. del Valle de Paz, "I pri- two publishing companies. Recognition
mordi della critica musicale in Francia" for much of the improvement should be
1838. From a modest beginning an im- The opportunity of making young peo-
posing system has developed until today ple acquainted with music which they
music in some form is everywhere recog- can appreciate and understand, presented
nized as a feature of school education. without the medium of transcription or
That this system has not been more pro- mechanical devices, is most valuable. For
ductive is due to the fact that the project various reasons these performances too
has become almost as much a commercial often become an amusement enterprise in
as an educational one; that instruction which humor, surprise, and mere enter-
has aimed not primarily at musicalness tainment predominate to the exclusion of
but rather at definitely measurable re- any systematic plan of instruction. At the
sults an objective similar to that sought other extreme are performances of entire
in the teaching of essentially factual sub- symphonies which require for their un-
jects; and that the quality of
most of the derstanding and enjoyment a background
music used in teaching has been unworthy of experience not possessed by children;
of respect. Music supervisors and teach- and romantic and emotionally complex
ers have been trained to be methodologists works with which the young can have no
first of all, and too often lack the prime intelligent contact. The programs which
essential of musicianship, namely, good have been most successful educationally
MUSIC EDUCATION IN U. S. MUSIC EDUCATION IN U. S.
are those which have been devoted, in the work of glee clubs, bands, and orchestras,
main, to music of a markedly melodic and for which
degree credit is awarded in
rhythmic character cast in the simpler many universities, is extensively and often
forms; the music of composers like productively carried on. The tendency
Haydn, Mozart, and Bach. Not the least in college music
teaching has been either
valuable in awakening the interest of to overemphasize the
performing aspect
children in music have been recitals of of music at the expense of the other
chamber music, particularly music of the branches, or to stress the academic side,
classical period. taking student competence in applied mu-
The Phonograph and Radio. The sic for granted. The
III. college course is not
phonograph and the radio have assumed long enough to permit more than mod-
an important role in music education, erate achievement in either field, and the
and the former, in particular, has made problem has been best solved by those col-
available for classroom use a wide variety leges which have treated music from the
of material. Especially in locations where point of view of the Liberal Arts curric-
orchestras are not available and where the ulum, recognizing the necessity for some
teacher's competence as a performer is practical skill, encouraging students to
not adequate, both the phonograph and strive for it, but leaving it, in the main, to
the radio are indispensable adjuncts to the conservatory. Colleges so situated that
music instruction. The total efficiency of students cannot avail themselves of ap-
the radio as a means of music education plied teaching often wisely include teach-
is, however, still debatable. The many ers of practical music on their faculty.
physical impediments to a satisfactory re- In some colleges regular course work is
ception of the music are but one diffi- supplemented by tutorial instruction in-
culty. Another is certainly the fact that tended to cover important aspects of the
the radio (as well as the phonograph) be- subject not dealt with in classes. At the
longs too much to the common currency end of the senior year general examina-
of experience to stimulate and hold atten- tions are held which test the student's
tion. The radio is at its best when it sim- knowledge of the whole field, especially
ply transmits music unaccompanied by those parts of it which he has worked un-
speech. Present efforts are unfortunately der the supervision of his tutor.
marked by overemphasis on the personal- V. Conservatories. The standard of in-
ity of the radio instructor, and on amus- struction in conservatories, together with
ing and sensational features rather than diploma requirements, has greatly im-
on sound and progressive teaching. It proved during the last twenty years, with
may be said that neither the phonograph the result that professional music training
nor the radio as mechanical intermedi- in some institutions has drawn up level
aries between the music and the listener with that traditionally maintained in Eu-
can satisfactorily compensate for the ab- ropean conservatories. Those severe dis-
sence of the teacher himself. His ges- ciplines which are inevitable in the pro-
tures and facial expressions are most im- duction of sound musicianship and tech-
portant in conveying his ideas regarding nical accomplishment are now required,
the music, especially where children are and the American trained
distinction of
concerned. Perhaps television will over- composers, orchestral players, and solo
come at least some of these difficulties. performers is generally recognized. As
Colleges. In colleges, music in-
IV. the musicianship of any executant, how-
struction is offered in theory (harmony, ever, may justly be assumed to include
counterpoint, fugue, and analysis), com- more than brilliance in technique, many
position, form, history, musicology, ap- conservatories, without
attempting to
preciation, and applied (practical) music. compete with the colleges, pay not a little
Musicology is the latest addition to the attention to the study of the history of
curriculum, and instruction in this branch music and of musical styles.
of learning is not widespread as yet. The VI. Settlement Schools of Music. One
[471]
MUSIC EDUCATION IN U. S. MUSIC EDUCATION IN U. S.
ordinary as well as to the talented indi- other races. He needs only wise and skill-
vidual an opportunity for the develop- ful educational guidance to convert his
ment of musical skill according to his native musicalness into an active, enthu-
capacity. siastic, and intelligent interest.
VII. Adult Educatian. For those whose It follows, therefore, that the greatest
formal education is ended, but who wish need is a
teaching body that is better edu-
in after-life to make an acquaintance of cated musically; one that is
thoroughly
music denied them by previous indiffer- trained at least in those branches of the
ence or the deficiencies of early school art which are pertinent to school music
training, opportunity for study and par- instruction. The most serious demand,
ticipation is offered by numbers of adult however, is for teachers whose knowledge
centers. In some cities, too, laymen's and experience of music is wide enough
courses in listening to music are given. to guarantee a sound musical taste.
Only
But as not a few of these courses seem to when there is
intelligent revolt against
be predicated on the assumption that it is much material that now
educational
the function of the professional to make
passes for music, will there be hope for a
music, and the part of the amateur to productive music education in this coun-
listen passively, the fundamental value of A. T. D.
try.
this type of teaching may be doubted. IX. has not been considered advis-
It
The most successful results have been ob- able to include in the present book infor-
tained where instruction has concerned mation on the single institutions of higher
with an active experience of
itself first musical education, whether conservato-
music gained by membership in choruses
colleges. To
ries or music departments of
and orchestras maintained as part of the include them all would be impossible as
musical organization of the adult center. well as undesirable. To include part of
VIII. Conclusion. In many fields, mu- them assumedly the better part
sic education in the United States is stead- would involve a process of grading which
ily improving. At the moment, however, the author wants to avoid for obvious
it is more notable for the extent of its reasons. The author's decision has been
cultivation than for its adherence to any greatly facilitated by the fact that accu-
considered philosophy. The tendency is rate and complete information on all these
to view each step in music training as a institutions is available in Pierre
easily
separate issue having its own aims unre- Key's Music Year Boo% [see also R.
lated to those which precede or follow.
Thompson, College Music, and numer-
The lack of any generally adopted or in- ous separate entries in O. Thompson,
tegrated plan, the use of so much inferior The International Cyclopedia of Music
music, and preoccupation with the more and Musicians (1939) ]. For the English
mechanical aspects of instruction have re- institutions see A. Eaglefield-Hull, Dic-
sulted in a lethargic attitude toward mu- tionary ofModern Music (1924), article
sic on the part of the
average adult which "Academies"; for the German, see RL,
will be remedied only when really valu- article "Konservatorium"; for the French,
[47*1
MUSICOLOGY MUSICOLOGY
sec LavE ii.6, 345 iff. Sec also *Dcgrees about music, which results from the
ap-
and diplomas; ^Profession; ^Scholarships. plication oi a scientific method of inves-
E. B. Birge, History of Public
Lit.: tigation or research, or of philosophical
School Music in the United States ( 1928) ; speculation and rational systematization
A. T. Davison, Music Education in Amer- to the facts, the
processes and the devel-
ica (1926); W. Earhart, The Meaning opment of musical art, and to the relation
and Teaching of Music (1935); J. D. of man in general (or even animals) to
Schenck, Music, Youth and Opportunity that art" (Kinkeldey, article "Musicol-
(1926); O. S. Stokowski, The Lay mans ogy" in O. Thompson, International Cy-
Music Boo/t ( J 935); T. W. Surette, Mu- clopedia of Music and Musicians, 1939);
sic and Life (1917); R. Thompson, Col-
"Musicology unites in its domain all the
lege Music (1935); A. D. Zanzig, Music sciences which deal with the production,
in American Life (1932); id., Music and appearance and application of the physi-
Men (1941); T. L. Mursell, Music in cal phenomenon called sound" (H.
American Schools (1943). Lang; cf. L.
Harap, "On the Nature of
Musicology," MQ xxiii).
Musicology. A term recently adopted Although these definitions differ to
from French musicologie into the Eng- some extent, they all indicate the tendency
lishusage to denote the scientific study to interpret musicology as a broad cate-
of music.It is the equivalent of the Ger- gory of "musical science," including ev-
man term MusiJ^wissenschajt (science of erything that is not clearly "practical"
music) which was introduced by F. music (composition and performance).
Chrysander in the preface to his ]ahr~ Thus, traditional fields of study such as
bucher fur musi^alische Wissenschajt harmony, counterpoint, music history
(1863) in order to emphasize the idea would fallunder the term musicology.
that musical studies, particularly those in One might argue whether this tendency
the field of history, should be raised to the is desirable and commendable. The un-
same level of seriousness and accuracy favorable reception which, on the whole,
which had long been adopted in the other musicology has encountered since its in-
fields of knowledge, natural sciences as troduction in thiscountry some 30 years
well as humanities. Guido Adler, in the ago may well be due largely to the some-
first volume of the Vierteljahrsschrift fur what boastful manner in which its cham-
Musifaissenschaft (1885), wrote an ar- pions have laid claim upon fields which
ticle "Umfang, Methode und Ziel der had an old standing of their own. An-
Musikwissenschaft" (Scope, Method and other undesirable aspect of the present
Aim of Musical Science) in which he situation is the fact that, owing to the
drew up an extensive and all-inclusive very broad interpretation of the term,
table of the entire province of music people have been able to call themselves
study. This table included, side by side "musicologists" who arc not good in any
with paleography (musical notation), musical field at all.
aesthetics, acoustics, history, such subjects The main fault of the interpretation of
as the "science of music" or
as harmony, rhythm, melody, teaching of musicology
the "scientific approach to music" is that
counterpoint, etc., as well as a final cate-
gory "Musikforschung" (musical re- it comes half a
century post jestum. The
search). Similar programs have been laid
situation of the i86o's, which caused
down by other writers, e.g., by Waldo S. Chrysander to insist
upon "musikwissen-
Pratt in his article "On Behalf of Musicol- schaftliche Methoden," no longer exists.
ogy" (MQ i). The current interpretation The general standards of scientific treat-
of musicology may be illustrated by the ment, such as seriousness, accuracy, cor-
following quotations: "Musicology must rectness with regard to material and
include every conceivable discussion of sources, have been so generally adopted
musical topics" (Pratt, in i); "the MQ in recent musical studies that scientific
whole body of systematized knowledge procedure can be taken for granted, in a
[473]
MUSICOLOGY MUSICOLOGY
book (or course) on harmony, as well as Spitta's studies of their historical back-
in one on the life of Wagner, etc. If, ground, or Ernst Kurth's work on Bach's
then, the scientific approach is taken for counterpoint, or Terry's thorough inves-
granted in all studies of musical theory, tigation of the details of his life.
history, etc., there remains one category Perhaps the difference between the pro-
of Adler's table which stands apart as gram just outlined and that given by
something different, namely the last-men- Adler and others is not so much a differ-
tioned, Musit(forschung 9 i.e., musical re- ence of scope (Adler's being much
search. If we interpret musicology as re- wider), but one of emphasis. It goes
search-work in music, then it denotes that without saying that most, if not all, the
activity in any of the fields mentioned categories of Adler's program are more
previously which isbent upon the dis- or less directly connected with musicol-
covery of unknown or obscure matters, ogy, either as preparatory or as peripheric
an activity which
comparable to that of
is categories. The important point, how-
the research-chemist, as opposed to the ever, is that the
category Musical Re-
"commercial chemist" who makes the dis- search (Musikforschung) must be given
coveries of his colleague available to the the central position in the plan, with the-
public for consumption. The musicolo- ory, music history, etc., forming the foun-
gist,then, is the pioneer of music study, dation, while aesthetics, acoustics, etc.,
the explorer who is equipped with the represent adjunct fields of study.
same zeal which spurs and guides every Viewed from this angle, it appears only
discoverer, whether he sets out to find natural that the efforts of musicology are
the North Pole, a new chemical element, directed mainly towards the history of
or a new mathematical truth. If the re- music in which there are still so many
sult of his research is valid and impor- facts to be discovered or clarified. As a
tant, it will, sooner or later, be accepted matter of fact, the progress in the fields of
into general usage, in other words, it will harmony, composition, etc., is made, not
change from the field of musicology into by theoretical investigation (efforts of
the domain of the theorist, the essayist, this type, as, e.g., novel theories of quar-
the biographer, the performer, and per- ter-tones, have usually remained without
haps even the creative artist. An exam- practical results), but as the result of the
natural development of the musical art.
ple illustrating the situation and the
process just outlined is the case of Bach. There is, however, another field of musi-
Around 1850, his work was largely for- cal research which has attracted the at-
tention ofmany recent investigators, that
gotten, most of his compositions being
scattered around in obscure manuscripts. of primitive and Oriental music which,
The men who undertook to "discover because of the special methods involved,
Bach" (Chrysander was one of them) is classified separately as *comparative
were musicologists in the true sense of musicology. Important progress has also
the word. When their work was done, been made in the fields of musical acous-
when Bach's compositions were available tics, particularly in the recent studies on
for every student, the work of the musi- pitch and on timbre (theory of formant).
cologist was finished. student who A As a rule, however, such studies involve
now examines, say, a partita by Bach, is methods of physics, physiology, and psy-
not a musicologist, any more than is the chology rather than of musical research.
performer who plays it, or the creative Although the above interpretation of
artist who derives from it new inspira- musicology as the "research laboratory"
tion. This does not mean that musicolog- of music is not the one generally accepted,
it might seem worth while to stress it, if
ical study in connection with Bach was
finished after the publication of the B.-G. only in order to secure for musicology
There were and still are many as- that place in the American institutions of
[474]
MUSIKALISCHES OFFER MUTE
doubtless, still far removed. The leaders clamp which is placed on the bridge and
of such institutions are likely to take which renders the tone veiled and some-
"rigorous technique" and "scientific treat- what nasal. It is usually called for by the
ment" as matters of course in any of their remark con sordini. This effect has been
departments, but may be willing to give frequently used for the purpose of creat-
some thought to the necessity of provid- ing a mysterious or uncanny atmosphere,
ing in the field of music a type of instruc- one of the earliest examples being in a
tion similar to that which is the very basis sleeping scene of Lully's Armida (1686).
of progress in all the other fields of higher Beethoven used muted violins in the
Mutation stops. See *Organ VI. Also ambiguity of terminology exists with the
Italian word sordino which is applied to
*Foot (2).
the muting of the violins (sordini alzati
Mute, A device for softening or muffling or levati, remove the mutes) as well as to
the tone of a musical instrument. In vio- the dampers of the piano, while the mut-
lins, etc., the mute is a three-pronged ing of the piano is called una corda. The
[475]
MUTIG NACHSCHLAG
confusion has been brought to its climax M.v. *Mezza vocc.
N
Nabla, nablum. A stringed instrument centuries the most common form of
mentioned by Greek writers, probably the Nachschlag is the
agrement variously
* called accent, aspiration, or plainte, which
nevel of the old Hebrews [see Jewish
music I]. consists of a raising of the pitch a half
tone or whole tone at the end of a sus-
Nacaire. See *Drum II.
tained note. The accent was indicated by
[476]
NACHSCHLAG NAGELSCHRIFT
serted, in performance, in all passages danger of confusing it with an appoggi-
where thirds descend in notes of equal composer is careful (as
atura, unless the
value. This practice was known as Schumann always was) to place the
"couler les tierces." Nachschlag before the bar-line [Exam-
ple 6, Warum], There is no strict rule
which will eliminate this confusion en-
tirely, but it
may at least be assumed that
whenever the grace note is identical with
Tns - tcs ap prats the following note (as in the Ex. 7, from
Chopin's Nocturne op. 32, no. 2) the
ornament is a
Nachschlag. P. A.
[477]
NAIL VIOLIN NATIONALISM
horseshoes. Another name is Gothic Bihari, 1809). Argentine: Oid, mor-
ncumes. tales (V. Lopez -J. Bias Parera, 1813).
United States of America: The * Star-
Nail violin, nail harmonica. An in- spangled Banner (1814). Belgium: La
strument if it may be called thus
Brabangonne (Jenneval-Campenhout, c.
consisting of a semicircular sounding- 1830). Finland: Maamme (comp. by
board in which nails or U-shaped iron F. Pacius, 1848).
pins of various lengths are driven around The political changes following after
the edge. The nails are made to vibrate the World War have found an ex-
first
by a violin bow. The nail violin (in- pression in three new anthems: Italy: La
vented by }. Wilde, c. 1740) belongs to Giovinezza (M. Manni - Giuseppe Blanc,
the same period of Empfindsam^eit (late 1909). Germany: Horst Wessel Lied
1 8th and
early i9th century) which also (text by H. Wessel, c. 1925). Russia:
*
produced the Aeolian harp, as a result Hymn of the Soviet Union (music by
of its
general penchant for the ethereal A. V. Alexandrov), adopted officially by
and bodyless. Illustrations in SaHMI, March 15, 1944 instead of the Interna-
403 and AdHMy 632. There exists a tionale (E. Pottier, 1871-?. Dcgeyter,
quartet by F. W. Rust for nail violin, 1888).
two violins, and cello [see *Editions XII, Lit.: S. Rousseau and
Montorgucil,
B(II)]. Les Chants nationaux de tous les pays
(1901); E. Bohn, Die National hymnen
Naked fifth. Same as *opcn fifth.
der europdischen Voider (1908): E.
Nakeres, nakers. See *Drum II. Murillo, National Anthems of the Coun-
tries of North, Central and South Amer-
Napoletana. See under *Villanella. ica (1935); id., Le Livre des chants na-
tionaux (1917); D. R. Wakeling and G.
Narrante [It.]. In a declamatory man-
de Frame, "National Anthems" (MR iii;
ner.
complete list); H. Abert, "Erne National-
National anthems. songsThe hymnen-sammlung" (Z/M ii).
adopted by the various nations to be
played on official occasions and to repre- Nationalism. A
movement of the later
sentthem in international gatherings. part of the i9th century and still continu-
The most important among the older ing today, which is characterized by a
ones are given here in a chronological strong emphasis on the national elements
order: Netherlands: Wilhelmus van and resources of music. It is based upon
Nassouwe (1570, music first in 1626). the idea that the composer must make his
England: God Save the King (comp. by work the expression of national and ra-
H. Carey, 1744; ^ ts melody is used in the by drawing upon the
cial traits, chiefly
American song My Country 'tis of Thee, folk melodies and dance rhythms of his
as well as in the German country as an inspiring factor, and by
pre-war anthem
Heil Dir im Siegerf^ranz and in the an- choosing scenes from national history or
thems of several other nations). Den- lifeas subjects for operas and symphonic
mark: Kong Kristian (J. Ewald-f. E. poems. Nationalism, therefore, repre-
Hartmann, 1768?). France: La *Mar- sents an antagonism to what was there-
seillaise (comp. by
Rouget de Lisle, 1792). tofore considered one of the greatest pre-
Poland: Jeszce Pols\a (Wybicki-Ogin- rogatives of music, namely the universal
sky, 1795). Austria: Gott erhalte Franz or international character of its language,
den Kaiser (comp. by Haydn, 1797, now which made the works of the great mas-
sung to the text Set gesegnet ohne Ende\ ters appeal equally to audiences every-
Haydn's melody is used also with the where in the world.
German anthem Dcutschland, Deutsch- In order to defend their cause, cham-
land uber allcs, text by Fallcrsleben, pions of the national movement have
1841). Hungary: *Ra\oczy March (J. taken the stand that music always has
[478]
NATIONALISM NATIONALISM
been, and will be, national. They have out being unfair, it is
permissible to char-
been pointing out that the music of Bach, acterize it as a movement of despair,
Beethoven, Schumann, and Wagner is started by talented musicians who found
thoroughly German, and that that of themselves faced with the necessity oi
Scarlatti, Rossini, and Verdi is just as competing with men like Beethoven,
unmistakably Italian as that of Byrd or Wagner, Brahms, and who, in their na-
Sullivan is English. There is, no doubt, tional treasure of melodies, dances, etc.,
a good deal of truth in such statements. found a weapon with which they could
Although it is not easy, and perhaps im- hope successfully to wage the combat
possible, to point out in detail what is This consideration explains the fact that
German, Italian, or French in musical the Nationalistic movement is
practically
style and expression, it would be ad- non-existent Germany. Neither is
in
missible to make some broad character- there such a movement worth mentioning
izations, such as "idealistic" for German in France. Debussy, who comes immedi-
music, "corporeal" for Italian, "spirited" ately to mind, showed enough ingenuity
for French, the limitations of such tags to combat the Germans by purely musi-
being readily conceded. Such character- cal means which, though very "French,''
izations, however, whether summed up are in no way nationally inspired. The
in words or merely felt, have nothing to absence of a definite Nationalistic move-
do with nationalism in the proper sense ment in Italy has been explained as the
of the word. Nationalism in music result of the fact that Italy has no folk
and, perhaps, in general also is not a
song tradition. Probably the reason is
matter of fact but a matter of intention. that Italy, like Germany and France, had
No composer can help belonging to an old musical tradition to draw upon
some nation and inheriting from it, to- and did not need to resort to the some*
gether w^th his language, certain general what extraneous resources of the Nation-
traits and of character. The
of feeling alistic movement.
question whether he takes these matters
is Nationalism, therefore, was actually an
for granted or whether he emphasizes affair of the "peripheral" nations, for
them. Briefly, the difference between an which it proved, in most cases, the first
"international" and a "national" com- opportunity to advance into the center of
poser of Italian extraction is the differ- the musical scene. After some prelimi-
ence between one who cannot help speak- nary attempts of a somewhat indecisive
ing Italian and one who wants to speak nature, it found its first realization in
Italian. It is only the latter that belongs Glinka's opera A Life for the Czar
to the Nationalistic movement in music. (1836). Around 1860 the movement
It is quite misleading to stamp Schumann gained fresh impulse in Bohemia, Nor-
as a Nationalistic composer simply be- way, and Russia, with Smetana's Bar-
cause he "expressed the German spirit" tered Bride (1866), Grieg's first book of
(which, after all, Schlitz, Bach, and Bee- Lyric Pieces (op. 12; e.g., Folk Song,
thoven also did); or Chopin because he Norwegian Melody), and Borodin's
is "typically Polish" and composed ma- Prince Igor (1867). In Russia, the group
zurkas; or Wagner because he favored known as *The Five formed a strong
Teutonic subjects in his operas. In all bulwark of Nationalism against the in-
these composers there is nothing to indi- ternationally inclined Tchaikovsky and
cate that breaking away from the idea of Rubinstein. Particularly Moussorgsky's
music as a universal language and that Boris Godunov (1872) is a landmark in
emphasis on "my country's language" the history of the Nationalistic move-
which characterizes the Nationalistic ment. In Bohemia, Smetana's work was
composer. carried on to some extent by Dvorak
The National movement started, and (1841-1904), more whole-heartedly how-
must be understood, as a reaction against ever by Leos Jan2ek (opera Jenufa,
the supremacy of German music. With- 1904). Toward the end of the i9th cen-
[479]
NATIONALISM NEAPOLITAN SCHOOL
tury the movement spread to Spain where lead and that American composers, for
it found ample nourishment in the im- the time being, can use their talents best
mense wealth of Spanish dance rhythms if they follow the
general trend of inter-
and dance melodies. Albeniz (1860- national music, contributing their share to
1909), Granados (1867-1916), and Falla make music continue what it has been for
(b. 1876) are the most outstanding rep- a thousand years: the universal language
resentatives. In Finland, Sibelius (b. of mankind, understood by everybody,
1865) must be mentioned as a composer though sometimes spoken with a notice-
who in his first period ardently supported able dialect.
Nationalism but later turned to "abso- Lit.: C. Forsyth, Music and National-
lute" music which, nonetheless, remained ism (1911); R. Vaughan Williams, Na-
largely Finnish in character. The main tional Music (1934); LaMWC, 938ff; D.
that theAmerican composer must cease to Natural tones. See *Wind instruments
imitateGerman, French, or other foreign II.
models, must cease to write in the inter-
national vocabulary of "abstract" music, Naturhorn, Naturtrompete [ G. ] .
but must turn whole-heartedly to his own Natural horn, natural trumpet.
country, its landscape, its national traits, Neannoe. See *Noeane.
its folk tunes, its treasure of aboriginal
[480]
NEAPOLITAN SCHOOL NEGRO MUSIC
Leonardo Leo (1694-1744), Nicola Lo- seems to have been
inaugurated by the
groscino (1698-1765), Giovanni Batista Belgian Giovanni Macque (d. 1614) who
Pergolesi (1710-36), Gaetano Latilla came to Naples in 1586. Antonio Valente,
(1711-91), Davide Perez (i7ii-after Giovanni Trabaci, and Ascanio Mayone,
1780), Domenico Terradellas (1711-51)) his collaborators or successors,
published
Niccolo Jommelli (1714-74), Pasquale collections of keyboard music between
Anfossi (1727-97), Tommaso Traetta 1580 and 1615. See 'Editions XVII (4);
(1727-79), Pietro Guglielmi (1728- cf. W. Apel, in MQ xxiv.
1804), Niccolo Piccinni (1728-1800),
Giacomo Tritto (1733-1824), Antonio Neapolitan sixth. See *Sixth; also
*Harmonic analysis V.
Sacchini (1730-86), Giovanni Paisiello
(1740-1816), and Domenico Cimarosa Nebel, neble. See *Jewish music I
[48
NEGRO MUSIC NEGRO MUSIC
References to Negro music date back native Negro folk songs, and in three
to the8th century. Thomas Jefferson
1 years succeeded in $150,000,
raising
wrote of the musical talents of the Negro largely from voluntary contributions by
in his Notes on Virginia (1784); Aird's members of the audiences. As other Ne-
Selection of Scotch, Irish> and Foreign gro institutes were founded, notably
Airs (Glasgow, 1782) contained a "Ne- Hampton and Tuskegee, singers from
gro Jig,"J. Carr of Baltimore published their student bodies toured the coun-
in 1801 a "Negro Song," composed or try,and were equally successful. Aside
arranged by Benjamin Carr, an English from financial results, these widespread
musician who made his home in Amer- tours acquainted the nation, particu-
ica from 1793; and Gottlieb Graupner larly the North, with the Negro's own
provided one of the forerunners of the songs.
minstrel show by singing in costume "A In the programs of these groups, the
Gay Negro Boy" between the acts of a emphasis was principally upon the so-
play in Boston, 1799. Thus, white men's called "Spirituals," or religious songs, of
descriptionsand imitations of the Ne- the Negro. This was owing to the fact
gro's singingcame into vogue long be- that the Institutes themselves derived
fore his own music was collected and their support from religious
largely
preserved. The minstrel shows received groups and home missionary movements.
their impetus directly from the Negro, The religious fervor of the Negro awoke
however. According to tradition, which sympathy among wealthier church-going
ispartially confirmed by known fact, this people, and the Negro's primitive inter-
type of entertainment was popularized pretation of Bible stories and characters
by Thomas Rice, who dressed in clothes appealed to the imagination of members
borrowed from a Negro and imitated the of the white denominations. Moreover,
Negro's manner of singing a song called religion exerted a strong appeal to the
"Jim Crow." This occurred somewhere Negro in bondage, for during the darker
around 1830, and from that time the moments of his slavery he had learned to
movement was contagious and dozens of cling to the idea of an after life as his
minstrel troupes came into prominence. ultimate deliverance from human suffer-
Most of the songs written for the min- ing. Thus the crossing of the river Jor-
strels were composed by white composers, dan, Daniel's deliverance from the lions'
among them Stephen Foster, and for den, Moses leading the children of Israel
decades these Negro-dialect songs consti- to the Promised Land, all had a personal
tuted the chief source of information that promise for the enslaved Negro.
many Americans, particularly Northern- II. The origin of the Negro's melodies
[482]
NEGRO MUSIC NEGRO MUSIC
also, that white evangelists and "revival- printable "devil's" songs; as well as
ists" traveled among the southern Ne- numerous tunes for Negro dances.
groes, and sang to them many of the Atype of Negro sorrow-song known
gospel songs from their own hymnbooks. as the "blues" has become extremely
The most tenable theory, perhaps, is that popular and has been adopted and imi-
the Negro brought with him from Africa tated widely in the current Broadway
his own musical characteristics, and that song-literature. The typical "blues" is
association with white men and exposure often based on self-pity, yet it
generally
to their customs and their music tempered embodies a carefree philosophy which
and molded his native idioms into keeps it far from the depths of despair.
something that represented a combina- Melodically, the "blues" song is charac-
tion of the two. In other words, he took terized by a flat seventh and sometimes a
what he learned from his white masters, flat third, which have become known as
repeated it in his own manner and style, "blue" notes. The "blues" were first
and, no doubt, often added something of popularized by W. C. Handy, a Negro
his own. musician who composed the "Memphis
Many of the Negro songs are of group Blues" in 1912, and later the "St. Louis
origin; improvised first by leaders at re- Blues." The authentic folk "blues" and
ligiousgatherings, and answered and the modern, composed species are some-
added to by the congregations. Others times indistinguishable. So many mil-
are probably the creation of individual, lions of phonograph records of blues
unnamed singers. The choruses and songs have been distributed that Negroes
quartets from the Institutes sang in parts, who hear these records accept them as
using harmonies largely improvised by theirown songs and add new stanzas, or
themselves. This has led to the supposi- often change the words and alter the
tion that part-singing is natural to the tunes to transform them into many local
Negro, and is part of his African heritage. variants. As Odum and Johnson, in
Such a theory, however, is not universally Negro Workaday Songs (1926), have ob-
accepted; documents exist which indicate served: "The folk creative process oper-
that originally the Negroes sang in uni- ates upon a song, the origin of which
son, which may suggest that their part- may already be mixed, and produces in
singing was developed by listening to turn variations that may later become
musically-tutored white men. the bases of other formal blues" [see also
III. The emphasis on the religious *JazzII].
songs of the Negro delayed for many The effect of Negro folk music on the
years recognition and general knowledge art music of America, as well as the work
of his secular songs, which cover a wide of serious Negro composers, is discussed
range, both in type and in mood. These under * American Music IV. See alsoII,
have been collected and distributed only *Jazz.
in recent years, when interest in folklore Lit.: R. N. Dett, Religious Fol\-Songs
and balladry has become something of a of the Negro as Sung on the Plantations
science among American scholars and re- (1926); T. F. Seward, Jubilee Songs, as
search workers. There are work songs Sung by the Jubilee Singers of Fis{ Uni-
for cotton picking, corn shucking, versity (1872); W. F. Allen, C. P. Ware,
stevedoring; railroad songs of the section L. M.
Garrison, Slave Songs of the United
gang; steamboat songs; and prison songs States (1867, reprinted 1927); N. C.
of the chain gang and the rock pile. The Burlin, Hampton Series of Negro Fol^
Negro's love of balladry is responsible for Songs (1918-19); R. E. Kennedy, Mel-
many songs of the narrative type lows: Negro Wor\ Songs, Street Cries,
"Frankie and Johnnie," Negro versions and Spirituals', G. P. Jackson, White and
of "Casey Jones," the story of "John Negro Spirituals (1943); H. E. Krehbiel,
Henry," and many other legends. In ad- Afro-American Fol^ Songs (1914); J. B.
dition there are bad men's songs; un- T. March. The Story of the Jubilee Sing-
[483!
NEIGHBOR-TONE NEO-CLASSICISM
crs (1880); H. W. Odum and G. B. John- tatis Christ! (1917); Toccata (1921)].
son, The Negro and His Songs (1925); Perhaps was the sublimity and incor-
it
id., Negro Workaday Songs (1926); J. poreal ity of these works which prevented
Tiersot, Chansons negres (1933); S. them from serving as an inspiration for
Grew, in ML xvi, no. 2; P. Laubenstein, other, younger, musicians. At any rate,
in MQ xvi; Lomax, in MQ xx; E. An-
}.
neo-classicism as a general movement did
drews, in MQ xxiii. T. H. J. not start until 1923 when Igor Stravinsky,
a much more dynamic personality than
Neighbor-tone. Same as appoggiatura; Busoni, startled the musical world with
see *Nonharmonic tones II. his Octet for Wind Instruments written
in what was then interpreted as an "i8th-
Neo-Bechstein. See *Electronic musi-
cal instruments I.
century mannerism," but what proved to
be the beginning of a new era in contem-
Neo-classicism. A movement of 20th- porary music. The same idiom prevails
century music which is characterized by in his Sonata (1922), Piano Concerto
the inclusion into contemporary style of (1924), and Serenade (1925) for piano
features derived from the music of the [see Example under *Pandiatonicism].
Bach era and of still earlier periods. It With the opera-oratorio Oedipus Rex
represents the latest and strongest expres- (1927) and the ballet Apollo Musagetes
sion of the general reaction against the (1927) Stravinsky's style adopted a dis-
unrestrained emotionalism of the late tinct tinge of archaic Grecianism.
Romanticism [see *New Music]. Partic- Still closer in spirit to Bach than
the influence of Bach is Paul Hindemith who, from
ularly distinct is Stravinsky
which makes itself felt in the emphasis c. 1925 on (Four Concertos, op. 36; Piano
on contrapuntal texture; in the revival of Studies, op. 37), has systematically devel-
early forms such as the suite (not the oped a new contrapuntal style, deliber-
ballet-suite of the late I9th century), ately impersonal and sometimes mechani-
toccata, passacaglia, ricercare, concerto cal, which may well be characterized as a
version of Bach. Certain
grosso, ground; in the reduction of or- 20th-century
chestral resources and colors; in the features point to a still more distinct re-
[484]
NEO-ROMANTICISM NETHERLANDS MUSIC
Lit.:K. R. Heyman, The Relation of Heinrich Scheidemann, Melchior Schildt,
Ultramodern to Archaic Music (1921); Paul Siefert, Jacob Praetorius), a fact
A. Lourie, "Neogothic and Neoclassic" which gave him the name "Der deutsche
(MM v); A. G. Browne, "Hindemith Organistenmacher" (the maker of Ger-
and the Neoclassic Music" (ML xiii, no. man organists). A successor of Sweelinck
0- was Anthony van Noordt who, in 1659,
Neo-romanticism. See ^Romanticism. published a Tabulatur-Boecl^ which has
Term sometimes been re-edited by the Vereeniging for
applied to late-nine-
Nederlandsche Muziekgeschiednis. The
teenth-century ^Romanticism. See also
editions of this society [see ^Editions
*Neuromantik.
XXIX] contain practically everything
Netherlands music. A
description of little of real importance the Nether-
the history of Netherlands music cannot lands has produced from the i6th through
be given without taking into account the the 1 8th
century.
political changes which have been taking As late as the ipth century, creative mu-
place during the last five hundred years sical activity was slow in coming to the
in the northwestern corner of Europe. While Johannes
fore in the Netherlands.
This was successively a part of France, Verhulst (1816-91) imitated Schumann
Burgundy, and Spain until it became an and Mendelssohn, and opposed any prog-
independent state in 1581 (William of ress beyond this level, Alphons Diepen-
Nassau) which, until 1830, also included brock (1862-1921), the most important
the present-day Belgium. Nineteenth- Netherlands composer, was able to absorb
century historiographers, such as Kiese- the influence of Wagner and Mahler as
wetter, Fetis,Ambros, v. d. Straeten, nat- well as of Debussy without losing the per-
urally included the latter country in their sonal stamp of a subjective mysticism. In
studies of Netherlands music, and even striking contrast to the incorporeality of
expanded their scope to some bordering his music stands that of his contemporary
provinces of northern France (Cambrai) Cornelis Dopper (18601939), the "Na-
which in the I5th and i6th centuries tional" composer of the Netherlands,
were politically or culturally related to whose program symphonies (Rembrandt,
the Netherlands. Modern scholars have Zuyderzee) show a typically "Dutch"
adopted racialand religious demarcations mixture of dispassionate sturdiness, ro-
as a more stable basis, drawing a line of bust humor, and broad colors. The
distinction between the northern (now younger composers show a greater incli-
Protestant) part and the southern (Catho- nation towards an internationalism of
lic) part of the Low Countries, the for- either German or, more frequently,
mer being considered as Netherlands or French derivation, e.g., Alex Voormolen
Dutch countries, the latter as Belgium or, (b. 1895) and Daniel Ruyneman (b.
with reference to early history, Flemish 1886). Still more advanced in idiom are
countries. If this distinction is adopted, Willem Pijpcr (b. 1894) and Bernard van
the early history of Netherlands music Dieren (1884-1936) who, living in Lon-
loses much of that glory with which it don since 1909, identified himself with
has been surrounded by the above- English music.
mentioned writers [see "^Netherlands During the past fifty years the Nether-
Schools], and the continuous history of lands has played a prominent role in the
Netherlands music begins around 1600 field of reproductive music. In addition
with the great organ master Jan Pieter- to internationally known singers such as
szon Sweelinck (1562-1621) whose organ Joh. Meschaert (1857-1922) and Julia
playing at Amsterdam was an attraction Gulp (b. 1881), the world-famous orches-
of European fame, and who numbered tra of the Concert gebouw [see Orches-
among his pupils nearly all the leading tras] under itsconductor Willem Men-
German organists and organ composers gel berg (b. 1871) must be mentioned.
of the early Baroque (Samuel Scheidt, Cf. AdHM, 1081-87 (bibl.).
[485]
NETHERLANDS SCHOOLS NEUMES
Netherlands Schools. designation A Aubry, Recherches sur les "tenors" latins
from Burgundy (Dijon). A more appro- great number of signs for single tones as
Nether- well as for groups of two, three, or more
priate designation for the first
lands School is *Burgundian School, tones. The accompanying table shows the
while the musicians from Ockeghem to most important neumes as they occur in
Lasso can be grouped best in various the MSS of St. Gall (pth-ioth centuries),
generations of the *Flemish School. Cf. together with their modern forms used in
P. Lang, in MQ
xxv. the present-day *liturgical books (Soles-
mes edition, Vatican edition), and with a
Nettement [F.]. Clearly. rendition in ordinary notation.
Neue Musik *New music. From the systematic point of view the
[G.]. See
neumes may be divided into two main
Neuma. (i) [from Greek neuein, to groups, the "normal" neumes (A) and
nod]. See *Neumes. (2) [from Greek the "special" neumes (B). The former
[486]
NEUMES NEUMES
the early MSS is the trigon, consisting of scent" neumes
(semivocales) . They usu-
three dots forming a triangle, and indi- ally occur on a diphthong or where there
cating staccato performance for three are two consonants in succession, such as
tones such as c-b-c or e-f-e. The signs ng (angelus), lm y rn, etc. They are
given here under B.2 are the "lique- thought have called for a particularly
to
smooth transition by means of an inter-
A. i. Punctum _ _ - h polated e, as for instance, in(e)fer(e)ni
instead of inferni. The epiphonus is the
Clivis ft PI
t *-
Scandicus
fnfenu circum-
Climacus
dederunt." Early writers mention numer-
ous other "ornamenting" neumes under
Torculus names such as notae vinnulae ("neigh-
ing" notes) or tremulae which, we are
Porrectus told, the Prankish were unable to sing
fp
[cf. C. Vivell, "Les Sons repercutes dans
2. Scandicus le chant gregorien," TG xviii; see *Orna-
flexus
mentationj.
II. Various theories have been offered
Porrectus
for the origin of the neumes. The one
flexus
most generally accepted today considers
Torculus the neumes as an outgrowth of gramma-
resupinus tical accents of Greek and Latin litera-
Oriscus
b c d
Quilisma
\ /\ V
Salicus used for a higher note), the latter, the
punctum (which usually indicates a lower
Prcssus tone). Combinations of these accents
(c, d, e) lead to neumes of two or more
notes, the podatus, clivis, porrectus, etc.
2. Epiphonus J
Therefore, all these neumes (group of A
the complete table) are called "accent
Ccphalicus
I) neumes" [G. At(zcntneumen\. Most of
the neumes shown in group B belong to
Ancus the category called "hook neumes" [G.
Hafynneumen] because their graph in-
[487]
NEUMES NEUMES
eludes a rounded hook which may have quickly adopted everywhere, except in
come from theGreek apostrophe: '.
Germany where a peculiar variety, the
In the earliest sources and in many later Gothic neumes, remained in use as late
MSS (9th-nth centuries) the neumes are as the 6th century. The square-shaped
1
written in such a manner as to give only neumes are still used today in the liturgi-
the general outline of the melodic motion, cal books of the Roman Catholic Church
but no evidence of the actual intervals. [see *Plainsong notation]. The accom-
Thus, the podatus may mean an ascend- panying illustration shows the eight "sim-
ing second, third, fifth, etc. Evidently ple" neumes in five different styles: I.
these signs served only as a mnemonic aid Messine neumes (Monastery of Metz,
for the singer who knew the melodies by 9th-ioth centuries; G. Metzer Neumeri);
heart, or for the choir leader who may II.Beneventan neumes (Monastery of
have interpreted them to his choir by ap- Benevent in Southern Italy, iith-i2th
propriate movements of the hand. These Aquitanian neumes (southern
cent.); III.
neumes are called *cheironomic, staffless, France, I2th-i3th cent.); IV. Square
oratorical, or in campo aperto ("in the neumes from Sarum, England (i3th
open field," that is, without clear orien- cent.); V. Gothic neumes, also called
tation). Around 1000 we find the earliest *Nagelschrift (German MSS of the i4th-
traces of a more careful arrangement of I5th cent.). These may be compared
the neumatic signs so as to give at least with the St. Gall neumes shown in the
some indication of pitch. Particularly the table on p. 487.
nth-century MSS of Italy, written in the The cheironomic neumes as such can-
so-called Longobardian or Beneventan not be deciphered [for a futile attempt in
character, are remarkable for their early this direction, cf. O. Fleischer, Die ger-
use of "heighted" (intervallic, diaste- manischen Neumen
(1923)]; they can
matic) neumes, i.e., neumes which are only be compared with those of the later
written on a staff, either imagined or really sources which, owing to the conserva-
indicated by one, two, or finally four lines. tism of Gregorian chant, have preserved
Slightly later than the Beneventan the old melodies in a clearer system of
neumes are the Aquitanian (or Proven- notation, with the neumes written on an
[488]
NEUROMANTIK NEW MUSIC
graphic musicale gregorienne (1935); P. lary of the Romanticism. Even Debussy's
Wagner, Neumenfande (1905, 2d cd., impressionism, though much more defi-
1912); H. M. Bannister, Monumenti nitely anti-German in spirit and style,
Vaticani (1918; extensive tables of stands before us as the final embodiment
neumes); see also the lit. under *Gre- rather than the negation of the tradition
gorian chant and in ReMMA, 440-442. of the 1 9th century. If it is understood
that Romanticism is, ideally, subjectivism
Neuromantik [G.]. Neo-Romanti- and, technically, 19th-century harmony,
cism. However, the German term is usu- then the credit for the initiative belongs, in
ally to
applied the group Wagner, the former respect, to Erik Satie (1866-
Brahms, Wolf, Bruckner, rather than to 1925) and Ferruccio Busoni (1866-
the neo-Romanticists of the 2oth century.
1924), in the latter, to Arnold Schonberg
Neutoner inventors of new (b. 1874). As early as 1900 Satie wrote
[G.,
sounds]. A
derogatory term which has
pieces which, though artistically insignifi-
cant and trifling, clearly show the tend-
been applied around 1890 to Wagner,
Richard Strauss, and other "radicals" of ency of distancing himself, by irony and
whimsicality, from the exhibitionism and
bygone days.
the ostentatiousness of the late Romanti-
New Music. A term which in the last cism. Details such as the use of fourth-
few years has been gradually adopted as chords, the omission of bar-lines, the re-
a general designation for the various rad- placement of the traditional expression
ical or progressive trends in 20th-century marks by plainlysatirizing directions
music (the corresponding German term ("Comme un rossignol qui a mal de
Neue Musi\ has been in use since about dent"), or the use of idiotic titles such as
1925). In distinction from designations "Pieces froides" (1897), "Pieces en
such as "Modern Music" [see this] or forme de poire" (1903), "Embryons
"Contemporary Music," this term ex- desseches" (1910), are significant, not as
cludes composers who continue more or such, but as indications of a mentality
less along the traditional lines of the late which was bent on "shocking the bour-
1
9th century, expounding the ideas and geois," including the bourgeois-musician.
technical resources of ^Romanticism, Busoni's opposition against the Roman-
tic style was of a
^Impressionism, *Nationalism, etc. (e.g., quite different nature
Sibelius, Strauss, Debussy). The term and background. It was determined by
New Music has also an interesting his- his congeniality to Bach, Mozart, and by
names were
torical significance, as similar a general penchant towards detachment
used for somewhat similar movements and distance qualities which made him
300 and 600 years ago, namely, *Nuove the father of one of the most important
musiche and *Ars nova [see also ^History currents of New Music, i.e., *neo-classi-
of music]. cism. Of still greater consequence was
New Music is, briefly stated, anti-Ro- the activity of Schonberg. Ideally, i.e.,
manticism. The reaction against the from the point of view of feeling and ex-
Romanticism of the i9th century is usu- pression, Schonberg was at least up to
ally understood as a pull-away from the 1920 much less anti-Romantic than the
Germanic tradition which held an al- other two, a fact which has caused many
most unlimited supremacy during the writers to deny him the role as a leader in
1
9th century. Thus, National composers the new movement and even to consider
such as Moussorgsky are credited with him a Romanticist. Such a view overlooks
the initiative which finally led to the the fact that the break with a tradition
radical break of the early 20th century. involves not only a spiritual, but also a
Neither Moussorgsky, however, nor any technical aspect. It was in the latter field
other National composer succeeded in that Schonberg's radicalism fully achieved
freeing himself from the fundamental what so many composers before him had
conceptions or from the technical vocabu- only approximated: the complete break
[489]
NEW MUSIC NEW MUSIC
with the harmonic system, with the sty- *satire, *Gebrauchsmusik, *quarter-tonc
listic and formal principles of the i9th music, are some of the most prominent
century. Completely casting away the traits of this period. Zoltan Kodaly (b.
harmonic and formal considerations of 1882), Francesco Malipiero (b. 1882), Al-
the tradition, he arrived at a novel style fredo Casella (b. 1883), Arthur Honeg-
which has become known as *atonality ger (b. 1892), Darius Milhaud (b. 1892),
(Drei Klavierstikke, op. n, 1909). See Paul Hindemith (b. 1895), Ernst Krenek
also *Expressionism. Until after World (b. 1900), may be mentioned here among
War I, Schonberg's influence remained the many who made contributions to the
to a few friends and pupils,
restricted spotted picture of this period.
notably Alban Berg (1885-1935) and A
third period of New
Music began
Anton von Webern (b. 1883). In the around 1925, when, after so many inter-
meantime, another potent factor had ap- esting experiments, so many futile efforts,
peared on the scene of European music, a new name appeared on the scene: Bach.
namely, rhythm. As early as 1910 the This great name was the magic word
Hungarian Bela Bartok (b. 1881) had, in which was strong enough to dispel the
his piano piece Allegro Barbaro, arrived destructive instincts, to make an end to
at a type of "barbaric" rhythm compared so many sensational efforts, and to unite
to which the percussive qualities of Igor practically all the prominent composers
Stravinsky's (b. 1882) much more fa- in a new spirit of seriousness and con-
mous Petrouchfa (1911) sound almost structive cooperation. Much as it might
conventional and suave [see also *Futur- seem regrettable that, after all the radical-
ism]. Nonetheless, Stravinsky, perhaps ism of the previous years, music had to
owing to his more versatile personality, turn back to "history" in order to pro-
was destined to play a considerably ceed to a new future, yet there was ap-
greater role in the subsequent develop- parently no other solution. Around 1925,
ment than the Hungarian composer. almost all the composers mentioned above
Shortly after the war, jazz reached the entered what is usually termed their
Continent and created a sensation, not "third period," i.e., the neo-classic period
onlyamong the dancing fans, but also after the "impressionistic" and the "anar-
among the composers. One of the first chic." Up to the present day the move-
to use it was Stravinsky, in his Ragtime ment known as *Neo-classicism has
(1918) [see the list at the end of the ar- gradually gained impact and a foothold
ticle *Jazz]. in practically every country. Only the im-
The post-war period proved a most mediate followers of Schonberg have re-
fertile soil for all these innovations, not mained aloof from what they believe to
only because it
opened the communica- be a sterile historicism and have tried to
tions between the various countries, but remain true to the ideals of a radically
also because it left the whole of Europe, new music (e.g., Krenek). In twenty
whether victorious or defeated, in a state years we shall know who pursued the
of inner destruction and despair which right path.
threw the doors open to radicalism and A quarterly magazine dedicated to
anarchy. As a matter of fact, the period ultramodern music is published under
from 1918 to 1925 can hardly be termed the name New Music (founded in 1927
other than anarchic. Scores of young by H. Cowell).
composers appeared, particularly in Ger- Lit.: G. Dyson, The New Music
many and France, who offered a confus- (1924); H. Cowell, New Musical Re-
ing variety of solutions, of new ways out sources (1930); E. Krenek, Vber Neue
of the vacuum which the general nega- MusiJ^ (1937); id., Music Here and Now
tion of the tradition had created. *Ato- (1939); A. Copland, Our New Music
nality, *Twelve-tone
technique, barba- (1941); N. Slonimsky, "Modern Mu-
rism, *Bruitism, *Futurism, Gregorian- sic ." (Introduction to D. Ewen, Boo\
. .
[490]
NIBELUNGENRING NOL
"The Truly Modern in Music" (ML, iv, acter pieces for the pianoforte, written in
no. 3); R.W. Wood, "Modern Counter- a somewhat melancholy or languid style,
point" (ML xiii, no. 3); G. Dyson, "The with an expressive melody over a broken-
Texture of Modern Music" (ML iv, no. chord accompaniment. The first noc-
3); E. Wellesz, "Problems of Modern turnes were written by the Irishman John
Music" (MQ x) H. Cowell, "New Terms
;
Field (1782-1837) from whom Chopin
for New Music" (MM v); W. Apel, "Die adopted the idea and the name. See
Neue Klaviermusik" (DM 1931/32, i, ii). *Notturno; *Nachtstikk.
See also under *Modern music, *Neo-
Nocturnes. Three ^Symphonic poems
classicism, *Atonality, "Twelve-tone tech-
etc.
by Debussy.
nique,
Nocturns [L. nocturnum, horae noc-
Nibelungenring. See *Ring des Nibel-
turnae} . See *Office hours.
ungs, Der.
[491]
NOIRE NONHARMONIC TONES
published (frequently as sheet-music) in lower auxiliary; also called embellish-
which a semi-religious text was set to pro- ment, returning note, alternating note).
fane melodies, dancing songs, drinking The first four of these may, of course,
songs, vaudevilles, etc. In the i7th cen-
occur between harmonic notes forming
tury the name was applied to organ any larger interval, in descending as well
as ascending motion. The difference be-
pieces designed to be played during the
Christmas service. Most of these are sim- tween echappe'e and cambiata is that in
ple variations on popular Christmas melo-
dies. Collections of such noels were pub-
lished by Le Begue [cf. HAM, no. 231],
Nicolas Gigault, Jean Fr. Dandrieu,
Claude Daquin, Boely, Balbastre, etc.
[492]
NONNENGEIGE NOTATION
somewhat weakens its dissonant charac- English banquets as a grace. It is remark-
ter.This character is still more weakened, able for the great number of solutions it
in fact almost eliminated, if the prepar- admits, solutions which differ according
ing tone is tied to the appoggiatura. This to the number of parts, and to the inter-
formation is called suspension (some- vals and distance of the imitating voices.
times retardation) [Ex. 8], The deriva- Cf. GD iii, 642.
tion of the suspension from the appoggi-
atura does not imply a statement regard- Non tanto, non troppo [It.]. Not too
much. Non troppo not too
ing the origin and the proper nature of allegro, fast.
Non Nobis Domine. A celebrated tion. The most satisfactory of the numer-
canon which is usually, but without ous symbols which have been devised for
demonstrable evidence, attributed to this purpose is the note, i.e., a point-like
William Byrd. It is frequently sung at sign which indicates pitch by its position
[493]
NOTATION NOTATION
on a *staff provided with a *clef, and pie means of recording the innumerable
duration by a variety of shapes, such as finesses of ancient singing, involving spe-
hollow or black heads with or without cial techniques which today survive only
stems, flags, etc. [see *Notes]. Addi- in Oriental tradition. On the other hand,
tional symbols of modern notation are owing to their failure to clearly indicate
the *accidentals, the *key-signature, the pitch as well as rhythm, they are not a
*time signature, *dynamic marks, *tempo fully-developed notation, but only a
marks, *expression marks, the *tie, the mnemonic aid for the oral handing-down
*slur, etc. The modern system of nota- of the chant. As early as the 8th century
tion dates back to the early i7th century. various methods were designed to remedy
Previously, systems of notation had been the indefiniteness of the neumes, chiefly
used which differ more or less radically by the addition of letters [ see *Letter no-
from the present one regarding either the tation; ^Romanian letters]. More impor-
fixation or rhythm (as in mensural nota- tant were the modifications of the graph
tion) or that of pitch (as in the tabla- of the neumes which took place during
tures). Here follows a brief conspectus of the nth century, leading from the vague
the evolution of notation (in Europe), cheironomic symbols to shapes which
with reference to special articles. corresponded more accurately to the rise
II. Greek music was notated by means and fall of the melody, the diastematic
of Two such systems were in use:
letters. neumes. This evolution was stabilized by
an older one (used chiefly for instru- the adoption of *staff lines in increasing
mental music and evidently devised for numbers, first one, then two, and finally
the kithara) which included certain an- four. Around 1200, the neumes acquired
cient symbols (Phoenician letters?) and those square-shaped forms which are still
which used these symbols in different po- used in the liturgical books of the Roman
sitions, upright, reversed, etc. [see under Catholic Church. See *Neumes.
*Pyknon] and a more recent one (used
;
III. These shapes [see Ex. i] were
chiefly for vocal music) which employed soon adopted for the notation of mono-
the Ionic alphabet together with a few phonic secular melodies [see *Plainsong
additional signs [cf. ReMMA 26, 27; notation] as well as of polyphonic music,
C. Sachs, in ZMW
vi, vii]. This method where they are known as ^ligatures. In
left no immediate traces in the musical
notation of the Christian era, probably a
i P- f
J3 V*
because its "Hellenistic" clarity and pre-
ciseness did not lend itself to the "Orien- the latter field their introduction was
tal" exuberance of early Christian recita- accompanied, shortly before 1200, by the
tion and psalm-singing [for an 8th -cen- establishment of definite rhythmic values,
tury revival, see *Dascian notation ] The . on the basis of the rhythmic *modes. The
ensuing development and, for that mat- resulting system is known as ^square no-
i-
< > ^ Y
II.
III.
!h 3
10 If a 13
IV.
V.
J J>
VI.
2+ 2S 2* 17
[496]
NOTES NOZZE DI FIGARO
these systems employ the ordinary men- soupir]; I., croma.
Sixteenth-note: E., semi-
sural notes, differing from mensural no- quaver; G., Sechzehntcl; F., doublc-croche [quart
de soupir]; I., semicroma. Thirty-second-note:
tation only in that the parts are written
E., demisemiquaver; G., Zweiunddreissigstel;
in score, as in the modern piano score or F., triple-croche [huitieme de soupir]; I., bis-
the modernpartitura. These may be des- croma. Sixty'-fourth-note: E., hemidemisemi-
quaver; G., Vierundsechzigstcl; F., quadruplc-
ignated as ^eyboard scores or keyboard
croche [scizieme dc soupir]; I., scmibiscroma.
partituras, in contradistinction to the
tablatures proper, which use letters, fig- the pianoforte which produces this sound.
ures, or other symbols instead of notes. between the
However, a clear distinction
A survey of modern attempts at reform terms tone and note is strongly recom-
is given in A. Eaglefield-Hull, A Dic- mended. Briefly, one sees a note, and
tionary of Modern Music (1924). See hears a tone.
also: Accidentals; Braille; Cheve; Chia- The illustration shows the note values
vette; Clef; Daseian notation; Ekphonetic with their American terminology. Eng-
notation; Griffschrift; Letter notation; lish, German, French, and Italian termi-
Mensural Musica
nology are given below. The signs and
Ligatures; notation;
ficta; Nageischrift; Neumes; Notes; Part names in brackets are those of the corre-
books; Partial signature; Plainsong nota- rests. The German names for
sponding
tion; Plica; Proportions; Punctus; Ro- the rests are: Ganze (halbe, viertel, etc.),
manian letters; Score; Square notation;
Pause; the Italian: pausa di semibreve
Staff; Staffless notation; Tablature; Tie;
(minima, etc.).
Time signatures; Tonic-Sol-fa.
Lit.: J. Wolf, Handbuch der dotations- Note sensible [F.]. *Leading tone.
\unde (2 vols., 1913-19); id., 'fMusi^al-
ische Schrijttajeln (facsimiles; 1922); id., Notre Dame, School of. See *Ars
Die Tonschrijten (1924); W. Apel, No- antiqua; *French music II. Cf. J. Hand-
tation of Polyphonic Music
(1942; 2d schin, in ZMW vi, vii, and in AM iv, nos.
edition 1944); H. Riemann, Studien zur 1-3; M. Schneider, in ZMW xiv.
Geschichte der Notenschrijt (1878); id.,
Notenschrift und NotendrucJ^ (1896) W.
Notturno [It., night piece], (i) Italian
;
Apel, "The Importance of Notation . ." . designation for *nocturne. (2) Eight-
(PAMSy 1938). See also under *Mensural eenth-century name for compositions sim-
notation; *Tablature; *Square notation;
ilar to the ^serenade, designed to be
played as an evening entertainment.
*Plainsong notation.
Haydn's Notturnos of 1790, for 2 lire
[497]
NUANCES NUOVE MUSICHE
W. A. Mozart, libretto by Da Pontc Number opera [G. Nummernoper].
(after Beaumarchais's play Le Manage
dc An opera written in single "numbers,"
succeeding his Le Barbier de Se- i.e., in separate pieces, such as arias, duets,
Figaro,
ville, the source of Rossini's *Barbiere di ensembles, ballets, interspersed with reci-
tative or spoken dialogue. This type of
Siviglia),composed 1786. Count Alma-
viva (Baritone), tired of his wife, the opera prevailed until the early I9th cen-
Countess (soprano; the Rosina of Ros- tury. It was vehemently opposed by Wag-
sini'sopera), tries to console himself
with ner who supplanted it by a continuous
other women, but Figaro (Bass), now his music which follows the action without
valet, no longer assists him (as in the interruption. His procedure has been
him in order all operatic com-
Barbiere), but plots against adopted by practically
Around to the present. It must be noted,
to punish him for his infidelity. posers up
this basic idea is woven a complicated however, that the replacement of the
plot of love affairs the details of which "number-style" by continuous writing
are not always clear. The Count flirts began as early as the operas of Jommelli,
with the gardener's daughter Barbarina Traetta, Gluck, and, particularly, Mozart
(Soprano) and with the Countess' maid whose late operas (Le Nozze di Figaro,
Susanna (Soprano). The page Cherubi- Don Giovanni) contain several lengthy
no (Soprano) is attached to Barbarina as movements in which various numbers
well as to the aging Countess, and Figaro are linked together by transitional pas-
has promised to marry Marcellina (Con- sages into a complete, well-rounded, and
tralto) but is in love with Susanna. unified musical whole. This tendency is
[498]
o OBBLIGATO
reversal of the relationship between music early i7th century are much the same
and text, as was clearly expressed by thing. Cavalieri, another pioneer of the
Monteverdi (Scherzi musicali, 1607) in new style, used it for his La Rappresenta-
the words: "L'orazione sia padrona dell' zione di anima e di corpo of 1600 [see
armonia e non serva" (The text should *Oratorio II], a work which, on account
be the master, not the servant, of the of its inclusion of choral passages [cf.
music). The main result was the replace- SchGMB, no. 169], is less radical but ac-
ment of the polyphonic a-cappella style tually more progressive than those of
by accompanied solo song (*aria, *reci- Peri and Caccini. In fact, the limitation
tativo). of the stile rappresentativo soon became
These tendencies found a strong sup- patent. Music could not, for any length
port in the antiquarian studies of Greek of time, be completely subjugated to the
music which, around 1580, were pursued role of a mere servant, and musicians be-
by Vincenzo Galilei (1533-91) and others gan to resume some of the threads which
known as the**camerata. Although not had too abruptly been cut off. As early as
sufficiently equipped to decipher the rem- 1607 Monteverdi's Orfeo showed that
nants of Greek music, these men formed mixture of old and new ideas upon which
a rather adequate picture of the role the imposing structure of the musical
which music had played in the ancient Baroque was to be built. For literature
Greek drama, and instinctively felt the see *Baroque; *Camerata.
close relationship of Greek music al-
Nut. (i) Of the violin. slightly pro-A
ways a monophonic rendering of the text
jected ridge fastened to the upper end of
to their own problem. Although ac-
the neck of stringed instruments (violin,
companied solo songs in a rather plain over which the strings pass in order
etc.),
homophonic style were cultivated in to keep them from touching the ringer
Spain as early as 1530 (lute songs by board. (2) Of the bow. The lower end
Milan, Valderrabano), it was not until of the bow at which it is held. It is ad-
the last years of the century that the open
justed by a screw mechanism in order to
break with the tradition occurred, in the
keep the hair in proper tension. Earlier
and Caccini [see
earliest operas of Peri
bows (Bach) did not have this contriv-
*Opera III] which were based exclusively ance, the tension of the hair being ad-
on the principle of *monody (stile rap-
justed by the varying pressure of the
presentation see also *Recitative). Cac-
thumb. See *Bow.
cini, in his above-mentioned book of
1602, applied the new style to short lyrics, Nutcracker Suite. An orchestral suite
o
O, or similar signs (circle; zero), occur sign for tempus perfectum (circle).
in the following meanings: (i) In music (5) In medieval tonaries, it denotes the
for violins, etc., as an indication of the fourth church-mode.
open string. (2) In English ^fingering
for keyboard, as a sign for the thumb. Obbligato [It.]. Obligatory, usually
(3) In thorough-bass parts, for *tasto with reference to instruments (violino
solo. In *mensural notation, as a
(4) obbligato) or parts that must not be
[4991
OBBLIGO OBOE FAMILY
omitted; the opposite is *ad libitum. Un- entific classification the oboe, English
some queer misunder- horn, bassoon, etc., are considered as con-
fortunately, by
standing or thoughtlessness, the term
has stituting families of their own, since each
come to adopt the meaning of a mere of these instruments existed in various
which may be sizes [see N. Bessaraboff, Ancient Euro-
accompanying part
omitted, if
necessary. The consequence pean Musical
Instruments (1941), p.
is that one has to decide in each single in]. From
the point of view of the
case whether obbligato means "obbligato" present article such distinctions are hard-
or "ad libitum," the chances being in ly necessary. The instruments of the
favor of the former meaning in the case present-day orchestra are discussed under
of early music; of the latter, in more re- I, others of rare use or obsolete, under II,
cent pieces. For accompanimento obbli- while a historical survey is given under
under *Accompaniment. III. All these instruments (with the ex-
gato, see
ception of some old types) have a conical
Obbligo In the learned counter-
[It.]. bore, in contrast to the cylindrical bore of
point of the i yth and i8th centuries
con
the clarinets. [See illustrations on p.
obbligo denotes a manner of writing 816.]
which includes certain "self-imposed ob- A. The Oboe
I.
Present-Day Forms.
ligations/* such as canon, double counter- [F. hautbois, high wood]. The oboe con-
point, inversion, etc. sists of a conical pipe made of wood
Oberdominante [G.]. Dominant, in (usually in three parts, top joint, lower
contradistinction to Unterdominante, joint, and bell) to the upper end of which
[500]
OBOE FAMILY OBOE FAMILY
in his Guillaume Tell (1829) and Meyer- for it in The Creation, and Beethoven
beer in Robert le diable (1831). used it in his Fifth and Ninth
Sym-
C. Bassoon [F. basson\ G. Fagott\ It. phonies. W. W. D.
fagotto] This is the bass of the family. On
. II. Rare and Obsolete Forms.
It should
account of the great length of the tube, be noted that the oboes of the i8th and
this is bent back upon itself, first descend- early ipth centuries were much more
ing and then ascending. The instrument strident and
piercing in sound than the
modern instruments, a statement which
is even more true of the still earlier in-
consonance, so perfect indeed that it gives chordal style and in a rhythm dictated
the impression of a mere duplication of by the poetic meter, e.g.:
the original tone, a phenomenon for
which no convincing explanation has ever
I d JU jj|j I dJj i JJU ;
tion [see *Color and music]. The funda- super 22 genera carminum Horatit
mental importance of the octave appears (1507); Paulus Hofhaimer, Harmoniae
also from the fact that it is the only inter- poeticae (1539; new ed. by Achleitner,
val which is common to practically all the 1868); Ludwig Senfl, Varia carminum
scales ever
evolved, regardless of the genera (1532); Claude Goudimel,
. . .
For the designation of the various oc- rhythmos musicos redactae (1555). Ex-
taves, see *Pitch names. amples for the lute occur in Judenkunig's
Oc- Ain schone Underweisung
(2) In ecclesiastical terminology, fanstliche
tave denotes the continued observation, .
1523 [cf. DTOe iS.ii; ApMZ i]. In
. .
for eight (or seven) days, of the greater France, this poetic modification of musi-
feasts. cal rhythm [see *Rhythm II (b)] led to
the *vers mesure. In the collections of
Octave flute. *Piccolo flute.
*frottole, publishedby Petrucci, the name
ode given to strophic songs in iambic
is
Octave species [G. O\tavgattungen\,
See *Greek music II (c). heptameters and with the following
scheme of rhymes: aaab/bbbc/
Octavier [F.]. See *Wind instruments c c cd /, etc. See ^Renaissance: *Hu-
III. manism.
[504!
OKETUS OPERA
Oketus. See*Hocket, Ongarese, Air [It,]. In Hungarian
style.
Oktave [G.]. Octave. In connection
with instruments it denotes sizes either Onion-flute. Same as *Eunuch flute.
an octave above the normal size (e.g., See *Mirliton.
Ofyavflote, i.e., piccolo flute), or below it
Onzieme [F.]. The interval of the
(e.g., Otyavjagott, i.e., contrabassoon).
eleventh.
) *Octave species.
One-step. American dance of the *jazz appeal and for the equally widespread
period (c. 191020) in quick duple me- criticism directed against it on the score
ter, similar to the *fox-trot. It was super- of artistic impurity; the classic state-
its
seded, around 1920, by the slower two- ment of this critical attitude being Saint-
step (slow-fox). Evremonde's definition of opera as "a
f5 5 ]
OPERA OPERA
bizarre affair of poetry and. music in the art-work and the which it
object rep-
which the poet and the musician, each resents.
equally obstructed by the other, give Another basic convention of opera is a
themselves no end of trouble to produce consequence of the fact that a musical
a wretched result." The fact that idea usually takes longer for its develop-
opera
is, of musical or dramatic forms, the
all ment than the time which would be re-
most difficult and expensive to produce, quired merely to speak the words with
has caused it almost always to be asso- which it is connected. This results in
ciated with the upper strata of social life, either or both of the following devices:
thus a "prestige symbol" for
making it
(i) a noticeable stretching-out, and con-
the public as well as an object of
particu- sequent slow pace of the action (as in
lar attraction for many ambitious com- Wagner's music dramas); or (2) alter-
posers and It is noteworthy that
singers. nating periods of action and repose: the
most operas have been composed by spe- action being carried on in ^recitative
cialists in this form. The number of com-
(with a minimum of music) and being
posers who have distinguished themselves periodically interrupted by musical "num-
equally in opera and other branches of bers" (arias, ensembles, ballets, etc.; see
music exceedingly small: Monteverdi,
is *Number opera) all of which are, from
Handel, Mozart, and R, Strauss arc the dramatic standpoint, likely to be
outstanding in this respect. On the merely episodic, or at best unnecessarily
other hand, composers such as Bach, long elaborations of certain moments of
Haydn, Schubert, Schumann, Mendels- the action. Such a slow tempo of the
sohn, Brahms, and Bruckner either did drama, or such frequent interruptions,
not venture into the operatic field at all, would be regarded as serious defects in a
or did so without conspicuous success, spoken play; but in an opera they are
while the achievements of Beethoven and hardly avoidable. From this basic neces-
Debussy are limited to one work each, sity arise many of the features of opera
albeit a masterpiece in both cases. which persons unaccustomed to the form
Like all art forms, the opera is founded find difficult to accept, such as the fre-
on certain conventions, the most impor- quent text-repetitions, the prolonged emo-
tant of which is that the persons of the tional scenes, dying speeches, and so on.
drama express their thoughts and feelings While it is true that many operas are
by means of song rather than speech. cheaply emotional, silly, or melodramatic,
Criticism of this feature as "unnatural" the same charge may be made against
is, of course, beside the point, since no many plays. These faults are not inherent
work intended to be a mere imi-
of art is in the form, though the skillful use of
tation of nature. While it is undeniable music may cause the ordinary listener to
that people in real life do not continu- forgive their presence in opera more read-
ously sing, it is equally undeniable that ily than in a play.
[506]
OPERA OPERA
single mutilated specimen of Greek
dra- 1590-1680, Development of dramatic
matic music has survived (fragment of music and of apppropriate dra-
style in
a chorus from the Orestes of Euripi- matic and musical forms ( HI-Vin.
j \ _^O- ^ ... . ^ . '
give musical unity to long sections of the introduction to the aria, repeated at the
opera. close ("ritornello" principle), as well as
With the third decade of the xyth cen- short orchestral interludes between the
tury the center of operatic interest shifts sections, is established. There are impor-
to Rome (chief composers: Stefano Lan- tant orchestral overtures and sinfonias,
di, Domenico Mazzochi, Michelangelo but the chorus is much less prominent
Rossi, Luigi Rossi). Landi's S. Alessio than in the operas of the Roman school.
(perf. 1632; cf. *Editions II, 5) shows a The course of Venetian opera after
stage in the differentiation between reci- Cesti is difficult to follow owing to the
tative and aria, with the use of tuneful unavailability of sources. There was a
melodies in the latter, as well as contin- flourishing branch of comic-satirical op-
ued progress toward formal clarity. In era, while serious works were composed
this work also the "canzona" type of by Legrenzi (Eteode e Polinice, 1675),
overture appears, while the "sinfonia" be- C. Pallavicino (La Gerusalemme liberata,
fore the second act is an early example of 1687 at Dresden; cf. DdT 55), and
the three-movement arrangement (fast- Stradella.
slow-fast) of the later Italian overture. The climax of the 17th-century Italian
The Roman operas are distinguished by opera seen in the works of Agostino
is
extensive use of the chorus. This school Steffani (Alarico, 1687; Henrico Leone,
was also the first to produce *comic 1689; cf. DTB n.ii, i2.ii), a native of
operas. Venice but whose musical activity took
Venetian
IV. Ofera. The rise of the place entirely in Germany. In Steffani,
Venetian schoolbegins in 1637, with the perfect reconciliation of the monodic
the opening of the first public opera and contrapuntal principles is achieved,
house ("Teatro S. Cassiano"). The and the foundation firmly laid for the
first composers are: Monteverdi (// operatic style of Handel.
Ritorno d'Ulissc, 1641; Llncoronazione In the 1 8th century the Venetian
di Poppea, 1642), Cavalli (Giasone, school represented by Lotti, C. F. Pol-
is
1649, in *Editions XXVI, 12; Serse, larolo, Vivaldi, and Galuppi, the last be-
1654), and Cesti (La Dori, 1662, in *Edi- ing distinguished for his "buffo" operas
OPERA OPERA
The historical importance of Venice lies Venus and Adonis
(c. 1685), although
in the establishment of
opera as a public entitled "a
masque," is the first genuine
spectacle, the development of an appro- opera to be produced in
England. The
priate musical style and forms, and fur- only great figure of English opera is
thermore in its widespread influence on Henry whose Dido and Aeneas
Purcell,
the formation of opera in
Germany and (c. 1689) is a masterpiece in miniature.
France. Though not free of French influence
V. French Opera. French national (form of
overture, care for clear text-dec-
opera was founded by Robert Cambert lamation, certain rhythmic mannerisms,
(Pomone, 1671) and Jean-Baptiste Lully prominence of dancing, instrumental
(Cadmus et Hermione, 1673; Atys, 1676; pieces, and choruses), it nevertheless com-
Amadis de Gaule, 1684; Armide et Re- bines these features with
highly original
naud, 1686). Although there had been and characteristically English melodies,
performances of Italian opera in Paris rhythms, and harmonies, together with
between 1645 and 1662 (notably Luigi a degree of tragic
expressiveness (Dido's
Rossi's Orfeo in 1647), the French were lament, "When I am
laid in earth")
slow to adopt the form, partly because in which has hardly been surpassed in op-
their own classical tragedy (Corneille, era. These same
qualities may be found
Racine) and in the Ballet they had al- in much of Purcell s other theater music,
ready perfected two types of stage pro- which is in the form of incidental music
duction with which they were satisfied to plays (Dioclesian,
1690; King Arthur,
and which they did not believe could be 1691). With Purcell's early death, the
successfully merged. It is a tribute to history of English serious opera may be
Lully's skill that he was able to take cer- said to end, so far as
any works of first
tain features of each of these established rank are concerned.
forms, along with some elements of the VII. German Of era. With the excep-
Pastorale, and combine them in the opera. tion of Schihz's
Daphne (1627 at Tor-
As compared with contemporary Italian gau; music lost), the early history of op-
works, the French opera is distinguished era in Germany is
predominantly the
by (i) the relatively greater importance history of Italian composers at German
of the drama in the total scheme, courts: Pallavicino at Dresden, A. Draghi
(2) the
exceptionally large place given to ballets, at at Munich and Han-
Vienna, Steffani
choruses, and spectacular scenes in gen- over, and a host of others. Their influ-
eral, (3) the greater use of instrumental ence was such that for the next hundred
music, (4) the use of short and simple years even native German masters were
songs, mostly of a dance-like character content to write in the Italian style, and
(*airs) rather than elaborate arias, (5) a to Italian texts (Fux, Hasse, Gluck, Mo-
special type of ^recitative, and (6) a spe- zart). The only important native Ger-
cial type of *overture, known as French man school was at Hamburg, where the
overture. This type of opera remained titles of the Singspiele (e.g., Theile's
first
essentially unchanged in the works of Adam und Eva, 1678) show the connec-
Lully's successors, including Rameau tion with the tradition of School-dramas
(Hippolyte et Ancle, 1733; Castor et Pol- on sacred themes. (An earlier example
lux, whose operas represent the
1737), is Staden's "Spiritual pastorale" Seelewig,
high-point of this form in France before Nuremberg, 1644; see MjM xiii;
Gluck. For reprints of French operas see German
SchGMB, no. 195.)operas on
*Editions IV. secular subjects, both serious and comic,
VI. English Of era. As French opera soon made their appearance. The chief
grew out of the Ballet, so English opera composer of the Hamburg school was
developed from the *Masque, though not Reinhard Keiser, of whose reputed 120
without difficulty owing to the prejudice operas but 18 have been preserved
during the Commonwealth (1649-60) (Croesus, 1711, revised 1730; in DdT
against stage entertainments. John Blow's 37/38; Octavia, 1706; in Handel Gesell-
[509]
OPERA OPERA
schaft, Supplement; Prinz Jodelet, 1726; principal character, which are a conse-
in *Editions XXVI, 18). Reiser's impor- quence of the action just preceding. Thus
tance not only in his position as the
lies the libretto presents a constant alterna-
best composer of early German opera, but tion of active and reflective portions, the
also in his direct influence on Handel, former being interpreted musically as
whose four operatic works were pro-
first recitative (mostly recitativo secco) and
duced at Hamburg in 1705-06. Keiser's the latter as aria. Choruses are practi-
style is essentially like that found in the cally non-existent. As for the orchestra,
operas of Stcffani and (to a higher degree itsfunction (except for the overture [see
of development) in Handel. An out- *Italian overture] and an occasional
standing feature of his style is the skill of march or other incidental piece) is de-
the orchestral parts of the arias, and the cidedly subordinate, though in the hands
variety of combinations of concertizing of an able composer the ritornellos and
instruments which he employs. After accompaniments to the arias may be of
Keiser, German opera degenerated and considerable interest and importance.
by the middle of the i8th century had But the center of attention and the basic
entirely disappeared. unit in the structure of these operas was
VIII. Neapolitan Opera. The prevail- the aria, of which many different types
ing type of 18th-century serious opera is existed (aria cantabile, aria parlante, aria
known as "Neapolitan," from the name di bravura^ etc.), though practically all
of the city where many of its early com- were in the Da Capo form.
Fairly rigid
posers chiefly worked [see ^Neapolitan conventions prevailed as to the number
School]. This type was cultivated in all and order of the different types of aria
countries (except France) by native and and their distribution among the mem-
Italian composers alike, and the word bers of the cast, and the popularity of
"Neapolitan" has been generally applied Metastasio (his 27 librettos were set to
to operas which vary widely from one music over 1000 times in the i8th cen-
another both in technical treatment and tury) is in large part attributable to his
in artistic merit. By some historians the meet the peculiar requirements
ability to
term is restricted to operas the music of of the form without undue sacrifice of
which is in a popular, tuneful style with dramatic force and continuity. Corollary
to the conception of the aria as the es-
simple harmonic accompaniments, char-
acteristic of the [see sential unit of form were two phenomena
period 1710-50
*Gallant style]. characteristic of iSth-century opera: (i)
Much of the usual criticism of the Nea- The high development of vocal technique
*Bel the
politan opera rises from lack of under- [see canto], particularly by
standing of the principles of the form or *castrati\ (2) The
prevalent custom of
from concentrating on its abuses while borrowing arias from one opera for use
its virtues. Its foundation was a in another, whether or not by the same
ignoring
ideal of drama, realized
rationalistic composer [cf. *Pasticcio]. Since there
were no printed scores, and no copyright
through the reforms of Zeno and his
more famous successor Metastasio, who restrictions, an opera was seldom per-
formed the same way in two different
purged the chaotic 17th-century opera
libretto of irrelevant elements (e.g., comic places or at two different times,"and the
and fantastic episodes) and created a uni- changes were sometimes so extensive as
fied, closely-knit three-act dramatic struc-
to make it
impossible any more to recon-
with characters and subjects drawn struct the original version.
ture,
from classical history or leg- The
reputed founder of the Neapolitan
principally
end (seldom from mythology). For-
school is Alessandro
Scarlatti, of whose
mally, each scene consists of two distinct 114 operas not one exists complete in any
parts, the first comprising the
action and modern edition. The degree of styliza-
the second devoted to the expression of tion evident in later composers is not seen
the reflections, feelings, or resolves of the in Scarlatti, though the works of his last
OPERA OPERA
period clearly foreshadow the tendency. ily growing influence of the French capi-
The chief representatives of the Neapol- tal in
operatic affairs made later Italian
itan school in the early i8th century are composers more ready to adopt practices
Porpora, L. Vinci, Leo, and J. A. Hasse. calculated to assure a favorable Parisian
But unquestionably the composer
greatest hearing of their works, and thus led to a
of Italian opera in this period is Handel, closer rapprochement of the two national
who from 1711 to 1740 produced at Lon- styles. Other influences working toward
don a scries of works some of which have a reform of the Neapolitan opera in the
never been surpassed for nobility of style later i8th century were the cult of natu-
or profundity of dramatic insight (Giulio ralness as set forth in the writings of
Cesare, 1724; Tamerlano, 1724; Rode- Rousseau, and the increasing significance
linda, 1725). Later composers of serious of popular "comic" operas, which by the
opera in the Neapolitan tradition include end of the century in all countries had
64) in completing the poem and part of dom and variety of the harmonic pro-
the music of Der Ring
des Nibelungen gressions,and the effective employment
and in writing various essays, of which of suspensions and
appoggiaturas. That
the most important is Oper und Drama his works continue is undoubt-
popular
(1851). In this work he developed the edly due more to their musical qualities
theoretical basis for the Music Drama, and their sheer dramatic effectiveness
the practical application of which appears than to any general acceptance of the the-
in the four dramas of the Ring (first com- ory of the Gesamtkunstwerk, with its
plete performance at Bayreuth, 1876), manifold implications.
Tristan und Isolde (comp. 1857-59), Die XI. The Modern Opera. Wagner's
Meistersinger von N Urn berg (comp. musical style and his ideal of "continuous
1862-67), and Parsifal (comp. 1877-79). melody" influenced all composers of op-
These works are all based on a concep- era in the late i9th and early 2oth cen-
tion of the Music Drama as a super-art- turies, particularly Richard Strauss (Sa-
form (Gesamtkunstwerk) in which all lome, 1905; Der Rosenfyvalier, 1911).
the constituent arts are transfigured, sac- At the same time, the Music Drama pro-
rificing their individual identity and voked reactions in favor of so-called "real-
some of their special characteristics for ism" in subject-matter and compression
the larger possibilities of development and simplicity of musical treatment, evi-
opened up by the new association. The dent in the Italians Mascagni, Leonca-
myth is held to be the ideal subject, not vallo, and Puccini (La Boheme, 1896;
merely because it is entertaining but also Tosca y 1900) and in the French Bru-
because it is significant; its meaning is neau (Masidor, 1897) and Charpentier
expressed in poetry (speech), but it is in- (Louise, 1900). Debussy's Pelleas et
evitably impelled to song, since only mu- Melisande (1902) is a unique application
sic is capable of conveying the intensity of the impressionist technique to opera,
of feeling to which the ideas of the poem and comes closer than any other modern
give rise. This song is flexible (non-peri- work to realizing the original Florentine
odic rhythm) and free (no formal divi- ideal of music as an almost imperceptible
sions into recitative, aria, etc.); it implies support ami setting for the poetry.
a polyphonic substructure which is real- Recent composers of opera, despite the
ized by the orchestra, and which em- diversity of musical idioms, are united in
bodies the "inner action" of the drama the search for objectivity of expression
(i.e., the feelings) as the words embody and clarity of musical form. This is evi-
its "outer action" (i.e., the precise ideas dent in three of the most significant op-
with which the feelings are connected). eratic works of the period following the
The orchestral music is continuous first World War: Berg's Wozzccl^ (perf.
throughout an act, the technical concomi- 1925), with its deliberate employment of
tant of this being the avoidance of double classical forms (suite, passacaglia, sonata,
bars and perfect cadences and the con- etc.); Hindemith's Cardillac (1926), a
tinual shifting of the tonal center; it is
straight "number" opera, in a style which
unified by the use of "*leit-motifs," mu- Slonimsky has aptly called "neo-Hande-
sical themes each connected with a par- lian"; and Milhaud's Christophe Colomb
ticular person, thing, or idea (or all three,
(1930), which in its use of large choral
as in the case of Siegfried's horn-call), and effects recalls the age of
spectacular
and recurring, varying, or developing Lully and Rameau. Other phenomena of
musically in accord with the recurrence, the post-war period are the jazz-operas
[513]
OPERA OPERA HOUSES
(Weill, Krenck), topical operas (Hinde- (1863); L. Schiedermair, Die deutsche
mith's Neues vom Tage, 1929) and
Oper (1930); R. Newmarch, The Rus-
Shostakovich's propaganda-opera Lady sian Opera (1914); E. B, Hill, Modern
Macbeth (perf. 1934). A
recent develop- French Music (1924); A. Lorenz, Das
ment in England and the United States Geheimnis der Form bei Richard Wag-
*
[514]
OPERETTA ORAGEUX
Paris (1669), Rome (1671), Hamburg national fame withc. 30 operettas written
(1678). After 1700, opera houses became between 1871 and 1895, among which
common in all the musical centers of Eu- Die Fledermaus ("The Bat," 1874) has
rope. The most important opera houses remained on the repertory to the present
of the present day are listed below. day. At the same time Arthur Sullivan
I. States. New York:
America, United (1842-1900) wrote English operettas
Metropolitan Opera House. Boston: (mostly on librettos by W. S. Gilbert)
Opera House. Chicago: Opera House. which represent the highest point at-
II. Latin America. Buenos Aires: tained in English dramatic music since
Opera\ Teatro Colon. Rio de Janeiro: Purcell.
Teatro Municipal. In the United States the operetta was
III. Austria. Vienna: Staatsoper\ Volfy- cultivated mainly by Victor Herbert
oper. (1859-1924), composer of The Wizard of
IV. England. London: Royal Covent the Nile (1895) and many other oper-
Garden. ettas,and by Reginald de Koven (1859
V. Germany. Berlin: Staatsoper\ 1920), remembered mainly from his first
Stddtisch e Oper ( Charlottenburg ) .
operetta Robin Hood (1890). Among the
Dresden: Sachsisches Staatstheater. more recent contributions Firefly (1912),
Hamburg: Stadttheater. Munich: Bay- by Rudolf Friml (b. 1884), The Student
risches Staatstheater. Bayreuth: Pest- Prince, by Sigmund Romberg (b. 1887),
spiel haus (Wagner operas). There ex- and Show Boat (1929), by Jerome Kern,
ist about 30 more opera houses in smaller may be mentioned.
German cities [cf. A. Einstein, Das Neue M. S. Mackinley, Light Opera
Lit.:
quick dialogue (question and answer in history of the oratorio and, mainly on
quick succession), and, frequently, the account of its elaborate stage production
narrator [It. testo] who introduces the (including the simultaneous [sic] repre-
personalities and connects their parts. sentation of Heaven, Earth, and Hell,
Compositions of a similar character but splendid costumes and ballets; cf. GD
based on a scriptural or liturgical text 709), have placed it in the category of
iii,
(Mass, Requiem, Passion) are usually not "sacred opera," a later example of which
included under the category oratorio. is Steffano Landi's // San Alessio
(1632).
There exist, however, Passion oratorios, At any rate, it would seem as though this
in which the story of the Passion is freely work were an isolated attempt which
told. From the sacred cantata (Bach) failed to establish a tradition. More suc-
the oratorio is
distinguished by its cessful in this respect was the Teatro
greater extension and by the more nar- Armonico Spirituale (1619) of Giov.
rative and continuous character of the Francesco Anerio (1567-1620) in which
libretto. a refined madrigal style is used for the
II.History to 1650. Early types of dra- choral portions, alternating with monody
matic music in the character of an ora- for the solistic parts among which we
torio are the *liturgical dramas of the already find the narrator. Steffano Landi
later Middle Ages and the *mysteries of (c.1590-1658) wrote an oratorio Daniel
the I4th/i5th centuries. More properly, [see *Editions II, 5].Another important
the history of the oratorio began in the work, greatly celebrated in its day, was
mid- 1 6th century when Filippo Neri in- Domenico Mazzocchi's (1592-1665)
augurated, in Rome, a special order called Querimonia di S. Maria Maddalena (c.
"oratoriani" and founded a building 1640?). It is an example of the oratorio
called "oratorio" (oratory, chapel) in volgarC) i.e., an oratorio written in the
which regular services of a popular char- vernacular, not in Latin.
ORATORIO ORATORIO
III. 1650-1800. Around the middle of (1736?). There followed Johann Ernst
the i
yth century the oratorio entered a Eberlin with Der blutschwitzende Jesus
new phase, owing to the activity of (DTOe 28.1), Georg Ph. Telemann
Giac. Carissimi (1605-74) wno m m s
(1681-1767) with his highly dramatic
Jephtha, Judicium Salomonis, Jonas, Ex~ Der Tag des Gerichts of 1761 (DdT 28),
tremum Judicium [see *Editions VI, 5], and Johann Christoph Friedrich Bach
etc., created the first oratorios which, ac- (1732-95) with Die Kindheit Jesu and
cording to their extension and diversity Die Au\erwecl(ung des Lazarus (DdT
of treatment, would seem to be fully de- 56). This development came to a fitting
serving of this name [example in HAM, close with the truly remarkable oratorios
no. 207]. Carissimi's successors in the of C. P. E. Bach (Die Israeliten in der
field of the oratorio were Antonio Draghi Wuste, Die und
1775; Aujerstehung
(1635-1700; 40 oratorios), Alessandro
c. Himmcljahrt Jesu, 1787) which, in a
Stradella (1645-82) with his oratorios typical mixture of styles, look back to the
S. Giovanno Battista and Susanna [cf. works of his father as well as forward to
ScnGMB y
no. 230], and Alessandro Scar- Haydn [cf. the study by W. H. Hadow,
latti (1659-1725) who wrote a great in OH iv].
number of oratorios (eighteen are pre- The English oratorio is represented by
served with the music) which approxi- Handel who, after a few early works ( La
mate rather closely the style of his operas Resurrezione, 1708), turned to oratorio
but are, on the whole, much less success- writing mainly after his dissatisfaction
ful than these. The oratorios of Antonio with his operatic activity and whose
Lotti (1667-1740) and Antonio Caldara Egypt (1737), Messiah (1742),
Israel in
by Selle (1642), Theile (1672), and Se- lish oratorio entered, with Arne's death
bastiani (1672) belong to the special cate- in 1775, "on a century of artistic dark-
*
gory of the Passion [see Passion B], and ness, over which brooded from first to
later composers such as Weckmann, Bux- last the elephantine shadow of Handel, to
tehude, Rosenmuller preferred the smaller which was added in the final thirty years
form of the cantata. Thus J. S. Bach the almost equally universal though less
would seem to have been the first to take ostentatiously ponderous shadow of
up again the tradition of Schiitz in his Mendelssdm. The composers of these
great Christmas Oratorio (1733/34) an d tons of oratorios were 'all honourable
in the less important Easter Oratorio men'; but their music is nothing
, . .
[517]
ORATORIO ORATORIO
worse than intolerably dull" (GD iii, Dvorak, St. Ludmila, 1886; Berlioz,
7 2lf). L'Enfance du Christ, 1854; Franck, Les
An important, though little known, Beatitudes, 1879; Rebecca, 1881, etc.;
development of the oratorio took place d'Indy, La Legende de Saint-Christophe,
in France, beginning with Carissimi's
properly a stage work) but, on the whole,
pupil Marc-Antoine Charpentier (1634- with conspicuous lack of success. The
1704) whose oratorios ("Histoires sa- only great contribution of this period is
crees": Judicium Salomonis\ Filius prodi- Brahms's Deutsches Requiem (op. 45,
gus, Le Renicment de St. Pierre, etc., all 1857-68), a work which, although not an
with Latin text) combine masterly tech- oratorio in the strict sense of the word (it
nique with depth of feeling and dramatic is based, not on a free text, but on scrip-
expression [cf. HAM, no. 226]. Unfor- tural passages), cannot be omitted in a
tunately he found no successors in his description of this form. In England
country. there occurred, after more than a century
IV. i8oo-Present. Joseph Haydn of utter mediocrity, a notable revival, in
(1732-1809), after his // Ritorno di Tobia oratorios such as Hubert Parry's Judith
(1775; said to be "the finest example of (1888), Job (1892), and King Saul
18th-century Italian oratorio that exists" (1894); Elgar's The Dream of Gerontius
[GD iii, 718]) and his highly expressive (1900), The Apostles (1903), and The
* Seven Words on the Cross (1797), Kingdom (1906); Walford Davies' Ev-
wrote the two works which inaugurated eryman (1904); and William Walton's
a new era in oratorio writing, Die Belshazzars Feast (1931), compositions
Schopfung ("The Creation," 1797) and practically all of which were written for
Die Jahreszeiten ("The Seasons," 1801), and performed at one of the British
the latter of which, though authentically Festivals. Among the American ora-
named "Oratorio," belongs to the secular torios Horatio Parker's The Legend of
rather than the religious field. Com- St. Christopher and Hora novissima, as
pared with these master works which well as Paine's St. Peter, must be men-
stand at the summit of a long life of tioned.
creative activity, Beethoven's early Recently Arthur Honegger has opened
Christus am
Olberg ("Mount of Olives," new possibilities for the oratorio in his
op. 85, composed 1800, publ. 1811) is in- Le Roi David (1923) by abandoning the
significant. In the first half of the i9th "lyrical emotionalism" of the romantic
century Germany was passing through a oratorio, and by incorporating archaic
period of oratorio worship similar to that idioms which bestow upon the work an
of England, and the works of Ludwig impressive touch of "biblical greatness."
Spohr (1784-1859; Das letzte Gericht), Other living composers have cultivated
Friedrich Schneider (i786-i853), and the secular oratorio, e.g., Stravinsky in
Karl Loewe (1796-1869; Hiob, 1848) his Oedipus Rex (1927, with stage ac-
(1836) and Elijah (1846), oratorios toriums (1911); A. Patterson, The Story
which, with their romantically colored of the Oratorio (1909); LavE i.3, 1546^
Bach-Handel style, have retained a last- (French oratorio); E. Vogl, Die Orato-
ing place of honor, particularly in Eng- r\entechnl\ Carissimi's (Diss. Prague
land. 1928); D. Alaleone, Studi delta storia dell
After Mendelssohn quite a number of oratorio musicale in Italia (1908); A.
composers have ventured into the field of Schering, inJMP, 1903 and in SIM viii;
the oratorio (Wagner, Das Liebesmahl K. Meyer, "Das Offizium und seine Be-
dcr A pastel, 1844; Liszt, The Legend of ziehung zum Oratorium" (AMW iii);
St. Elizabeth, 1862, and Christus, 1866; M. Brenet, "Les Oratoires de Carissimi"
ORCHfiSOGRAPHIE ORCHESTRA
(RM1 iv); H. Vogel, "Das Oratorium in tive at first, tends to tire the listener's ear
second violin, the violas, the celli, and the ments must have been played together
double-basses also the harp; to the ever since their invention, any systematic
second, the flutes, oboes, English horn, combination in larger groups which takes
bassoons, and clarinets; to the third, the into consideration questions of balance,
horns, trumpets, trombones, and tubas; capabilities, and individual characteris-
to the fourth, the kettledrums, side tics was but slowly realized. What music
drums, glockenspiel, celesta, xylophone, of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance
tambourin, triangle, cymbals, etc. The can be identified as "instrumental" [see
Boston Symphony Orchestra included in ^Instrumental music; *Instruments, his-
1944 the following: three flutes and pic- tory] was chamber rather than orches-
colo; three oboes and English horn; three tral music. This does not mean to say
clarinets and bass clarinet; three bassoons that larger ensembles did not exist; they
and double bassoon; seven horns, four were, however, used mainly for ceremo-
trumpets, four trombones, tuba; two nial and festive purposes (fanfares, etc.,
timpanists, three percussion
players, for royal welcomes, banquets) which fell
eighteen first violins, sixteen second vio- outside the scope of the composer. It is
lins, twelve violas, ten violoncellos, nine perhaps no coincidence that the first com-
double basses, two harps. poser to utilize orchestral resources, Gio-
The strings are the backbone of the vanni Gabrieli (1557-1612), worked in
orchestra and, in general, are given the Venice, then the wealthiest and most cos-
most important melodic parts of the mopolitan city of Europe, where cere-
score. Highly expressive, adaptable, and monial receptions and other celebrations
not too "individual," they never become were the order of the day. His Sacrae
tiring and are, therefore, used through- symphoniae, written c. 1600, are the first
out the composition with only short inter- compositions to use a specific instrument
ruptions. Next in importance as melody for each part, namely, in addition to
instruments are wood winds each of voices, cornetti, trombones, bassoons, and
which has a very characteristic timbre violins [see *Editions XIV, 2 (nos. 6, u,
and one which, although highly attrac- 12, 16); cf. also HAM, no. 173]. Little
ORCHESTRA ORCHESTRA
distinction, however, is made between the defined group of wind instruments,
of the various instruments.
capabilities flutes, oboes,and horns in addition to the
Claudio Monteverdi's Orfco (1607) 1S a violins which, by this time, had replaced
landmark of even greater interest in the the earlier viols.
early history of the orchestra, as it shows III. i8th
Century. By the time of Bach
the attempts to treat the instruments in- (1685-1750), instruments and the tech-
dividually and to achieve special orches- nique of performance on them had been
tral effects. His orchestra consisted of: improved, and various effective combi-
two harpsichords (gravicembano), two nations had been worked out. Bach's
double bass viols (contrabasso de viola), Cantata no. 119 (1723) utilizes the fol-
ten viols (viola da brazzo), one harp lowing: 4 voice parts, 4 trumpets, 2 tim-
(arpa doppia), two violins (violino pic- pani, 2 flutes, 3 oboes, 2 oboi da caccia,
colo alia Frances?), two bass lutes (chifa- first violins, second violins, violas, and
rone), two organs with wooden pipes continue, the last to be played by vio-
(organo di legno), three bass viols (basso loncelli and an organ (or harpsichord).
da gamba), four trombones, one * regal, An impartial distribution of interchange-
two *cornetts, one small recorder (ftauto able parts between string and wind in-
alia vigesima seconda), one high trumpet struments is the sum of Bach's method of
(clarino), and three "soft" trumpets orchestration; each of the four fundamen-
(trombe sordine). Although, in confor- tal parts as opposed to the three or five
mity with the then novel practice of of the i7th century is independent,
*thorough-bass, the score consists, in the melodic, essential, and conceived in gen-
main, of the vocal parts and the bass part eral, not individual, instrumental terms.
only, written directions are supplied Thus a part, whether for the voice, a
from which an idea of the desired orches- flute,an oboe, violins, or even brass, can
tral effects can be obtained. For instance, scarcely be identified save by range.
in Act III, Caronte (Charon) is always Wholesale duplication of the fundamen-
accompanied by the regal, Orfeo by the tal parts is common. In the arias, where
organo di legno [cf. HAM, no. 187]. smaller groups of instruments are used,
While Monteverdi's individual use of these, as well as special effects such as
the instruments probably represents an pizzicato and con sordino, are carried
innovation, his orchestra as such is not at through the entire number, the contrast
all asnovel as the modern viewer is in- being from number to number, rather
clined to believe. In its emphasis on wind than occurring within a piece, as in 19th-
instruments and on strongly contrasting century practice.
groups it is a Renaissance rather than a Handel, appealing to a wider public
Baroque orchestra, and this interpreta- and possessing a keener sense for orches-
tion explains the fact that his precedence instrumental forces
tral effect, treated his
remained entirely without succession. in a more broadly contrasting style than
The Baroque favored the bowed instru- does Bach, yet he did not depart from the
ments with their expressive qualities [see "contrapuntal orchestration." His occa-
^Instruments, history], and it is only in sional use of the small recorder, contra-
the use of a relatively strong string sec- bassoon, trombone, and harp in his operas
tion that Monteverdi's orchestra is pro- and cantatas is exceptional for the period,
gressive. while his purely instrumental composi-
The 17th-century emphasis on the tions are often for groups much more re-
bowed instruments and the prevailing stricted than those of Bach. For evidence
practice of thorough-bass scoring (melody of the fact that themake-up of the or-
and bass only) were not conducive to chestrawas not as yet standardized, one
progress in the use of orchestral resources. has but to examine the four Orchestral
Lully's famous orchestra was significant- Suites of Bach.
Haydn and Mozart. They are scored for founded on thecoloristic efforts of Gluck,
two flutes, two oboes, one or two bas- Cherubini, Mehul, Spontini, Boieldieu,
soons, two horns, and the usual group of and Weber.
strings. The
strings give melodic activity For an example of the extreme in the
and figuration while the winds provide development of the orchestra which took
harmony and body. The interchangeable place prior to approximately 1914 it will
instrumental part of the past gives way be interesting to consider the resources
to a part characteristic of the instrument demanded by Gustav Mahler (1860
for which it is written, though features 1911) in his Eighth Symphony: piccolo,
of the older style remain in the frequent four flutes, four oboes, English horn, E-
unison of the first and second violins and flat clarinet, three B-flat clarinets, bass
the near identity of viola, cello, and bass clarinet, four
bassoons, contrabassoon;
parts including the harpsichord [cf. the eight horns, four trumpets, four trom-
example in GD v, 207]. bones, tuba, timpani, bass drum, cymbals,
IV. From Haydn to the Present. Dur- tam-tam, triangle, chimes, glockenspiel,
ing the period of Haydn and Mozart the celesta; piano, harmonium, organ, two
stringed instruments assumed their posi- harps, mandolin; four trumpets and three
tion as the foundation of the orchestra, trombones as a fanfare group; first and
and their numbers grew larger in propor- second soprano, first and second alto,
tion to the number of performers in the tenor, baritone, and bass soloists, two
entire group. Each wind instrument is mixed choruses, boys' choir; first violins,
regarded as capable of assuming the main second violas, violoncellos, and
violins,
melodic line the occasion demands, as
if double-basses. While such methods rep-
well as aiding in the supplying of the resent the acme as well as the end of the
harmonic background, since the keyboard 19th-century development, there have
instrument is no longer used for that pur- been, in the past forty years, important
pose. Instruments are no longer omitted tendencies towards new goals. Debussy
from entire movements of a work, except introduced into the orchestra new meth-
in the trio of the minuet, and the orches- ods of utter refinement and a highly de-
tral color changes on a moment to mo- veloped coloristic technique for which
ment emphasizing the changes of
basis, the characteristic name "orchestral pa-
subjects and the alternation of motifs. lette" has been widely adopted [see im-
The instrumental group has become pressionism]. The musical revolution
standardized: late symphonic works by known as *New music has naturally
Haydn, Mozart (with exceptions), and brought with it
many changes in the or-
ORCHESTRA ORCHESTRAS
chestral technique. The giant orchestra While these difficulties can be mastered
of the Mahler period is
replaced
by only by long study, the musical amateur
small groups, frequently approaching the who merely wishes to "follow" a perform-
size of a chamber orchestra, a change ance with a score may well disregard
which may be illustrated by comparing them and content himself with acquiring
two works of Stravinsky (b. 1882): the facility in glancing quickly over the
one, his Rife of Spring (1911-13), util- page and catching the momentarily lead-
izes an instrumental group even larger ing melody from its general melodic con-
than the above list (though without vo- tour and rhythm.
calists), while his Histoire du Soldat See also the special articles for the dif-
(1918) is scored for one violin, one dou- ferent instruments as well as those on
ble-bass, one clarinet, one bassoon, one *Conducting; *Score. Numerous exam-
cornet, one trombone, and eight percus- ples illustrating the history of the orches-
sion instruments handled by one player. tral score are contained in the article
ments, rather than of availability in the chestra (1936); A. Elson, Orchestral In-
so-called standard orchestra. The reac- struments and Their Use (1923); John-
tion against the 19th-century principles stone and Stringham, Instruments of the
of orchestration appears also in the cur- Modern Symphony Orchestra (1928); K.
rent method, frequent in Stravinsky, of Schlesinger, Instruments of the Modern
"perverted orchestration," e.g., giving the Orchestra (1910); V. Bakaleinikoff, The
melody to the brass and using the strings Instruments of the Band and Orchestra
for percussive effects. Although this (1940) C. Forsyth, Orchestration ( 1935)
; ;
not always the case. The accurate read- (MQ iii); A. Carse, "17* Century Or-
ing of a modern orchestral score is ren- chestral Instruments" (ML i, no. 4); R.
dered extremely difficult unnecessarily Haas, "Zur Frage der Orchesterbesetzung
difficult, indeed by the use of two spe- in der zweiten Halfte des 18. Jahrhun-
cial notational devices, viz., the "ancient" derts" (KIM, 1909, p. 159); A. Carse,
clefs (alto and tenor) and the transposed "Brass Instruments in the Orchestra, His-
writing for numerous wind instruments, torical Sketch" (ML iii, no. 4); G. F.
devices both of which go back to earlier Malipiero, in RM1 xxiii, xxiv. W. D. D.
have persisted to the present and III with additions by W. A.)
practice but (II
[5*2]
ORCHESTRAS ORGAN
foundation and present conductor): I. London, Philharmonic Orchestra
United States: Los Angeles Philharmonic (1932; Sir Thomas Beecham); British
O. (1919; Alfred Wallenstein). Balti-
Broadcasting Company Orchestra, B. B.
more Symphony O. (1916; Reginald ,C. O. (1930; Sir Adrian C. Boult).
Stewart). Boston Symphony O. (1881; Munich, Bayrisches Staatsorchester
Serge Koussevitzky ) Chicago Sym-
.
(1911; Clemens Kraus). Munich, Kon-
phony O. (1891; Desire Defauw). zertvereinor Philharmoniker (Oswald
Cincinnati Symphony O. (1895; Eugene Kabasta). du Conser-
Paris, Concerts
Goossens) . Cleveland Symphony O. vatoire (1792; Charles
Munch); Con-
(1918; Erich Leinsdorf). Detroit Sym- certs Colonne (1874; Pau l Paray); Con-
phony O. (1913; Karl Krueger). Indian- certs Pasdeloup (1918; Albert Wolf).
apolis Symphony O. (1930; Fabien Sevit- Rome, Concerti dell Augusteo
(1908;
zky. Minneapolis Symphony O. (1903; Bernardo Molinari). Vienna, Wiener
Dmitri Mitropoulos). New York, Phil- Philharmonische Konzerte (1842; guest
harmonic-Symphony O. (1842; Arthur conductors).
Rodzinski). Philadelphia O. (1900; Lit.: M. Grant and H. S.
Hettinger,
Eugene Ormandy). Pittsburgh Sym- American Symphony Orchestras (1940);
phony O. (1895; Fritz Reiner). Pierre Key's Music Year Boo\\ A. Eagle.
Rochester Philharmonic O. (1922; Jose field-Hull, Dictionary of Modern Music
Iturbi). St. Louis Symphony O. (1880; (1924), article "Orchestras"; A. Einstein,
Vladimir Golschmann). San Francisco Das Neue Musityexifon (1926), article
Symphony O. (1909; Pierre Monteux). "Orchester."
Washington, National Symphony O.
Hans Kindler). Orchestrion. See *Mechanical instru-
(1931;
ments III.
II. Latin America: Bogota (Colom-
bia), Orquesta Sinfonica Nacional (1936, Ordinary (Ordinarium), and Prop-
Guillermo Espinosa) Buenos Aires
.
er (Proprium). In the Catholic rites,
(Argentina), Orguesta del Teatro Colon the Ordinary (also called Common) is
(1908, Juan Jose Castro). Caracas that portion of the service which remains
(Venezuela), Orquesta Sinfonica (1935, the same for the different days, whereas
Emilio Sojo). Guatemala, Orquesta the Proper includes all the variable texts
Progesista (1936, Gaston Pellegrini). and chants. The distinction is particu-
Havana (Cuba), Orquesta Filarmonica
important with the Mass [see *Mass
larly
(1924, Massimo Freccia). Lima (Peru), A]. Other services, however, also com-
Orquesta Sinfonica Nacional (1938, Theo prise invariable and variable portions.
Buchwald). Mexico, Orquesta Sinfonica For instance, the ^Magnificat forms a
de Mexico (1928; Carlos Chavez).
part of the Ordinary of Vespers. For an-
Montevideo (Uruguay), Orquesta Sin- other application of the terms, see *Gre-
fonica del Servicio Oficial de Dufusion
gorian chant I.
Radio Electrica, abbr. Ossodre (1931,
Lamberto Baldi). Rio de Janeiro (Bra- Ordo [L., pi. ordines]. See *Modes,
[523]
ORGAN ORGAN
ing of a series of pipes placed on a *wind a pneumatic or electric action). In order
chest supplied with valves operated by to obtain the desired tone, the player
the keys through the medium of a purely draws the knob Principal, thus causing
mechanical apparatus or through the the corresponding slider to move side-
agency of pneumatics or electrical inter- ways so that its holes come to coincide
mediaries. Means are also provided for with those of the chest board. He then
delivering a constant supply of com- depresses the key C thus causing the cor-
pressed air at a steady pressure. This is responding pallet to move downward in
accomplished by bellows having manu- its hinge. The hole "C on Principal" is
ally operated *feeders, or they may be now open wind and the pipe
to the
worked by hydraulic or electrical means. sounds. In the modern organ the sliders
In recent years the feeders have been re- are dispensed with and an individual
placed by a suitably designed rotary valve provided for each pipe on the
is
blower, in which case the bellows consist chest.In this case the stop control is by
of a reservoir, the top of which is means of electrical switches or some form
weighted or sprung to ensure a steady of pneumatic action, and the drawing
pressure being supplied to the pipes stops are replaced by balanced slips of
through a wind pipe connecting the res- ivory which are simply tipped over.
ervoir with the wind chest. The simplest HI. Keyboards and Divisions. An or-
organ consists of one set of pipes, there gan which can be considered as having
being but one pipe per note of the key- the minimum requirement for a proper
board. To enable a variety of tone color rendition of the liteiature of the in-
to be available for use by the performer strument will comprise two keyboards
organs usually have several sets (ranks) (^manuals) each controlling a separate
of pipes, technically known as stops, division with five or six stops each, and a
which can be brought into play or retired clavier for the feet (pedal) command-
at will.
ing two to five stops. Organs having four
II. Mechanism. In the older organs manuals and a pedal with fifty to one
the sounding of a desired pipe, say, the hundred stops, however, are common,
pipe c of the *rank (*register, *stop) and even five to seven keyboards have
Principal, or, in other words, the admis- been employed. The divisions or "or-
sion of to this particular pipe, was
wind gans" connected with the various key-
effected by a combination of two mecha- boards are called: Pedal Organ, Great
nisms operating crosswise, the sliders and Organ, Swell Organ, Choir Organ, Solo
the pallets. Assuming a miniature organ Organ, and Echo Organ. Their allot-
with three ranks and seven keys, there ment to the various manuals varies a great
will be twenty-one pipes and, conse- deal (except, of course, for the Pedal Or-
quently, twenty-one holes arranged in gan), and so does the selection of pipes
three lines of seven each, in the upper connected with each of them. The latter
board of the wind chest. To each rank statement is
particularly true if organs of
there corresponds an oblong board different periods are considered. The
(slider) bored with seven holes which specification given in section XI of this
can be moved sideways by drawing or article may be studied for additional in-
pushing a knob (stop, draw stop) lo- formation on this point. Some of these
cated at the sides of the keyboard. divisions, particularly the Swell organ,
1
To each key there belongs a hinged lid are included in a swell box* [see VII].
(pallet) crossing the sliders, which is IV. Couplers, etc. Practically every
operated by the key through the "action" organ possesses devices which make the
(corresponding in a way to the action of various divisions available on other key-
the pianoforte; older organs have a me- boards than their own. These are the
chanical action consisting of a series of so-called couplers. For instance, Coupler
rods called trackers and stickers, while in Swell-to-Great makes the Swell Organ
modern organs this is usually replaced by available on the manual for the Great
[524]
ORGAN ORGAN
Organ, from the former can
so that stops called mutation stops the pitch of which
be sounded together with stops from the corresponds to one of the harmonics of
latter. Similarly, any manual can be the unison pitch. For instance, a muta-
coupled to the Pedal and the Pedal can tion stop 2%'tuned to the third har-
is
be coupled to the main manuals or to all monic (twelfth), hence will sound g' if
of them. Sub-octave couplers and super- the key of c is depressed [see explanation
octave couplers connect one manual with under *Foot (2)]. The purpose of such
the lower or higher octave of another stops is not to be played alone (which
manual. See also *Divided stops. would result in transposition) or with a
Modern organ playing requires many unison stop of about the same loudness
changes of ^registration within a compo- (which would result in parallel fifths),
sition, frequently at places where the but together with a unison stop of con-
hands of the player are too occupied on siderably greater force, in which case the
the keyboard to manipulate a number of mutation stop ceases to be heard indi-
stops. To such changes, special
facilitate vidually and merely serves as an artificial
shape of small round
stops, usually in the harmonic, thus modifying the timbre of
buttons (called pistons), are provided, the unison stop. Finally there are mix-
the so-called combination stops (compo- ture stops (also called compound stops),
sition stops). Each of these controls an i.e., which combine a selection of
stops
ad libitum selection of ranks which the unison and mutation ranks. These serve
player can arrange in advance and which the same purpose and must also be drawn
are brought into play by merely touching together with a sufficiently strong unison
the button. These can also be made avail- stop. Mutation and mixture stops, ii
able on stops operated by the feet, the properly used, are among the most valu-
combination (or composition) pedals. able resources of the organ player. In
V. Compass. The compass of the or- early organs (i5th-i7th centuries) they
gan manual sixty-one notes or five com-
is were particularly prominent, a fact which
plete octaves extending from Cto c'". has given considerable encouragement to
That of the pedal clavier is thirty-two the view, generally held in the ipth cen-
notes or two and one-half octaves extend- tury, that the music of these periods
ing from Ci to g'. Actually, the compass must have been "crude and primitive."
of the organ is much larger than that of Their function was completely misunder-
its keyboards, owing to the fact that there stood by 19th-century musicians (Berlioz)
exist, in addition to the pipes of normal and writers who objected to the par-
pitch (comparable to that of the piano- and "unbearable dissonances"
allel fifths
forte), others the pitch of which is one or which resulted from "playing in C and
two octaves lower or higher. The normal in Gsimultaneously." On their behalf it
pitch is called unison and is indicated by may be said that 19th-century organ
the symbol 8' [read eight-foot; see *Foot builders and organ players also misunder-
(2) ] , the sub-octave pitch is 16', and three stood these devices, so that Percy C. Buck
super-octave pitches exist, designated 4', was perhaps justified in saying, as late
2', and i'. On the pedal the normal pitch, as 1927, "the effect is distressing in the
being an octave below than of the manual, extreme to all but hardened organists."
is known as 16' pitch, its sub-octave being Early organists, including those of the
32'. The frequency of 32' C is approxi- Bach period, clearly visualized and judi-
mately 16 vibrations per second while ciously exploited the potentialities of
that of the top.C of a manual 2' stop is mixtures and mutation stops, and the re-
over 8000. It will, therefore, be realized turn to the organ ideal of the Baroque
that the real compass of the instrument has brought with it a new cultivation of
extends over nine complete octaves. these stops which are particularly useful
VI. Mutation and Mixture Stops. In in the performance of contrapuntal mu-
addition to the various octave pitches, sic [see IX (e) and (f)].
called foundation stops, there are the so- VII. Expression. The organ pipe
[525]
ORGAN ORGAN
speaks on a steady air pressure; this can- The front edge is beveled and arranged
not be varied because to increase the so as to form a narrow slit through which
pressure would sharpen and to lower it the wind sheet issues. The slit is known
would flatten the pitch. It, therefore, fol- as the "flue." Lugs soldered to the pipe
lows that when a pipe is sounding it at the sides of the mouth are known as
speaks at a constant dynamic level and a "ears" and assist in controlling the wind
crescendo or diminuendo is impossible. sheet.
Expression in the organ is thus limited Flue pipes are tuned by lengthening
to (i) adding or retiring stops or shortening the pipe. In the modern
progres-
sively (a mechanical device for this is the organ this is usually
accomplished by pro-
Crescendo pedal), or (2) by using a viding a sliding sleeve situated at the top
device known as the swell box or expres- of the pipe.
sion chamber. The swell box is a large The type of reed pipe used almost ex-
room built around one or more divisions clusively in the organ is known as die
of the instrument, the front of the box beating reed, and must not be confused
being provided with a series of shutters with the free reed employed in the har-
similar to a Venetian blind. By means of monium and reed organ [see *Reed].
a pedal (Swell pedal) the player can open The beating reed comprises a vibrating
or close the shutters, and thus obtain ex- curved tongue which rolls down the flat-
pressive control over the pipes contained tened surface of a brass tube called a
therein. While the affair is somewhat "shallot." In this flattened surface an
crude, very fine musical effects can be ob- opening is cut communicating with the
tained which are peculiar to the instru- interior of the tube so that, as the
tongue
ment. It would seem obvious that the vibrates, it opens and closes this opening
complete instrument should be provided and thus sets up a sympathetic disturb-
with this method of control, but there are ance of the air column contained within
musical reasons discussed more fully later a conical or cylindrical resonator which
[see under XI] why it is highly desirable communicates with the upper end of the
to limit the expression boxes to certain shallot. The shallot, tongue, and reso-
divisions and to leave the rest in the open. nator are all held firmly by a heavy block
VIIL Organ Pipes in General The of metal and the shallot and tongue are
pipes of the organ fall into two distinct enclosed in a socket which has the func-
classes Flue and Reed. The
pipe flue tion of conveying wind from the chest.
closely resembles the ordinary tin *whistle Tuning is obtained at two points, first by
in which a vibrating air sheet sets up lengthening or shortening the resonator
vibrations in the column of air sur- at its upper end, and secondly, by means
rounded by the pipe. The complete flue of a tuning wire which can be adjusted
pipe comprises the following component to control the free vibrating length of the
parts: The cylindrical portion which en- tongue.
closes the column of air just mentioned IX. Flue Pipes. Flue pipes may be
and which is known as the "body"; the either open or stopped [G.
gcdacty],
"foot" which is usually a tapered cone that is to say, the top of the body may be
connecting the body to the wind supply completely open to the surrounding air
from the chest; the "mouth" which con- or a stopper or plug may be inserted at
sists of a
rectangular opening cut from the top of the pipe. The stopping of the
the body at the point where the foot joins open end causes the pipe to speak a note
it. At the location of the mouth the one octave lower than it would if left
body
of the pipe and the conical foot are flat- open; that is to say, a pipe having a nor-
tened and the straight edge thus formed mal speaking length of 4' C would sound
at the top of the mouth is called the "lip." VC if closed or stopped. The stopping
The "languard" consists of a flat piece of also causes the even-numbered harmonics
metal located internally at the top of the of the tone to be suppressed [see * Acous-
foot at the point where it joins the body. tics V].
[526]
ORGAN ORGAN
All flue pipes fall into one of the fol- Stopped is sometimes em-
Diapason
lowing classes of tone: Principal or Diapa- ployed. The Quintaten (properly, Quin-
son; Flute; String. There is one other tadena) falls into this class of pipe and is
class which may be termed a
hybrid since characterized by having the third har-
the tone may lie midway between that of monic developed equally with the funda-
Principal and Flute, or Flute and String. mental. A quaint tone results which has
a.
Principal or Diapason. Principal considerable value in combinational use.
tone is characteristic of the organ, and The Rohr Flute and Koppel Flute be-
does not exist in any other instrument. It long to a family of Flutes that are half
is produced by open cylindrical pipes of stopped, a small cylindrical chimney or
medium to large scale [see *Scale, Scal- cone-shaped extension open at the top
ing], and the tone has a strong funda- being inserted in the stopper. Such pipes
mental accompanied by a chord of at least have a high harmonic development in re-
eight easily audible upper partials. In the lation to the fundamental, imparting con-
best examples the unison harmonics (oc- siderable brightness to the tone. They
taves) are prominent, while the 2d, 5th, are valuable for use as mutation ranks in
6th, and 7th are much less assertive and addition to
being employed at unison and
diminish in strength successively. Prin- octave pitches. All Flutes are found at
cipals are used in manual and Pedal divi- various pitches in the modern organ.
sions at sub-unison, unison, octave, and c.
String Tone. String toned stops,
super-octave pitches. They are also em- such as the Cello, Viola, Gamba, Dulci-
ployed to furnish a mutation rank at 5%' ana, and Viole d'Orchestre, have an ex-
or 2%' pitches and to form the individual tremely high harmonic development
ranks of mixture stops [see d, e] .
causing the tone to be thin and cutting.
There are many varieties of Principal Many varieties are now in use, varying
tone, that is to say, the harmonics may be from quite a broad string tone to a highly
developed strongly or may be suppressed, pungent quality. String toned pipes are
causing the tone to have a flavor of string much smaller scale than other varieties
tone or flute tone as the case may be. of pipes; e.g., the low 8' C may be as little
Thus a Violin Diapason will tend towards as 2" in diameter, whereas an 8' Diapason
the string side, while a Diapason phonon pipe may be from 6" to 6%". String
will possess a tone more fluty in character. toned stops are usually employed to form
b. 'Flute Tone. Flutes fall into two sub-unison, unison, and octave ranks only
main classes open and stopped. The on manual and Pedal.
open Flutes, such as the Melodia, Claribel d. Hybrids. The hybrids already re-
Flute, and Concert Flute, usually made ferred to are stops such as the Spitzflute
of wood and rectangular in cross section, and Gemshorn. The body of these pipes
are characterized by a broad mellow flute takes the form of an inverted cone. This
tone. The open metal Flute inclines construction brings into prominence the
toward Principal tone in the bass and second harmonic, and according to the
tenor. The treble portion may have har- amount employed the tone lies
of taper
monic pipes, i.e., pipes in which the body either between theDiapason and Flute or
is double the normal length, and a hole is the String and Flute. This class of tone
bored below the center to assist the pipe besides being useful in sub-unison, uni-
in speaking its octave. Such pipes (called son, and octave pitches is particularly
Harmonic Flute) have a tone closely re- valuable to form mutation stops of 2%',
sembling the flute of the orchestra. i%', and i%' pitches.
Stopped Flutesmay or metal,
be of wood c. Mutation Stops. The mutation stop
and owing to the fact that only the odd- is characteristic of the organ, its chief
numbered upper partials are present the officebeing for use with a unison or oc-
tone is often light and transparent in tave rank or a combination of such stops
texture. Typical examples are called to change the tonal character by artifi-
Bourdon or Gedackt, and the term cially bringing into prominence a particu-
[5*7]
ORGAN ORGAN
lar overtone. These ranks greatly increase High Mixtures such as Cymbel may
the tonal variety of the instrument since be used as a secondary Mixture to the
a wide range of synthetic qualities is Fourniture or may appear as the only
pos-
sible. The most common examples em-
ployed comprise the Nazard 2%', Tierce
i%', Larigot i%', and the Septieme
i}4'. Sometimes three or five ranks of
mutations are drawn together by a single
drawstop to form a powerful synthetic
horn-like tone called a Cornet [see under
]. The ranks employed in a five rank
Mixture of a Positive division. They are
Cornet would be a unison octave useful musically not only as an ensemble
8', 4',
Nazard 2%', Blockflote 2', and a Tierce register, but as a means of adding color
to an 8' Flute or Flutes 8' and 4'. A
i%'. The Sesquialtera (II Ranks) com-
prises a Nazard 2%' and a Tierce i%'. sparkling effect can be produced in this
f.Mixture Stops. Mixtures, also known way which is of distinct value for rapidly
as compound stops, comprise from two moving passages. In two-part playing on
to seven ranks of principal pipes to each the same manual the combination just
note arranged to speak harmonics of the described helps to differentiate the tone
fundamental of the note. There are a color of the two parts due to the many
breaks in the ranks.
great many varieties of Mixtures, but
usually the intervals employed are con-
The Cornet and like stops, such as the
fined to unison and fifth sounding ranks. Sesquialtera, have already been referred
The Mixtures in common use are the to under "Mutation Stops." They are,
Fourniture, Plein Jeu, and the Cymbel. strictly speaking, compound registers, but
An important feature of Mixtures is as a synthetic tone quality is aimed at in
the "breaks," i.e., changes of the arrange- the voicing and owing to the fact that the
ment of harmonics occurring at certain ranks run through the compass without
breaks, they are employed in a similar
points of the keyboard. E.g., a rank
which, at the lower end, starts out two manner to mutations.
octaves above normal, will break back at X. Reed Pipes. Reeds are of three cat-
some higher point to the twelfth, and at egories: Chorus reeds, Semi-chorus reeds,
and Solo or orchestral reeds. Chorus
still higher
points to the octave, fifth, and
reeds belong chiefly to the Trumpet fam-
finally unison. Corresponding breaks oc-
cur in the other ranks, and the result is ily, and appear in the modern organ on
that point and definition are added to the both Manual and Pedal divisions at sub-
bass and tenor sections, breadth and full- unison, unison, and octave pitches. Posau-
ness to the middle and treble. typical A nes, Trombone, Trumpets, Cornopeans,
layout of the ranks of a Fourniture IV
and Clarions fall within this class. While
Rks. with breaks is as follows: the names employed suggest orchestral
[528]
ORGAN ORGAN
may be taken as typical examples. The been accomplished very successfully in
term semi-chorus is used because they recent years, and the idea is being devel-
may function as chorus reeds, solo stops, oped further, and a very fruitful era of
or merely timbre creators in combination organ building may be expected.
with other voices. The resonators of this Organs of the Bach period were usu-
class of reed are often cylindrical and of ally small two or sometimes three
short length. They may be half, quarter, manuals with a pedal organ and about 12
or even an eighth length. to 35 stops were considered sufficient.
The Solo or orchestral reeds are largely The pipes were voiced on light wind
imitative of various orchestral instru- pressure imparting a delightful mellow-
ments, such as the
Bassoon, English ness to the tone. It was a chorus instru-
Horn, Clarinet, and Orchestral Oboes. ment in which the blending of the vari-
They are used largely as solo stops, and ous stops one with another and into a
modern voicers have used considerable clear ringing ensemble was considered
skill in producing faithful imitations of essential. The Pedal was not merely
the real thing. looked upon as a bass to the whole but
XI. Tonal Structure o] the Organ. was designed to be capable of carrying a
Owing to the mechanical perfection of melodic line independent of the manuals.
the instrument by the use of electricity The manual divisions were contrasted
around the turn of the present century, tonally, as was necessary for polyphonic
the organ passed through a period of music which demanded independence
rapid development.Its size in regard to and clarity from all sections. Therefore,
both numbers of manuals and stops in- is not
it
surprising to find in these in-
creased greatly, and efforts were made to struments an abundance of delightful
imitate as closely as possible the tonal (principals and flutes, together with a
effect of the symphony orchestra. good sprinkling of mutations and mix-
While many new voices were devel- ture stops. Of course, there was no swell
'box.
oped during this period, particularly in
regard to orchestral and string timbres, In reproducing these qualities in the
the characteristic tone of the organ was modern organ it was found undesirable
badly neglected and the general effect to enclose all divisions in a swell box for
became hard and overbearing. The in- not only was the type of expression ob-
strument was no longer suited for the tained by this means unnecessary, but the
proper rendition of the best music from enclosure marred the clarity and intimacy
the organ literature, clarity, transparency, of the tonal effect of these light pressure
and purity of tone having given way to voices when heard singly or combined.
powerful and dull effects together with The most important divisions for the
some fine solo voices and sentimental classical literature comprise a Pedal,
qualities nice enough in themselves but Great, and Positive, and in the case of
of limited usefulness. the music of the Romantic period it is
Happily in recent years there has been necessary to have the modern Swell con-
a strong reaction, and the organ of the taining strings and reeds, and a second
Bach period (Baroque organ) has been organ under separate expressive control
re-created with fine results. While some to form an accompanimental Choir de-
purely classical designs have been pro- partment. Modern music with its com-
duced which have created great interest, plex harmony is
admirably suited to the
such instruments are far from ideal for transparency of the classical toned or-
playing the organ literature of the Ro- gan, and provided the Swell and Choir
mantic and modern periods. The real are present, we have an ideal arrange-
solution of the problem is to combine the ment for its rendition.
best of the classical and modern tonal The following specification for a mod-
ideals in one instrument, each being mod- erate sized instrument may be of help to
ified to fitinto a perfect whole. This has the student in understanding how the
[529]
ORGAN ORGAN
best tonal features both classical and mod- XII. History. Legend traces the origin
ern can be combined to make an ade- of the organ back to the "Syrinx" (pan-
quate and complete whole suited to the pipes) of the god Pan, or to Jubal "the
musical requirements of all periods: father of all such as handle the harp and
the organ," and up to the present day
GREAT ORGAN (Unenclosed) writers repeat these naive stories more or
Middle Manual less credulously. Factual evidence, how-
1 6' Quintaten ever, points to a much more recent origin
8' Principal
8' Spitz Flute
of the instrument. The invention of the
8' Bourdon Greek organ, the *hydraulis, is ascribed
4' Principal (in Heron's Pneumati\a c. 120 B.C.) to
t
sound and technique. In addition to the who, in his Syntagma musicum of i6i5/
monster instruments which necessarily 20, described it in detail. It retained the
remained somewhat crude, small organs contrasting qualities of the Gothic organ
were developed, the * portative organ and of Schlick, but in softer and lighter
the *positive organ.The portative organ timbres. The great achievement of this
(called organetto in Italy) was a small period was a tonal structure which com-
portable instrument used for processions, bined individuality with homogeneity or,
but also cultivated by outstanding musi- as we might say, the "horizontal" and the
cians, notably Francesco Landini (1325- "vertical" aspects of the texture, as did the
ORGAN ORGAN CHORALE
organ music of the Baroque, above all will certainly not be expected in a book
that of Bach. Small wonder, then, that dealing with music. Under these circum-
organ building is now turning back to stances the progressive trend back to the
this instrument in order to make possible organ of earlier days, which is outlined
the proper performance of the greatest in section XI, must be highly welcomed,
organ music ever written. The climax of the more so as it is accompanied by a
Baroque organ building is represented
by new rise in the quality of the music writ-
Gottfried Silbermann (organs in Frei- ten for this instrument.
berg, Dresden) whose instruments, Lit.: W. H. Barnes, The Contemporary
though retaining the essential quali-
still American Organ (1937); Walter and
ties of the true Baroque organ, fore- Thomas Lewis, Modern Organ Building
shadow the trend towards increased ex- (1939); G. A. Audsley, The Art of Or-
pressiveness which characterizes the pe- gan Building, 2 vols. (1905); E. J. Hop-
riod from 1750 to 1900. kins, The Organ .
(1887); E. M.
. .
In this period the efforts of organ Skinner, The Modern Organ (1917);
builders were governed by two ideals R. Foort, The Cinema Organ (1932); A.
both of which are essentially extraneous Gray, 'The Modern Development of the
to the organ, i.e., Romantic expressive- Organ" (PMA xxxix); G. D. Harrison,
ness and 19th-century orchestra. Abbe "The Classical Organ in the Germanic
Vogler's organ of c. 1800 had various Museum" (Harvard University, Germ.
crescendo devices and was designed to Mus. Bull, i); C. F. A. Williams, The
give "a true picture of a well-organized Story of the Organ (1903); N. Dufourq,
orchestra." It made ample use of *differ- Esquisse d'une histoire de lorgue (1935);
ential tones, a method which resulted in G. Frotscher, Orgeldispositionen aus 5
a considerable reduction in the number Jahrhunderten (1939); Ch- Mahrenholz,
of pipes but also in a very unsatisfactory Die Berechnung der Orgelmensuren . . .
called the "Protestant approach," in that the Protestant church the organ chorale
ithas the melody, expressively designed held a position quite different from that
and beautifully ornamented, standing which it occupied in the Roman service.
out throughout the entire piece in the In the latter, it served as a substitute for
soprano [cf. y HAM
nos. 100, 101], The the plainsong from which it inherited its
cantus-firmus treatment with Vorimita- liturgical function as well as that spirit
of
is more clearly aloofness and transcendentality
tion represented in the mystic
numerous settings of Buchner (MS tab- which pervades the whole Catholic ritual
lature from c. 1525) who also has exam- and its music. In the Protestant church
ples of the chorale canon (cantus firmus the singing of the chorale became the
in canon). In this connection, an anony- cherished privilege of the congregation,
mous "In dulci jubilo" from Sicher's tab- and it was the organist's duty, not only
lature [in Moser, Fruhmeister (1930)] to accompany this singing, but also to play
may be mentioned, because its canonic the chorale beforehand on the organ as an
[533]
ORGAN CHORALE ORGANISTA
introduction: hence the name chorale resulting in a succession of "fugues" (nos.
prelude by which the Gcrnqlan organ 31, 58); (c) Chorale fugue: the first line
chorales are usually designated. This or the initial phrase of the chorale is
novel function of the organ chorale nat- treated as a fugue (nos. 10, 33, 41); (d)
urally allowed for a greater freedom of Melody chorale or Figured chorale: the
treatment and stimulated the fancy of chorale appears as a continuous melody
the composers towards the development in the soprano, accompanied by contra-
of new methods of composition. No puntal parts which usually proceed in
longer had the chorale to be mysteriously definite figures (most of the chorales
concealed as a tenor in incomprehensibly from the Orgelbuchlein)\ (e) Orna-
long notes, but it was made to stand out mented chorale: the chorale is used in the
as a real melody in the soprano, recog- soprano with elaborate and expressive
nizable to every member of the congrega- ornamentations (nos. 45; Orgelb. no. 51);
tion. It must be noted, however, that the (f) Chorale canon (Orgelb. nos. 15, 35);
older methods of treatment, the cantus- (g) ^Chorale fantasia: free, "North-Ger-
firmus chorale and the chorale motet, man" treatment (nos. 15, 22); (h) Cho-
were continued alongside the more recent rale variations (partitas) ; a number of
methods, and that in Bach these two variations (corresponding to the number
types still represent the most elaborate of stanzas of the text) of the chorale mel-
methods of composition. ody (no. 48; also the Partitas, vol. v).
At the outset of the development of Naturally, the above methods of treat-
the Protestant organ chorale stands ment frequently overlap, e.g., the chorale
Scheidt whose Fantasia (actually a cho- prelude "Nun komm der Heiden Hei-
rale motet) "Ich ruf zu Dir," one of the land" (no. 45) and many others combine
greatest works of the entire literature, the principle of imitation, as in the motet,
anticipates in form, style, and expression with the ornamented treatment for the
such works as Bach's chorale motet final statement of the "subject."
"Jesus Christus unser Heiland" (Ed. Among recent contributions to the
Peters vi,no. 31). The historical devel- repertory the chorale preludes of Brahms
opment between Scheidt and Bach fol- (op. 122) must be mentioned particularly.
lowed along two lines, a North-German Lit.: G. Kittler, Geschichte des Protes-
and a Middle-German [for the compos- tantischen Orgelchorals (1931); F. Die-
ers, see *Organ music II (a); the South- trich, Geschichte des deutschen Orgel-
German organ composers, being Cath- chorals im 17. Jahrhundert (1932); A.
olics,naturally made no contribution to Scheide, Zur Geschichte des Choralvor-
the repertory of the organ chorale]. In spiels (1930); \V. H. Frere, "Bach's
North Germany we find a distinct pref- Vorspiele of 1739" (ML i, no. 3); Ch.
erence for extended treatment and for a Macpherson, "Choral-Preludes" (PMA
free, rhapsodic type known as *chorale xxxix); E. Fischer, "Johann Criigers
fantasia. The choral preludes of the Mid- Choralbearbeitungen" (ZMJFxiv). Also
dle-German masters are in shorter forms under *Organ music.
and in simpler style, chiefly melody
Organetto. Fourteenth-century name
chorales or chorale variations (partitas)
for a small portable organ (*portative
[cf. HAM, no. 190],
Bach utilized all the forms of the past organ); see *Organ XII.
and, needless to assert, bestowed on them See *Organ chorale
new and
Organ hymn. I.
perfection. The
following types can be Organicen, organoedus [from L.
clearly distinguished: (a) Cantus-firmus canere, Gr. oidein, to sing] Humanistic
.
chorale: the chorale melody in long notes names for organ player, organist.
usually in the bass (Ed. Peters, nos. 17,
,3 36); (b) *Chorale motet: each line of Organista [L.]. Organ player, organ-
the chorale is treated in imitation thus ist. However, the designation "optimus
[534]
ORGANISTRUM ORGAN MUSIC
organista," on Leoniiius (c.
conferred xvii); A fessicr, "Les Messes d'orguc dc
*
1200; see *Ars Antiqua) by the late 13th- Couperin (RM vi, no. i).
century Anonymous IV of CS i, charac-
terizes this master as a "greaj: composer Organ nusic. I. Middle Ages and
of organa" [see *Organum], not as a Renaissm ce. Prior to 1300, organ play-
"very able organist,*' a misinterpretation ing was jrobably restricted to a mono-
frequently encountered in modern writ- phonic uplication of plainsong and,
ings. perhaps, o the performance of the long-
held not^s of the tenor in *organa. The
Organistrum [L.]. Medieval Latin fact that! theorgans of this period had
name for the *hurdy-gurdy. the sonofity of a mixture-stop with very
plete organ Masses are contained in gap of more than 100 years separates
Cavazzoni's Intavolatura of 1542 (Missa these pieces from the next-oldest sources,
Apostolorum, Missa de Beata Virgine, various German tablatures of the mid-
etc.; cf. HAM, no. 117). Similar compo- I5th century [cf. L. Schrade, Die altes-
sitions, though of lesser artistic perfection, ten Den\maler der Orgelmusi\ (1927);
were published by Claudio Merulo in his W. Apel, in MQ xxiii}, among which the
Missc d'organo (1590?). Bach wrote Ileborgh tablature of 1448 [cf. W. A pelf
what one might call a "German organ in ZMW xvi] is remarkable for its free
Mass," in his Clavierubung, part III. *preludes, Paumann's Fundamentum or-
Mention must be made here of a theory ganisandi of 1452 for its elaborations of
advanced by A. Schering (Die Nieder- German songs and for its 'instructive
Idndischc Orgelmesse^ 1912) according pieces [see *Counterpoint III], and the
to which numerous Masses of the Flem- *Buxheim organ book of c. 1470 for its
ish masters, which are commonly re- numerous intabulations of *Burgundian
garded as vocal compositions, were actu- chansons [Ex. in ApMZ i]. Towards
ally meant as organ music. That this the end of the I5th century Paulus Hof-
theory is untenable appears from a glance haimer was famous for his organ playing
at Schering's renditions for organ [cf. and improvisation, but only two or three
his Alte Meister der Fruhzeit des Orgel- pieces of his have come down to us, along
spiels (1913); also SchGMB, no. 57] the with compositions of his pupils Kotter,
highly complex texture of which is in an Sicher, Buchner, Kleber [cf. H. J. Moser,
irreconcilable contradiction to the genu- Friihmeister des deutschen Orgelspiels
ine organ style of the i5th century (Pau- ( 1930) ]. German organ music reaches
its
mann, *Buxheim organ book). first culmination point in the great master
Lit.: L. Schrade, "The Organ in the Arnolt Schlick whose Tabulaturen etlicher
Mass of the i5th Century" (MQ xxviii); Lobgesangl^ (1512; new ed. by G.
. . .
id. 9 "Die Messe in der Orgelmusik des 15. Harms, 1924) contain chiefly *organ
Jahrhunderts" (AMP A. Schering,
i); chorales. The German tradition of this
"Zur alternierenden Orgelmesse" (ZMW period is continued in some extensive
[535]
ORGAN MUSIC ORGAN MUSIC
tablaturcs of Polish origin, written ft-ound to the organ music of the Baroque, owing
1550, which show particularly tl^ influ- particularly to its new stylistic resources
ence of Buchner [see *Polish mvisi ;].
in the field of figuration and variation
In the 6th century other
1 which Sweelinck borrowed from the
imj Drtant
developments take place in Italy, >pain, virginalists.
England, and France. Cavazzoni* Inta- a. Germany. Among Sweelinck's nu-
volatura dot canzoni, \imni,
ricercari, merous pupils Samuel Scheidt (1587-
magnificati (1542; see *Editions 11$ 3 and 1654) is the most outstanding [Tabula-
VI, 6) contain genuine organ *ricercares tura nova of 1624; new e d- DdT i]. Al-
of high perfection, as well as the earliest though somewhat less imaginative than
organ canzonas [see "Canzona; (5)]. his teacher, particularly in the field of
Andrea Gabrieli (1510-86) contributed variation, his fugal compositions, liturgi-
the first *toccatas, a form the cal pieces (Magnificats, etc.), and, par-
artiste pos-
sibilities of which were more
fujly ex- organ chorales mark the begin-
ticularly,
ploited by Claudio Merulo (1533-41604). ning of a new development in German
For other Italian composers of thistperiod organ music which was to last and grow
cf. Torchi's volume [^Editions II, t] The . until the death of Bach, 100 years his
Spanish organ music is known to jis only junior.The ensuing development of
by the works of the great master Antonio German organ music may be divided into
de Cabezon (1510-66), contained in the three branches, a North-German, a Mid-
posthumous publication Obras de musica dle-German, and a South-German. In
( 1577; *Editions XIII, 3, 4, 7, 8), in which the first, we find Sweelinck's pupil
we find organ hymns, *tientos, *varia- Melchior Schildt (1593-1667), Delphin
tions, and instructive pieces of rare ex- Strungk (1601-94), Franz Tunder
cellence. In England there flourished be- (1614-67), Matthias Weckmann (1621-
fore 1550 a very remarkable, but little 74), Adam Reinken (1623-1722), Die-
known, school of organ composers, rep- trich Buxtehude (1637-1707), Vincent
resented chiefly by John Redford (c. Liibeck (1654-1740), Georg Bohm
1485-1545; cf. C. Pfatteicher, John Red- (1661-1733), and Nicolas Bruhns (1665-
ford, 1934) whose numerous liturgical 97) composers who cultivated particu-
pieces (organ hymns) include some out- larly the large and free forms of organ
standing pieces in motet-style, compared music toccata, chorale fantasia, prelude,
with which the hymn settings, etc., of and fugue and developed a free and
Tallis, Byrd, Bull [see *Virginalists], highly imaginative style which has been
are a step backward rather than forward. termed *Gothic. The Middle-German
Finally, two French publications of 1530 composers, Thuringians and North Ba-
(Attaingnant; new ed. by Y. Rokseth, varians, worked with more modest and
Deux livres
d'orguc 1925) . . . , give intimate means and contributed chiefly
evidence of an early activity the later to the development of the melodic chorale
traces of which are unfortunately lost for prelude and of the variation [see *Par-
nearly 100 years, the next-oldest docu- tita]. This line is fittingly opened by
ment of French organ music preserved Bach's grandfather Heinrich Bach (1615-
being the organ books by Titelouze 92) and uncles Joh. Christof (1642-1703)
(15631633) issued in 1623 and 1626 and Johann Michael (1648-94; organ
[*Editions I, i; also in E. Kaller, Liber and continues with
chorales in Ritter),
Organi^ vols. i, ii] . Johann Krieger (1651-1735; DTB 18),
II. "Baroque. While Titelouze's organ Joh. Pachelbel (1653-1706; DTB 4.*), Joh.
hymns, together with the grandiose Kuhnau (16601722), Johann Heinrich
pieces of Michael Praetorius (1571- Buttstedt (1666-1727), and Joh. Walther
1621), represent the acme of the organ (1684-1748; DdT
26/27). An earI V
music of the Renaissance, the works of South-German School of organ music is
another composer of the I56o-gencration, represented by Hans Leo Hassler (1564-
Jan Pieters Sweelinck (1562-1621), lead 1612; DTB 4.ii), Christian Erbach
[536]
ORGAN MUSIC ORGAN MUSIC
(1570-1635; DTB 4.11), Jonann c * rnnce.he French organ music o
l
(toccata, variation
canzona, *capriccio) of the pejiod. They are noteworthy for
and idiomatic keyboard style [see
free, their
emphasis on
registration which is
*Freistimmig], while the French influ- usually carefully indicated [see *Editions
ence benefited chiefly the development of i].
his harpsichord music (*suite). The d. Other Countries. While the Eng-
South-German com-
repertory of the later lish organ music of the i7th century,
posers, such as Johann Kaspar Kerll represented by ^Voluntaries and similar
(1627-93; DTB 2.ii), Georg Muffat pieces of John Blow (1648-1708), H.
(1645-1704), Georg Reutter (1656- Purcell (165895), Jeremiah Clarke (c.
1738), Franz Xaver Murschhauser 1659-1707), and William Croft (1678-
(1663-1738; DTB 18), Johann Kaspar 1727), is rather insignificant, the Iberian
Ferdinand Fischer (c. 1670-^. 1740; peninsula produced a number of impor-
new ed. by E. v. Werra, 1901), and Gott- tant, though little known, organ compos-
lieb Muffat (1690-1770; DTOe 29.ii), ers. Manuel Coelho (b. 1583; Flores de
also falls into an "Italian" division of musica, 1620), Correa de Araujo (Libra
ricercares, canzonas, toccatas, versets, and de tientos, ^626), and Aguilera de Here-
a "French" division of harpsichord music, dia (b. 1570?) wrote impressive organ
b. Italy. The Italian organ music of pieces, mostly *tientos, in the style of
the Baroque started with the *Neapoli- Cabezon, intermingled with figurations
tans Giov. Maria Trabaci and Ascanio borrowed from Sweelinck. A "Spanish
May one who are important links between Frescobaldi" arose in Juan Jose Cabanilles
Cabezon and Frescobaldi [cf. W. Apel, (1644-1712) whose several hundred or-
in MQxxiv]. The latter, a unique com- gan compositions display a fascinating
bination of intellectual scholar and high- command of a great variety of forms and
ly imaginative artist, is one of the great- of styles [new ed. by H. Angles, 3 vols.,
est and most fascinating figures of organ 1927-36; cf. also LavE i.4, 2091!!] . Later
music. Unfortunately, he did not inau- organ composers such as Pablo Bruna,
gurate an Italian school worthy of his Francisco Llissa, and Josep Elias are
merits. His pupil Michelangelo Rossi is known only through a few pieces (re-
only a mediocre imitator [cf. his toccatas produced in collections by Pedrell and
in TaAM vi; an "Andante" in Rococo Villalba).
style which has been reprinted under
his e. Bach. In the field of organ music
name in numerous collections of early even more than in others Bach represents
keyboard music is the work of an i8th- the consummate peak of Baroque music
century Lorenzo de Rossi]. Domenico and, for that matter, of organ music in
Zipoli (c. 1675-?) is practically the only general. Here, as well as elsewhere, his
Italian organ composer after Frescobaldi achievements were in the direction of ar-
worthy of note [see *Editions VI, 36]. tistic perfection rather than of innovation.
[537]
ORGAN MUSIC ORGAN PLAYING
Building upon the forms and methods of Music (1935); G. Frotscher, Gcschichte
his predecessors, he bestowed up^n the des Orgel spiels und der Orgel\omposi-
chorale preludes an incomparable ex- tion, 2 vols. (1934/5); LavE ii.2, 1181-
pressiveness, on the toccatas and fugues a 1374; A. Ritter, Zur Geschichte des Or-
unique greatness of architectural struc- gelspiels(1884); O. Kinkeldey, Orgel
ture, while his organ sonatas represent the und Klavier im 16. Jahrhundert (1910);
most perfect realization as well as Y. Rokseth, La Musique d'orgue au e XV
idealization of three-voice counterpoint. siecle .
(1930); M. Fischer, Die or-
. .
III. From 1750 to Present. After Bach, ganistische Improvisation im 77. Jahr-
organ music suffered a collapse from hundert (Diss. Kassel 1929); H. Grace,
which it did not recuperate until around The Organ Wor\s of Bach (1922); H.
1840. The low ebb of organ music around Kelletat, Zur Geschichte der Orgelmusi^
1800 is beyond description (for exam- in der Friih^lassi^ (Diss. Konigsberg
[538]
ORGAN POINT ORGANUM
their Artistic Registration (1921); Ch. N. music, "rom the 9th till the mid-i3th
Boyd, Organ Registration and Accom- century In spite of the identity of names,
paniment, 2 vols. (1932); Cl. Dickin- the organum has no connection with the
son, The Technique and Art of Organ organ. Possibly, the word organare was
Playing (1922); H. F. Ellingford, The used in the meaning of "to organize,"
Art of Transcribing for the Organ i.e., different parts, a meaning which
Spanish) are given in WoHN ii, 32!!, organum is that known as "or-
parallel
[539]
ORGANUM ORGANUM
(occursus). The two parts frequently Benedicamus domino composed in this
cross, and the tenor now becomes gen- style may easily be ten or twenty times as
erally the lower part. Occasionally we long as if sung in plainsong. Some of the
pieces of this period have sections in note-
against-note style interspersed between
the melismatic sections [cf ., e.g., ApNPM,
i5it
3 Jo- rt a- DO-ITU** in le-cu-t* 2091!]. A
great number of compositions
of this type are preserved in the MSS from
Compostela [Ex. 4] and St. Martial (c.
period are Guide's Micrologus (c. 1040; accompanied) by his introduction of one
Ex. 3), Cotton's Musica (c. noo), and or two additional contrapuntal parts, the
the treatise Ad organum faciendum (c. triplum and quadruplum, moving in the
1150). A
musical source is the nth-cen- same rhythm as the duplum above the
tury Winchester troper which, being longer notes of the tenor [for an example
written in neumes, makes exact reading see ^Notation, Ex. 2]. In addition to
of the intervals impossible but, neverthe- numerous organa tripla Perotinus com-
less, shows clear evidence of contrary mo- posed three gigantic organa quadrupla
tion. A unique example of nth-century which represent the acme as well as the
free organum, notated in letters, is the end of the history of organum [cf. the
two-voice "Ut tuo propitiatus" [cf. beginning of his "Viderunt omnes" in
AdHM i, 229; complete transcription
of
III. Melismatic Organum (i2th cen- his "Sederunt principes" by R. v. Picker
tury). The duplum, now regularly (1930); various organa tripla in i, OH
above the tenor, consists of groups of 209flf],
notes sung against a single note of the V. In the School of Notre Dame
tenor, the extension of such a group vary- (partly already in the earlier schools)
ing from a few notes to long melismatic polyphonic treatment and, therefore,
the
passages. This procedure, of course, term organum, was restricted to certain
[54]
ORGAN VERS ORIENTAL MUSIC
leluias, responsoria, and the *Benedi- the organ plays an important solo role,
camus domino [see *Magnus liber or- one in E-flat, 1766 (Grosse O.M.), the
gani]. It is important to notice that the other in B-flat, 1770 (Kleine
O.M.);-
liturgical melody of such a chant was (2) see *Organ mass. Orgdpunty, pedal
never used in its
entirety as a basis of point. Orgeltvalze, barrel organ [see
polyphonic composition, but only those *Mechanical instruments I].
sections which, in Gregorian chant, are
Vederunt omnes fines terrae . . . terra. comparable to that of our music, the basic
difference being that their efforts were al-
Organum (S) Plainsong (Ch) most exclusively directed towards melody
and rhythm, while Western music has
been interested primarily in the develop-
ment of counterpoint and harmony. It is
[540
ORNAMENTATION ORNAMENTATION
the ancient tradition of Gregoriai chant, of the I4th century. In the i6th century
which was essentially
dependent upon improvised ornamentation, known as
*
oral tradition and which began toj decline diminutio^ had its center at the Papal
at the time when the first attempts Chapel in Rome, where the singers orna-
towards a more accurate fixation were mented and completely transformed
made. works by Willaert, Lassus, Palestrina,
Oriental music has influenced Western etc. The technique of this
practice was
music chiefly through two channels: via taught methodically in the theoretical
the Jews and the early Christian church, works of the period [cf. M. Kuhn, Die
and via the Arabs in Spain. The former Verzierungs\unst in der Gesangmusi^
influence persists in the particular char- des 16-17 Jahrh.]. All the voices of a
acter of Gregorian chant (which is basi- polyphonic composition were susceptible
cally "un-European") the ;
latter in many to ornamentation. Hermann Finck, in
musical instruments and in certain ele- his Practica Musica (1556), states that
ments of theory and acoustics * Ara- "the character of the coloratura depends
[see
bian music]. upon the skill and the individuality of
See the entries for the various nations the executant. My own view is that all
mentioned above. voices must be ornamented, but not sim-
Lit.: Endo Hirosi, Bibliography of Ori- ultaneously, so that each voice will be
ental and Primitive Music (Tokyo, 1929) ; brought out in turn." Zacconi (Pratica
R. Lachmann, MusiJ^ des Orients (1929); di musica, 1592) writes that the art of
id., Ausser-Europdische MusiJ^ (in Buc{- diminution, also known as *gorgia,
en's Handbuch, 1929); separate articles "charms the listener, especially when in
in LavE. See also the special entries 4, 5, or 6-part pieces two voices stand out
(* Arabic, *Chinese, etc.).
and sing solos together. It is a delight
when one part of the piece is
sung with
Ornamentation. Musical ornamenta- improvised diminutions and the rest
tion arose as a spontaneous act on the part played upon instruments." The accom-
of the interpreter who, in performing a panying example, showing diminutions
written or traditional melody, enlivened
it,expanded it, or varied it through his
technique of improvisation. The more or
less stereotyped melodic figures which, in
this process, have been substituted for or
added to the original notes of the melody
are known as ornaments. Throughout
the history of music three kinds of orna-
mentation have existed: I. that which is
left entirely to the
improvisation of the
interpreter; II. that in which definite
ornaments are indicated by some sort of
century practice.
Beginning with Gluck, composers
gradually suppressed most improvised
ornamentation except the agrements and
* relish Ex. 2], *cadenzas. One important relic of the
English [see Caccini,
Cavalieri, and other 17th-century Italian earlier practice, which persists even in
musicians urged the cultivation of these the operas of Mozart and Gluck, is the
small ornaments, which they call effetti, appoggiatura in recitative. From the
as a special means of expression. It was time of Alessandro Scarlatti it was cus-
in France, however, and under the name tomary tor composers to write the ap-
of agrements, that these ornaments finally poggiatura which appearsat the end of
became stereotyped and were systema- almost every phrase of recitative as a har-
tized to the extent that it was possible to mony note, in order to make the under-
indicate them in the music by signs or lying harmony clear to the accompanist,
abbreviations and to establish definite as in Ex. 5 the upper system of which
rules for introducing them extemporane- shows the customary notation, the lower,
ously. the correct performance.
Improvised ornamentation and divi-
sions continued to play a large part in
musical performance throughout the xyth
and 1 8th centuries. During this period
^
singers probably never executed a solo
part as it was written.
tini, and their contemporaries made their that they defy expression in ordinary
[543]
ORNAMENTATION ORNAMENTATION
musical notation and can only y repre- were often called by different names and
sented by signs. The MSS of Gr< represented by different signs, while the
gorian
chant contain certain special signs ^some- same name and sign were sometimes
times appearing as modifications of the given to different agrements. The agre-
neumes), which indicate stressed notes ments, in general, may be divided into
(pressus), vibratos (vinnula), pottamen- the following categories: i. Appoggia-
tos (quilisma), and smothered* notes turas (also Double Appoggiaturas);
(liquescent neumes; see *NeumesI). Ac- 2. Trills; 3. Turns; 4. Mordents; 5. Nach-
cording to the early theoretical writers schlage; 6. Arpeggios; 7. Vibratos. Each
the Gauls and Germans were incapable of these seven types of agrement receives
of performing some of these ornaments. fuller treatment under its own heading.
Guido d'Arezzo (roth cent.) recommends The first three (Appoggia-
categories
that those who cannot execute "these turas, Trills, and Turns) were regarded
sounds that the Italians produce natu- as essential agrements, in the sense that
rally" should sing the simple note. The their use was obligatory in certain posi-
only frequently recurring sign for an tions of the musical phrase whether their
ornament in the music of the later Middle signs appeared in the score or not. The
Ages is the *plica, which was derived others were arbitrary, and were often left
from the liquescent notes. to the discretion of the performer. It is
During the i6th century the indication significant that the only signs to be found
of ornaments by sign was restricted al- in the works of Mozart and Beethoven
most entirely to keyboard music. The are the tiny note representing the appog-
Germans used special signs for the *mor- giatura, the
^
for the turn, and the tr or
dent, and in the English *virginal books t with a
wavy line, indicating the trill.
there is a profusion of single and double The other agrements had by that time
oblique strokes through the stem of the become absorbed in the ordinary notation.
note, denoting ornaments the exact nature Rossini was probably the first composer
of which has not been established. The who much to the indignation of Sten-
Italian groppo and tremolo are some- dhal abandoned the signs
deliberately
times indicated by abbreviations (the let- for agrements, writing out what he con-
ters g and /) in the keyboard pieces of sidered necessary in notes (in his opera
Valente [cf. ApNPM, facs. no. 16], Elisabetta, 1815).
Mayone, Trabaci, and Frescobaldi. Since For a detailed study of the Baroque
the melodic forms of these ornaments ornaments the tables of signs given with
were not yet definitely stereotyped the a number of publications are indispen-
composers always wrote out the tremolo sable [e.g., d'Anglebert, in TaAM vii,
or groppo in notes the first time it oc- in; F. Couperin, in TaAM x, 78;
curred in a given piece or section, using Kuhnau, in TaAM x, 2; Georg Muffat,
the abbreviation only when the same me- in DTOe 2.ii, p. 52; Gottlieb Muffat,
lodicform was desired again. in DTOe 3.iii, p. 89]. Very helpful also
By far the most important of all steno- are the realizations given in the modern
graphic signs for ornaments are those of edition of Loeillet [^Editions XVII, i]
the French *agrements which were sys- and in an article by F. Dolmetsch (theme
tematized during the iyth century and of Bach's Goldberg Variations, d.^BSlM
remained in continuous use by all Euro- viii, no. 2, p. 27). The accompanying
pean musicians until the beginning of table shows (without claim to complete-
the Romantic period. The correct inter- ness) a variety of signs used for the differ-
pretation of these signs constitutes a con- ent types of ornamentations.
siderable problem in the execution of III. Written-out Ornamentation. The
music of this period owing to the fact embellishment of a simple melody took
that the nomenclature and signs used for its place, at an
early date, among the regu-
the individual agre'ments lacked uniform- lar procedures of composition. Frequent-
ity and consistency. Identical ornaments ly melismatic chants of the Gregorian
[544]
ORNAMENTATION ORNAMENTATION
repertory have been interpreted as orna- technique dating early as the
as
mented versions of simpler skeleton melo- century is cited]. This practice reached
dies, e.g., of monotones [cf. GD iv, 369]. its culmination in J. S. Bach's treatment
T Double mordent
[545]
ORNAMENTATION OSTINATO
appear had it been written in th more ZMW i H.
Prunieres, in
(Corelli); RM
conventional notation of Bach' time xiii(Baroque, vocal); P. Aldrich, in The
[(a) Doppelschlag (turn); (b) S ileifer Inchoirer, Sept. i939~Feb. 1940 (Bach's
b b organ works); S. Salter, in vi MQ
(same); E. Lockspeiser, in xvi, no. 4 ML
(Bach-French); A. Schering, in SIM vii
(i8th century); H. Lungershausen, in
ZMW xvi (same); M. Seiffert, in SIM
viii (Messiah); F. Salzer, in xii ZMW
(C. P. E. Bach); H. Mersmann, in AMW
(double appoggiatura); (c) mbrdent; ii
(pre-classical). P. A.
(d) passaggio; (e) tirata]. It rnust be
noted, however, that Bach did not! invari- Orpheon. French male choral societies,
similar in character to the American
ably adhere to this unorthodox practice; *
his Apollo clubs or the German *Manner-
keyboard suites, for instance, ire pro-
vided with a goodly number of the tradi- gesangverein. The members consist
tional signs for agrements. chiefly of farmers, workers, and middle-
Since the late i8th century the pendu- class people. The movement started
lum has swung in the other direction, around 1835 and spread rapidly. By 1910
and composers have endeavored there were about 1200 orpheons in France.
to indi-
cate their intentions as precisely as pos- A system of public competitions, called
sible on paper, using a minimum of signs "Concours Orpheoniques," was inaugu-
and expressing rated by Bocquillon-Wilhelm in 1842.
all
complex ornaments in
such a way that there can be no doubt as Gounod conducted the Orpheon of Paris
to what notes are to be performed, even from 1852 to 1860.
though, in certain cases, the rhythm of Orpheus and Euridice. The touch-
those notes be free, as in the so-called
ing fable of the "inventor of music" re-
"cadenzas" written in tiny grace notes by
covering his beloved Euridice from Hades
Chopin and other Romantic composers. and losing her again in the moment of
Lit.: E. Dannreuther, Musical Orna-
their reunion has been used more fre-
mentation, 2 vols. (1893); A. Dcimetsch, quently than any other subject as an oper-
The Interpretation of the Music of the atic libretto. Among the numerous operas
lyth and i8th Centuries, 2 vols. (1915); based on this story, Monteverdi's Orfeo
E. Fowles, Studies in Musical Graces
(1607), Gluck's Orfeo ed Euridice (1762;
(1907); J. P. Dunn, Ornamentation in French version Orphee, 1774), and Offen-
the Wor\s of Frederic^ Chopin (1921); bach's parody Orphee aux Enfers (1858)
G. C. Hamilton, Ornaments in Classical are immortal. It interesting to note the
is
and Modern Music (1930); M. Kuhn, between the
difference tragic, but heroic,
Die Verzierung in der Gesangsmusi^ des close of Monteverdi's opera and the
/6V-/7. Jahrhunderts (1902); H. Gold- "happy ending" of Gluck's. In the former,
schmidt, Die Lehre der vo\alen Orna-
Orpheus loses Euridice, but, as a reward
menti\ (1907); H. Ehrlich, Die Orna- of his great love, is transferred to the stars
mentil^ in Beethovens Klaviersonaten by Apollo; in the latter, Amor appears
(1896); P. Brunold, Traitf des signes et and restores Euridice to life once more
agrements employes par les clavecinistes and for good.
franfais des ij. and 18. sticles (1935);
Jane Arger, Les agrtments . dans la
. .
Osanna. See *Hosanna.
[546]
OSTINATO OTTAVA
cession, throughout a composition or a glia and chaconne. The Tratado dc glosas
section thereof. From other devices of of the
Spaniard Diego Ortiz (1553; new
repetition, such as ^imitation and *se- ed. by M. Schneider,
1912) contains the
quence [see ^Repetition ] , the ostinato is first
examples of more extended bass mel-
distinguished by the fact that it is reiter- odies, in the character of the lyth-century
ated in the same voice and at the same *ground [Ex. 4].
pitch. It is this feature which bestows The *New music of the 20th century
upon the ostinato that peculiar character has brought about an interesting and
sig-
which is expressed in its name. nificant revival of the ostinato. Modern
The earliest examples of ostinato occur composers such as Hindemith and Bartok
in compositions of the i3th century, e.g., have been attracted by its polyphonic and
in the tenor of the motet Amor
polest rhythmic possibilities as well as by its
conqueri (Montpellier, no. 328) [Ex. i]. anti-Romantic precision and straightfor-
wardness [Ex. 5, Hindemith, Konzert,
op. 38]. Ostinato technique has also been
introduced into modern jazz under the
name "riff" [see *Jazz IV]. For litera-
ture see *Ground.
nique received a fresh impulse from mona who in vain pleads her innocence,
dance music, possibly from Oriental and stabs himself after Emilia (Mezzo-
dances in which it is still prominent to- Soprano), lago's wife, has revealed the
day. The Oriental element is particularly
latter's treachery.
conspicuous in a Fantasia for two lutes Otello, together with *Falstaff (1893),
by Valderrabano in which the second lute represents the climax of Verdi's operatic
work. In these operas Verdi abandoned
plays a one-measure ostinato throughout
the entire composition [Ex. 2; cf. W. the aria-style of his earlier operas (*Aida,
see *Number opera) and adopted
Apel, in MQ xx, 300]. Anotherearly ex- etc.;
representatives of those two types of con- ottava sopra, or simply 8va written above
* the notes, indicates playing one octave
tinuous variation [see Variation] which
are commonly distinguished as passaca- higher than it is written; ottava bassa*
[5471
OTTAVINO OVERTURE
ottava sotta, or 8va written below the (earliest example in his ballet Alcidiane,
notes (usually in the bass part), calls for 1658) which became the first standard
the lower octave. Coll'ottava means type of overture. It consists of a slow in-
doubling in the higher (or lower) octave. troduction in pompous style with dotted
rhythm, followed by an allegro in imi-
Ottavino [It.]. The piccolo flute. tative style on a short canzona-like sub-
Ottoni, or stromenti d'ottone [It.]. ject, though the imitative treatment is not
Brass instruments. strictly maintained and the "fugal" char-
acter of this movement is more illusory
Ouvert [F., open], (i) French term than real HAM,
no. 224].
[cf. Some-
for the strings of violins, etc.
open (2) times the second movement of the French
In the *ballades, *estampies, *virelais of overture ends with a broad adagio passage
the I4th century, ouvcrt and clos [L. which has led to the erroneous statement
apertum, clausum', It. aperto, chiuso] in- that this is a three-movement form; this
dicate different endings for repeated sec- statement is not in accordance with the
tions, corresponding to the modern prima actual examples in which the closing sec-
volta, seconda volta. Cf ApNPM, 349.
.
tion (if present at all) is an "allargando"
coda to the allegro rather than a separate
Ouverture [F.]. See *Overture.
movement. There exist, however, later
Overblowing. See *Wind instruments examples of French overture in which the
II, III. closing passage is extended into a "third
Overtones. See *Acoustics IV. movement," i.e., that which opens Bach's
so-called French Overture (really, a
Overture. I. The Operatic Overture. French overture followed by a suite; see
Instrumental music composed as an in- II). Handel's overture to Rinaldo (1711;
troduction to an opera, oratorio, or simi- cf. SchGMB, no. 278) illustrates other
lar work. The earliest operas, which usu- methods of amplification, merging with
ally began with a *prologue, had no over- the sonata da chiesa.
ture or, at most, a flourish of instruments In the late i7th century Al. Scarlatti
such as the "Toccata" of Monteverdi's introduced another type of overture, the
Orfeo (1607). One of the first overtures "Italian overture" (earliest example in
of a more complex nature is that of Stef- Dal malo i bene, 1681 or 1686), consisting
fano Landi's San'Alcssio (1632) which
// of three sections, allegro, adagio, and al-
consists of "Preambulum" in slow,
a legro, an early adumbration of the three
pompous style followed by a "Canzona" movements of the sonata. These sections
in three sections. This opera also has are all in simple homophonic style except
elaborate *"Sinfonias" before the second the first which introduces some imitative
and third acts, each in three-movement treatment for the entrances of the voices.
form (fast, slow, fast), like the later The usual name for this type is "sinfonia"
"Italian'* overture [cf. H. Goldschmidt, [see *Sinfonia; Ex. in HAM,
no. 259].
Studien zur Geschichte der italienischen During the first half of the i8th century
Oper i, pp. 230$; HAM, no. 208]. The both the French and the Italian types ex-
"canzona"-overture [see *Canzona (5)] isted side by side. Cases of Italian operas
was a favorite type in the Venetian opera, and oratorios having a French overture
where it usually occurs in the form of an which excelled the other as regards ar-
introductory slow movement in duple tistic quality are not rare (e.g., Han-
rhythm followed by a fast movement in del). The French overture disappeared
triple rhythm (Cavalli, Giasone, 1649). around 1750, as a result of the rapidly
Other overtures, hardly different in form, growing importance of the symphony and
are called Sonata (e.g., Cesti, // Porno the sonata as standard forms.
d'oro, 1667). There can be no doubt that An important feature of the ensuing
the Venetian type of overture was the development was the emphasis on a closer
model for Lully's famous French overture connection of the overture with the opera
[548]
PADOVANA
itself, mainly by incorporation into the "Vorspiel." Well-known examples are
overture of material from the opera. Ex- Mendelssohn's Hebrides Overture, Ber-
amples of such a procedure occurred in lioz' Le Carnaval Romain, Brahms's
Cesti's // Porno d'oro and in Rameau's Academic Festival Overture. Under this
Castor et Pollux (1735), but did not lead category may also be included the over-
to an accepted practice until after 1750. tures written as an introduction to
spoken
Of still greater significance is the tend- plays and frequently performed as con-
ency to use the overture as an expression cert pieces, such as Beethoven's overture
of mood preparatory to the first scene of to Goethe's Coriolan and Mendelssohn's
the play. Perhaps the first example is the overture to the Midsummer-Night's
overture to Gluck's Iphigenie en Tauride Dream.
(1778) in which the overture announces Lit.: H. Botstiber, Geschichte der
the approaching thunderstorm of the Ouverture (1913); A. Heuss, "Die Ve-
opening scene. Famous examples of an netianischen Opernsinfonien" (SIM iv);
overture as a piece designed to set the H. Prunieres, "Notes sur 1'origine de
emotional background for the plot are 1'ouverture franchise" (SIM xii).
those to Haydn's Creation, Mozart's Don
Giovanni and The Magic Flute, Beetho-
Oxford Symphony. Haydn's Sym-
ven's * Leonora-Overtures (not the final phony no. 92 in G, composed in 1788. It
was performed in Oxford in 1791 when
Fidelio-Overture), Weber's Freischutz,
and Haydn was there to receive his honorary
practically all the overtures by Wag-
doctor's degree from the university.
ner and his successors. Wagner aban-
doned the sonata-like structure of the Oxyrynchos hymn. The earliest
overture in favor of a free "Vorspiel" di- hymn (c. A.D.
Christian 300) for which
rectly leading into the first scene. His the music is preserved. It takes its name
precedent followed in most of the re-
is from the place Oxyrynchos in Middle
cent operas. In a strong contrast to this Egypt, where the papyrus was found on
Romantic type is the overture to the i9th which it is written. The text is in Greek,
century "grand opera" of French deriva- and the melody is written in the Greek
tion (Rossini, Boildieu, Auber, Meyer- vocal notation [see ^Notation]. The
beer), which usually is merely a potpourri melody [cf. BeMMR, 45] shows certain
of the most important melodies of the traits of ancient Greek music (large in-
opera. tervals, rhythmic accentuation) as well as
II. The French Overture as a Suite. others of Oriental character (numerous
See *Suite V. small coloraturas) which on the whole
III. The Concert-Overture of the I9th would seem to predominate.
position written along the same lines as Papyri (1928); H. Abert, in iv; ZMW
the operatic overture, either as a single O. Ursprung, in iii BUM
(1923); id., in
movement in sonata-form, or as a free Theologie und Glaube xviii (1926).
[549]
PAEAN PANDIATONICISM
of 1508, contains four dances inscribed idea of the plot a conscious revival of
"Pavana," while the book title mentions the ^prologue of 17th-century opera.
"Padoane diverse." Similarly, in G. Mor-
P'ai hsiao. See *Panpipes.
laye'sPremier livre de tabelature (1553),
pieces inscribed "Paduanes" are listed Paleographie musicale. See *Edi-
under this name in the index, while the tions, Historical, XXIII.
book title mentions "Pavanes." In Rotta's
Intabolatura de lauto (1546) and in Wais-
Palestrina style. A polyphonic a-cap-
Tabulatura ( 1573) the name pado-
selius's pella style based upon the principles of
vana appears in connection with dances counterpoint, imitation, melodic move-
in In the interest of ment, consonance and dissonance, such as
quick 6/8-meter.
are shown in the music of Palestrina. As
clarity, it is recommended that this name
be reserved for such dances, and the name early as the i7th century this style, under
names such as stile antico, stile osservato
pavane for dances in slow duple (or, occa-
[see *Stile], had become "classical" in
sionally, triple) meter. Dalza's dances are
the *Roman school. In the early iQth
pavanes.
century it was revived by Baini (1775-
Paean [Gr., the healing]. Originally a 1844) and, later, by the protagonists of
name of Apollo, the term denotes a song the *Cecilian movement. Pope Pius X,
in praise of this god, or a song of praise through his *motu proprio, raised it to
in general. new authority in the field of church com-
position, and in the recent teaching of
Pagan Poem, A. See ^Symphonic
counterpoint there is a tendency to make
poem IV. the Palestrina style, rather than that of
The G. Der Bach, the point of departure [cf. K.
Pagliacci (i.e., Players;
Bajazzo). Opera in two
pro- acts and Jeppesen, Counterpoint (1939); A. T.
logue by Ruggiero Leoncavallo, to his Merritt, Sixteenth-Century Polyphony
own libretto, produced 1892. The scene (1940)].
isin a village in Calabria, 1865, where a Lit.: K. Jeppesen, The Palestrina Style
comedy troupe consisting of Canio and the Dissonance (1927); O. Ursprung,
his wife Nedda Restauration und Palestrina-renaissance
(Tenor), (Soprano),
Tonio (Baritone), and Beppe (Tenor) in der \atholischen Kirchenmusi^ der
arrive to give a performance. Nedda, in letzten zwei Jahrhunderte (1924); K. G.
love with the handsome villager Silvio Fellerer, Der Palestrinastil und seine Be-
(Baritone), refuses the urgent attentions deutung in der vo\alen Kirchenmusi\ des
of the ugly Tonio who, swearing revenge, 18. fahrhunderts (1929); H. J. Moser, in
calls Canio surprise the lovers, but
to KJ, 1930.
Silvio escapes unrecognized. In the sec-
Pallet. See *Organ II.
ond act the performance takes place.
Canio, in terrible excitement, confuses Palotache, palotas. See *Hungarian
play and reality, demands in vain from music II.
[550]
PANDORA PANTOMIME
ally the absence of functional harmony ber of pipes (vertical flutes; see instru-
results in a certain tonal staticity, offset ments III) of different size which are
bound or glued together, usually in the
form of a raft. It is played by moving it
in front of the mouth, similar to the
mouth-harmonica. See illustration on
p. 272. The panpipes is one of the most
ancient instruments. It occurs in ancient
Greece where it was called syrinx and
attributed to the god Pan, as well as in
by a greater interest in counterpoint,
China, Rumania, and South America.
rhythm, and chord spacing. From a The Peruvian panpipes is called antaras,
methodical point of view, pandiatonicism
that of Ecuador (made of 33 pipes of
might be considered as the "diatonic"
cane) rondador.
counterpart of *atonality which applies The Chinese panpipes, called pai hsiao,
the same principle of "harmonically un-
consists of sixteen (formerly twelve)
restricted combination" to the chromatic
scale.
pipes which are arranged in two whole-
Historically, however, pandiatoni- tone scales [see Ex.], It is a ritualistic
cism represents a reaction against the
"pan-chromaticism" of atonality as well
as against the "harmonic chromaticism"
of the late i9th century.
from,
In fact, a page
Stravinsky's Serenade (1925)
H
e.g., and symbolic instrument representing, by
or Poulenc's Suite (1920) with their C
its shape, the outspread wings of the
major appearance offers a most striking
mystic bird phoenix, and by the arrange-
contrast to the piling up of sharps and
ment of its pipes in two groups, the male
flats in a page from Ravel or Schonberg.
and female element (the tones of the left
Pandiatonic style is clearly present in
half are the "y an g lii," i.e., masculine
many of the whimsical pieces by Satie, tones; those of the right half, the "yin
written around 1910 (e.g., Embryons See ^Chinese
lii," i.e., feminine tones).
dessechcs), and in portions of Stravin- music. A. H. Fox-Strangways, in
Cf.
sky's Petrouchka (1911). It became more ML Tregenna, The Pipes of
x, no. i; J.
fully established around 1925 as a con- Pan (1926); E. M. von Hornbostel, in
comitant of the *neo-classical movement.
Festschrift fur P. W. Schmidt (1928).
Cf. N. Slonimsky, Music Since 1900
(i937),p.xxii. Pantaleon, pantalon. An enlarged
*dulcimer invented around 1690 by Pan-
Pandora, pandore, pandura, ban- taleon Hebenstreit who also was a virtu-
dora, etc. These terms are used with- oso on this instrument. It had 185 strings
out clear distinction for several instru- in all, and was played by means of two
ments: (i) A
long-necked lute of ancient small hammers. The frequently-told
Greece (pandura) [see *Lute II]. (2)
story that the pantalon led to the inven-
A small bottle-shaped fiddle used in the tion of the pianoforte is only partly true
Caucasus (panduri, fandur). (3) A
[see ^Pianoforte II]. The last virtuoso
queer-shaped guitar of the i7th century on the instrument was one Georg Nolli
(pandora, pandore, also bandura) [see
(Noel) who gave performances in Eng-
*Guitar family]. land (1767) on an instrument with 276
Panharmonicon. See *Mechanical in- strings. Towards the end of the i8th
struments HI. century the name was transferred to a
variety of the pianoforte in which the
Panorgue. See *Harmonium. hammers struck from above.
[551]
PAPADIKE PARALLEL CHORDS
out words, the action being revealed for triads and seventh-chords as well as
ing of a fixed chordal combination, con- them in rapid succession and in pro-
sonant or dissonant, through various de- nounced rhythm [Ex. 3, Petrouchfa].
grees of the scale. In classical harmony Although Debussy's name is rightfully
this device is admissible only for the sixth- connected with the establishment of par-
(i)], and
chord *Fauxbourdon allelism as a technique, occasional ex-
[see
strictly prohibited in connection
with tri- amples are to be found with numerous
ads, seventh-chords, etc., on account of 19th-century composers (Rossini, Mous-
the parallel fifths which would result in sorgsky, Lalo, Delibes; cf. LavE ii.i, 72!$,
632*!). Parallel ^fourth-chords occur
these cases. In deliberate violation of in
these principles, French composers, par- Satie's Le Fils des holies of 1891 [Ex. 4],
[55*1
PARALLEL FIFTHS PARAPHONIA
the introduction to Act II of Puccini's times even going so far as to raise objec-
La Boheme, 1896 [Ex. 5]. In the i6th tions
against the mixture stops of the
century, parallel triads were used paro- organ [see *Organ VI J. Today, this
distically in the *villanella, and a "seri- narrow point of view has been largely
ous" example of remarkable boldness abandoned.
occurs in Monteverdi [cf. H. Leichten- A fifth (or octave) which is reached,
tritt, in MM 16]. The aesthetic and
v, not in parallel, but in similar motion, is
technical connection of the modern paral- referred to as a "hidden (covered) fifth"
lelism with the parallel fifths of the roth- (or octave). This kind of voice-leading
century *organum (writers frequently is
usually admissible, except for certain
speak of an "organum technique") is extreme cases, e.g., when large skips are
very slight, the historical connection is nil.
involved in both voices, Par-
e.g., |^
Parallel (consecutive) fifths, oc-
taves. These result if the melodic pro- ticularly frequent (and entirely proper)
is the progression illustrated in Ex. 3.
gression of a part (e.g., c-d) is duplicated This is called horn fifths, since it forms a
by another part at the distance of a fifth characteristic feature of the writing for
(g-a) or octave (c'-d'). Such voice-
natural horns. See also *Parallel chords.
leading [see Ex. i] is considered faulty,
Regarding a reputed medieval practice
of "singing in parallel seconds," cf. E.
Ferand, in xxv. MQ
Lit.: F. T. Arnold, "J. S. Bach and
Consecutives in Accompaniment" (ML
xiv, no. 4); F. E. Gladstone, in viii; PMA
H. W. Nicholls, "Bach's Non-Observance
of Some Fixed Rules" (SIM iii); M. G.
Sewall, "Hucbald, Schoenberg and
Others on Parallel Octaves and Fifths"
(MQ xii); A. Schonberg, in DM, 19107
and is strictly prohibited in classical n, vol. xxx.
counterpoint. Its avoidance is a basic
feature of the contrapuntal style from the Parallel key. See *Key relationship.
1 5th to the i pth century.
Parallel motion. See *Motion.
Naturally, a study of the music of this
period numerous exceptions to
reveals
Paralleltonart [G.]. Relative (not
this rule, in Ockeghem and Josquin as
well as in Bach and Mozart [see Ex. 2, parallel) key.
[553]
PARAPHRASE PARODY MASS
Paraphrase. The general meaning of Haas, "Wiener dcutsche Parodieopern
the term is that of free rendition or elabo- urn 1730" (ZMW
viii); G. Cucuel, "Les
ration. It used to denote: (i) a textual
is Operas de Gluck dans les parodies du
paraphrase, i.e., a free rewriting of a text; XVIIIe sifecle" (RM iii); sec also *Para-
e.g., a psalm paraphrase is a new wording phrase; *Parody mass; *Satire; *Villa-
of a psalm, usually in poetic language nella.
[554]
PARSIFAL PARTIAL SIGNATURE
Parsifal. Opera in three acts
by Richard *Meane. (3) A section of a composi-
Wagner, to his own libretto, produced at tion, as in three-part song form.
Bayreuth in 1882, for the dedication of
the Festspielhaus [see *Biihnenweihfest-
Part books [G. Stimmbucher]. The
spiel], and performed there exclusively manuscript or printed books of the I5th
for twenty years. First performances out-
and 1 6th centuries, each containing the
music for an individual voice of a
side of Bayreuth were at New York in poly-
phonic composition [see under *Score
1903 and (in Europe) at Zurich, 1913.
II]. The usual number of part books is
Amjortas (Baritone), guardian of the
four: Cantus (Discantus,
Holy Grail (the vessel from which the Superius);
Saviour drank at the Last Supper) and Altus] Tenor; Bassus (Basis), abbrevi-
ated: C (D, S)\ A\ T\ B. Books for addi-
of the Holy Spear, has succumbed to the
tional parts were marked either Cantus
beguilements of Kundry (Soprano), a 7,
of the enchanter Klingsor (Bass) and that Publication in part books clearly indi-
cates that the music thus written or
of the Grail. The Spear has fallen in the pub-
hands of Klingsor who has afflicted Am- lished is *ensemble music, either vocal, or
fortas with a wound which will not heal. instrumental, or mixed.
The deliverer appears in the person of the
Parte (i) Voice-part [see *Colla
[It.],
"guileless fool" Parsifal (Tenor) who
pane}. (2) 17th-century term for vari-
(Act II) resists the temptations of Kun- ation [see *Partita; *Parthie].
dry (scene in the Magic Garden) and",
seizing Klingsor's lance, destroys the lat- Parthenia. A
printed collection of *vir-
tcr'spower. In years of wandering he ginalisticmusic, published in 1611 (1613,
learns wisdom and, returning to the
1635, and many later editions). Accord-
Castle of the Grail as a knight in armor
ing to the title, it was "the first musicke
(Act III), delivers Amfortas and Kundry that euer was printed for the Virginalls."
from their sin. contains 21
It
compositions "by three
Parsifal, Wagner's last work, is writ- famous Masters William Byrd, Dr. John
ten according to the principles of the Bull and Orlando Gibbons." New editions
Music Drama [see *Opera XJ. The mu- from the old plates were made in 1847
sical style is, in the passionate scenes
(Rimbault) and in 1908. A companion
(Kundry), similar to that of Tristan, but work is the Parthenia Inviolata which
the basic expression is one of solemn dig- contains anonymous pieces ("dances and
nity which does not always escape the dan- tunes") for virginal and bass-viol (only
ger of monotony. preserved copy in the New York Public
Library).
Part, (i) In orchestral or chamber
music, the music for the single instru- Parthie, Partie [G.]. German i7th-
ments, such as violin, flute, pianoforte, century spelling for *partita. The French
etc. (2) In contrapuntal music, the
word partie usually has the meaning of
single melodic line of the contrapuntal part, voice (fugue a j parties).
web (fugue in three, four parts). The
Partials. See *Acoustics IV.
modern names for such parts, also called
voices, are soprano, alto, tenor, and bass. Partial signature. The use of a sig-
Early names are: *vox principalis and nature, practically always b-flat, in some
organalis (9th-nth centuries); *tenor, but not all of the voices of a polyphonic
*duplum (motetus), triplum, quadru- composition. Prior to 1500 such signa-
plum (i3th century); *discantus, tenor, tures are extremely frequent, much more
*contratenor (1300-1450); cantus, altus, frequent in fact than "full" signatures.
tenor, bassus, quinta vox, sexta vox, As a rule, the highest part carries no sig-
*vagans (1450-1600). See also *Treble; nature, the b-flat being indicated only
[555 j
PARTIE PASPY
with the lower parts. Typical combina- phil Muftat (1726),
is derived, not from
tions are: t|, b for two-voiced pieces It. but from F. panic (move-
(i3th partita,
century); N, *!, b, or \ b, b for three-voiced ment), a term which may have denoted
pieces (i3th, I4th centuries); \\ b, b for suite-like compositions. Bach uses the
four-voiced pieces (i5th century). This designation partita for his six suites for
method of notation is not, as has fre- harpsichord, published in the Clavier u-
quently been assumed, a mere negligence bung i
(1731) and for those for violin
or a meaningless tradition, but the ade- solo. Several of the harpsichord partitas
quate expression of a contrapuntal *poly- show Italian features, such as the Italian
tonality which the melody-carrying
in names "sinfonia" and "burlesca," and the
parts tend towards the tonal realm of the preference for the *corrente instead of
B-natural (Lydian), the lower parts the *courante.
towards that of the B-flat ("F-major or
G-minor"). Cf. W, Apcl, in x; AM Partition [F.], Partitur [G.], par-
ti tura [It.]. *Score. See also under
ApNPM, io2ff, 140.
*Intavolatura.
Partie [G.,F.]. See under *Parthie.
Part-song. A choral
composition in
Partimento A
iyth/ 18th-century
[It.].
with the top part
*homophonic style, i.e.,
practice of improvising melodies and as the sole carrier of melodic interest. The
complete pieces above a written bass, thus term is commonly understood in contrast
a broadening of the practice of thorough-
to the madrigal with its emphasis on
bass in which the bass as well as the mel-
is The English *"divisions
polyphonic texture and, therefore, applies
ody given.
chiefly to choral works of the i9th cen-
upon a ground" belong to the field of
tury, such as were written by Schumann,
partimento playing, which was exten-
Mendelssohn, Parry, Stanford, Elgar, and
sively cultivated in the later Baroque pe-
many others. See also *Glee. In recent
riod as a means of musical instruction.
writings on music
history the term is
Gaetano Greco (b. 1680), Francesco Du- used in quite a different meaning, i.e.,
rante (1684-1755), and Giacomo Tritto
for the truly polyphonic songs of the pre-
(1733-1824) wrote partimenti. Cf. K. F.
Der Partimento-Spieler (1940); madrigal period. Thus, Isaac's Innsbruct^
Fellerer,
ich muss dich lassen is
designated as a
id., "Gebundene Improvisation" (DM
"German part-song." Cf A. Vogel, "The
.
xxxi.6).
English Part-Song around 1500" (BAMS,
Partita [It.]. A 1 7th- and iSth-century 1940).
term which signifies either a suite or a
Pasacalle [Sp., make rounds of the
series of variations. The original and
street]. A Latin American dance which
proper meaning of the word is variation. has adopted different traits in various
In Trabaci's Ricercate, canzone, . . .
countries. In Bolivia it is a gay, carefree
partite diverse (1615) as well as in Fresco- serenade in slow duple meter; in Ecua-
baldi's Toccate e partite d' intavolatura
[556]
PASSACAGLIA PASSING TONE
Passacaglia [It.], passacaille [F.]. mezzos are sometimes designated as
See *Chaconne and passacaglia. "passamezzo antico." The melodies of
two examples, (a) from Phalese, 1571
Passage. A term which
loosely usedis
[cf. RiUL, 1352], (b) from Caroso's //
to refer to a short section of a composi-
Ballerina, 1581 [cf. GD iv, 71 ] are shown
tion, much same way as in litera-
in the
,
pass'e [It. I
[ilJ
passo, step; mezzo, half]. A dance of the
second half of the i6th century, in duple ton melody [cf. also HAM, no. 1543, b;
meter and in moderately quick tempo BeMMR 308]. The later passamezzos,
y
[see *Dance music II]. Among the vari- sometimes designated as "passamezzo
ous explanations of the name ("pace-and- nuovo," are usually in a major mode,
a-half feature in the dance steps"; "dance with quicker *harmonic rhythm and
through the middle of the room"; "dance more tonic-dominant harmonies [cf. Am-
music in halved note values") only the last merbach's "Passamezzo d'Angleterre" in
is worth attention. Very likely, the word ApMZ\, ii].
"mezzo" refers to the diminution (halv-
Passecaille [F.]. Passacaglia.
ing) of the note values which is indicated
by the alla-breve sign: t see *Propor-
<
[557]
PASSION MUSIC PASSION MUSIC
Passion music. A
musical setting of performance, this type of passion is called
the text of the Passion (Passio Domini "Scenic Passion" (GD), or "Dramatic
nostri Jesu Christi) from one of the four Passion'* (MoML). The earliest existing
Evangelists. In the Catholic rites the examples are in the codex Modena Est.
Passion according to St. Matthew is read lat. 454/55 (c. 1480) and in the Eton
on Palm Sunday, those of St. Mark and MS (by Davy; c. 1490). Others are by
St. Luke on the following Tuesday and Sermisy (1534), Lassus (St. Matthew,
Wednesday, that of St. John on Good 1575; St. John, 1580; St. Mark, 1582; St.
Friday. Luke), Asola, Vittoria, Francisco Gue-
A. The Plainsong Passion [G. Choral- rrero, Byrd (St. John, 1607). In most of
passion; hence the English translation these Passions the treatment is in poly-
Choral Passion, cf. GD iv, 78; see remark phonic (motet) style, with the original
under *Choral, chorale]. In the i2th plainsong as a tenor. In Germany,
century it became customary to have the Luther's reform led to the adoption of the
Passion performed as a sort of play, the vernacular as well as to the use of a plain
parts of Christ (Vox Christi), the Nar- homophonic style (stilejamigliare), in-
rator (Evangelista; Chronista), and the stead of the more elaborate polyphonic
Crowd (Turba Judaeorum) being sung treatment usually found with the above-
each by one priest, and in a distinct man- named composers. The earliest Passion
ner. The part of Christ was sung in of this type, that by Johann Walther (St.
the lowest register (c-f) in a slow and Matthew, 1530; cf. GD iv, 74) had a re-
solemn recitation; that of the Evangelista markable vogue and was still performed
in a middle register (f-c')> in normal in 1806 at Niirnberg. Among the long
speed and character; that of the Turba listof composers, Protestant as well as
Judaeorum in a high range (c'-f), and Catholic, who used the same method, we
with pronounced speed and agitation. In find: A. Scandello (c. 1550), Jacob
the old liturgical books these parts are Mailand (St. John, 1568; St. Matthew,
indicated by the letters / (tarde, slowly), 1570), Thomas Mencken (1610; cf. GD
c (celeriter, quick), and s (sursum, high), iv, 73), Matthias Vulpius (1612), Chris-
or, later,by b, m, and a (bassa, media, tian Schultze-Delitzsch (1653), and
alta voce),whereas in more recent books Christian Flor (1667)..
the signs f (Christ), C (Chronista), and Side by side with this tradition, there
S (Synagogue) are used. This drama- existed another treatment of greater musi-
tized performance was evidently designed cal elaboration, that is, the composition
to aid the congregation in following the of the entire text of the Passion in motet-
Latin narrative. Most of the text was style. Notable examples of this type arc
the motet-style of the polyphonic era, or this principle and occasionally abandoned
in the oratorio-style of the iyth century. it altogether.
Probably the earliest procedure was to The 1 7th century sees the application
compose only the turbae which naturally to the Passion of all the dramatic innova-
suggested performance by a chorus. On tions of the Baroque era, such as the stile
account of the dramatic effect resulting recitativOy the aria, the orchestra, etc., to-
from the contrast of soloist and choral gether with a freer treatment of the au-
[558]
PASSION MUSIC PASSION MUSIC
thentic text which was either paraphrased style which is no less remarkable than
or broadened by free poetic interpolations, their artistic superiority. Both Passions
thus approaching the *oratorio (Passion- use the biblical text as a basic narrative,
Oratorio). An early work indicative of set in recitative or (for the
turbae) in
the new tendencies is the Passion after short choruses. Poetic texts (by Brockes
St. John by Thomas Selle, of 1643 [see for the St. John Passion, by Picander for
^Editions V, 26]. Interesting features the St. Matthew Passion) are used for the
are the recitative passages, the introduc- arias and for the large choruses. The
tion of "intermedii," i.e., choral settings form may be described as a succession of
of interpolated texts (psalms and Protes- cantatas, each closing with a chorale. Ac-
tant chorales), the use of different instru- cording to the earliest catalogue of Bach's
mentation for the Evangelist and for works (1754), he wrote five Passions.
Christ. The
great figure of this period is However, aside from the two above, only
Heinrich Schiitz (1585-1672). His Pas- portions of the St. Mar\ Passion remain
sion-Oratorio Sieben Worte Jesu Christi in the Trauer-Ode of 1727. A St. Lu1(e
am Kreuz from about 1645 uses the reci- Passion, published in B.-G. xlv, is
spuri-
tative for the Evangelist, and a three-part ous.
instrumental accompaniment for the The ensuing history of the Passion may
words of Christ, a treatment which was be characterized by Telemann's St. John
adopted by Bach in his Matthew Passion. Passion (1741), Johann Ernst Bach's
Late in life (c. 1665-72) Schiitz com-
(1722-77) Passionsoratorium [DdT 48],
posed the Historic* des Leidens und Ster- two Passions by C. P. E. Bach (1787 and
bens unseres Herrn und Heylandes Jesu 1788), and by oratorios dealing with the
Christi, which contains four settings of Passion story, such as K. H. Graun's Der
the Passion story according to each of the Tod Jesu (1755), Haydn's Die sieben
four Evangelists. It shows the return to Worte am Kreuz (1785), Beethoven's
that austere archaism which is character- am Oelberg (1803), Spohr's Des
Christus
istic of the late Schiitz [cf. SchGMB, Heilands letzte Stunden (1835). Compo-
no. 192]. Other Passions of this period sitions of the *Stabat mater also fall under
are interesting chiefly for their progres- this category.
sive tendencies, such as the use of the The recent Bach-renaissance has
orchestra and the introduction of chorales brought about a remarkable revival of
and arias [Chr. Flor, 1667; J. Sebastiani, the true Passion spirit in works such as
1672; Theile, 1673; cf.
J. DdT
17]. After the Marcus-Passion of Kurth Thomas
1700 the authentic text of the Bible was and the Choralpassion of Hugo Distler.
abandoned in favor of rhymed para- Lit.: O. Kade, Die altere Passionsfom-
[559]
PASSY-MEASURE PATHfiTIQUE
nach Matthaus" (AMW
iv); K. Ncf, it suffices to mention Bach's Pastorale for
"Die Passionsoratorien Jean-Francois the organ, the Sinfonia which opens the
Lesueurs" (in 'Editions XXIV B, second part of his Christmas Oratorio,
3/4);
id. "Bcitragc zur Geschichte der Passion
y the Sinfonia Pastorale in Handel's Mes-
in Italien" (ZMW xvii). See also under siah, and the last movement of Beetho-
*Oratorio. ven's *Pastoral Symphony.
Old (2) In the 1 6th
century, dramatic per-
Passy-measure. English for
formances based on an idyllic plot. These
*passamezzo. were among the most important fore-
Pasticcio [It., pie, pastry]. A musical runners of the *opera. In the I7th cen-
work, usually operatic, which includes tury this genre was particularly culti-
contributions of various composers. Ex- vated in France. Several of the early
amples are the opera Muzio Scevola French operas, e.g., Cambert's Les Peines
(1721) to which Mattei, Bononcini, and et les plaisirs de I' amour (1671) and Lul-
Handel contributed one act each; the ora- ly's Les Festes de I' Amour etde Bacchus
tor ium Die Schuldig^eit des enten Ge- (1672), bear the title Pastorale. Cf. L. de
bots which was written jointly by Mozart, la Laurencie, "Les Pastorales . . . avant
Adlgasser, and Michael Haydn; the *Dia- Lully . .
."(KIM, 191 1, p. 139).
belli-variations; or the violin sonata for
Pastoral Symphony. Beethoven's
J.Joachim of which Schumann, Brahms,
and Dietrich each wrote one movement. Symphony no. 6 (op. 68) in F, published
in 1809 under the title: "Sinfonia Pas-
More specifically, the term applies to
torale, No. 6." The four movements por-
operatic medleys of the i8th century the
music of which was selected by the ar- tray, according to Beethoven's inscrip-
tions: The awakening of cheerful feelings
ranger or producer from the composi-
tions of famous composers, for the pur-
on arrival in the country; Scene at the A
pose of entertaining the audience with an
Brook; A
Merry Meeting of Country
Folk, followed by Thunderstorm and
uninterrupted succession of their favorite
songs, a procedure which immensely
Tempest; and, finally, Song of the Shep-
herds, Glad and Thankful Feelings after
pleased the pleasure-seeking public of the
i8th century. See also *Opera VIII. Cf. the Storm. This symphony is, no doubt,
i.e., War-time Mass, a title which suf- After 1550, the pavane and galliarde went
out of dance fashion, being superseded
ficiently explains the conspicuous role
played by the kettledrums in this work; by the *passamezzo and saltarello. They
were perpetuated, however, by the Eng-
(b) Pau1(enschlag Symphonic, i.e., Drum-
stroke Symphony in G
(1791), so called
lish virginalists as an idealized type of
with reference to the sudden stroke of the music, and reached a most remarkable
timpani in the middle of the slow move- height of artistic perfection under the
ment (a more common name is
"Surprise
hands of William Byrd, John Bull, Or-
Pau\enwirbel Sym- lando Gibbons, and John Dowland [cf.
Symphony"); (c)
phony, i.e., Drum-roll Symphony, in E- HAM, nos. 178, 179]. Gibbons' "Pavane
the Earl of Salisbury" is, indeed, one of
(1795), so called because of the kettle-
flat
drum roll which opens the introduction. the most glorious examples of idealized
dance music, comparable to the sarabande
Pause [F. point d'orgue\ G. Fermate; in Bach's Partita no. 6, and to the march
It.fermata] The sign >c\ also known as
.
("alia Marcia") of Beethoven's Piano-
hold or fermata, which indicates that the forte Sonata op. 101. After 1600 the pa-
note (or rest) over which it appears is to vane was adopted (usually under the
be prolonged. As a rule, a duration of ap- name *paduana) into the early German
proximately (but not exactly) the double suite in which it serves as a slow intro-
of the normal value will prove satisfactory ductory movement. Modern examples
and appropriate. It must be noted that have been written by Ravel (Ma mere
the foreign terms pause [F.], Pause [G.], I'Oye; Pavane pour une infante dtfunte),
and pausa [It.] always mean a rest. Vaughan Williams (ballet Job), and
others.
Pavane [Anglicized pavan, paven,
pavin]. A court dance of the early i6th Paventoso [It.]. Timid.
century, probably of Spanish origin [see
*Dance music II] It was executed in slow,
.
Pavilion [F.]. The bell of wind instru-
ments. Pavilion chinois is the *Cresccnt.
solemn movements and with dignified
gestures, imitating, in a way, the proud Peal. See *Change ringing.
deportment of the pavo, i.e., peacock (for
a different derivation of the name, see Pedal [from L. pes, foot], (i) In musi-
*Padovana). The international adoption cal instruments, an action which is oper-
of the Spanish pavane as the ceremonial ated by the feet. See 'Organ III, XI, XII;
[561]
PEDAL CLARINET PEDAL POINT
*Pianofortc; ^Harpsichord; *Harp. can easily be played on a manual instru-
(2) Short for *pedal point. ment with the *short octave arrangement.
Cf. J. Handschin, "Das Pedalklavier"
Pedal clarinet. Older name for the (ZMWxvii).
double-bass clarinet.
Pedal point [F. point d'orgue\ G. Or-
Pedal clavicymbel. See *Pedal piano. gelfunty It.
pedale}. Pedal point
or,
simply, pedal means a long-held note,
Pedalflugel [G.]. See *Pedal piano.
normally in the bass, sounding against
Pedal harp. The modern chromatic changing harmonies in the other parts.
*harp.
From the harmonic point of view, the
interesting feature of the pedal point is
Pedalier [F.]. (i) The pedal board of that it represents one of the most natural
the organ, or a similar apparatus attached sources of dissonance, inasmuch as the
to a pianoforte. (2) See *Pedal piano. held note blends easily with every chordal
combination (e.g., low C with a D-flat or
Pedalklavier [G.]. See *Pedal piano.
a B-flat triad; see illustration). Accord-
Pedalkoppel [G.]. The pedal coupler
of the organ; see *Organ IV.
Pedal piano [F. pedalier pianoforte^ dominant pedal, and subdominant pedal
G. Pedalflu gel]. A pianoforte which is (long note on the tonic, dominant, or sub-
equipped with a pedal board, similar to dominant of the key). The terms "in-
that of the organ, so that the bass can be verted pedal" and "internal pedal" de-
played with the feet. The Pedalflugel, note pedal points which appear, not in
which had but passing success, is known the bass, but in the soprano, or in a mid-
dle part.
chiefly through the series of "Studien"
and "Skizzen" which Schumann wrote The pedal point (also called *bourdon
for it (opp. 56, 58). There also exist com- or *drone) is one of the earliest devices
positions for this instrument by Alkan of polyphony, perhaps the earliest, as may
and Gounod [cf. GD iv, 95]. J. S. Bach already be concluded from its extended
had a two-manual harpsichord with hand use in Oriental and primitive music [see
stops and with a full pedal board. This *Oriental music]. In Western music it
was chiefly a practicing instrument for makes its first appearance in the *organa
organists. The oft-repeated statement of the 2th and i3th centuries (Schools
1
that his six trio-sonatas and even his pas- of St. Martial and Notre Dame; see *Ars
sacaglia were written for this instrument antiqua) in which the notes of the origi-
is erroneous. All these pieces arc genuine nal plainsong are frequently extended as
organ music, as appears, for instance, long-held tones, one each serving as a
from the long-held notes which occur in basis for an entire section. A monumental
most of the slow movements. It should example of a 13th-century pedal point
also be noted that single bass notes which is the beginning of Perotinus* organum
seem to be out of the reach of the hand quadruplum Viderunt omnes [cf. AdHM
(end of the Sonata in D, B.-G. xxxvi, 19; i, 229] which has been called the "F-
two fugues in A, ibid., pp. 169, 173) by major toccata of the i3th century" (with
no means necessarily point to a pedal- reference to the like-named composition
harpsichord (nor to the organ) since they of Bach). It may be noted that the term
[562]
PEDAL TONE PENT ATONIC SCALE
punctus organicus (organ point, Orgel- the same sense as with Wagner's music
pun\t) is probably to be explained as re- dramas, See reference under *Recitativo.
ferring to these organa, rather than to
Pelog. See ^Javanese music.
the organ. As an organ device, the pedal
Penillion. An ancient form of Welsh
point appears first in certain compositions
of Frescobaldi, e.g., his Pastorale. Its im-
music practice [see *Bards], executed by
a harper and a singer, with the former
portance in the organ works of Buxte-
hude, Bach, etc., is well known. Among playing a well-known harp-air and the
latter extemporizing words and a some-
modern composers Tchaikovsky has
shown a particular predilection for pedal- what different melody to fit with the
harper's tune and harmonies. The harper
points.
can change his tune as often as he wishes;
Pedal tone. See *Wind instruments the singer, after a measure or two, is ex-
*Horn I.
II; pected to join with proper words and
in- music, in accordance with the dictates of
Peer Gynt Suite. See *Suite II;
tradition. The penillion is probably the
cidental music.
last relic of those legendary contests in
Pelleas et Melisande. Opera in five which the heroes fought against one an-
acts by Claude Debussy (1862-1918),
other not only with their weapons, but
also with their wits, solving puzzles and
text from Maeterlinck's play of the same
name, produced in 1902. Scene: a medi- competing with musical instruments. Cf.
eval castle. Golaud (Baritone) finds the
W. S. Gwynn Williams, \Penillion in
beautiful Melisande (Soprano) in a for- English (1925).
est, marries her, and brings her to the Penitential psalms. Psalms 6, 32, 38,
gloomy castle of his
grandfather Ar\d 51, 102, 130, and 143 in the Authorized
(Bass) where she and Pelleas (Tenor), Version; 6, 31, 37, 50, 101, 129, and 142
Golaud's younger half-brother, fall in love *
in the Vulgate [see Psalm]. In music
with each other. Golaud, thoughtful and famous
history the penitential psalms are
friendly, encourages what he believes to particularly through Orlando di Lasso's
be a childish sympathy, but, upon dis-
composition of the whole series of texts
covering the truth, rages with jealousy (Psalmi penitentiales, 1565). The same
and kills Pelleas (Act IV). In the last act
project was carried out by L. Lechner
Melisande dies. This story is told in a
(1587) and others. Later composers have
succession of scenes filled with mystic and been particularly attracted by the dra-
symbolic significance, scenes which are matic greatness of Ps. 130, De profundis,
not meant to form a continuous plot and and Ps. 51, *Miserere.
which stand to the closely-knit action of
Wagner opera in about the same relation- Pentatonic scale [the shorter form
ship as Debussy's aphoristic Impression- "penta-scale" may be used]. A scale
ism to the sweep and pathos of Wagner's which consists of five different tones, the
musical style. octave being already reached at the sixth
Pelleas et Melisande, being the only degree. Theoretically there exists, of
significant opera which the impression- course, an infinite variety of such scales.
ism has produced, stands in a class by The following types are of special impor-
itself. In opposition to the Wagnerian tance: (a) The tonal penta-scale, i.e., a
opera, Debussy has written a score which five-tone scale which has no semitones
viding only a "tonal envelope" of pale Properly speaking, there exists only one
colors and of incorporeal transparency. such scale (transpositions apart), namely:
Nonetheless, the opera shows a degree of c d f g a
. c'. However, by using differ-
.
unification and identification between the ent tones as a tonic, five different "modes"
poet, the composer, and their characters can be derived from it, for instance: c d .
which renders it a Gcsamtl(unstwer\ in f g a . c', or: / ga . c' d' . P , etc. On the
[563]
PERCUSSION INSTRUMENTS PERCUSSION INSTRUMENTS
pianoforte, such scales can easily be repro- material used may differ. The number
duced by playing the black keys only. of kettledrums used by the classical
The tonal penta-scale, usually in its "first school was two, one small and one large,
mode" (on c), occurs in nearly all the which were tuned to the tonic and domi-
early musical cultures, in China (as far nant of the key of the composition. A
back as 2000 B.C.), Polynesia, Africa, as third drum of intermediate size was
well as with the American Indians, the added about the middle of the ipth cen-
Celts,and the Scots. It must be consid- tury and toward the end four were often
ered the prototype of all scales. The demanded, though various composers,
ancient Chinese already construed it as notably Berlioz and Mahler, have been
a succession of fifths and more extreme in their desires. Example i
descending
fourths: f-c'-g-d'-a [see ^Chinese
music]. (b) The semitonal [G. hemi-
tonisch] penta-scale. Such a scale results
by omitting the second and the sixth, or
the second and the fifth, degrees of the shows the composite compass of the in-
diatonic scale: c . e f g . b c', or: c . e f . a struments in ordinary use, although this
b c'. Since these scales include two major range is at times exceeded. Each of the
thirds (ditonus) they are also called "di- drums is best confined to a range of about
tonic." The second form is of especial a perfect fifth; Ex. 2 shows that of the
interest since this is the scale which, in
largest and Ex. 3 that of the smallest; the
descending motion, prevailed in ancient two others are in between. While the
Greece: e' c b a f e. Semitonal penta-
. . kettledrums are primarily rhythmic in-
scales occur frequently in modern
*Japa- struments, their tone color is of great
nese music. (c) A penta-scale with value to an ensemble, and they are espe-
equidistant steps is the Javanese salcndro ciallyimportant as a regulating factor in
*
[see Javanese music]. This has been orchestral dynamics.They may be muffled
used, under the name "pentaphonic" or muted [see *Mute], Various methods
scale, by Alaleone [cf. A. Eaglefield-Hull, of tuning the drums mechanically by
in Monthly Musical Record, Sept. 1922] . means of a controlling pedal [Pedal-
pau\e] or some such device have been
Percussion instruments. Generic invented. Such instruments, which allow
name for those instruments of the Or- the pitch to be changed quickly, are re-
chestra which are sounded by striking or quired, e.g., in Salome's Dance by R.
shaking. They can conveniently be di- Strauss and in d'Indy's Summer Day on
vided into two groups, those which pro- the Mountain. Although their tone qual-
duce a sound of definite pitch and those
ity is less resonant than that of the ordi-
which do not. nary instrument, they are generally in
A. Of Definite Pitch, i. Kettledrum use nowadays.
[F. timbale\ G. Paufa It. timpani}. The The introduction of the kettledrums
kettledrum (seldom used singly) is the into the orchestra took place around 1670,
most important of the percussion instru- John Locke with his opera Psyche (1673)
ments. It consists of a hemispherical and Lully with his Thesee (1675) being
shell of copper or some alloy, across which the rivals for a priority which is difficult
is stretched a "head," ordinarily of calf- to fix exactly. The frequent use of the
skin, which is held in place by a metal timpani in Bach's cantatas for the expres-
ring through which pass hand screws sion of joy and truimph is well known.
fixed to the shell, thus
allowing the ten- Lit.: P. R. Kirby, "Kettledrums: An
sion of the skin to be varied. The instru- no. i); P. A.
Historical Survey" (ML ix,
ment is played by two sticks which have Browne, "The Orchestral Treatment of
wooden handles and a head made ordi- the Timpani" (ML iv, no. 4).
narily of hard felt covered with a layer 2. Glockenspiel [E.; G.] or Bells [F.
of softfelt, although for special effects the carillon, jeu de timbres; It. campanetta}.
[564]
PERCUSSION INSTRUMENTS PERCUSSION INSTRUMENTS
An instrument composed of a series of be thinly scored. The instrument was
horizontal rectangular steel plates of vary* introduced by Tchaikovsky for the
ing length, with or without resonators, "Danse de la Fee Dragee" of his Nut-
which are arranged roughly in thesame cracker Suite (1891).
manner as a pianoforte keyboard, and are 5. Chimes. A set of metal tubes, nor-
struck bytwo wooden or composition mally 1 8, suspended from a metal frame,
hammers. It is made in two sizes, one tuned chromatically from c' to f", and
with a chromatic range as in Ex. 4, the struck with a hammer. They are em-
other as in Ex. 5. The part for the glock- ployed to produce the effect of church
bells, hence the alternative name tubular
bells. They are used in the finale of Tchai-
Wagner used the glockenspiel in the cylindrical drum with two heads stretched
Dance from The Mas-
of the Apprentices over a shell of metal. The upper head,
tersingers\Tchaikovsky in the Chinese which is struck by the player with his
Dance of his Nutcracker Suite. two drumsticks, is called the batter-head;
3. Xylophone. An instrument resem- the lower, across which are stretched the
bling the glockenspiel in essential con- taut snares (strings, in appearance not
struction, save that the bars are made of unlike violin strings), is called the snare-
wood. The instrument, pitched an octave head. The brilliant tone quality of the
lower than the glockenspiel, and there- side drum is largely dependent on the
fore larger, is mounted on a frame, and vibrations of the snare-head against the
the player stands while performing. Its snares. The instrument may be "muffled"
sounding compass is one octave below by loosening the snares. In addition to
that of the glockenspiel, notated at the the roll, which produces a tremolo, there
actual pitch. In tone quality it is dry and are two other strokes commonly used on
"wooden." See also
^Xylophone. the side drum: the Flam, consisting of
4. Celesta. An
instrument resembling two notes [Ex. 7], and the drag, which
in appearance a small upright pianoforte.
It may be considered as a "keyboard-
octave below the actual pitch. It is best of large size, with a wooden shell which
adapted to light and graceful effects, is
deeper in relation to its diameter than
whether chordal or arpeggiated. Melodic is the side drum.
lines may be given to the instrument pro- 3. Bass drum [F. grosse caisse\ G.
vided they do not contain notes of great grosse Trommel; It. gran cassa] . A large
length, since the sustaining power is drum which varies considerably in size,
limited. Owing to its light character, ac- both in depth and diameter. The heads
companiments to a celesta melody should are thicker and their tension is much less
[565]
PERCUSSION INSTRUMENTS PERFECT, IMPERFECT
than with the two smaller drums. It has (b) by striking a single cymbal with a
no snares and is played with a large soft- hard snare-drum stick or a soft timpani
headed stick. The sound produced is low stick; (c) by clashing the two cymbals
and heavy. Single strokes should be used against each other as fast as possible, a
at moderate speed, but a roll, performed rather unsatisfactory effect; (d) by sus-
by two timpani sticks, is also effective. pending one cymbal and performing a
The bass drum was used by Mozart in his roll on it with two hard snare-drum sticks
Entfuhrung and by Beethoven in the or two soft timpani sticks; (e) by fasten-
finale of his Ninth Symphony. ing one cymbal to the shell of the bass
4. Tambourine. A small single-headed drum, thus enabling the player to play
drum, the shell of which is pierced at in- both instruments at the same time. See
tervals to allow the insertion of loosely- also *Cymbals.
hanging "jingles" (circular metal plates), 7. Tam-tam or Gong. A
broad circular
usually in pairs connected by a wire which disk of metal, slightly convex, with the
passes through the holes of the shell. The edges turned, giving it the appearance of
instrument is played (a) by striking the a shallow plate with low vertical sides.
head with knuckles, which gives detached It is suspended in a frame so as to hang
sounds and simple rhythmical figures, freely, and is struck with a heavy bass-
(b) by grasping the shell firmly and shak- drum beater.
ing it, which gives a "roll" of the jingles, 8. Other instruments of this class,
and (c) by rubbing the thumb on the rarely used in orchestral scores, are the
head, which gives a tremolo of the jingles. *anvil, *castanets, *rattle, *thunder ma-
5. Triangle. A small round bar of steel chine. Modern radicalists have devised
bent in the shape of a triangle, open at percussiveand noise-producing effects
the upper end, struck with a beater of the compared with which Richard Strauss's
same material. Because of its penetrating thunder machine is mere child's play
tone quality it should be used sparingly, [see *Futurism]. Primitive instruments,
single widely-spaced strokes being the such as the Cuban maracas (a gourd filled
most effective manner of writing for the with dry seeds; see *Rattle) and the
instrument, although it can perform com- guiro (a serrated gourd scraped with a
plex rhythmic figures and rolls. It was stick), have been used by Prokofiev
used first in Gluck's Iphigenie en Tauride (Alexander Nevs\y) and Stravinsky (Le
(1779) and Abduction from
in Mozart's Sacre du Printemps). An interesting in-
the Seraglio (1782) in order to obtain an stance of a purely percussive score is
*
exotic, Turkish, atmosphere [see Jani- Edgar Varese's lonisation (1931).
zary music]. Beethoven used it in the In scientific classification, the various
finale of his Ninth Symphony for the drums [see *Drums] are grouped under
"Turkish" variation of the theme; Haydn membranophones\ the other instruments
in his "Military Symphony." For a prom- under idiophones [see ^Instruments I
inent solo part see the Piano Concerto in and II].
E-flat by Liszt. Lit.: Ch. Bairn, The Percussion Band
6. Cymbals [F. cym bales', G. BecJ(en\ from A to 7(1936). W. D. D.
It, piatti or cinelli}. Two large circular
brass plates of equal size, made slightly Perdendo(si) [It.]. Gradually dying
convex so that only the edges will touch away.
when they are struck together. In the Perfect, imperfect. See *Cadence;
center of each cymbal is a deep saucer- ^Intervals; *Mensural notation. It may
like depression, pierced by a hole, through be noticed that the modus perfectus, im-
which a strap is attached, enabling the perjectus of mensural notation is
some-
player to hold it.
They are played in the thing entirely different from the modus
following ways: (a) by clashing them perjectus, imperfectus of the 13th-century
together with a sideways movement theory of rhythmic *modes. While, in
the ordinary way of playing single notes; the former case, the terms indicate the
PERIOD PERIODICALS
ternary or binary value of the longa (L = Educator's Journal (Chicago,
3 B or =
2 #), they refer, in the latter 1914-; bimonthly). The Musical Quar-
case, to the final note in the pattern of a terly (New York, 1915-; quarterly; see
mode, this final note being present in the also
VII). Modern Music (New York,
modus perfectus, absent (replaced by a 1924-; quarterly). American Music
rest) in the modus imperfectus. The Lover (New
York, 1935; monthly).
modi imperfecti, although discussed at III.
England. The Musical Times
length by theorists (Anon. IV; cf. (London, 1844-; monthly). The
ReMMA, 280), are entirely devoid of Monthly Musical Record (London,
practical significance [cf. ApNPM, 231]. 1871-; monthly). Musical Opinion
(London, 1877-; monthly). The Strad
Period. A
term frequently used to de- (London, 1890-; monthly). Music and
note a group of measures comprising a Letters (London, 1920; quarterly; see
natural division of the melody. Usually also Music Review (London,
VII).
considered as comprising two *phrases. 1939-; quarterly; see also VII).
IV. Germany, Austria, Switzerland.
Periodicals, Musical. I. Historical Zeitschrift fur
Musit{ (Regensburg,
Survey. Among the earliest periodicals 1834-; monthly). Signale jur die mu-
of music (leaving out of account periodi- sifylische Welt (Leipzig, 1843-; weekly).
cal publications of music, etc.) are Allgemeine Musifoeitung (Berlin,
Scheibe's Critischer Musicus (1737-40), 1874-; weekly). Neue Musi1(zeitung
the Journal de musique frangaise et Die Musi\
(Stuttgart, 1880-; monthly).
italienne (1764-68), and J. A. Hiller's (Berlin, 1901-15; fortnightly; 1922-;
Wochentliche Nachrichten (1766-70). monthly). Anbruch (Vienna, 1919-
Following are the most important of the 37; monthly). Melos (Mainz, 1920-
subsequent enterprises: Allgemeine mu- 36; monthly). Der Auftafy (Prague,
sifylische Zeitung (Breitkopf und Har- 1920-38; monthly). Schweizerische
tel, 1789-1848, 1863-82); Fetis' Revue Musi{zeitung (Zurich, 1861-; monthly).
musicale (182780; merged with Gazette V. France^ Belgium. Le Mene strel
musicale de Paris and became the Revue weekly). Revue
(Paris, 1833-1940;
et Gazette musicale de Paris)] Le Mene- musicale (Paris, 1901-40; monthly; see
strel (Paris, 1833-); Neue Zeitschrift Jur also La Revue musicale Beige
VII).
Musi^ (founded by Robert Schumann, (Brussels,1924-; weekly). La Revue
1834; now issued as Zeitschrift fur M- Gregorienne (Tournai, 1911-; monthly).
sifa see IV); Signale jur die musi\alische La Revue Internationale de musique
Welt (Leipzig, 1843-); The Musical (Brussels, 1938-; bimonthly).
Times (London, 1844-); Dwight's Jour- VI. Italy. Rivista musicale italiana
nal of Music (Boston, 1852-81); Le (Torino, 1894-; quarterly; see also VII).
Guide Musicale (Brussels, 1855-1914, La Rassegna musicale (Torino, 1928-;
1917-18); The Musical Standard (Lon- monthly). Musica d'oggi (Milano,
don, 1862-1933); Music (Chicago, 1891- 1919), Rassegna Gregoriana ( Rome,
1902). 1902-). // Pensiero musicale (Bologna,
There follows a selected list of periodi- 1921-). Bollettino bibliografico must-
cals issued (or issued until recently),
still cale (Milan, // Musicista
1926-).
classified according to countries, with a (Rome, Rivista nazionalc di
1934).
special group (VII) reserved for musi- musica (Rome, 1935-).
cological publications. VI. Other Countries. La Revista Musi-
II. United States. The Musical Cour- cal (Buenos Aires, 1925-34). Revista
ier (New York, 1880-; semimonthly). Brasileirade Musica (Rio de Janeiro,
The Etude (Philadelphia, 1883-; 1934-; quarterly) Revista Musical
.
monthly). The Musician (New York, Mexicana (Mexico, D.F., 1942-; semi-
1 895-; monthly ) Musical America
.
monthly). Musica Viva (Rio de Ja-
(New York, 1898-; fortnightly). neiro, 1940-42). Musicalia (Havana,
[567]
PERMUTATIO PERU
1927-). Boletino Latino-Americano proceed from the beginning to the end in
de musica (Montevideo, 1935-; annu- the same rapid motion, e.g., i6th-notes in
ally). The Canadian Journal of Music presto. Pieces of this type, although not
(Toronto, 1914-; monthly). De Mu- labeled thus, occur also in Chopin's
ziel{ (Amsterdam, 1926-). De Muzief^ fitudes.
wereld (Amsterdam, 1936-). Soviet-
Persian music. See *Arabian music.
s\aya Musica ( Moscow, 1 933-4 1 ) Re- .
bagliati made a revision of the National Raygada, "Panorama musical del Peru"
Hymn which was approved by Alzedo i. G.C.
and officially accepted. The gathering of
folk music was carried on assiduously by Pes (i) Same as podatus; see
[L., foot],
[570]
PHONOGRAPH PHONOGRAPH
mcrcial phonographs, turned out in mass, and several societies have been formed
are very often unsatisfactory because of for the
purpose of re-recording or re-
inequalities in the materials used: a rec- old masters on a subscription
ord can sound its best only on a good Eressing
asis.
reproducing equipment. In
1913 the Gramophone Company in
The repertoire of the phonograph has Europe experimented with orchestral re-
undergone considerable change since the cording, securing the services of Arthur
early days. Edison's original intention Nikisch, who conducted the Berlin Phil-
was to produce literally a talking machine, harmonic Orchestra in Beethoven's Fifth
and the musical possibilities of the new in- Symphony, and the London Symphony
strument were not at first apparent. The Orchestra in a series of standard works.
earliest repertoire, therefore, of the com- In the United States the Columbia Com-
mercial phonograph was made up mostly pany engaged Felix Weingartner the same
of vaudeville sketches and monologues. yearand enlarged their staff orchestra for
These were gradually supplemented with several recordings under his direction.
band records and sentimental songs; for The firstof these were cut versions of the
it was
possible to reproduce wind instru- "Liebestod" from Tristan and the con-
ments with reasonable clarity, and the ductor's arrangement of Weber's "Invita-
singing voice emerged recognizably from tion to the Dance." Several years later
the wax. Celebrated singers early began (1917) Columbia engaged the Chicago
to play with recording their voices, and Symphony, conducted by Frederick Stock,
by the nineties the stunt was quite fash- the Cincinnati Orchestra under Kunwald,
ionable. About the year 1900 the rec- and the New York Philharmonic under
ord companies in Europe began to see Stransky. Victor followed a year later
the commercial possibilities of this idea, with recordings of Dr. Karl
a series of
and a new period in phonograph history Muck and the Boston Symphony, and
began. The first American celebrity re- shortly thereafter Leopold Stokowski be-
cordings were announced in 1903 by the gan his long series with the Philadelphia
Columbia Company, the list
including Orchestra. The year 1919 saw the first
disks by Marcclla Sembrich, Edouard de serious attempts at recording chamber
Reszke, Ernestine Schumann-Heink, music in this country when the Flonzaley
Giuseppe Campanari, Antonio Scotti, Quartet made for Victor a series of ab-
Charles Gilbert, and Suzanne Adams. breviated movements from their reper-
Victor was not slow to follow by building toire.
singers recorded mostly operatic arias, 1907 and 1908 Victor was issuing here
occasionally branching out into the song complete performances of operas (includ-
repertoire, and the violinists, cellists, and ing Pagliacci made under the direction of
pianists gave their versions of the lighter the composer) recorded by La Scala Com-
classics. At first all accompaniments were pany in Milan, but it was not until the
played on the piano, but about 1905 many establishment of electrical recording that
of the singers were busy remaking their the American catalogues began to fill up
selections with orchestra. Owing to the with records made for the sake of the mu-
limitations of reproduction at that time, sic rather than that of the artist. After a
all kinds of alterations were made in the period of depression, attributed to the
orchestrations of arias, and the instru- competition of the radio, records began to
ments were necessarily few in number, enjoy a new popularity comparable to that
but the voices as recorded were unmistak- they had known in the great days of ce-
ably those of their famous prototypes. Within the first decade of
lebrity disks.
Today the collecting of early celebrity recording the usual repertoire of
electric
recordings has become a major hobby, standard works, both instrumental and
[571]
PHONOGRAPH PHRASE
vocal, was
pretty well covered, and the music, but to preserve many of the im-
enterprise of some of the companies, par- portant disks no longer on the market.
ticularly in Europe, made it possible for The voices of such singers as Caruso,
the phonograph owner to come to know Eames, Lilli Lehmann, Victor Maurel,
a great deal of music he might never oth- Adelina Patti, Melba, Tamagno, De Lu-
erwise have had a chance to hear. This cia, Tetrazzini, and Fremstad, and the
fact has certainly been in no small meas- playing of Paderewski, Kreisler, Ysaye,
ure responsible for the general rebirth of De Pachmann, and many others will thus
interest in the music of the sixteenth and be preserved for posterity.
seventeenth centuries. Societies were The output of recorded music includes,
formed for the recording of music whose needless to say, the entire standard reper-
appeal was expected to be limited, but toire of our concerts and many composi-
many of the sets so issued proved suffi- tions which are very seldom heard in the
ciently popular to be given release subse- concert hall. Particularly worth mention-
quently in the regular commercial cata- ing is the attention which has been given
logues. The music of such men as Delius, to the music of Bach and of the masters
Hugo Wolf, Sibelius, Kilpeinen, and of still earlier periods. Most of the latter
Purcell was issued in such society sets, as have been recorded in sets covering the
well as the Sonatas of Beethoven, various entire history of music or special phases
works of Bach, and several operas of Mo- thereof. The most important of these are:
zart. A further development has been the L'Anthologic Sonore (Parlophone-Odeon;
issuance of records ofchamber music with ed. by C. Sachs) History of Music by Eye
;
one of the instrumental parts missing, and and Ear (Columbia; ed. by P. Scholes);
of accompaniments to songs, for the ben- Seven Centuries of Sacred Music (Lu-
efit of amateurs who lack the necessary men); Editions de I'Oiseau-Lyre; Trois
partners for musical performance. siecles de musique d'orgue (Pathe). For
The amazing growth of interest in rec- recordings of medieval music, cf. the Rec-
ords is illustrated by the amount of litera- ord List in ReMMA, 465!!. See also *Mu-
ture published on the subject. The Gram- sic Education III.
573]
PHYSHARMONICA PIANOFORTE
ond: e f g a, instead g a. In com-
of e f* natas or Duets for two performers on one
positions in the Phrygian mode, this char- Pianoforte or Harpsichord (1777), Hay-
acteristic step appears most conspicuously dn's // maestro e lo scolare, variazioni a
quadri mani per un clavicembalo (1778),
and five more compositions (four sonatas
and one set of variations) by Mozart,
composed between 1780 and 1791. Be-
sides Mozart the only greati composer who
in the cadences (Phrygian cadence; see
was seriously interested in four-hand mu-
Ex.). To the harmonically minded, such sic was Schubert. Brahms wrote a set of
formulae seem to be not so much a full
variations on a theme by Schumann (op.
close in E (VII-I) as a half -cadence in A 2 3)-
(IV-V). In this meaning the Phrygian
(b) Duets for Two Pianos. Isolated
cadence frequently found in the sonatas
is
of Corelli, Handel, and others, as a tran- early compositions for two harpsichords
are a "Verse for two Virginals" by Giles
sitionfrom one movement to the next.
Farnaby (late i6th century; cf. Fitzwil-
For an example of Phrygian in modern
liam Virginal Book, i, 202), a Fancy by
music see *Modality.
Thomas Tomkins (1573-1656) in Brit.
Physharmonica. See under 'Har- Mus. Add. 29996, several sonatas by Pas-
monium. quini (Deux sonates pour 2 clavecins,
Paris), an Allemande, by F. Couperin
Piacevole [It.]. Agreeable.
(new ed. by Brahms-Chrysander, vol. ii,
Pianamente [It.]. Softly. 160; other examples in vol. iii), and two
fugues in Bach's *Art of Fugue. A sonata
Piangendo [It.]. Plaintive.
for two harpsichords reproduced in the
Pianino [G.]. The upright piano. complete works of Bach (B.-G. vol. 43.1,
p. 47), but actually composed by his son
Piano, (i) Short for ^Pianoforte. (2) W. F. Bach, has been little noticed. The
Soft; pianissimo, very soft. See *Dynamic present-day repertory begins with Mozart,
marks. D
who, in his Sonata in (K.V. 448; 1781),
has written one of the most famous pieces
Piano concerto. See *Concerto II,
for two pianos. Other original composi-
III (c).
tions are his Fugue in C minor (K.V.
Piano duet. A composition for two 426; 1783), two Sonatas by dementi,
piano players playing on either one or two Schumann's Variations op. 46, a Rondo
instruments. Such compositions are also by Chopin in C, Variations by Sinding,
called "for four hands" [F. a quatre and several compositions by Busoni. More
mains\ G. vierhdndig]. numerous are arrangements for two pi-
(a) Duets for One Piano. An isolated anos, among which those made by the
early example is an early-iyth-century composers themselves are particularly
piece by Nicholas Carlton entitled: "A worth mentioning (Brahms, F Minor
Verse for two to play on one Virginal or Quintet and Variations on a Theme by
Organ" (Brit. Mus. MS 29996; cf . H. Mil- Haydn; Busoni, Fantasia contrappuntis-
ler, in MQ
xxix, no. 4). A
continuous written for piano solo).
tica, originally
tradition did not begin until the late i8th Important contributions to the repertory
century. A
famous picture of 1762 shows of four-hand music are the arrangements
the young Mozart and his sister playing of the organ works by Bach, for one or
four-hand. Among the earliest extant for two pianos. Cf. A. M. Henderson, in
compositions are a Sonata by }oh. Chris- PMA Iii; F. Niecks, in ZIM v; H. Miller,
tian Bach (1735-82) [cf. A. Prosniz, in MQ xxix, no. 4.
Handbuck der Klavierliteratur (1908),
p. 128], Mozart's four-hand Sonata in D Pianoforte. I. The
pianoforte may be
(K.V. 381; 1772?), Burney's Four So- described briefly as a stringed instrument,
[574]
PIANOFORTE PIANOFORTE
the strings being struck by hammers from all the strings, but from only that
which are put into motion from keys by note or chord which is held in the mo-
means of a connecting mechanism called ment in which it is put into action, leaving
action. In the scientific classification, the other notes free for playing with or
which is based upon the consideration of without the dampers. Thus it permits
the sound-producing agent, it is classified the sustaining of single notes, e.g., a pedal-
as a zither, i.e., as a stringed instrument point in the bass, but also permits numer-
the strings of which are stretched over a ous coloristic effects which have been little
board, the sounding-board [see *Instru- exploited by modern composers, probably
ments IV, A, i (b)]. Its most interesting owing to the fact that it is seldom found
and most complicated part is the action on European instruments and may have
which, in its present form, is a highly in- been unfamiliar to composers such as
volved mechanism, in fact one of the Debussy or Ravel. One such effect is to
triumphs of 19th-century technical in- depress the keys of, e.g., the C major chord
genuity. Its complexity is caused mainly without producing a sound, then to de-
by the so-called repetition, i.e., a mecha- press the sostenuto pedal, and after this
nism which makes it
possible to strike the to execute a scale-glissando (without the
hammer for a second time (and more ordinary damper pedal), which will then
times) before the key has returned to its resound as a C major chord.
original position. It is this device which II.
History. The origin of the piano-
makes possible the rapid iteration of one forte or, at least, of its distinguishing de-
and the same note. Passing over a de- vice, the hammer action, is usually traced
tailed explanation of this mechanism with back to the activity of Pantaleon Heben-
its various parts (hopper, check, escape- streit who toured Europe as a virtuoso of
ment, etc.) which can be successfully the *pantalon, i.e., a large dulcimer played
studied only from a model, the device to with hammers, like the cimbalom of the
be mentioned next is the dampers, i.e., Hungarian gypsies [see also under *Echi-
small lengthy pieces of wood covered with quierj. In fact, one of the various "in-
felt which lie above the strings and which, ventors" of the pianoforte, Gottlieb
making the string free for vibration in of a hammer mechanism which, however
moment in which the hammer strikes primitive, made it possible to play
the "soft
and checking it when the key is released. and loud" on the harpsichord. Several
Finally, the pianoforte has two (or fre- years earlier, however, much
in 1709, a
quently three) pedals, the damper pedal more perfect hammer mechanism had
to the right, the soft pedal to the left, and been invented by Bartolommeo Cristofori
the sostenuto pedal in the middle. The (1655-1731) of Florence, very likely
*damper upon being depressed,
pedal, without any knowledge of the perform-
raises all the dampers, thus allowing the ances of Hebenstreit, who is not known
strings to vibrate after the keys have been to have played in Italy. Cristofori's ac-
released. It therefore is, properly speak- tion, as well as that of the most famous of
ing, a "non-damper pedal." The soft early piano makers, Gottfried Silbermann
pedal causes the entire keyboard, action who evidently took up Cristofori's
and hammers, to shift a little to the left ideas already had a hopper (escape-
(hence the German name Verschiebung) ment), similar to the repetition of the
so that the hammers strike only two in- modern piano, a feature which was aban-
stead of, as normally, all the three strings doned by the later German makers until
assigned to them [see *Course] or, in the Johann Andreas Stein (1728-92) rein-
lower registers, only one instead of two troduced it in 1770, giving a separate es-
*Mute; *Una corde]. The sostenuto caper to each key, instead of a long
rail
[see
is an ingenious modification of the which had been used theretofore. It was
pedal
damper pedal. It raises the dampers, not this action, known as German action or
[575]
PIANOFORTE PIANOFORTE MUSIC
Viennese action, which delighted Mozart have been made mainly with regard to
when he visited Stein's workshop, in 1777. the keyboard [see *Keyboard III]. See
Under the hands of Stein's son-in-law, also *Pedalier; *Sostenente pianoforte;
Johann Andreas Streicher (1761-1833), *Electronic musical instruments I (Neo-
this became the typical Viennese instru- Bechstein; Solovox).
ment of the Hummel-period. It was sim- Lit.: R. E. M. Harding, The Pianoforte
ilar inshape to the harpsichord, elegant (1933; bibl.); E. A. Wier, The Piano
in appearance as well as in sound, and (1941); Ph. James, Early Keyboard In-
had a very light action. struments to the Year 1820 (1930); E.
. . .
In the meantime, another country had Blom, The Romance of the Piano ( 1928) ;
taken up the making of pianos, England. L. Nalder, The Modern Piano (1927);
Here the instrument acquired, mainly W. Spillane, History of the American
under John Broadwood (1732-1812), Pianoforte (1890); H. Brunner, Das
various features which were destined to Klaviertyangideal Mozarts und die Kla-
be of great consequence for its further de- viere seiner Zeit (1933); R. Harding,
velopment, and which separated it finally "Experimental Pianofortes ." (PMA . .
from its ancestor, the harpsichord. Among Ivii); id., in KIM, 1930; C. Parrish, "Criti-
these was a much heavier structure, al- cisms of the Piano when it was New"
lowing for a greater tension of the strings (Mxxx).
which thus became more sonorous; also
the two pedals of the present pianoforte Pianoforte music. The literature prop-
(patent from 1783) ; and an action, known er for the pianoforte starts with the so-
as English action, which was much heav- natas which Clementi, Haydn, and Mo-
ier than the Viennese action but also more zart wrote from c. 1775 on, and thereafter
expressive and dynamic. Small wonder includes among its contributors practically
that Beethoven much preferred his Broad- all and lesser composers of the
the great
wood to the Viennese instruments. Around 1
9th and 20th centuries. Nobody would
1800, piano makers experimented a good think of excluding from this repertory
deal trying to introduce new shapes [see the works of J. S. Bach although these
*Giraffe piano] and special devices oper- were written for different instruments,
ated by stops or pedals (* Janizary stop; the *harpsichord and the *clavichord.
cf. R. Harding, "Experimental Piano- During the last decades there has been a
fortes," PMA, Ivii). At the same time noticeable increase of interest in the mu-
important steps were made towards the sic of still earlier keyboard composers,
modern pianoforte by the introduction of and it is
mainly on account of this tend-
iron frames (first full cast-iron frame by ency (which deserves all possible encour-
A. Babcock, Boston, 1825) and by the in- agement) that the scope of the present
vention (Seb. firard, Paris, 1821) of the article is extended to cover the entire rep-
double escapement which causes the ham- ertory of keyboard music, except that
mer to fall back immediately to an inter- which, owing to its church affiliation, is
mediate position, and to its final resting clearly designed for the organ. Since,
position only after the key is released. however, throughout the i6th and i7th
The last step in the evolution of the piano centuries it is
frequently impossible to
was the introduction of cross-stringing, draw a clear distinction between music
the arrangement of the higher strings
i.e., for the organ, harpsichord, and clavichord,
in the form of a fan, spreading over the the article on *organ music should be
largest part of the soundboard, and with consulted for additional information.
the bass strings crossing them at a higher Regarding the attempts to distinguish be-
level. Cross-stringing was invented by tween the repertories for the harpsichord
Babcock around 1830, but was not gen- and clavichord, see *Keyboard music.
erally adopted until 1855 when Steinway For a related repertory see *Lute music.
and Sons of New York gave it its definite I. Renaissance (-1600). While most
form. Modern attempts at improvement keyboard music written prior to 1600 be-
[576]
PIANOFORTE MUSIC PIANOFORTE MUSIC
longs primarily to the field of organ mu- (1627-93), Alessandro Poglietti (d. 1683),
sic [see
*Organ music I], a special litera- and Johann Jacob Kuhnau
(1660-1722)
ture for the stringed instruments exists in contributed some amusing ^program
the numerous dances of the i6th century. pieces, the last-named being particularly
The examples occur in the MS
earliest known for his Biblical Stories (1700) and
book of Kotter (c. 1515), in P. Attain- his attempts to transfer the trio-sonata to
by the free style of French lute music Rococo (1730-80). While Bach
III.
(Denis Gaultier). Johann Kaspar Kerll was writing his sublime masterworks, the
[577]
PIANOFORTE MUSIC PIANOFORTE MUSIC
apotheosis of a glorious tradition, other libitum use of the three keyboard instru-
composers eagerly adopted the facile ments, while the others (1780-87) ex-
methods of the *gallant style and pro- pressly call "furs Forte-piano." On
the
duced quantities of mediocre works which other hand, it is interesting to note that
even today fill the volumes euphemisti- the original editions of almost all the Bee-
cally called "The Early Masters of the thoven sonatas up to op. 27 (including
Piano." Mainly Italian composers, such the Moonlight Sonata) bear the inscrip-
as Durante, Porpora, Antonio Rossi (fre- tion "Pour le clavecin ou pianoforte," an
quently confused with Frescobaldi's pupil inscription for which the publishers ra-
Michelangelo Rossi), Paradisi, Galuppi, ther than the author would seem to be
Grazioli, Sacchini, Rutini, wrote numer- responsible [see *Harspichord II],
ous sonatas which, however slight in IV. Classicism (1780-1830). This, the
quality, are historically important as the greatest, period of piano music is too well
precursors of the classical sonata [see known to be described here. Suffice it to
*Sonata B, III; also *Haffner Collection]. point to some of the most obvious ad-
Padre Martini's (1706-84) sonatas are of vances in the exploitation of the resources
a more serious nature, but suffer some- of the instrument, such as the amazing
what from academic anemia. At the same degree of virtuosity attained in Beetho-
time compositions of great significance ven's Waldstein Sonata, Appassionata,
were written by the sons of J. S. Bach. and Piano Concertos, the transcendental
Philipp Emanuel's sonatas were the im- technique of his latest sonatas (op. io6ff)
mediate point of departure for Haydn, which narrow-minded virtuosos have
while those of Johann Christian served termed "unpianistic," and the "orchestral
Mozart as a model. Wilhelm Friede- coloring" which makes its appearance in
mann's compositions (fugues, *polo- Schubert's great, but little known, sonatas.
naises) remained without succession, but Beethoven's Bagatelles mark the begin-
stand out for themselves as great, though ning of an important type of 19th-century
entirely forgotten, masterworks of the piano music, the *character piece.
pianistic literature. V. Romanticism (1830-1910). The
The close of this period marks the remark made at the beginning of the pre-
emergence of the pianoforte as the victori- vious paragraph applies here too. The
ous rival of the harpsichord and the clavi- piano pieces by Schumann, Chopin, Liszt,
chord. The earliest known pieces for the Brahms, form the standard repertoire of
pianoforte (though written in true harp- the pianists and, indeed, overshadow
sichord style) are by Lodovico Giustini many other pieces which would be equally
who, in 1732, published sonatas for the or more worthy of their attention (par-
"cembalo di piano e forte detto volgara- ticularly Schubert). Mendelssohn, who
mente dei martellati" (. "commonly
. . was the most favored composer of former
called the one with hammers") [cf. R. generations, has fallen into a not entirely
Harding, in ML
xiii; new ed. by R. Hard- deserved eclipse from which he seems to
ing]. These, however, remained as iso- emerge again. Weber's sonatas also could
lated as Cristofori's instrument [sec be put to use as a relief from the monotony
*Pianoforte II] and it was not until about
,
of our pianistic programs.
40 years later that the pianoforte began its Around 1870 the national composers
triumphal career. One of its first cham- began to make their novel contribution
pions was Johann Fr. Edelmann (1749- to the pianistic repertory, with Edvard
94) in Paris. Clementi's first sonatas of Grieg as the pioneer. Relatively easy to
1773 are perhaps the earliest pieces to play and yet highly effective, his pieces as
make use of the distinctive powers of the well as those of DvoMk, Smetana, Mac-
instrument. Of C. P. E. Bach's six pub- Dowell, Albeniz, Granados, Falla, are
lications "fur Kenner und Liebhaber" the greatly favored by players and listeners.
first (1779) is called "Sechs Clavier- A contrary statement can be made with
Sonaten," probably indicating an ad- regard to Max Reger and Ferruccio Bu-
[578]
PIANOFORTE MUSIC PIANOFORTE PLAYING
soni. Cyclopic compositions such as the Links between Cabezon and Frescobaldi"
former's Variations on a Theme by Bach (MQ xxiv). See also *Colorists; *Virgin-
or the latter's Fantasia Contrappuntistica, alists. To II: G. Pannain, Le Origini e
though extremely interesting, make re- lo sviluppo dell' arte pianistica in Italia
quirements on the technical and mental dal 7500 fino al 1730 circa
(1917; also
capacities of the player which are not in in RM1 xxi to xxii); L. Oesterle,
\Early
relation to their appeal to the general Keyboard Music, 2 vols.; R. Buch-
public. Alexander Scriabin's Etudes and mayer, "fAus historischen Klavier^on-
Sonatas fall same category.
largely into the zerten, 5 vols.; P. Epstein, \Alte Meister-
Debussy, on the other hand, was highly stuc\e, 4 vols.; W.
Apel, ^Concord Clas-
successful in developing a pianistic style the Piano (1938); G. Abraham,
sics for
of great attractiveness and in exploiting "Handel's Clavier Music" (ML xvi, no.
entirely novel resources of the instrument 4); J. S. Shedlock, "The Harpsichord
works of superior artistic significance. Dent, "The Pianoforte and its Influence
See also *Sonata B, IV. on Modern Music" (MQ ii). See also
Lit.: H. Westerby, The History of under *Organ music; *Sonata; *Suite;
Pianoforte Music (1924); C. G. Hamil- *Concerto; *Character piece.
ton, Piano Music its Composers and
Characteristics (1925); M. Seiffert, Ge- Pianoforte playing. The inclusion in
schichte der KlaviermusiJ^ i
(up to 1750; this Dictionary of an article on piano
1
899) A. Prosniz,
;
Handbuch der Klavier- playing (while similar topics, such as
literatur (19075); G. Tagliapietra, \An- "Violin playing," are omitted) is justified
thologie alter und neuer MusiJ^ fur Kla- by the general interest in this subject as
vier, 1 8 vols.(German ed. by W. Apel, well as by the fact that the technique of the
1934). To I: O. Kinkeldey, Orgel und piano, more than that of any other instru-
Klavier im 16. Jahrhundert (1910); W. ment, is sufficiently "rational" to permit
Merian, fD<?r Tanz in den deutschen of a summarydescription. Although
Tabulaturbuchern (1927); H. Halbig, there exist various points of contention
f'Klavier'tdnze des 16. ]ahrhunderts\ W. amongst professional artists and teachers
Apel, ^Musi\ aus jruher Zeit, 2 vols. as to just how the piano should be played,
[579]
PIANOFORTE PLAYING PIANOFORTE PLAYING
accepted laws which govern the an of tion of the muscles which brings the
pianism. weight of the arm into play.
Considering this situation it is surpris- II. The Basic Piano Technique. In ad-
ing that among the rank and file of piano dition to the above-described actions there
teachers (and, as a consequence, of piano still another method of
is
producing a
players) there are still a great number who sound, which might be characterized as a
are ignorant of some of these basic prin- "minimized arm action": the finger is
ciples, particularly of those which have placed immediately on the key, the arm is
been developed and accepted within the slightly raised and then relaxed as in the
last fifty or seventy years. The subsequent visible arm action. The advantage of this
explanations are chiefly meant as a con- method is that it produces a "singing"
tribution towards correcting this deplor- tone and allows for a minute control of
able and dangerous state of affairs. dynamic nuances such as is not obtained
I. ThePianistic Apparatus. The play- otherwise. The usefulness of this method
ing apparatus of the pianist is a flexible is by no means
restricted to the production
system of levers connected by four joints, of single tones, as might seem to be the
as follows (joints in parentheses): fingers case. It can be used for the most rapid
rapid octaves. The elbow is important ifthe pure finger action is used. If com-
mainly because it permits of a rocking bined with a rotating movement of the
action of the forearm to be used for hand, it renders easy the execution of
tremolos and *Alberti bass figures. In rapid figures (e.g., quick turns) which
the older school a straight downward are difficult and unsatisfactory if
played
movement of the forearm was taught by the fingers alone. In fact, all the other
under the name of "elbow staccato," but movements of the levers and joints easily
this is of practically no value since it and naturally find their proper place
causes the fingers to make a wasteful within the basic frame of this technique.
circularmovement. Such waste is elimi- Thus the stiffness which so frequently
nated in the last method of playing, attends the older methods of playing is
known as arm action, in which the whole eliminated at the very outset.
arm is moved from the shoulder, thus Although the systematic teaching of
enabling the hand to rise vertically above the close-finger technique and of arm-
the keys and to drop down from a lesser weight methods is of a relatively recent
or greater distance. This action is im- date, there can be no doubt that the great
portant in modern piano music for the pianists of the earlier periods employed
it
distance) is desirable, mainly in order to touch as applied to the keys of his instru-
bring out the crispness and brilliancy re- ment. Beginners, trying to find a note,
quired by Mozart, or the dry and percus- fall into the habit of
looking at the key-
sive sound called for in modern music of, board, so that their eyes are constantly
e.g., Bart6k, Hindemith, Stravinsky. The shifting up and down between the music
trill is perhaps the only pianistic figure sheet and the keyboard. The numerous
which calls for a pure finger action. Its interruptions which mar the playing of
brilliant execution is, therefore, one of the otherwise promising students are a com-
most difficult feats of piano playing. mon fault resulting from this habit. Told
III. The Wrist. The proper use of the by the teacher to play without such in-
wrist in piano playing is often neglected. terruptions they fall into the even more
One of the most important playing con- detrimental habit of playing from mem-
ditions to be set up is that of the supple, ory, usually in a haphazard way which is
flexible wrist with prehensile fingers. neither fish nor flesh. The only remedy to
These conditions are to a certain degree this deplorable situation is to show the
opposed to each other, but their smooth pupil how to play "blind," i.e., to find the
combination and cooperation are indis- intervals (third, fifth, octave, etc.) by
pensable in piano playing. One of the using his sense of touch, without being
most useful functions of the wrist is its allowed to look at the keys. Wide jumps
role in shaping the musical phrase. In (which, for this very reason, should be
general one may follow the principle of avoided in the first two or three years of
beginning the phrase with the wrist at piano playing) are an exception to an
keyboard level, gradually lifting the wrist otherwise infallible rule. much a How
PIANOFORTE PLAYING PIANOFORTE PLAYING
fully developed sense of touch contributes
ess of mental preparation which antici-
to facilitate sight-reading need hardly be pates the actual playing of the fingers.
pointed out [see *Sight-reading III]. The "blind playing" described in a previ-
V. Touch and Tone Quality. The word ous paragraph forms the first step in this
"touch" is widely used in piano teaching direction. Of basic importance in the
in order to denote (somewhat vaguely, no mastering of difficult passages is the "posi-
doubt) the physical approach to the key tioning" of the hand, i.e., an analysis of
as the conditioning factor to obtain a vari- the passage as to the changing positions of
ety of tone qualities, ranging from the the hand, and the use of preparatory "in-
soft and lyrical to the harsh and percus- between" movements which lead the hand
sive. The basic idea of the theory of touch to the new position while the fingers are
is that piano
playing permits not only of still occupied in the old one. Another
dynamic gradations of sound (pp, p, realization of the same basic principle is
mf, etc.), but, within a given intensity, of the so-called "long hand," involving the
additional variations of timbre, so that a "pre"-formation of wide skips such as are
mf may be either "lyrical," or "decisive," frequently encountered in the accompani-
or "percussive," etc. Whether this is pos- ment of the left hand [see remark under
sible ornot is a hotly contested problem *Technique].
among modern pianists. The affirmative VII. Historical Conspectus. Interesting
group holds that the percussive noise ac- information regarding the technique of
companying the inception of tone attack the 16th-century keyboard (clavichord,
determines its quality (timbre) and pro- organ) players is contained in Tomas
poses that, by varying the degree of de Santa Maria's Arte de taner fantasia
finger action, different timbres can be (1565; cf. O. Kinkeldey, Orgel und Kla-
produced in each dynamic register. The vier in der Musi1{ des 16. Jahrhunderts,
negative group ("a piano key struck by 1910) and in Girolamo Diruta's // Tran-
Paderewski and the same key struck by silvano (1593, 1609). Extremely difficult
an umbrella sound absolutely the same") pianistic passages occur in the works of
holds that no such variation is possible the *virginal composers, particularly those
with the single sound and that the varie- of John Bull (rapid scales in parallel
ties of timbre which are clearly noticeable thirds, iterated notes, etc.). J. S. Bach
in the playing of accomplished pianists played a leading part in the development
result only from the relationship of vary- of the modern system of fingering [see
ing intensities produced either simul- *Fingering]. His contemporary Dome-
taneously (as in chords) or successively nico Scarlatti (1685-1757) explored the
(as in melodies). At any rate,
the per- virtuoso resources of the harpsichord to
ipeption of tone-quality, even if not tenable the fullest (crossing of the hands, wide
from the scientific point of view, should skips, far-flung arpeggios), while C. P. E.
be retained as a mental factor of prime Bach, in his Versuch uber die wahre Art
importance. While it may not have a dc das Klavier zu spielen (1753), treated
facto basis, it has an "as-if" value which chiefly the clavichord as a melodic in-
no piano player can afford to neglect. strument.
VI. Piano Playing and Brains. The The "old school" of piano playing (em-
picture of modern pianism would be sorely phasis on finger technique) is
represented
incomplete without pointing to the im- by Muzio Clementi (1752-1832), Johann
portance of certain mental processes which Nepomuk Hummel (1778-1837), and
go hand in hand with the purely technical Carl Czerny (1791-1857). Great pianists
methods. "Brains as well as hands play such as Beethoven, Chopin, Liszt, Rubin-
on the piano" [cf. Th. Fielden, in PMA stein were, of course, in full command of
lix] is a truism which should find a place all the advanced methods of modern
on the front page of every pianist's study pianism, but Ludwig Deppe (1828-90)
book. Most of this mental training con- was the first to point out the importance
sists of a "look-ahead" attitude, of a proc- of a deliberate use of the arm and its
[582]
PIANOLA PIEN
weight [cf. Amy Fay, Music Study in Pibroch [Anglicized form of Gaelic
Germany, 1880], Theodor Leschctitzky piobaireachd, pipe tune]. An interesting
(1830-1915) established the methodical type of Scotch bagpipe music, consisting
training in the new style of playing. Ru- of highly ornamented variations on a
dolf Breithaupt (b. 1873) introduced the theme called urlar. They were formerly
principles of relaxation,
Rollung (rolling written down in a curious notation called
and rotating movements of the hand), canntaireachd, in which syllables such as
positioning, coordination of finger and "em, en, dari, dili . ." denote tones or
.
the Evolution of Pianoforte Technique" piccolo flute. The modern name is Kleine
Flote,
(PMAlix).
Pianola. See ^Mechanical instruments Piedi under *Ballata.
[It., feet]. See
IV.
Piano-violin. See *Sostenente piano- Pi en. In ^Chinese music pien denotes
certain degrees of the scale which are con-
forte.
sidered as subordinate in importance to
Piatti [It.]. Cymbals. others and which, therefore, are treated as
Pibgorn (pibcorn). See *Clarinet IV; mere ornamental or passing tones. These
*Reed II. Cf. H. L. Balfour, in Journal are the two "leading-tones" of the diatonic
of the Anthropological Institute xx, 142. scale, that is, e and b, both of which form
[583]
PIENO PITCH
a semitone upwards. They represent later hand played the tabor, a diminutive drum.
additions to the original pentatonic scale The playing of the "pipe and tabor" [F.
of Chinese music, c-d-f-g-a-c'. The *
galoubet and tambouring Sp. flaviol and
term is also used by modern writers with tamborino] was popular as early as the
reference to other musical provinces, 1 3th
century, as is shown by the famous
e.g.,
to plainsong, in which the leading-tones miniatures of the Cantigas-MSS of the
frequently appear as auxiliary degrees. Escorial [illustration in GD iv, 184; ii,
See, however, *Gregorian chant V (c). 260]. was the usual accompaniment
It
to the *farandole and to the English
Pieno [It.]. Full. E.g., organo pieno,
*Morris dance, and is still used for the
full organ; a voce piena, with full voice. Generic name
Spanish *sardana. (2)
Pietoso [It.]. Kindly, sympathetic.
either for all the *wind instruments, or
for certain classes, e.g., the wood winds,
Piffero [It.]. Old term for various pop- or the or the pipes of the organ, or
flutes,
ular Italian wind instruments such as the
primitive instruments in the shape of a
shawm, fife, bagpipe, all of which were simple tube.
used by the shepherds. Hence, the name
pifferari for the rustic people who, in the Pique [F.]. See *Bowing (d).
1 8th
century, went to Rome every Christ- Piston.
mas morning I.e., piston valves [see *Valves].
to play there in imitation of
the Biblical shepherds. See *Pastorale. Pitch, (i) [F. accordc\ G. Tonhohe\ It.
Pince. See *Mordent. intonazione}. The location of a musical
sound in the tonal scale, proceeding from
Pines of Rome. See *Symphonic poem low to high, comparable to the tempera-
ture which indicates the location of a body
in the thermal scale proceeding from cold
P'ip'a. A Chinese short lute, with the
to warm. The exact determination of
neck leading into the body, in the shape
of a bottle. It has four silk strings, tuned pitch is
by the frequency (number of vi-
[584]
PITCH PITCH NAMES
of Bach who frequently had to transpose under * Absolute pitch]. On the other
his orchestral and choral parts on account hand, his organ works and cantatas
of the different tuning of the organs in (which involved the participation of the
different churches, or who had to score organ) sounded a semitone or even a
wood-wind parts in, e.g., C
while the parts whole-tone higher than today. Following
for the organ, voices, and strings were is a list of some characteristic data cover-
scored in A
(for the voices and strings a ing the period from c. 1500 to 1850:
different scoring was obviously unneces- Pitch Date Source
sary since these could adapt themselves to A a
'
= 377 1511 Arnold Schlick's "low or-
the pitch of the organ). These discrepan- gan"
cies were caused by the fact that, through- 374 1700 Lille, Organ of the Hos-
out the Baroque period, different pitches pice Comtessc
Bb 393 1713 Strasbourg, Silbermann
were in use for different ensembles, name-
organ
ly the Kammerton (chamber pitch) for B 422 1751 Handel's tuning fork
domestic instrumental music, the Chorton 422 1780 Mozart's tuning fork
423 1618 Praetorius* Chor-ton
(choir pitch, organ pitch) for church or- 81 Grand opera
427 1 1 Paris,
gans and, consequently, for sacred choral C 440 1834 Scheibler (Stuttgart pitch)
music, and the Cornett-ton which the 446 1856 Paris, Grand opera
town-musicians used for their brass in- C# 475 1618 Praetorius' Kammerton
struments. The confusion in this matter
D 503 1511 Arnold Schlick's "high
organ"
has been greatly increased by numerous Halbcrstadt organ
506 1495
erroneous or one-sided statements in mod- E 563 1636 Mersennc's Ton dc cham-
ern writings which usually concern them- bre
selves with terms rather than with facts
may be noted that recently the ac-
It
the contradictory statements in
[see, e.g., curacy of Ellis' calculations of the Halber-
RiML, 316 and 856] By far the clearest
.
stadt organ and of Schlick's pitches has
account is found in N. Bessaraboff's been questioned. According to R. Ken-
Ancient European Musical Instruments dall, Schlick's "high organ" was a quarter-
(1941), pp. 357ff, 377^ and 442. Follow- tone below present-day pitch (c. 435)
ing his suggestion, the different pitches while his "low organ" pitch was merely
are represented here by keys (disregarding theoretical.
microtonic deviations), the standard pitch Lit,: A. J. Ellis, The History of Musical
of the present day being represented by Pitch (1880; also in Journal of the Society
the key of C. The pitches used during the of Arts, 1880) N. Bessaraboff [see above] ;
;
Baroque period and the various names by R. Kendall, "Notes on Arnold Schlick"
which they were referred to appear from
(AMix).
the following tabulation:
Pitch names. I.
Following is a tabula-
tion of the English, German, French, and
Italian names for the tones of an octave:
English: C D E F G A B
German: C D E F G A H
French: ut re mi fa sol la si
Italian: do re mi fa sol la si
[585]
PITCH PIPE PLAIN-CHANT MUSICAL
-cs, a double-sharp by -isis, and a double- Pivot chord. See under *Modulation.
flat by Irregular formations are: B,
-eses.
i.e., B-flat, instead of Hes\ Es, i.e., E-flat, Pizzicato [It., plucked; abbr. pizz.]. In
instead of Ees', As9 i.e., A-flat, instead of violin- (cello-) playing, indication that the
Aes. Note, particularly, that the English string is to be plucked with the finger, as
B is in German H
(pronounced ha), and regularly in guitars, harps, etc. Early in-
that the English B-flat is in German B. stances of this technique occur in Reinhold
II. As regards the indication of differ- Reiser'sAdonis (1697), and in Handel's
ent octaves, there exists, unfortunately, operas Agrippina (1709) and // Pastor
no uniform practice. The accompanying Fido (1712). Paganini introduced the
table shows the system employed in this virtuoso technique of plucking the strings
book and most widely used elsewhere (i), with the left hand, in alternation or simul-
together with two others, (2), and (3). taneously with bowed tones.
The chief source of confusion arises from
the fact that some writers designate mid- Placido [It.]. Peaceful.
accepted. Cf R. W.
.
Young, in Journal of its traditional use for the "Amen" at the
id., in Cours ...de chant grSgorien (1917), WoHN i, 172-197]. It goes without say-
pp. 84ff; H. Quittard, Henry du Mont ing that, thus used, the term and, as a
(1906), pp. i75ff. consequence, its
English synonym are
entirely inappropriate designations. No
Plainsong. The term is derived from better terms, however, have as yet been
L. *cantus planus, a 13th-century name suggested. In the secular repertory the
for the ^Gregorian chant. It is used syn- use of metrically indefinite symbols
onymously with the latter, but also in a lacking, e.g., a clear distinction between
wider sense, as a general denomination long and short values for the writing
for the ancient style of monophonic and down of (presumably) measured melodies
rhythmically free melody which is the has given rise to various contrasting theo-
common possession of the various Western ries,most of which are based on a consid-
eration of the poetic meter of the text.
liturgies (Gregorian chant, *Ambrosian
chant, *Gallican chant, *Mozarabic While Riemann forced the melodies into
chant) as well as of those of the East his scheme of *Vierhebig\eit, J. Beck and
others applied the principle of modal in-
(Byzantine chant, Syrian chant, Arme-
nian chant). It may also be applied to terpretation [G. Modaltheorie} according
similar bodies of non-Christian liturgical to which each melody follows the pattern
music (Jewish, Hindu) in order to indi- of one of the rhythmic *modes. The latter
cate that this music is neither harmonic method has been generally accepted for
nor measured. the melodies of the troubadours and trou-
strictly
veres [see *Trouveres] but seems of ques-
Plainsong notation. This term is used tionable value in the case of Minnesinger
here as the English equivalent of G. Cho- melodies. It is
interesting to note that J.
ralnotation (Choral, i.e., Gregorianischer Beck, who was the first to expound this
Choral, i.e., plainsong). Properly speak- theory, in 1907, turned against it in 1927.
ing, both terms denote the notation of As a matter of fact, the whole problem is
Gregorian chant, i.e., the notation in still far from being solved. Even the tex-
*neumes. Actually, however, the German tual meter is
by no means as clear a guide
term is used preferably with reference to as it is
usually assumed to be [see *Text
a considerably later stage of monophonic and music; *Poetic meter III] A thorough .
notation, starting around 1200 when the study of the whole field, unbiased by mod-
four-line staff had been generally accepted ern in favor of "correct" accen-
prejudice
and the neumes had been replaced by those tuation, measure, strict meter, etc., is
in WoHN i, 200); id., Le Chansonnicr than the main note (usually a second or,
Cangt (1927); H. Riemann, in JMP xii; more rarely, a third, depending upon the
J.Handschin, in AM x and in Medium position of the next-following note). The
Aevum iv (1935); H. J. Moser, in ZMW accompanying example shows three plicae
vii, 3671(1; E. Jammers, in ZMW vii.
2 9 4- 6 7
Plainte [F.]. (i) See "Tombeau. (2)
See *Planc. (3) A
Baroque ornament,
either a *ponainento (r * 17th-century 5
notes. The sign for the plica is an upward regular alternation of accented (strong)
or downward dash which is attached to and unaccented (weak) syllables or, in
single notes (longa, brevis) as well as to ancient Greek terminology, of thesis and
the final note of a ligature (ligatura pit- *arsis, is
very similar to musical meter
[5 58]
POETIC METER POETIC METER
with its various schemes of accented and sung), whereas in modern poetry the divi-
unaccented notes. The terminology of sion on the recurrence
is
qualitative, based
ancient Greek poetry is, therefore, fre- of stressed syllables (G.,
Silbenwagung).
quently used to denote corresponding In modern poetry the thesis- and arsis-
schemes of musical rhythm. The chief syllablesare essentially the same as they
patterns (called "feet") of the Greek sys- are prose; in other words, the poetic
in
tem are: accentuation follows the natural accent of
Poetic Musical the words, e.g.:
Iamb: .| . ,
J|J J|J I
. .
|
.
|
.
|
.
|
.
Amphibrach: .|..|.
* ample shows:
J|JJJ|JJ
Prose accent: .
|
.
|
. .
|
. .
|
. .
(In the musical examples each thesis is rendered Maecenas atavis edite regibus
as a half -note, each arsis as a quarter-note.) Poetic accent: . . . . . .
| | | | | |
This terminology is used particularly (For the rules governing ancient poetry
in connection with the 13th-century sys- cf. any Greek or Latin
grammar.)
tem of rhythmic modes in which, how- While ancient Greek and Latin poetry
ever, nearly all the musical schemes differ was exclusively quantitative, the modern
in some detail from those indicated above principle of quality originated in Syrian
[see *Modes, Rhythmic]. poetry of the 4th century (Ephrem, d.
According to the number of feet
II. 373) and was introduced into the Latin
contained in one line of the poem, one Church by St. Ambrose and St. Augus-
and | | | | |
(a) ..| . . .
.|
indicated thus: 8 6. 8 6 (the figures give |
|
Here each line usually is an iambic dim- Similar problems arise with medieval
eter, the lines "8" complete, the lines "6'* French poems, owing to the peculiar in-
katalectic, with one arsis and thesis miss- difference of the French language towards
ing at the end. accentuation (in contrast to English or
III, As regards the application of the
German), e.g.:
metrical schemes to words (versification),
(a) I
. .
|
. .
|
.
.1
there are two principles determining Quar cusse je cent mile mars d'argent
which syllables fall on the thesis and which (b) I
-
|
.
|. I .1
on the arsis, one ancient and one modern. These ambiguities present great diffi-
In ancient poetry the division of lines into culties in the interpretation of medieval
feetwas quantitative, based on the recur- monophonic songs, particularly those of
rence of long syllables (G., Silbenmes- the troubadours and trouvercs [cf. J. B,
[589]
POGGIATO POLISH MUSIC
Beck, Die Melodien der Troubadours . . .
,
A continuous development of Polish mu-
pp. 132, 138; sec *Plainsong notation]. the i6th century with Sebas-
sic started in
Cf. also M
oMLy n. tian Felsztyn who wrote motets, hymns,
C. F. Abdy Williams, "The Aris-
Lit.: and a Mass, all in Flemish style and
toxenian Theory of the Rhythmic Feet" published several theoretical books be-
(MA ii); I. Krohn, "Der metrische Takt- tween 1519 and 1544. He was followed
fuss in der modernen Musik" iv); (AMW by Vinceslas Szamotuly (psalms), Mar-
F. Rosenthal, "Probleme der musikali- tinus Leopolita (Martin Lwowczyk;
schen Metrik" (ZMW
viii). 1540-89), Thomas of Szadek, and Nico-
las Gomolka (1539-1609), all brought
up
Poggiato [It.]. "Leaned upon," dwelt in the tradition of the Flemish School or,
upon. later on, of Palestrina [cf. Lit., Monu-
Poi [It.]. Then, afterwards. Pot la coda, menta i iii], German influence (Johan-
"then the coda," usually given at the end nes Buchner) is patent in two extensive
of the Trio to indicate that the resump- organ tablatures of c. 1540 [cf. WoHN ii,
tion of the Scherzo is to be followed by the zjfi] which contain a great number of
Coda: S-T-S-C. hymns and motets arranged for the organ,
but also interesting preludes. Towards
Point, (i) The upper end of the violin the end of the i6th century Polish dances
bow. (2) Point of perfection, of divi- made their appearance at the Saxon court,
sion, etc. [see *Punctus], (3) In the as is shown by a number of pieces ("Pol-
motets of the i6th century, point of imita-
nischer Tantz") contained in the tabla-
tion denotes a section of the polyphonic
ture of Normiger of 1599 [see *Colorists] .
texture in which a
single subject, con- Their music, however, does not show any
nected with a small division of the text, is
specific national traits. A center of mu-
treated in imitation. These points are the sical was the chapel of the Rora-
culture
structural cellules of the motet which con-
tistes which, founded in 1543, continued
sists ofa succession of a considerable num-
to the end of the i8th century.
ber of points. In the classical motet of the
II (16001900). Under King Sigis-
Josquin period the points are usually mund III (1587-1632) an opera, directed
marked not vertically, but diagonally,
off,
by Marco Scacchi of Rome, was estab-
so that the conclusion of one point over-
lished at the court of Warsaw, but the en-
laps the beginning of the next. For an
suing political collapse of Poland brought
example cf. HAM, no. 89; SchGMB, no.
musical life to an almost complete stand-
107. still for more than 150 years. The Polish
Point d'orgue [F.]. (i) The *pause opera came to new life under Matheus
and its
Kamienski (1734-1821) who composed
(2) *Pedal-point.
sign. (3)
A *cadenza in a concerto, so called be- numerous operas between 1780 and 1800,
cause its beginning is customarily indi- in the style of the *Singspiel. Josef Koz-
cated by a pause sign placed above the pre- lowski (1757-1821) is interesting mainly
as a composer of numerous *polonaises,
ceding chord of the composition proper.
as is also his pupil Count Michael Oginski
*
Pointing. See under Anglican chant.
(1765-1833). Joseph Eisner, known
mainly as the teacher of Chopin, wrote
Polacca [It.]. *Polonaise.
numerous operas of which only the titles
Polish music. I (-1600). Poland pos- have been preserved and, besides, sym-
sesses afamous war song, Eogarodicza> phonies, chamber music, songs, and a fa-
dating from the I3th century, which is mous Passion oratorio. He also founded
preserved in 1 1 copies [cf . LavE 1.5, 2572] . the first conservatory at Warsaw (1821-
The earliest known Polish composer is Chopin was a pupil. Even
30), of which
Nicolaus of Radom (after 1400) of whom more important was Charles Kurpinski
a number of Mass compositions are pre- (1785-1857), as a composer of operas,
served [cf. F, Ludwig, in AMW
vii, 430] .
conductor, and teacher. The foremost
POLISH MUSIC POLO
instrumental composer of the "classical" the radical trends of *New music, and
period of Polish music was Ignace-Felix Jerzy Fitelberg (b. 1903), who writes in
Dobrzynski (180767; two symphonies, a strongly neo-classical idiom. Both Tans-
chamber music). man and Fitelberg are now in America.
Frederic Chopin (181049), son of a Lit.: E. Rayson, Polish Music and Cho-
French father and a Polish mother, put pin Laureate (1916); LavE {.5, 2568-
its
all these achievements into eclipse and 85; AdHM ii, 1144-51 (modern music);
carried the fame of Polish music into all A. Wieniawski, La musique polonaise
parts of the world. Together with Schu- (1937); H. Opienski, La musique polo-
mann and Mendelssohn he founded the naise (1918, '29); M. Glinski, Muzyfo
musical ^Romanticism to which he im- pols\a (1927); H. Jachimecki, Historjy
parted a distinct tinge of national expres- muzyty polsfaej (1920); J. Surczynski,
sion, particularly in his polonaises and ^Monumenta musices sacrae in Polonia,
*mazurkas. Stanislav Moniuszko (1819- 4 vols. (1887); Z. Jachimecki, "Polish
72) wrote numerous songs many of which Music" (MQ vi); F. Starczewski, "Die
became a part of the national treasure of polnischen Tanze" (SIM ii); T. Norlind,
Poland. His opera Halfy (1858) is the "Zur Geschichte der polnischen Tanze'*
first Polish national opera. Five of the 15 (SIM xii). To I: J. Surczynski, in KJ,
operas he wrote belong to the permanent 1890; A. Chybinski, in Riemann Fest-
repertory of Polish opera houses. His schrift (1909); id., in SIM xiii; id., in
most important successor was Ladislas Z/M xiii; J. W. Reiss, in Z/Af xiii; Z.
Zelenski (1837-1921) who composed op- Jachimecki, in ZMW ii. To II: H. Opi-
eras ofsome merit, but deserves mention enski, in RdM, 1929, no. 30 (opera); id.,
mainly as a composer of chamber music in RdM, 1934, no. 52 (symphony). To
in a moderately Romantic style, influenced III: Z. Jachimecki, "Karal Szymanowski"
by Schumann and Brahms. Henrik Wie- (MQ viii). Cf. also RiHM
ii.i, 342^
niawski (1835-80) became world-famous
Polka. A Bohemian dance in quick
as a violin virtuoso, and composed two
well-known violin concertos as well as duple meter and characteristic rhythms.
It originated around 1830 in Bohemia,
other pieces for his instrument. Ignaz
Paderewski (1860-1940) occupied a sim-
and soon spread to the European salons,
ilar place in piano music, to say nothing causing a real "polkamania" which lasted
about his outstanding position in the po-
until theend of the century. The polka
litical life of Poland.
was introduced into art music by Smetana
Ill (1900-). The "young-Polish" group
(The Bartered Bride; From my Life;
Bohemian Dances), Dvorak, and others.
is represented mainly by Karol Szyma-
See *Dance music IV.
nowski (1883-1937), one of the outstand-
ing composers of modern music. Suc-
cessively influenced by Richard Strauss,
Scriabin, and, after World War
I, Debussy,
he arrived, about 1920, at a mature style
of his own, a mixture of Romantic and
impressionistic elements, but consciously
Polish at the same time and, in his latest i. Polka. 2. Polo
works, tending towards atonality and
constructivism. Among his most im- Polo. An Andalusian (north Spanish)
portant works are a Stabat mater, a ballet dance in moderate -meter, with fre-%
Harnasie (1926), a Symphonic Concer- quent syncopations of the *hemiola-type
tante for piano and orchestra, and his [see Ex.], and with rapid coloraturas
Second Violin Concerto (1930). Other sung to syllables such as "Ay," "Ole," etc.
modern composers of significance are The dance movements show Oriental in-
Alexander Tansman (b. 1897) and Karol fluence,being movements of the body ra-
Rathaus (b. 1895), both of whom follow ther than of the feet. Two famous polos
[590
POLONAISE POLYCHORAL STYLE
were written by Manuel Garcia (1805- the result of political changes (election of
1906), "Yo soy el contrabandista" and the Saxon Elector Augustus III to the
"Cuerpo bueno" [cf. LavE 1.4, 22935], Polish throne, 1733). A
great number of
the latter of which was used by Bizet in vocal polonaises are contained in Spe-
the prelude to the fourth act of Carmen. rontes' Singendc Muse [DdT 25/26].
A good modern example is found in Fal- J. Th. Goldberg (for whom Bach wrote
la's Seven Spanish Popular Songs (no. his *Goldberg Variations) wrote
7). 24 polo-
naises, and W. Fr. Bach, in his 12 polo-
Polonaise. A Polish national dance of
naises, raised the dance to an idealized
and
a stately The music
festive character.
type of extraordinary imagination and
is
always in moderate triple meter, with artistic perfection (new ed. Peters, no.
rhythms such as those illustrated [Ex. i],
750), whereas Mozart (Pianoforte Sonata
in Dmajor; K.V. 284) furnished a charm-
ing example in a much simpler style.
During the first half of the i9th century
the polonaise continued to attract the in-
terest of composers such as Beethoven,
Schubert (polonaises for four hands),
Weber (opp. 21 and 72), Liszt (Deux
Polonaises, 1852), and, above all, Chopin
who, preceded by his countrymen Josef
Kozlowski (1757-1821) and Count Mi-
chael Oginski (1765-1833; see *Polish
music II), made
the polonaise the symbol
of the heroism and chivalry of the Polish
nation. See *Dance music III.
Polska. A
Swedish dance, probably of
Polish origin, similar in character to the
and shows a number of characteristic fea-
feminine ending of the phrases;
mazurka rather than to the polonaise.
tures, e.g.,
and For an example cf. GD iv, 219; also Nie-
repetition of short precise motives,
mann, in SIM v, 99.
frequently three times within a measure;
characteristic accompanying rhythms, Polychoral style. The term is used
traits be seen in the accom-
which can all with reference to compositions in which
panying example [Ex. 2] by Beethoven the ensemble (chorus with or without
(op. 89). the orchestra) is divided into several (usu-
The polonaise not a folk dance, but
is
usually occupied by these officers), and regarding the "origin of polyphony," but
in Germany (Handl, Hassler, Schiitz), none of these can be said to be more than
the latest examples being found in Bach hypothetical. Some scholars have ven-
(first movement of the St. Matthew Pas-
tured to regard the earliest extant exam-
sion). Early adumbrations of polychoral ples of polyphony (c. 800), not as a begin-
treatment occur in the works of Josquin ning, but as a "first culmination point" of
des Pres who frequently interrupts the full- a development, traces of which they be-
voiced writing in four parts (S,A,T,B) lieve to exist in Oriental and primitive
by "antiphonal" passages in which two music [cf. ReMMA, 249!!]. See *Primi-
half-choruses (S,A and T,B or S,A,T and tive music IV.
lyphony, better, indeed, than six or eight. ing rhythms involving a conflict of meter
[593]
POLYRHYTHM POLYTONALITY
or accents [Ex. i, c and d]. The latter Polymetric passages can also be written
type sometimes termed "polymetric."
is in such a way that different meters are
Twice in the history of music have poly- avoided, in which cases one of the two
voice-parts will necessarily be in *synco-
J
;J> J
pation [Ex. i (d)]. This manner of writ-
ing is frequently preferred for the sake of
easier reading, but it actually obscures the
J Pi P
patent. In this respect it is interesting to
note that occasionally earlier composers
ment" [Ex. 2; cf. ApNPM, 175] and one have used polytonal schemes for satirical
from Hindemith's Klavicrmusi^ op. 37 purposes, e.g., Hans Newsidler in a lute
[Ex. 3] serve as illustrations. piece Dcr Judentantz (The Jew's dance)
[594]
POMHART PORTUGUESE MUSIC
f J
535 [cf' ApMZ i], and Mozart in
by sign or a particular notation
his Ein musifalischer Spass (A Musical see *
fressed
Appoggiatura]. Usually, however,
Jest), composed in 1787 (K.V. 522). See both appoggiatura and resolution are re-
also ^Partial signature. peated, so that the ornament consists of
Deroux, "La Musique poly-
Lit.: J. four notes, the last three forming a
pince
tonale" (RM ii); D. Milhaud, "Poly- (*mordent). In keyboard music this fuller
tonalite et atonalite" (RM iv, no. 4); execution usually indicated by com-
is
A. Machabey, "Dissonance, polytonalite, bining the sign for the port de voix with
atonalite" (RM xii).
Pomhart, Pommer. Old German for
*Bombarde *Oboe family that for the pince, as illustrated. In music
[see III].
for the voice and all other instruments the
Ponticello [It.] The bridge of stringed
.
pince was taken for granted. P. A.
instruments. Sul ponticello, see *Bow-
Portee [F.]. Staff.
ing (k).
[595]
MUSIC POSITIVE ORGAN
PORTUGUESj
Diego dc Melga^o (1638-1700). To these is the author of orchestral and instru-
must be added the Portuguese King John mental pieces in the impressionist vein.
IV (1604-56), who studied music under Lit.: G. Chase, The Music of
Spain
Rebello, composed many works for church (1941), chapter XVIII; LavE 1.4, 2401*!;
use (of which two motets are preserved), A. Soubis, La Musique a Portugal (1890) ;
[596]
POSTLUDE PRELUDE
onymous with *choir organ. See *Organ Precipitando fit.]. "With precipita-
XII. Cf. F. W. Galpin, in MA iv. tion," impetuously.
Postlude. An organ piece played at the Preface [L. Praefatio] .A solemn ascrip-
conclusion of the service, during the exit tion of praise sung at Mass, and leading
of the congregation. It is usually impro- without a break into the Sanctus [sec
vised. The term is also used in the mean- *Mass A], It includes short solo verses
ing of *coda. and choral responses [see GR, 118*; also
A LU, 3, 109],
Potpourri [F.]. medley of popular
tunes, operatic airs, patriotic songs, etc., Preg(h)ando [It.]. "Praying," devo-
which are played in succession, being con-
tionally.
nected by a few measures of introduction
or modulation. The name, which prop- Prelude [F. prtlude; G. Praeludium,
erly denotes a dish mixed of many ingre- Vorspiel; It. preludio]. Properly, a piece
of music designed to be played as an in-
dients (literally "rotten-pot"), occurs as
troduction, for instance, to a liturgical
early as in Ballard's collection of *brunettes
of 1711. J. B. Cramer was the first to use ceremony or, more usually, to another
it for the 19th-century type of drawing- composition, such as a fugue or a suite.
room This connotation, which prevails through-
piece.
out the entire early history of the prelude
Pousse [F., pushed]. Up-bow; see
(see below), was lost in the ipth century,
*Bowing. when Chopin and his followers (Scriabin,
Poussez Push on, speed up. Debussy) used the word merely as one of
[F.].
the numerous noncommittal titles of Ro-
Pp. Pianissimo. Sometimes ppp, pppp, mantic pianoforte pieces [see *Character
are used to denote the ultimate degree of piece] How completely the term has lost
.
[597]
PRELUDE PRESTO
1 6th centuries are short
pieces (10 to 20 with a fugue which received its classical
measures) which are remarkable for their codification by Bach can be traced back
free keyboard style, mixed of passages to organ preludes of the early i7th
century
and chords, and which thus offer a marked which, after a section in free style, con-
contrast to the strict contrapuntal style of tinue and close with a short fugal section.
contemporary vocal music. This repertory A piece such as the 9th Praeludium of
includes about 50 pieces in the Ileborgh Heinrich Scheidemann (c. 1595-1663)
tablature (1448); in Paumann's *Funda- in the collection Organum (Vierte Reihe,
mentum (1452); in the *Buxheim Organ Heft i, ed. by M. Seiffert) or the Prae-
Book (c. 1460); in Kottcr's tablature (c. ludium by Tunder inHAM, no. 215, may
1520); and in Kleber's tablature (c. 1520) be considered as indicating the point of
[Ex. inHAM, no. 84;MQ xxiii, 213; departure of this interesting development
ApMZ i]. Of a similar character, though which, half a century later, led to the
frequently more extended, are the lute monumental "Praeludium and Fuga" of
preludes preserved in the tablatures of Buxtehude [Ex. in HAM, no. 234], and
Spinaccino and Dalza (Petrucci, Intavola- finally to those of Bach. For a closely re-
tura de lauto i, ii, 1507), Judenkunig lated form of keyboard music see *Toc-
(1523), Hans
Neusiedler (1536), Gerle cata.
(1552), and others. The preludes of the III. The "disconnected" prelude is rep-
first-mentioned publication are called resented by the preludes of Chopin and
ricercari [see *Ricercar II] or tastar de those of his numerous imitators, chiefly
corde [Ex. in HAM,
nos. 98, 99; SchGMB, Scriabin (85 preludes), Debussy (24 in
nos. 630, 93; ApMZ ii]. Toward the end two books), and Rachmaninov (op. 23).
of the century William Byrd and John As explained above, these are pianistic
Bull wrote a number of preludes which character pieces, usually based on a short
are noteworthy for their virtuoso char- figure or motive which is exploited by
acter (Fitz william Virginal Booty, and means of harmonic modulations.
to which the simultaneous lute pieces by
Besardus (Thesaurus Harmonicus, 1602;
Prelude & TApres-midi (Tun Faune.
See *Symphonicpoem IV.
cf. ApMZ ii) offer a striking contrast
of
curs with Louis Couperin who created a before as a consonant note with the pre-
unique type of prelude, completely free ceding chord. In the strict counterpoint
of the Palestrina style dissonant notes al-
in rhythm and, therefore, notated with-
out the conventional note-values [cf. ways are prepared, while in that of Bach
TaAM vii, 40; the "Transcription" of-
this principle is largely discarded. See
fered on p. 43 completely obscures the *Nonharmonic tones, particularly appog-
basic character of the composition; for a giatura.
similar prelude by d'Anglebert, cf . HAM, Presa [It.]. In canons a sign, usually
no. 232]. Particularly remarkable are the
likean S, which indicates the place at
preludes to the lute suites of E. Reus- which the imitating voice or voices enter.
ner (1636-79; Ex. in HAM, no. 233 and
in RiMB; cf. also H. Riemann, in SIM vi). Pressus. An ornamenting neume; see
Handel preferred for his suites a prelude *Ornamentation II.
in a free and improvisatory style, while
the introductory pieces to Bach's suites Presto [It.]. Very quick, i.c., quicker
and partitas arc full-sized concerto grosso than allegro. Prestissimo denotes the
movements, overtures, toccatas, or sin- highest possible degree of speed. See
fonias. The combination of the prelude *Tempo marks.
[598]
PRIAMEL PRIMITIVE MUSIC
Priamel. Sixteenth-century German of a higher cultural development in gen-
misspelling for Praeambel [see *Prelude] . eral. Wherever cultural progress has re-
The explanation given in Brenet's Die- sulted in the development of an art music
tionnaire de musique is erroneous. among the higher classes, this invariably
reflects upon the folk music of the "lower
Prick song [Old Engl., to prick, i.e., to
classes" and shapes it in such a way that
mark]. A i6th/i7th-century English itcannot be considered primitive. This
term for written or printed music, i.e.,
does not, of course, rule out the possibility
for composed music as distinguished from
that occasionally remnants of primitive
the oral tradition of plainsong, folk song,
music may be found in certain remote
popular dance music, etc., as well as from where they
places in civilized countries
improvised music. have escaped the standardizing influence
Prim [G.]. *Prime (i).
ot art music. For instance, the oldest
strata of Hungarian folk music show fea-
Prima donna [It., first lady]. Origi- tures of irregularity, rhythmically as well
nally, the singer of the principal female as which might
tonally, justify their clas-
role of an opera, as distinguished from
primitive music, and a similar
sification as
thefrimo huomo, the leading male sing- statement could be made with regard to
and the seconda donna, the second fe-
er, certainprimitive manners of perform-
male singer. These designations played a
Tyrolean *yodeling and the
ance, e.g., the
basic role in the construction of the plots
blowing of the Swiss *alphorn. As a rule,
of iSth-century operas, as can be seen, e.g.,
however, primitive music is found mainly
from Mozart's Don Giovanni and Figaro among the indigenous tribes of Africa,
*
[see Neapolitan School]. In the I9th America, and Australia much less fre-
century the term adopted the somewhat quently in the Orient where most nations
derogatory meaning of a conceited, jeal- possess a long-established tradition of art
ous,and capricious operatic star, a mean- music [see under *Exotic music].
ing which is also extended to the male The study of primitive music is the
examples of the species, including its per- most recent branch of musicology, and is
forming and conducting varieties. Cf. known as ^comparative musicology. Ow-
H.S.Edwards, The Prima Donna (1888). ing the fact that primitive music is al-
to
Prima vista [It., at first sight] means ways transmitted orally and that its ir-
regularities of rhythm, intonation, per-
unprepared playing with previous study.
See *Sight-reading. formance, etc., defy exact reproduction in
our system of musical notation, a success-
Prima volta, seconda volta [It., the ful study of this field was not possible
first time, the second time]. The differ- until the phonograph had been put into
ent endings for the first and the second service (c. 1900). Equipped with this in-
i. and '
ture, bodily movement, emotional char- (Here again, it may be pointed out that
acteristics, etc. Thus, African music as the ancient Greeks read the scale down-
well as motor behavior is characterized wards, not upwards as we do.)
by an unbridled emotionalism which is IV. Rhythm. From the rhythmic point
essentially different from the restrained of view the repertory of primitive music
American Indians and of falls into two clearly separated classes, one
dignity of the
their music. of which employs free recitation, the other
III. Melody. A basic consideration is strict rhythm. The former type is found,
the distinction between melodies in con- among others, with the ceremonial songs
junct and disjunct motion, i.e., between of the medicine-men (shamans) who use
songs which move largely along the de- itto exert magic, to dispel evil spirits, to
grees of the scale and those employing cure by hypnotic influence. Such "incan-
wider intervals, thirds, fourths, fifths, etc. tations" are similar in function to the
As a melodies of the former type are
rule, *chant of the Christian Churches, and it
dynamic and strongly emotional, full of is very interesting to see that this simi-
excitement and tension, while those of larity of function leads to a certain like-
the latter type are more "static" and re- ness in the musical character, with respect
strained. There is reason to assume that, to rhythm as well as melodic motion and
in general, the latter type represents a intonation. The strictly rhythmical type
more advanced stratum than the former. is represented mainly by the music for
(It may be remarked here that this state- dance. Here the rhythmic background is
ment also applies to civilized music; Chi- usually provided by drums, which, how-
nese music, e.g., with its four thousand ever, are used in different ways by differ-
years of culture, shows a striking prefer- ent people. The Indians use a very simple
ence for wide intervals, while in younger type of drum-beating consisting of single
Oriental traditions of music, such as the strokes of equal force and at equal inter-
prevalent; Eu-
motion vals. In Africa, on the other hand, drum-
Japanese, scalic is
*Mclody IV.) Another important char- etc. In striking contrast to the European
[600]
PRIMITIVE MUSIC PRINTING OF MUSIC
conception of dance rhythm, the beats of the United States (1936); R. Wallaschek,
the drum frequently do not correspond Primitive Music (1893); C. Sachs, The
to the natural accent of the melody but Rise of Music (1943); id., The
History
occur in syncopated position, as in mod- of Musical Instruments (1940); /</., A
ern jazz. Still more interesting is the fact World History of the Dance (1937);
that the dance steps and movements them- E. M. von Hornbostel, African
Negro
selves frequently occur in arhythm which Music (1929); D. H. Varley, African
overlaps that of the melody and that of Native Music: An Annotated Bibliogra-
the drums so that a very complex rhyth- M. "Ethnolo-
phy (1936); Schneider,
mic phenomenon results. gischcMusikforschung" (in Th. Preuss,
V. Polyphony. Primitive music is com- Lehrbuch der Voider tyindc, 1937); R.
monly thought to consist of a melody only, Lachmann, "Musik der aussereuropai-
and the absence of harmony and polyph- schen Volker" (in BiiHM)\ M. Schnei-
ony is frequently considered one of the der, Geschichte der Mehrstimmigfyit i
most characteristic earmarks of non-
(1934); C- Stumpf, Anfdnge der Musi{
European music. Recent investigations, (1911); O. Seewald, Beitrdge zur Kennt-
however, have shown that polyphonic nis der steinzeitlichen
Musi1(tnstrumente
elements play quite an important part LavE i.5, 3197-3225
Europas (1934);
in primitive music,
particularly in that of (Africa); A. Schaeffner, Origine des in-
Africa. *Heterophony is, of course, very struments de musique (1936); St. Chau-
frequent. As has been mentioned above, vret, Musique negre ( 1929) Ch. S. Myers,
;
the beating of the drums is frequently so "The Study of Primitive Music" (MA
elaborate that it assumes the character of
iii).
an "added part" rather than of a mere For special periodical articles (which
rhythmic accentuation. A polyphonic number over a thousand) the bibliogra-
element is still more clearly noticeable if
phies contained in most of the above
percussion instruments possessing grada- books should be consulted. Cf. also D. H.
tion of pitch are employed, such as *xylo-
Daugherty, A Bibliography of Periodi-
phones [see Ex. 3, from the South African cal Literature in Musicology . .
(1940),
.
[601]
PRINTING OF MUSIC PWNTING OF MUSIC
schmidt (1485); Erhardt Ratdolt (1487). the stone was replaced by a copper plate
In the early i6th century it was brought covered with beeswax on which the musi-
to highest perfection by Ottaviano dei were scratched. When the plate
cal signs
Petrucci (first printed book the *0dheca- was then etched with acid the signs ap-
ton y 1501), the only music printer who peared as grooves in the copper plate. In
can be compared to Gutenberg. He found the modern offset-process (also called
an emulator equal to his rank in Peter photo-lithography) the notes, etc., are
Schoeffer who printed the beautiful pub- first hand-engraved (with the aid of
lication of Arnolt Schlick's Tabulaturen punches, of course) on a lead plate from
(1512). Most printers, however, found which a clear proof on paper is drawn.
double printing too difficult and replaced Eight or 1 6 such proofs are pasted on a
it
by two other methods which, with large sheet and a negative photograph of
many variations and improvements, have this made. This is reproduced photo-
is
persisted side by side until the present graphically on a sensitive zinc plate (cov-
day, namely (a), blocJ^ or sheet printing ered with a photographic emulsion)
and (b), type printing. which, after treatment with an acid,
(a) In bloc\ printing, the block for the shows the signs engraved.
entire page of music is prepared as a total. (b) In type printing, movable types,
While woodcuts, such as used in N. Bur- comparable in size to the letter types, are
tius' Musices Opusculum (1487), gave
put together in order to prepare the block
extremely clumsy results [illustration in for the printing. In the i6th century
GD iv, 254], hand-engraved metal plates these types consisted of a note combined
(used first by A. de Antiquis, 1516) with a small section of the staff, as illus-
proved very satisfactory, as is shown by
the beautiful prints of Simone Verovio trated. Although this method
in Rome (Diletto 1586; Cl.
spirituale,
Merulo's Toccatas, 1598, 1604), of Nicola proved successful for the printing of
Borbone, Rome (Toccatas of Fresco- *partbooks (vocal music), in which each
Not staff carried only one melodic line, it was
baldi), by the *Parthenia, etc. infre-
quently the composers themselves en- very tedious and costly in the case of key-
graved their music, as, for instance, Ul- board music which frequently called for
rich Steigleder (Ricercar Tabulaturen, chords. Examples of keyboard music
1624). Throughout the i7th and i8th printed in this manner are Attaingnant's
centuries, engraving was the most com- books of 1529. Type-printing was largely
mon method of printing. American pub- abandoned after 1600, but was reintro-
lishers imported engraved plates from duced, in a greatly improved manner, by
England (as early as 1690), Paul Revere Gottlob Immanuel Breitkopf (1755) who
being the first American to engrave music used tiny pieces of type, one each for
(c.1760). An important advance was note-heads, stems, flags, etc., which were
made in the early i8th century by John put together in a complicated mosaic.
Walsh who around 1710 (1730?) mecha- This troublesome method is used today
nized the process of engraving by the use chiefly for musical examples in-
short
of punches, i.e., long tools having a note, serted in printed books.
graphed his opus 2 himself in 1800. Later Printing in Incunabula (1932; repr. from
[602]
PRIX DE ROME PROFESSION OF MUSIC
Papers of the Bibliographical Society of able to teach another subject in addition
America, xxvi); M. Foss, in ML
iv, no. 4; to music.
W. H. Cummings, in PMA
xi; A. Thiir- c. Colleges and Universities. The B.A.
lings, in VMW H. Springer, in KIM,
viii; degree is presupposed (or B.S., or
1906, p. 37. H. Riemann, "Notenschrift B.Mus.). The M.A. is highly desirable
und Notendruck" (Festschrift der . . .
and is coming more and more to be re-
Firma C. G. Roeder, 1896). WoHN ii, quired. The Ph.D. is valuable for obtain-
ing positions in the top-ranking colleges
Bride, The.
is
apt to be more on perform-
specifically
ance. Although the better music schools
Profession of music. I. Teaching. include on their staff teachers of theory
This is the field in which the greatest and history, they have a place also for the
number of opportunities exist, and must sheer virtuoso, whose interest is primarily
be regarded as the surest and steadiest in performance and the training of per-
method of earning an income. The fol- formers.
lowing branches of teaching exist: e. The Private Music Teacher. Except
a. Public Schools. The requirements for a few "stars," who have often distin-
for teachers in the public grade and high
guished themselves first as performers,
schools vary greatly, according to state the private music teacher has a difficult
and city regulations. The B.A. (or B.S.) time of it. Unassociated with any school,
degree is usually presupposed in larger he depends for his living upon the stu-
cities and better schools. Many larger dents he may attract (or lure) to his
high schools are demanding an M.A. de- studio. Anyone so minded may open a
gree. A teacher's certificate alone is suf- studio,with a result that many incompe-
ficient to secureand hold a position in tents do so to the detriment of the
some smaller or musically less progressive cause of music. The number of private
communities. A
teacher's certificate, in- music teachers has decreased in recent
volving knowledge of public school music years and is likely to continue to decrease.
methods, is required in all states, regard- Private teaching as a side line is a differ-
less of degrees. Very often the teacher ent matter. The church organist, the
must be able to give instruction in one or symphonic player, in some cases the
more subjects besides music. school music teacher, may be able to in-
b. Private Schools, Elementary and Sec- crease their earnings by taking private
ondary. The requirements for teachers
pupils. It goes without saying that recog-
in private schools vary greatly, according nized concert artists and figures in the
to the school in question. Most private public eye will not lack for pupils nor for
schools require a B.A., often an M.A. de- high fees.
good future for local concert artists tional Monographs, no. 6, 1940); W.
performers who appear principally in a Martin, The Conditions of Life and Wor^
given region, in which region they also K. Singer,
of Musicians, 2 vols. (1924);
participate, as teachers or otherwise, in Music Profession (1937);
Diseases of the
the musical life of the community. H. Taubman, Music as a Profession
Symphony orchestras (and a few opera (1939). E.B.H.
and ballet companies) provide employ-
ment for good instrumental players, and Program chanson. See *Chanson
the growth in recent years of good orches- (3); *Program music III.
to orchestral players, but seldom on a titleof the piece and sometimes substanti-
The Pines of Rome where the problem esting anticipation of Schumann's *Car-
of imitating the nightingale is solved by naval [see *Menestrandise] Rameau's ,
simply turning on a record taken from "La Poule" and "Les Cyclopes" (Pieces
"real life." de clavecin, 1706; cf. HAM, no. 277),
III. History. Several of the Italian and Bach's "Capriccio sopra la lontananza
*caccias of the late i4th century show the del suo fratello dilettissimo" (Cnpriccio
attempt to imitate in music the vivid on the Departure of his beloved Brother,
cries,sounds of horns, and the general nau's program pieces. Perhaps the most
commotion of a hunting scene, a fishing startling example of Baroque program
trip, a fire. From the same time dates a music is a "Tableau de 1'operation de la
"bird-motet" by Jean Vaillant which re- taille" for viol and harpsichord by Marais
curs, with a German text, among the (1717), describing the painful details of
compositions of Oswald von Wolken- a surgical operation [reproduced in LavE
stein [Ex. 3; cf. DTOe 9.*, p. 181]. More ii.3, p. 1776].
Between 1750 and 1800,
i mediocre musicians served an easily satis-
fied audience with the cheapest kind of
.
battle pieces [see *Battaglia].
u&pg^ufi u^ocifccgocJt ct^o
Beethoven's Pastoral Symphony of
deliberate in approach, but much less 1808 marks the beginning of the program
imaginative, are the program chansons music of the i9th century. His remark
by Jannequin (1529): "Le Chant des "Expression of feelings rather than por-
Oyseaux," "La Chasse," "L'Alouette" traying" [see *Pastoral Symphony] char-
(The Swallow), "La Guerre," the last of acterized also Schumann's approach to
which, suggested by the famous battle of program music (Scenes from Childhood,
Marignano (1515), was followed by a etc.),except for pieces such as the *Car-
host of imitations [cf. *Editions XVI, 7; naval with its realistic references to the
HAM, no. 107]. Newsidler's Der Juden- scenes of a masked ball. There followed
tanz (1535; ApMZ i) is an amusing ex- Berlioz with his autobiographical Sym-
ample of caricature [see *Satire in music] , phonic fantastique (1830-31) and Franz
and Byrd's The Bells is remarkable for Liszt who, in his numerous symphonic
its artisticingenuity, far superior to the poems, created that type of program mu-
nai've attempts of John Munday to imi- sic which was to become dominant in the
tate "Lightning," "Thunder," and "Faire ensuing decades of the i9th century [see
Wether" [cf. Fitzwittiam Virginal Boo\ *Symphonic poem]. The contemporary
i, 274 and 23]. Passing over the numer- development known as *New Music
ous instances of programmatic portraying brought about a sharp reaction against
in operas, oratorios, etc., it may suffice to program music as a goal in itself and ex-
[606]
PROLATION PROPORTIONS
ploited the potentialities of musical por- Pronto [It.]. Quick.
traying chiefly as a means of caricature
and See Pronunciation. Cf. A. J. Ellis, Pro-
jest [see *Satire in music].
nunciation for Singers (1877; E., F., G.,
*Word-painting.
Lit.: F. Niecks, Programme Music in It.); C. J. Brennan, Words in Singing-,
the last Four Centuries (i907);W. Klatte, E. Wilcke, German Diction in Singing
Zur Geschichte der Programm-Musil^ (1930).
[608]
PROTESTANT CHURCH MUSIC PSALMODY, GREGORIAN
Protestant church music (Ger- of the Reformed Churches see *Psalter;
man). See *Church music III. For lit- for the polyphonic composition of psalm
erature cf. MoMLy 399. texts see *Psalm composition. See also
*Penitential psalms.
Ps. Short for psalm or, in German
scores, for Posaune, i.e., trombone. Psalm composition. Aside from their
tion of their music, with the exception of terms originally refer to two different
the German Protestant Church, whose methods of performance, one in which
music is based on the *chorale. For the there was alternation between a soloist
psalm music of the Catholic Church see and the chorus (responsorial), the other
*Psalmody, *Psalm tones; for that of the in which there was alternation between
Anglican, see *Anglican Chant; for that two half-choruses (antiphonal). It must
PSALMODY, GREGORIAN PSALMODY, GREGORIAN
be noted, however, that this distinction is reduction in the number of sections [for
no longer valid [see *Responsorial J and a similardevelopment, see the one leading
that the terms, therefore, have only his- from the *canzona to the *sonata]. In-
toricaland structural significance. stead of singing an entire psalm,
single
I. Direct Psalmody means the singing verseswere selected, varying in number
of a psalm (or anumber of verses thereof) from four to only one. Cuts were also
straight, without any textual addition or made in the response in such a way that
modification. This method survives in this was not repeated in full after each
two types, one belonging to the Mass, the verse, but in a reduced form, its initial
other to the Office. The former is the half (or third) being omitted.
*tract. The latter is known as psalmus It is in these more or less
radically re-
dlrcctaneus (in. directum, indirectum) duced forms that responsorial psalmody
and means the singing of a psalm to a entered into the Gregorian collection. In
psalm tone, but without antiphon [see only a few special chants does the original
under III; also *Psalm tone]. For this scheme survive to some extent. An un-
method, which is
rarely used, special usually full-shaped example is the *re-
psalm tones provided, under the
are sponsorium Aspiciens a longe [respon-
name tonus in directum [cf. AR y 30*; also sorium for Matins on the First Sunday in
LU, 118,1776]. Advent; cf. GD
iv, 370]. Its scheme is:
II. Re sponsor id
Psalmody. This meth-
od of psalm-singing was directly taken R YI R' V2 R" y? R'" D R"".
over from the Jewish service. Originally,
the entire psalm was sung by a soloist R is the
respond: Aspiciens a longe ecce
(cantor) , with the chorus (congregation video del potentiam venientem, et nebu-
lam totam terram tegentem. * he obviam
or, eventually, the church choir, schola)
responding after each verse with a short ei, et dicite: f Nuncia nobis si tu es ipse,
affirmative sentence such as Amen, Alle- $ qui regnaturus es in populo Israel. In
luia, etc. (A model for this exists
direct the four repetitions of the respond, this is
in the Psalm which each verse ends
136, in successively shortened from the begin-
with the sentence: "For his mercy en- ning, as is indicated by the signs *, f , , ,
dureth forever.") The resulting form the last repetition R"" being only: in po-
may be indicated as follows: pulo Israel. The verses Vi, 2, 3 are V V
taken from three different psalms, and are
(R) yR v R V...R
sung, not to a specially composed melody,
(R is the recurrent response, stands for V but to the seventh psalm tone (this is an
the verses of the psalm; straight under- archaic feature not to be found in any of
lining indicates choral performance; dot- the other chants of responsorial psal-
ted lines, solo performance). Although mody). The letter D stands for the minor
originally the singing of the cantor was *doxology, the first part of which, Gloria
but a simple recitation in the style of an patri et filio et spiritui sancto, is
frequently
inflected monotone, similar to that of the added forms of responsorial (and
in the
[610]
PSALMODY, GREGORIAN PSALMODY, GREGORIAN
terra: f Dum
veneris judicare saeculum each section. The final V and R are sung
per ignem. Here the second * as well as to a new melody in repetition. The ac-
the f indicates the cuts for the two middle companying example of a responsorium
responds (R': Quando-terra-, R": Dum- breve [AR, 19; LU, 229] will also help to
ignem) while the first asterisk, somewhat clarify the structure of the other, more
confusingly, indicates a different practice melismatic chants. In the Alleluias the
found with all the responsorial chants, response consists of the word "Alleluia"
7
i.e., the soloist opening (*Incipit) of the only. This is
sung first
(R ), by the soloist
first (and last) choral response. In our afterwhich the chorus repeats it and con-
schemes, this method is indicated by the tinues with the *jubilus on (allelui)a
symbol: ,
instead of the plain: .
(R). Actually, the structure of the alle-
Likewise a choral ending of a solo section luias issomewhat more complex than our
is indicated thus: Still another . scheme suggests, since the melody for the
responsorium showing the rondo struc- verse practically always closes with that
ture of the early responsorial psalmody is of the jubilus, thus leading to the follow-
the Subvenite of the Requiem Mass [GR, ing scheme: A, A+j, B+j, A+j. With
io6*;L7, 1765]. the graduals the repetition of the response
Aside from such isolated examples, the- is
optional [cf. L7, 320].
surviving categories of responsorial chant III. Antiphonal Psalmody originally
are still more reduced. The most impor- consisted inthe singing of the psalms
tant of these types are the ^responsorium by two alternating half-choruses. This
(prolixum), the responsorium breve, the method was introduced into the Western
^gradual, and the ^alleluia. The follow- Church by St. Ambrosius (333-397)) in
ing table shows the usual form of these imitation of Syrian models. The exact
chants: procedure in the early antiphonal psal-
(1) Responsorium: R V II' or R V R' R mody is not known; there may have been
alternating performance for the two halves
or R V R' D R of each single verse, or (more likely) for
(2) Responsorium breve: R_ R V R_'
D each pair of verses [see *Antiphon (His-
V tory)].
R_ Ri
The antiphonal method of psalm sing-
(3) Alleluia: R' R V^ R_ ing was at an early time enriched by the
R addition of a short sentence which was
(4) Gradual: V_ (R)
sung by the whole chorus (or, perhaps,
Examples for (i) are found in LU, 726, the congregation) after each two verses,
722, 375. The responsorium breve has a and which was called antiphon (A).
There resulted a rondeau-like scheme:
A Vi V 2 A V 3 V4 A . . .
A, similar in
1 R-Oirttte fill Pel vt-ot *Mt-se-r*- me structure to that of the early responsorial
psalmody. As in the case of the latter, the
extended scheme survives only in certain
special chants, such as the *invitatorium,
which is sung at matins in the Office of
3V. Qui Ac-dea i fiatrta the Dead and in which Ps. 94 Venite cxul-
9
c fe* ' temus Domino (Ps. 95, O come, let us
sing unto the Lord, of the English num-
fe-tri,cfc ft-lio, et Sptii'tu-l
bering) is
sung according to the following
scheme [cf. AR, (152)]: A_
A Vi V2
6 v-ui?ge
7
S H.
V
t tibera.
, Qirtcte ,
n^ fwptev nomen tuuttv
A V3 V4 V 5 V6 V 7 A V 8 V 9
A' Vio V n A V 12 A^A. A the is
psalms sung to a psalm tone (the same for smoothly to the initial note of the anti-
each verse) and introduced and closed by phon, as sung after the last verse of the
a short antiphon: t 2 ____ n AA V V V psalm. It is indicated, e.g., as follows:
[see *Psalm tones]. The form of the in- Ant. 8.c (mode 8 with the ending on c).
troitus is: A V_ D A. (D is the minor Since the Gloria patri seculorum amen . . .
po-pu-lu.s l.^etcs
f -
'~+IC"TTV
=n i
!l"Z;l
psal-Um it-be
^B-a-
recitation, called tenor (repercussio, tuba, i, dm A&S f- rt- p mt.
1,0. Gl -rca. -4u- i Sanrtrd.
reciting note), is always the dominant of
the mode [see *Church modes]. Accord- [(fe
r \\i
*~*m*t*
.
- - ** f
m
-...-- - *TV 5j
,. ^^
_ mm
e>$e-a-tu.s po-pi.-lus en-jus Dowt-itua U-u.i e-juj.
ing to the binary structure of the psalm
psalm tone falls into halves,
verses, the
the former consisting of initium (in- An exceptional psalm tone is the tonus
peregrinus which has a different tenor for
its first and second half. It is used only for
* t Linti- ae
Psalter. Name for the Book of Psalms
ceptlo), tenor, and mediatio\ the latter of translated into the vernacular (English,
tenor and terminatio. If the former half French, Dutch Psalter), frequently in
I 6i 2 ]
PSALTER PSALTER
rhymed versions (metrical Psalter), and and not accent; rather does it lie in the
provided with music for congregational greater flexibility and contrapuntal adapt-
singing [for a Psalter of the 3d century, ability of the French melodies which were
see *Hymns], close in nature to
enough Plainsong to
To all branches of the Christian faith render theminviting to composers long
as well as to the Jewish congregation, the trained in the Roman tradition of polyph-
Book of Psalms has been a perennial re- ony. Among the composers who culti-
source; and it was natural, therefore, that vated part settings of the French Psalter
the Reformed Churches should, with one were Bourgeois, Goudimel, Jannequin,
exception [see *Chorale; ^Protestant mu- Le Jeune, and the Dutchman Sweelinck
sic], turn to it for the texts which were to [Ex. in HAM, nos. 126, 132] . The French
supply them with material for congrega- Psalter was adopted in the Netherlands
tional song. The fact that the words of in 1566, replacing here the collection of
the Lutheran Chorales were not "in- *Souterliedekens of 1540.
spired/' that is, were not drawn from the During the persecutions under Queen
Bible, but from the poetic and religious Mary, about the middle of the i6th cen-
feeling of ordinary human beings, caused tury, many English Protestants fled to
them to be rejected outside of Germany. Geneva where they came under the influ-
Instead, the other Reformed Churches ence of the French Psalter. The result
turned to the Psalters. The most impor- was the so-called Anglo-Genevan Psalter
tant and influential of the Psalters was with the publication of which both Eng-
the French, the completed form of which lishmen and Scotchmen were connected.
appeared in 1562, the metrical versions of The French style is strongly represented
the texts being supplied by Marot and in this work, and after the return of the
Beza. Bourgeois and Dubisson were suc- refugees to Britain the Scottish Psalter of
cessively the musical editors. About Du- 1564 continued to perpetuate the French
bisson's comparatively brief connection influence, while the English Psalter pur-
with the work little is known, and it is to sued a quite different course with regard
Bourgeois that credit is generally assigned to both verse and music. Among the
for the excellence of the music. Bour- better-known English Psalters are Stern-
geois' contributions consist of adaptations hold and Hopkins, completed and pub-
of existing melodies, some of them drawn lished by Day in 1562; Ravenscroft
from secular sources, and of composed (1621); Playford (1677); and Tate and
tunes which are assumed to be his own. Brady (1696). The English type of psalm
In conformity with the Protestant trend tune consists of a number of shorter notes
toward musical simplification, the set- lying between two longer ones. Such an
tings are almost uniformly one note to a invariable pattern is bound, after many
syllable. Calvin was opposed to the set- repetitions, to prove monotonous and it
ting of the Psalter melodies in parts, but it compares most unfavorably with the free
was inevitable, of course, that they should flowing and infinitely varied melodies of
be so treated. In this connection it is in- the French prototype.
teresting to compare the part settings of Another group of refugees was to come
Chorales by German Reformation com- under the influence of the French form,
posers with similar settings of the French this time in Amsterdam, where Henry
psalm tunes. In both instances the chief Ainsworth in 1612 brought out a Psalter
voice is in the tenor; but where the Cho- for the benefit of the English "Separa-
rale theme seems to generate a somewhat tists." Thence it traveled to America with
stiff and
ungrateful counterpoint in the the in 1620. Its hold on its dev-
Pilgrims
surrounding parts, the Psalter lends itself otees must have been remarkable, for
readily to a homogeneous musical treat- though the highly influential *Bay Psalm
ment. The root of the difference is not to Boo\ appeared in 1640, Ainsworth's Psal-
be found in the texts, for both the French ter was not entirely displaced for many
and the German were based on quantity years
after that date,
PSALTER PUBLICATIONS OF MUSIC
It is significant that in the early i8th Psaltery. Name for ancient and medi-
century in both England and America the eval instruments consisting of a flat sound-
grace or ornament became popular in board over which a number of strings are
psalm singing. The clerical protests which stretched which are plucked with the
were made against this use are character- fingers. This manner of playing distin-
istic of more than one attempt in the his- guishes the psaltery from the *dulcimer
tory of music to preserve a medium which which is similar in construction, but struck
was becoming outmoded. In the first with hammers. The term is also used in
place, the Psalter, while its range of ex- scientific classification of instruments for
pression is certainly wide, is the language a group which includes, among others,
and the feeling of another day. The wor- the harpsichord, a keyed psaltery [see
monotonous, and while it was praise- attributed to St. lerome (c. 330-420) a
worthy for its pervading dignity, the man- psalterium decacordum (ten-stringed psal-
ner of its performance was such as to in- terium) is depicted which has the shape
spire revolt and encourage any relief from of a rectangle and which the writer inter-
its
monotony. Aside from the fact that prets symbolically, relating the strings to
the pace was probably painfully slow, the the Ten Commandments and the four
custom of *"lining-out" the psalm dis- sides of the frame to the four Gospels.
rupted the sense of the text and destroyed From the i4th to the i6th century psal-
musical continuity. In the i8th century teries were used in various shapes. The
the *hymn began to make its way among normal type had the shape of a symmet-
English-speaking Protestant congrega- rical trapezoid, sometimes with the slant-
tions in general. Its eventual adoption ing sides curved inwards. Such instru-
with a corresponding neglect of psalm ments were called cano, canon, after their
singing was neither completely profit- Arabic model, the *l{anun. In another
able nor wholly to be deplored. It is type the shape was one-half of the above
noteworthy that Scotch devotion to trapezoid (thus with a rectangle to the
the Psalter wasstrong that it was
so was called medio canon
left side), and this
not until 1861 that the Established or micanon (sometimes perverted into
Church of Scotland authorized the sing- medicinale). This shape, which persisted
ing of hymns. in the winged form of the harpsichord
Lit.: A. C. Welch, The Psalter in Life, and of the pianoforte, had a certain like-
Worship and History (1926); E. B. Cross, ness to that of a pig's head, hence the
Modern Worship and the Psalter (1934); name istromento di porco given by Prae-
C. C. Keet, A Liturgical Study of the Psal- torius (Syntagma Musicum ii, 1620).
ter ( 1928); W. S. Pratt, The Music of the Among the more recent types of psalteries
French Psalter of 1562 (1939); J. War- are the Austrian *zither, the Finnish
rington, Short Titles of Boo\s Relating to *kantele, and the Russian *gusli. See also
the History of Psalmody in the United *Bell harp. See the illustrations on p.
States,1620-1820 (1898); G. R. Wood- 823.
ward, "The Genevan Psalter of 1562 .. ."
(PMA xliv); W. Truron, "The Rhythm Public school music. See *Music
of Metrical Psalm Tunes" (ML ix, no. i); Education I. Cf. also article in O. Thomp-
W. S. Pratt, "The Importance of the Early son, The International Cyclopedia of
French Psalter" (MQ xxi); articles "Psal- Music and Musicians (1939); bibl. pp.
ter" and "Bourgeois" in GD; article
using their first type for over 200 years. Lit.: G. Dunn, Methods of Music Pub-
In England Tallis and Byrd were granted lishing (1931); F. Kidson, British Music
a monopoly for music printing in 1575 Publishers (1900); W. Arms Fisher,
which, in 1598, was transferred to Mor- One-hundred-and-fifty Years of Music
ley. The publishing, however, was done Publishing in the United States . . .
by Thomas and Michael Este (East) who (1933); R. Eitner, "Verzeichnis der Mu-
issued practically all the books of English sikhandler und Musikdrucker" (M/M,
madrigals, from 1587 till 1638. There 1909, Beilage); F. Kidson, "John Play-
followed Play ford, from c. 1650 to 1700, ford . . ." (MQ iv); id., "Handel's Pub-
and, in the i8th century, the house of lisher John Walsh . . ." (MQ vi); R. S.
Walsh (c. 1705-66), the first music pub- Hill, "The Numbers of C. F. Peters
Plate
lisher to use "high-pressure" methods, Predecessors" (PAMS, 1938); K. Meyer,
including a good deal of pirating [see "Artaria Plate Numbers" (in Notes for
Lit,, Pincherle]. At the same time the the Music Library Association, no. 15);
house of Roger flourished in Amsterdam, W. B. Squire, "Publisher's Numbers"
that of Haffner in Niirnberg [see *Haff- (SIM xv); M. Brenet, "La Librairie musi-
ner collection]. About 1750 the world- cale en France de 1653 a 1790" (SIM viii) ;
ohia; Thomas Dobson (1787) and George In the latter meaning it is called punctus
[616]
PUNCTUS PYKNON
divisioniSy and
used only in triple meter
is which repeated, are called punctus
is
edges.
dot are puncti additionis, the others are Puritans and music. See under
* American music
puncti divisionis. I. Also: P. Scholes,
The system of puncti has been unneces- The Puritans and Their Music in England
sarilycomplicated by early theorists who
and New England (1934); W. S. Pratt,
deal in detail with a number of other The Music oj the Pilgrims (1901).
puncti, such as punctus perjectionis y im-
Puy, pui. Medieval French festivals of
perjectionis, alterations, syncopationis,
literary and musical guilds, held regular-
etc. The three first-mentioned puncti are
ly with competitions and prizes. They
nothing but the punctus divisionis, the are documented as far back as the nth
various names indicating only certain sec-
century (earliest troubadours), and ex-
ondary effects upon the neighboring notes. isted as late as the i6th century. The
For instance, the first punctus of the above
most famous was the Puy d'Evreux, held
example makes the preceding brevis per-
annually from 1570 till 1614, on St. Cecil-
fect, and therefore is called a punctus per-
fectionis. The fourth punctus, however,
ia's Day. Among its laureates (roy de
puy) were Orlando di Lasso, Titelouze,
may be called either a punctus imperfec- du Caurroy. The puys of the troubadours
tionis or apunctus alterationis, according served as a model for similar competitions
to whether its effect upon the preceding
of the German Minnesinger, such as the
or the following notes is considered. Un-
"Sangerkrieg auf der Wartburg," which
fortunately these unnecessary complica- forms the background of Wagner's Tann-
tions have been perpetuated by modern
hduscr. See also *Meistersinger III;
writers. Especially misleading is the * Ten so.
"simplified" explanation [see Lit., War-
ner] which distinguishes only between Pyknon [Gr., density]. In the Greek
the punctus divisionis and the punctus scale [see *Greek music II (b) ]
the places
perfectionis, since a further distinction of the greatest density, i.e., the two suc-
must be made between the punctus per- cessive semitones of the chromatic scale,
fectionis in perfect mensuration and the or the two successive quarter-tones of the
punctus "perfectionis" properly, addi- enharmonic scale. For instance, the Hy-
tionis in imperfect mensuration. Fi- podorian chromatic scale (read down-
nally, the punctus syncopationis, which wards) contains the following two pykna:
occurs only in music prior to 1450, is a a ftf-f-e c#-c-t> a. In each pyknon
punctus divisionis in displaced position, the highest of the three tones involved
occurring somewhere in the middle of a was called oxypy\non, the middle meso-
measure. The details are too complicated pyknon, and the lowest barypy^non. On
to be briefly explained fcf. ApNPM, pas- the kithara these three degrees were per-
sim; S. T. Warner, in PMA xlv], formed on the same string, the bary-
(2) In the *estampies of the i3th and pyknon on the open string (e, b), the
i4th centuries the various sections, each of other two by stopping at the first or sec-
PYTHAGOREAN SCALE QUADRIVIUM
ond semitone. This method is reflected is slightly larger than that of the well-
in the Greek instrumental notation, in tempered scale (204 cents instead of 200),
which (as a rule) one and the same sign while the semitone is considerably lower
serves for all the three degrees, but in dif- (90 instead of 100). Likewise, the Pytha-
ferent positions, e.g., K, ^, 3, for b, c, gorean third is 8 cents higher than the
and c*. Cf. C. Sachs, in ZM W vi, 289. well-tempered third which, in turn, is
higher than the "pure" third (408, 400,
Pythagorean scale. A scale, invented and 386" cents).
by Pythagoras (c. 550 B.C.), which de- The succession of the Pythagorean fifths
rives all the tones from the interval of the
can be continued beyond the tone b, lead-
* Acoustics
pure fifth, % [see III], The
ing to chromatic tones, flf, c#, etc., and
tones of the diatonic scale are obtained as
finally back to c, in the well-known *circle
a series of five successive upper fifths and of fifths which, in the Pythagorean system,
one lower fifth:
actually is a "spiral of fifths" since the
j/ uw
F twelfth fifth 24 cents higher than the
_. is
2
- I -
seventh octave ( 12 72 7X1 200 = 24 )
X .
Quadrille [F.]. (i) French dance A Quadrivium [L., four ways]. In the
of the early i9th century performed by medieval system of education, the four
two or four couples moving in a square. "mathematical arts," namely: arithmetic,
The dance consisted of five figures ("Le geometry, music, and astronomy, as op-
Pantalon," "L'fite"," etc.), the music for posed to the trivium of the "rhetorical
which, alternately in %- and %-meter, arts/* i.e., grammar, dialectics, and rhet-
[618]
QUADRUPLE COUNTERPOINT QUARTET
oric. In this scheme music was, of course, has given considerable encouragement to
considered not as an art in the modern the protagonists of quarter-tone music,
sense of the word, but as a science bor- foremost among whom is Alois Haba.
dering on mathematics and physics He composed a considerable number of
(acoustics). pieces (op. 7~op. 26) in the new idiom
for string quartet for violin alone
Quadruple counterpoint. See (op. 9),
for pianoforte, for orchestra, for chorus,
*Double counterpoint.
type, which is
easily the most
interesting
Quintoyer [F.]. See *Wind instru-
one, different melodies or snatches there-
ments III.
of are used simultaneously in different
triple and a duple measure. Well-known being that the time-values may be length-
examples occur in Chopin's Sonata op. 4, ened or shortened, according to the re-
in Tchaikovsky's Symphony no. 6 [Ex. quirements of consonance. One of the
i], and in Wagner's Tristan> Act III, earliest examples, contained in the Glo-
QUODLIBET QUODLIBET
gauer Licderbuch of c. 1460 [see *Lieder- in these motets (aside from the special
all
buch], contrasts the then famous "O rosa type of the refrain motet) the texts of the
bella" melody with snatches of German upper parts are not borrowed, but freely
folk songs [cf. HAM, nos. 80, 82]. An invented, while the tenor has no full text,
outstanding composer of such quodlibets but only an *incipit; and that the element
was Ludwig Senfl [cf. SchGMB, no. 1 10] , of incongruity is present only in the
and comprehensive collections were pub- "French" motets which use a French text
lished by Wolfgang Schmeltzl (Guter, (mostly amorous) against the liturgical
seltzamer und \unstreicher teutscher Ge- melody of the tenor and (frequently)
sang .
, 1544) and by
. . Melchior Franck against a Latin text in the middle part.
( Musifylisch er Grill en vertreiber, 1622). More clearly under the category of the
These pieces proved extremely valuable textual quodlibet fall a number of i8th-
as sources of 16th-century German folk century pieces whose fun consists in the
song [see *Lied II]. An example by succession of jocose and deliberately in-
Goldel, in which five chorales are skill- congruous texts. To this type belongs a
fullycombined, is quoted in GD iv, 311; "quodlibet" which is believed to be an
for another (by Kindermann), using early work of }. S. Bach [publ. by M.
three chorales, cf. DTB 21/24, 13. The Schneider, in Veroffentlichungen der
best-known example of this type is the Neuen Bach-Gesellschaft, xxxii.2]. It
final variation of Bach's *Goldberg Vari- consists of a great number of short texts
ations, in which two popular melodies of [the "seafaring allusions" which C. S.
his day: (a) "Ich bin so lang nicht bei dir Terry mentions in an article in xiv, ML
g'west" (Long have I been away from no. i, have a clearly obscene side-mean-
thee) and (b) "Kraut und Ruben" (Cab- ing] set to music evidently without using
bage and turnips) are artfully combined pre-existing melodies. There is a distinct
within the harmonic frame of the theme possibility that this piece, rather than the
[see illustration]. truly polyphonic quodlibet from the Gold-
berg Variations, illustrates the "impro-
Co) JcK bvn so Ung nicht bet itr g'west vised quodlibet singing" which, according
to C. P. E. Bach, was traditional in his
family for many generations. Numerous
examples of the same type occur in Val-
entin Rathgeber's Augsburger Tafelfon-
II. The Successive Quodlibet. A sim- fe%t of 1733 [repr. in E. O. Lindner,
pler type of quodlibet is that in which Geschichte des deutschen Liedes . . .
various melodies are quoted in succession, (1871)]. Cf. also Moser, Cory don.
much in the manner of a potpourri. To The Italian terms misticanza and mes-
this category belong various pieces con- sanza would seem to denote potpourris
tained in the collections mentioned above. rather than quodlibets [see *Ensalada].
III. The Textual Quodlibet. The term The term *centone is also used for quod-
quodlibet is also applied to pieces which libets. Cf. K. Jeppesen, in Papers Read at
show an incongruous mixture of bor- the International Congress of Musicology
rowed texts, without involving the bor- (New York, 1939), 1944, p. 62. See also
* Pasticcio. For
rowing of musical material. As in the Mass see *Mass
Quodlibet
musical quodlibet, these texts may occur B, II (b).
simultaneously or successively. The poly- Lit.: W. Bienenfeld, in SIM vi; R. Eit-
textual motet of the i3th century is fre- ner, "Das deutsche Lied des 15/16. Jahr-
quently cited as an example of the textual hunderts," i
(MfM viii, ix, Beilage);
quodlibet, but it should be observed that H. J. Moser, f Cory don, 2 vols. (1931/34)'
[6aa]
R
R. In early orchestral music, *ripieno; travel only over its surface in the form of
in French organ music, *recit; in Gre- alternate ridges and depressions. Sound
gorian chant (I}/), *responsorium. waves travel through air in the form of
alternate areas of compression and rare-
Rackett. See *Oboc family III.
faction, expanding in all directions as
Raddolcendo [It.]. Becoming dolce. concentric Their velocity (in
spheres.
warm about noo feet per second.
air) is
Raddoppiare [It.]. To double, usu- The precise nature of electromagnetic
ally in the lower octave.
waves is still a scientific mystery, though
Radel [G., from Rad, wheel]. German their behavior is fairly well understood.
14th-century name for a canon or *round. They travel in all directions, as do sound
Cf. ReMMA, 377; also *Rota (2). waves, expanding as concentric spheres
speed, have been converted back into of occurrence per second, as the oscilla-
sound waves. In order to understand tions which produce them; e.g., a piano
how this is accomplished it is necessary string vibrating at the rate of 1000 oscil-
to know something of the nature of lations,or cycles, per second generates
sound; therefore, the article on *Acoustics 1000 sound waves per second, and cur-
should be read by way of preface to the rent in a transmitting antenna alternat-
following one. ing the rate of 100,000 cycles per sec-
at
I. Electromagnetic Waves. Wave mo- ond generates 100,000 electromagnetic
tion is a phenomenon with which we are waves per second.
all familiar, at least in one manifestation. The waves currently used for radio
When water is disturbed, waves travel transmission in the United States range
outward in concentric circles from the in frequency from 10 kilocycles (10,000
point of disturbance, gradually diminish- cycles) to 300 megacycles (300,000,000
ing in amplitude (i.e., the height of their cycles) per second. These waves are di-
crests and depth of their troughs) as the vided into bands which are allocated by
energy which created them is dissipated. governmental authority to various serv-
Since water is not compressible, waves ices. The lowest bands (from 10 kc to
RADIO BROADCASTING OF MUSIC RADIO BROADCASTING OF MUSIC
to communi-
540 kc) arc assigned chiefly The first step in the conversion process
cation and the highest (from
services, having been accomplished by the micro-
1610 kc to 300 me), to additional com- phone, the sound of the tuning fork is
munication services, short wave broad- now represented by electrical current al-
casting, ultra-short wave broadcasting, ternating at the frequency of 261.63 cycles
television, and facsimile transmission. per second. This current is too weak to
Standard wave broadcasting utilizes the perform the tasks required of it; there-
frequencies between 550 kc and 1600 kc, fore it is conducted by wire to the
ampli-
with stations spaced at intervals of 10 kc. fiers,
a series of vacuum tubes which in-
II. Transmission of Sound. Let us creases its
strength. The amplified cur-
now follow the progress of a musical tone rent then continues through wires to the
from its birth in a broadcasting studio to control panel, where its volume is regu-
its reproduction in the home of a distant lated by an engineer, and thence to the
radio listener. To reduce the problem to transmitter. Up
to this point the electri-
its simplest musical terms we may assume still at audio
cal vibrations are frequencies,
that the original sound is Middle C, a but electromagnetic waves of such com-
"pure" tone produced by a tuning fork paratively low frequencies do not radiate
vibrating at the frequency of 261.63 cycles satisfactorily. Consequently, the trans-
per second. The first step in radio trans- mitter sends out a continuous high-fre-
mission is to change the acoustic waves quency wave, called the carrier, which is
generated by the vibrations of the tuning modulated by the audio-frequency cur-
fork into electrical vibrations. This is from the microphone. This
rent received
done by a microphone, which is a specially means that the current generated by a
sensitive telephone transmitter. Early sound wave is imposed on the carrier in
microphones operated on the same prin- such a way that the latter undergoes a
corresponding in frequency and ampli- The former method is used by all trans-
tude to the sound waves. This is called mitters in the standard broadcast band
audio-frequency current, since its fre- and is called amplitude modulation (Ex.
quency is the same as that of audible i). The other method is called frequency
waves. A later microphone, now widely modulation (Ex. 2) and is used only in
quency and amplitude of the sound vibra- of the same frequency and having the
tions, the ribbon oscillates in the magnetic same modulations is induced in the re-
AAA/V I
l|\M/\/\Jl
frequency of the radio scale; and since it carrier frequency minus the audio fre-
is usually intercepting waves from many quency. For example, if a carrier wave
different transmitters at the same time, of 1000 kilocycles is modulated by a fre-
the receiver circuit is provided with a quency of one kilocycle, one sideband
detector, or tuning device, which selects will have a frequency of 1001 kilocycles,
the frequency of the desired station and the other a frequency of 999 kilocycles.
excludes all others. The transmitter will then require a chan-
As the energy picked up by the receiv- nel two kilocycles wide. Modulation of
ing antenna is only a tiny fraction of that the carrier wave by the full frequency
sent out by the transmitter, the receiver range of musical sound produces side-
circuit also amplifiers which
includes bands of at least 15,000 cycles each and
bring the antenna current up to the re- necessitates a channel at least 30,000 cycles
quired strength. The current is then de- wide. As standard-wave channels are
modulated that is, the modulations of only 10,000 cycles wide, transmitters in
the carrier frequency are translated into that band are limited to an audio-fre-
audio-frequency current, and this current quency range of 5000 cycles. If they ex-
operates the diaphragm of a telephone re- ceed it their sidebands overlap those of
ceiver or loudspeaker, causing it to vi- other stations, causing interference. Con-
brate at the same frequency. The motions sequently, standard-wave receivers are
of the diaphragm generate sound waves not ordinarily designed to reproduce fre-
in the air, and the radio listener hears a quencies above 5000 cycles.
more or less faithful reproduction of the A range of 5000 cycles is sufficient to
tone produced in the studio by the tuning reproduce all fundamental pitches of the
fork. orchestral instruments but not all of their
III. Fidelity. The sound re-
fidelity of harmonics. The oboe and violin, for ex-
production by radio depends on various ample, produce harmonics above 15,000
factors, chief of which is the efficiency of cycles, and nearly all musical instruments
broadcasting equipment. Faithful repro- have harmonics above 5000 cycles. Fail-
duction of music requires a system free ure to reproduce any portion of the har-
of noise and
distortion throughout an ade- monic components of a tone causes, of
quate range of audio frequencies, and course, a proportionate loss of realism in
the transmitter must have room in the its timbre. However, experience shows
radio spectrum to utilize its full frequency that the characteristic qualities of musical
range. When the carrier wave of an am- instruments are adequately conveyed by
plitude-modulation system is modulated a reproducer limited to 5000 cycles, pro-
by audio-frequency current, its original vided it is efficient in other respects. In
frequency is supplemented by additional any case, it is doubtful whether the aver-
[625]
RADIO BROADCASTING OF MUSIC RADIO BROADCASTING OF MUSIC
age listener in a concert hall hears very velopment of -the ultra-high-frequency
many of the higher harmonics, owing to band, where congestion is less acute, may
their low intensity, their rapid attenua- remove that impediment to stereophonic
tion in air, and the blanketing effect of radio transmission.
other sounds. For technical reasons it is sometimes
In the
ultra-high-frequency band necessary to control the volume of music
(above 40 megacycles) the channels are transmitted by radio. Pianissimo passages
wide enough for full-range sound trans- may have to be amplified to enable them
mission. This is often referred to as to override the extraneous noises that
"high-fidelity" transmission, but the term sometimes interfere with reception, and
is somewhat misleading, for realistic re- fortissimo passages may have to be re-
production of music involves various fac- duced in volume to prevent overloading
tors otherthan pitch. Perhaps the most of circuits. In the early days of broad-
important difference between music as it casting, volume had to be controlled to
is heard in the studio and the reproduc- such an extent that often there was notice-
tion of that music heard by the radio able distortion of musical dynamics.
listener is that the latter is monaural. A This gave rise to a controversy as to
normal human being hears binaurally\ whether the controls should be operated
i.e., his two ears receive sound vibrations by an engineer or by a musician. Since,
from slightly different angles, and usu- itwas argued, the man at the controls had
ally at slightly different distances. This thepower to alter dynamic effects planned
enables him to sense the direction from by the musician, he should be qualified
which a sound comes, and gives it a by training to perform the task with musi-
stereophonic (three-dimensional) quality cal taste and judgment.
wave, and reproduced by a single loud- the loudest and the softest passages in the
speaker. The result is equivalent to what music, thereby obviating the necessity for
would be heard in the studio by a person changing the volume controls during the
deaf in one ear. broadcast. "Editing" of the performer's
In order to broadcast stereophonically, dynamics is thus eliminated, and, at the
the sounds in the studio must be picked same time, the man at the controls is left
up by two or more microphones and fed free to attend to the various important
through separate systems of lines and am- technical duties which only an engineer
[626]
RADIO BROADCASTING OF MUSIC RANGE
ing hears but disregards. In the quietest microphone placement is essential to the
speaker finds it much more difficult to to 7926 (1938); 2. id., Big Business and
dissociatethem. Consequently, it is essen- Radio (1939); 3. K. Henney, Radio Engi-
tial microphone be located near
that the neering HandbooJ^ (1941); 4. J. Jeans,
enough to the source of sound to main- Science and Music (1937); 5 J. Langdon-
tain a high ratio of music to noise. Davies, Radio (1935); 6. John Mills,
Acoustical conditions at the point of A Fugue in Cycles and Eels (1935) ; 7. id.,
origin may affect the transmission of Letters of a Radio Engineer to his Son
music in various ways. Excessive rever- (1922); 8. A. Morgan, Getting Ac-
beration detrimental to clarity. Exces-
is
quainted with Radio (1940); 9. W. and
sive adsorption tends to damp the sound E. Watson, Understanding Radio (1940);
waves prematurely, causing a loss of reso- 10. E. La Prade, "The Technique of
nance and richness. Unequal adsorption Broadcasting Instrumental Groups"
of different frequencies may result in loss (Proceedings, Music Educators Natl.
of brilliance. The clothing of an audi- n. id., "Problems in Micro-
Conf., 1935);
ence, for example, is adsorbent to high phone Placement" (ibid., 1938). E. P.
frequencies. Consequently, when an or-
chestra broadcasts from a crowded audi- Radleyer [G.]. *Hurdy-gurdy.
torium the high-pitched instruments may
Ratselkanon [G.]. Riddle canon.
sound less brilliant than they do when no
audience is present. Raffrenando [It.]. "Putting on the
In this connection it may be noted that brakes," checking the speed.
broadcasting studios are usually less
than concert Raga. See *Hindu music; *Melody
"live" i.e., reverberant
types.
halls, the reason being that a greater pro-
of them, beginning with the words "Loba, quartet no. 61 (op. 55, no. 2) in F minor,
so called because it is said to have been
Loba," occurs as early as 1545, in Rhaw's
given by Haydn to his publisher in ex-
Bicinia.
The ranz des vaches has been repeat- change for a new razor which he needed
badly.
edly used in operas dealing with Swiss
subjects, e.g., in the overtures of Gretry
Re. See *Solmization.
and of William Tell, and in
Rossini's
Kienzl's Der Kuhreigen. Cf. A. Gluck, Reading Rota. Name for the *Sumer
canon, a *rota supposedly composed by a
in VMW viii.
monk from Reading.
Rappresentativo. See under *Stile. Real answer, real fugue. See *Tonal
Rasgado [Sp., scraping]. In guitar and real.
playing, sweeping the strings with the Rebab. Name for various bowed string
thumb to produce an arpeggio. instruments found in Moslem countries.
[628]
REBUTE RECITATIVE
About its relationship to the Arabic In spite of the intrinsic limitation of
*rebab, cf. SaRM. The
rubeba, which recitative style its evolution shows
quite
some scholars believe to be a larger type a variety of types which are far from
being
of rebec, has been described by Johannes adequately covered by the conventional
de Moravia (CS i, 152). A ^th-century classification just
mentioned, as will ap-
rebec is preserved in Bologna; cf. B. pear from the subsequent historical sur-
Disertori, in RMI xlii. vey.
Rebute * II. The recitative originated around
[F.j. Jew's harp.
1600 as the most startling innovation of
Recapitulation. See under *Sonata the *Nuove Musiche, and in immediate
form. connection with the development of the
Recercada, recercar. See *Ricercar. *opera [see also *Monody]. The earliest
operas (Peri's, Caccini's Euridice, 1600)
Recit [F.]. Seventeenth-century term, are written throughout in a
carefully and
derived from *recitativo, for a vocal solo
impressively designed declamation, which
piece, usually in aria style; e.g., recit de is
quite different from the later "par-
bassC) bass aria. In organ parlance, the lando" style. The accompanying example
term was used in similar connotations, from Caccini's Euridice (1600) is typical
i.e., for a solo organ stop and the entire of this early Florentine recitative [Ex. i].
solo organ (clavier de recit)} also as a the i7th century this style of
During
title for organ pieces with a distinct
singing evolved in three different direc-
melodic part (in distinction from the tions:
earlier contrapuntal type of organ music). (a) Taking on more distinct phrasing,
See also under *Taille. melodic character, and definite form, it
is
usually employed in connection with
prose texts of a more or less narrative
ta-ciuU martt frr-men-tt.
character, particularly in operas in which j*nnl,che twppo
it serves to
carry on the action from one
G: A*mt-tt>,che ti par?
aria (ensemble, chorus) to another. In
accordance with its declamatory charac-
ter, the purely musical principles of vocal
^
f^y
L: Mi parcbabbiAt* tin'
[629]
RECITATIVE RECORDER
however, that this "parlando style" at- the recitatives preceding an aria [Ex. 3].
tained general importance, under the (d) A
special type of recitative, char-
name of recitative secco (secco, dry acterized by the frequent change of meter
with reference to the unexpressive char- (%> %> %)> developed in France
acter of the declamation, not to the lack under Lully [Ex. 4] and spread, with
of an elaborate accompaniment). This necessary adaptation to the language, to
type remained in use throughout the pe- England (Purcell). This recitative pre-
riod of the Neapolitan opera as well as in sents the attempt to set down in exact
the operas of Mozart and Rossini [see note values the rhythm, accentuation, and
Ex. 2, from Mozart's Don Giovanni}. inflections of the French language, on a
(c) While the early Florentine as well principle similar to the *vcrs mesurt of
as the secco recitative were sung to a thor- the i6th century [see also *Rhythm II
ough-bass accompaniment only, a fuller
accompaniment (including strings) was (e) Finally, it
may be mentioned that
introduced for recitatives of special im- Schiitz, in his latest works, the Passions,
portance. Monteverdi was one of the first developed a highly impressive type of
method in the closing measures
to use this "archaic" recitative, entirely unaccompa-
of the famous "Possenti spirti" in his nied, a Baroque revival of the Gregorian
Orfeo (1607) and Schiitz used it con- psalm tones [cf. SchGMB, no. 192],
sistently for the part of the Evangelist in (f) The most outspoken adversary of
his Auferstehungs Historic (1623). The the Italian opera and its
stereotyped par-
use of an ensemble accompaniment natu- lando recitative, namely, Richard Wag-
rally led a more strictly measured type of ner, was destined to bring about a new
recitative, dramatic rather than declama- flowering of the truly musical recitative:
the recitativo or his "unending melody" is indeed
tory, accompagnato nothing
stromentato. It assumed considerable im- but a recitative of the highest expressive-
portance in 18th-century opera where it ness and dramatic significance. An inter-
is usually reserved for the climactic scenes esting contrast to the emotionalism of
Wagner's recitative is formed by the
mysteriously vague recitative of Debussy's
Pelleas et Melisande.
Ba**. D* |Wt4uh wiU (it The free character of the recitative has
Vl.d*
repeatedly been imitated in instrumental
music. Examples occur in Kuhnau's
Biblische Historien
(1698), in Bach's
Chromatic Fantasie, in Beethoven's Piano
Sonata op. 30, i (first movement, recapit-
ulation) and op. no (slow movement),
in Schumann's Scenes from Childhood
ce *tt^per-be vain
Reciting note. See under *Psalm tones.
mi,
Recorded music. See *Phonograph
of the drama, and serves to introduce the
and recorded music.
most brilliant arias of the work. Bach,
in his St. Matthew Passion, uses it con- Recorder [F. Flute douce, Flute a bec\
sistently for the part of Christ and for G. Blocltfdte, Schnabelflote; It. flauto
[63 o]
RECORDER REED
dolce, flauto diritto}. The most impor- of this music has been reprinted. See the
tant type of whistle (or fipple) flute, i.e., illustrations on p. 272.
end-blown, with a "whistle" mouthpiece Lit.:Ghr. Welch, Six Lectures on the
[see *Whistle flute]. Its tone-quality is Recorder (1911); C. Sachs, Handbuch
highly individual, soft, and slightly reedy, der Musitynstrumententyinde (2d ed.,
in part produced by an inverted conical 1930); iW., The History of Musical In-
bore smallest at the lower end. The re- struments (1940); F. J. Giesbert, Schule
corder attained very nearly its final form fur die Altbloc1(fldte (Mainz); Sebastian
Middle Ages; in the i6th cen-
in the late Virdung, Musica getutscht (1511, repr.
tury formed a complete family of in-
it
1882); Michael Praetorius, Syntagma
struments from treble to bass which Musicum II (1618, repr. 1884); Sylvestro
played an important part in the music of Ganassi, Opera intitulata Fontegara
the late Renaissance. By the early i8th (1535, facs. ed. 1934); Jaques Hotteterre,
century only one size, with a range from Principe s de la flute . . a bee (1707);
.
to g'", remained in common use. This H. Fitzgibbon, "Of Flutes and Soft Re-
was called "Flauto" by J. S. Bach and corders" (MQ
xx); C. F. Dolmetsch, in
most of his contemporaries; the trans- ML xxii, no. i; A. Carse, "Fingering the
verse flute (the modern instrument) is Recorder" (MR i); Ch. Welch, "Litera-
normally distinguished as "Traverse." ture Relative to the Recorder" (PMA
Bach and Handel very occasionally made xxiv). J.F.O.
use of a "Flauto Piccolo," a small re-
corder usually an octave higher in pitch
Recoeuilli [F.]. Collected, reserved.
than the Flauto; the statement that this under *Basse dance.
Recoupe [F.]. See
was a ^flageolet is erroneous. After 1750
the recorder passed gradually out of use. Recte et retro [I.]. See *Retrograde.
In the early 20th century a revival took
Redobles [Sp.]. See *Ornamentation I.
place, begun by Arnold Dolmetsch in
scale, by makers in the United States. larity around 1850. Cf. the example in
Modern instruments are generally made GD iv, 340.
in four sizes, named by German and Eng-
Reduction [F.]. Arrangement. Piano
lish makers as follows:
r6duction, arrangement for piano.
German English Range Reed [F. anche\ G. Zunge, Blatt, Rohr-
Descant c" d""
Soprano blatt\ It.
ancia]. I. A
small elastic piece
Alto Treble g" of thin reed (cane) or metal which is
Tenor Tenor c' d"'
' one end and is free to vibrate, by
fixed at
Bass Bass f
means of blown air, at the other end.
Two systems of boring the fingerholes The reed is the sound-producing agent in
have been used in modern instruments; various musical instruments, chiefly oboes,
that used by certain German makers to clarinets,saxophones, bagpipe, harmoni-
simplify the fingering of the first octave, um, accordion, mouth harmonica, and the
usually called "German fingering," has reed stops of the organ. Those of the first
not gained wide acceptance, and the i8th- four instruments are made from cane,
century system, today called "English the others from metal. The best cane
fingering," is now most used. The Alto reeds are made from Arundo donax, a
(Treble), owing to its widespread popu- tall grass growing in the south of France
larity as a chamber-music instrument in (Frejus).
the 1 8th century, possesses an important Two basically different types of reeds
literature written expressly for it by com- must be distinguished, namely idiophonic
posers of nearly every nationality; much and heterophonic reeds [G. hartc and
REED REFRAIN
weichc Zungen]. The idiophonic [Gr., This device
trolling the reed indirectly.
own sound] reeds are made of a heavy which excludes expressive and dynamic
and hard substance, usually metal, and nuances was used in various early instru-
are capable of producing a sound of one ments, e.g., in the *cromornes, while in
pitch only, this being determined by their the *pibgorn the reed is enclosed in a fun-
length and thickness (similar to, e.g., a nel-shaped mouthpiece which is pressed
tuning fork). Such reeds are used in the tightly around the lips.
*harmonium, the *accordion, the *mouth
Chinese
Reed pipes, stops. See *Organ VIII,
harmonica, *sheng, the
the
X.
*regal, and the organ reed stops. In the
latter they are combined with a pipe Reel. A dance performed by two or more
which, however, serves only to reinforce couples standing in a circle and describing
the sound [see *Organ VIII]. hetero- A a series of figures each in the time of eight
phonic [Gr., other sound] reed is made measures. It is common in Scotland, Ire-
of a light and soft substance, usually cane, land, and America, the American variety
and capable of producing a wide range
is being known as the Virginia reel. The
of pitches, but only if it is attached to a music consists of four or eight measures
pipe, the length of which determines the in moderately quick duple meter which
pitch of the sound. In instruments such are repeated over and over again. See
as the oboe or clarinet the sounding under *Strathspey.
length of the pipe can be varied by cover-
Reexposition [F.]. Recapitulation.
ing different holes, so that a whole scale
can be obtained from the reed. It is this Refrain. I. A
term of poetry, equivalent
type of reed that the term usually refers to. to burden, thus denoting one or two lines
II. Heterophonic reeds occur in two of identical text which occur at the end of
varieties, i.e., single reeds (clarinet, saxo- each stanza of a strophic poem. In mu-
phone) and double reeds (oboe, bassoon). sical composition the refrain is naturally
In the former type there is only one reed set to the same melody, so that the term
which vibrates against a slot of the pipe, adopts the meaning of both textual and
while in the latter type there are two reeds, musical repetition. A
popular name for
separated by a slight opening, which vi- the refrain chorus, referring to the com-
is
brate against each other. It may be re- mon practice of singing the refrain in full
marked that the lips of the trumpet and chorus, the stanzas (verses) solo.
horn player form, from the acoustical II. The principle of the refrain was al-
point of view, a pair of hetcrophonic dou- ready present in the antiphonal and re-
ble reeds. sponsorial singing of the early Christian
Another distinction of somewhat lesser Church in which an exclamation such as
importance (referring chiefly to the idio- Amen, Alleluia, etc., was repeated by the
phonic class) is that between free reeds congregation or the choir after each verse
and beating reeds. In the former type, or pair of verses of a psalm [see *Psalm-
which is used in the harmonium, the ody II, III]. The refrain poem developed
reeds move outside and inside of a slot particularly in the iath and i3th cen-
which is just wide enough to let the reed turies under the *troubadours and *trou-
pass "freely"; in the other type, used veres, leading to various refrain-forms,
chiefly in the organ, the opening of the the simplest of which is the *ballade, usu-
slot is somewhat smaller than the reed so ally a poem of three stanzas of eight lines
that this "beats" against the frame of the each, the last two of which are a refrain.
slot. The reed of the clarinet also is a Its musical scheme is a a b R for the stanza
beating reed. (refrains are usually printed in italics and,
A is the covered
special type of reed in schematic presentations, indicated by
a (single or double) reed which capital letters). Another refrain-form
reed, i.e.,
of
is enclosed in a cap perforated by a hole the 1 3th century is the *virelai with the
into which the player blows, thus con- structure A b b a A for the stanza, the
[632]
REFRAIN REGISSEUR
closing refrain serving also as the initial rated into the motet together with a mel-
refrain for the next stanza. (In these
ody. In such cases the technique is that of
schemes one letter, whether small or the *quodlibet since the tenor-melody is
capital,always denotes identical music.) always borrowed (from plainsong). Fre-
The situation is somewhat different with quently the method of borrowing was the
the medieval rondeau: ABaAabAB reverse of that just described, i.e., the ini-
[see *Rondeau (i)] since this has nor- tial
phrase of a motet duplum became a
mally only one stanza within which the refrain. The custom of refrain quotation
textual and musical reiteration takes persisted till the late i5th century [cf.
place. In the Italian 14th-century *ballata M. F. Bukofzer, in MQ, 1942, p. 33].
the refrain is called *ripresa\ in the Span- The principle of alternation between
ish *villancico, *cstribillo. variable and reiterated portions of a com-
III. The refrain lines,
particularly of position reappears in the instrumental
the rondeaux, are frequently borrowed *ritornelli of the iyth century, as well as
material, i.e., sentences which were taken in the rondeaux of the French clavecin-
over from earlier poems and which, owing ists [see *Rondeau (2), and *Rondo].
to their popularity, were in common use Lit.: H. Orenstein, Die Refrainformen
so that their "quotation" was a matter of im Chansonnier de I' Arsenal (Diss. Vi-
courtly education. Thus, the term refrain enna 1937); F. Gennrich, Musi1(wissen-
adopts the meaning of a line of text taken schaft und Romanische Philologie ( 1918).
over from some other literary product.
There existed in the first half of the i3th Regal. A portable organ invented prob-
century a whole stock of well-known re- ably around 1450 and much used during
frains, usually of amorous character, such the 1 6th and iyth centuries, which had
as "Eai! ke ferai? Je mur d'amourette" reed pipes only [see *Reedj. The repro-
or "En ma dame ai mis mon cuer, et ma duction in GD
iv, 344 furnishes a good
pensee," which were freely borrowed for view of the construction. The explana-
new songs as well as for the upper parts tion of the name is uncertain [cf the con- .
of French motets [cf. HAM, nos. I9b and jectures in GD iv, 344; SaHMI, 308;
32d]. Three such usages may be men- SaRM, 318]. In the i6th century, the
tioned here: (a) The chanson avec des reed pipes of the regal were incorporated
retrains was a strophic song each stanza into the organ which theretofore had pos-
of which concluded with a "different re- sessed only flue pipes. Thus, the reed
frain" if this self-contradictory term be stops of the later organs are frequently
permitted [Ex. in AdHM i, i95f]. (b) called "regal" in general, many of them
The refrain motet, i.e., a motet which in- bearing names such as Geigenregal, Trich-
cludes refrain-quotations in the text of the terregal (from the funnel-like shapes of
upper parts, usually at the end. This was the pipes), etc. On the other hand, regals
a very common procedure in the French themselves were also enlarged by the ad-
motets from about 1250. (c) The motet dition of flue pipes. Monteverdi pre-
ente which begins with the first half of a scribed the regal in his Orfeo (1607) to
refrain and ends with its conclusion, with accompany the song of Charon [see Or-
new material in between [see *Ente]. chestration I] . A particularly small type
There are even a few motets (and one of regal was the bible regal, so called be-
conductus) the text of which consists en- cause it could be folded together like a
tirely of refrains [Ex. in AdHM
i, 240, E] ,
book. Cf. SaHMI, 309.
in the manner of a *cento. While the
textual aspect of the borrowing in motets Regisseur. German designation for the
has been fully investigated by philologists, artistic or technical director of an opera.
the question as to what extent musical In German, "Regie" corresponds gener-
borrowing went with it is much less clear. ally to "production." The Regiebuch
con-
In quite a few instances, however, it has tains the operatic text with the indication
been shown that the refrain was incorpo- of the stage setting.
[633]
REGISTER RELISH
Register, (i) In organ parlance, the full to which each tone of the octave is pro-
set of pipes controlled by one stop; hence, vided with a suitable chord, as in the
practically identical with organ stop. A accompanying example. Such schemes
register may include one or (in mixture proved helpful for the realization of sim-
stops, etc.) several *ranks. (2) The dif- ple basses which had no figures indicating
ferent ranges of the human voice are dis- more elaborate chords. Cf. E. Borrel, in
tinguished, according to the method of TG xxi, 175.
their production and sound quality, as
"head register," "chest register," etc. As Rehab. Same as *rebab.
[634]
REMETTEZ REPETITION
viol, and keyboard. The term Single Rel- tradition, namely, that of the troubadours
ish was applied to any ornament formed and trouveres (i2th to i3th century).
by the alternation of two adjacent notes. The most satisfactory definition may be
The Double Relish, a complex ornament obtained on the basis of stylistic qualities,
similar to the French *double cadence, i.e., internal musical evidence. Clarity,
consists essentially of a trill upon each of balance, self-reliance, euphony, expres-
two successive notes, as follows: siveness within well-regulated limits, fi-
sic, indication to take off a stop. view is accepted, the beginning of the
musical Renaissance can scarcely be dated
Renaissance, Music of the. The earlier than 1500, the time when Josquin,
counterpart in music of the Renaissance Isaac, Hofhaimer (all born about 1450),
in the Fine Arts and in literature. Al- reached maturity of style. This leaves an
though the term is universally used, there unaccounted-for gpp of 50 years between
will hardly be found even two interpreters the beginning of the Renaissance and the
who entirely agree as to its proper mean- end of the Gothic period (1450), a half-
ing and to its temporal as well as spatial century which comprises the work of the
limitations. If Renaissance means as it earliestFlemish composers, Ockeghem
originally did in the other arts the re- and Obrecht (both born 1430). Of these
discovery of ancient Greek culture, then the former will have to be considered as
Renaissance music can hardly be said to continuing the Gothic tradition, the latter
exist; phenomena such as the composi- as preparing the style of the Renaissance.
tion in the Horatian meters [see *Ode; See *History of music; *Flemish Schools;
also ^Humanism] are, indeed, of a very *Humanism; *Musica reservata; and the
subordinate importance and the efforts various countries.
towards a revival of the Greek drama
were purely imaginative, not to mention Renforcer [F.]. To reinforce, to in-
crease.
the fact that they led to a musical style
(monody, opera, oratorio) which is gen- Renversement [F.]. Inversion (of in-
erally agreed upon as already represent- tervals, chords, subjects).
ing the beginning of the *Baroque pe-
riod. If the term means the liberation of Renvoi [F.]. Sign of *Da capo.
music from the bondage to the Church
Repeat. The signs ||:
at the beginning,
and the rise of a secular aestheticism, then and at the end of
: a section, which call
||
the music of the i4th century rather than
for repetition of this section. If the latter
that of the i5th might be termed Renais-
sign alone appears, the repetition is meant
sance music. As a matter of fact, even in
to start from the beginning of com-
the
the Fine Arts there has recently been a
position (e.g., the exposition of sonata-
tendency towards dating back the begin- form).
ning of the Renaissance as early as 1300
("Proto-Renaissance" of Giotto, etc.). A Repercussa, repercussio [L.], Re-
musical "proto-Renaissance" might be perkussion [G.]. See under *Psalm
said to begin as early as 1250 (secular tone.
motets) and to continue throughout the
I4th century (*Ars Nova); however, a Repetition, (i) A special device of
[635]
RPTITION REQUIEM
(2) As a device of musical composition, Thus, in Playford's Introduction to the
repetition is one of the most important, if Sfyll of Music (i2th edition, 1694) refer-
not the most important, principles of mu- ence is made to "imitation or reports,"
sical construction. This will be realized and the Scottish psalter of 1635 contains
if it is remembered that the repetition of tunes treated in the style of an anthem
a musical idea or motive includes among and inscribed: "Psalmes in Reports."
its subspecies: sequential treatment, imi-
and Reprendere [It.]. To take up again
tation, ostinato, variation, repetition
of entire sections. This last is the basic (the tempo).
these works the Dies irae is not composed, This acoustical phenomenon takes place
but sung in plainsong, as are the opening only when two bodies are capable of
the
intonations of the various portions, while vibrations of the same frequency. If, e.g.,
two tuning forks of the same frequency
the composed sections use the liturgical
melodies more or less freely as a cantus (i.e., of
the same pitch) are placed close
firmus. The dramatic mind of the lyth together and if one of them is struck
with
century was captivated particularly by
a hammer, the other will immediately
the tremendous words of the Dies irae. begin to vibrate and to emit the same
The lyth-century requiems of Christian sound, as can be shown by silencing the
Straus (fl. 1616-27), Heinrich Franz former. In the case of vibrating strings
Biber (1644-1704), and Joh. Kaspar Kerll the possibilities of resonance are consider-
(1627-93), reproduced in DTOe 30.1, all ably larger, owing to the existence of the
use tremolo effects for the words "Quan- harmonics. On the pianoforte, e.g., the
tus tremor/' Among the orchestral set- string C sets up resonant vibrations in the
g, c', e', etc., as can be shown by
tings of the 18th century, Jommelli's and, strings c,
above all, Mozart's Requiem are out- an experiment described under *Acous-
The list of 19th-century com- tics IV. The resonance in the numerous
standing.
strings of the pianoforte is the cause
of
posers of the Requiem includes Cherubini,
Berlioz, Dvorak, Bruckner, Verdi, Saint- the change in timbre which results if, by
Saens, and Faure. Brahms, in his Deut- means of the right pedal, the dampers are
sches Requiem (op. 45, 1868), created an lifted from all the strings. See also *Sym-
more important in
impressive work based on German texts
Still
pathetic strings.
musical instruments are the so-called
freely chosen from the Scriptures [see
*German Requiem]. Cf. Ch. W. Fox, bodies which
"general resonators/' i.e.,
"The Polyphonic Requiem before 1615" react with sounds of any frequency or
(BAMS vii). pitch.
To this type belong the sounding-
board of the piano and the belly and back
Reservata. See *Musica reservata. of the violin which co-vibrate with any
sound produced on the strings and rein-
Res facta it by resonance. Some writers, how-
completed work]. With
[L., force
reference to 15th-century music, a com- ever, do not consider this phenomenon as
position fully written out in all its parts, resonance but as "transmission by con-
as distinguished from improvised *faux- tact." In true resonance, then, transmis-
bourdon. sion is effected only by the air. Resonance
[637]
RESONANZSAITEN RESULTANT TONES
is one of the various factors which enter each method was restricted to special
into the study of * architectural acoustics types of chant [see *Psalmody II, IIIJ,
* Acoustics for
[see this and literature], they are used today more or less indis-
Cf.M.Seiflfert,inZM^xi. criminately according to existing condi-
tions. Antiphonal performance (North
Resonanzsaiten [G.]. *Sympathetic Choir and South Choir) is the most nor-
strings. mal. For responsorial psalmody see
Resonator. Acoustical implements, usu- *Psalmody II. (2) Older name for
ally in the shape of a hollow vessel, which
Graduate [see
*Liturgical books] or,
serve to reinforce sounds by resonance. more a collection of the
specifically, for
Resonators in the form of a glass globe solo sections of the chants of Mass.
with a small opening were used by Helm-
holtz to prove the existence of the har- Responsorium (responsory, re-
monics. Others, in the shape of hollow spond). In the Roman service, name of
various chants which grew out of the
cylinders, are used with the Javanese
ancient form of *responsorial psalmody,
xylophones and with the *marimba. The
use of the term to denote globular flutes consisting of an alternation of solo verse
resultsfrom (or, at least, leads to) a con- and choral refrain: R V R V R [see . . .
fusion with Helmholtz' scientific imple- *Psalmody II]. Originally the *Gradual
ments. (responsorium graduate) as well as the
*
Alleluia belonged to this class; the Grad-
Respond. Used in the meaning of *re- ual is even today called "Responsorium"
sponsorium, or, occasionally, of ^response. in the liturgical books of the Dominicans.
More name applies to two
specifically, the
Response. In the Anglican service, tihe
specialcategories of chants, the melis-
replies of the choir to the prayers or state-
matic responsoria prolixa and the much
ments of the priest, such as "Amen," or
"And simpler responsoria brevia [regarding
grant us thy salvation." They are their form, see under *Psalmody II ] The .
not derived from the *responsoria of the
former are sung at Matins or Nocturnes
Roman Church, but from the toni versi-
of high feasts, such as Christmas, Corpus
culorum (AR 32*) and the toni oratio-
9
Christi, Easter, etc., or, occasionally, in-
num (AR, 49*), simple recitations for the
troductory to the Mass (e.g., "Ingrediente
psalm verses or the prayers witih respond-
Domino," on Palm Sunday). Being
ing sentences or words. In Merbecke's
chants of Matins, etc., they are not in-
Boo fa of Common Praier Noted ... of
cluded in the Antiphonale, but are found
1549, the English texts are given with the
in the Liber Usualis [see *Liturgical
plainsong recitations of their Latin mod-
books] The responsoria brevia are sung
.
els. wrote two har-
Tallis, shortly after,
monized versions of these, one in four during the daily hours and elsewhere.
They are not indexed in the Liber Usualis.
parts with the melody in the treble, and
one in five, with the plainsong melody in Rest G. Pause; It.
[F. pause, silence;
the tenor. These are known today as
pausa}. See *Notes.
Festal responses. For weekdays and or-
[638]
RETARDATION RHYTHM
Retardation. A
rare term for *suspen- iv, 456; see *Rovescio]. Beethoven re-
sion, or, particularly, the suspension re- vived crab motion as a device of fugal
volving upwards. style in the final fugue of the Hammer-
klavier Sonata, op. 106. More recently,
Retenant [F.]. Holding hack (im-
Schonberg has introduced retrograde mo-
mediately). tion as a basic feature of his *twelve-tone
rograde motion is one of the most fre- Rhapsody [Gr. rhaptein, to tear; ode,
quent tricks in the riddle canons of the song]. A Greek term denoting
a portion
1
4th and I5th centuries in which it is in- of an epic (e.g., the Iliad}, as well as a
dicated by inscriptions such as: "Ma fin free medley of such portions sung in suc-
est mon commencement" (Machaut), cession. Musicians have adopted this
"Ubi a ibi a>" (with reference to the first name in different meanings, chiefly for
and last letters of the Greek alphabet), free fantasies of a somewhat epic, heroic,
"Cancriza" (walk like a crab), "Canit or national character (F. Liszt, Rhapso-
more Hebraeorum" (-sing as the Hebrews dies Hongroises; Raff; Lalo; Dvorak;
read, i.e., from the right to the left), Bartok). In Brahms's Rhapsodien for PF.
"Vade retro Satanas" (Retreat, Satan), (op. 79 and op. 119, 4) the name would
by backward spelling such as "Ronet" or seem to refer to their ballade-like char-
"Nusmido," etc. An example of out- acter, whereas, in his Rhapsodic in C, op.
standing ingenuity is Byrd's motet Dili- 53, for alto, male chorus, and orchestra,
ges Dominum [cf. Hawkins, History, the title may have been chosen with re-
chapter 96]. Bach has used retrograde gard to the fact that it is written to a por-
motion only in some of the canons of his tion only of Goethe's Harzreise im Winter.
Musical Offering, in which it is called for The free, "rhapsodic" element appears to
by the clefs placed at the end as well as at be prominent in Gershwin's Rhapsody in
the beginning of the piece. Another ex- Blue.
ample, humorous rather than scholarly,
Rheingold. See *Ring des Nibelungen.
[639]
RHYTHM RHYTHM
purpose of this article, a definition as in- which lacks regularly recurrent accent.
clusive as possible, i.e., the following: Since, in modern notation, accent is in-
Rhythm is everything pertaining to the dicated by bar-lines (the understanding
temporal quality (duration) of the mu- being that the first note after the bar-line
sical sound. Thus rhythm forms the receives an accent), this rhythm leads to
counterpart of *motion, i.e., everything a free alternation of different measures
pertaining to the pitch quality of the mu- [see Example, e]. This type of rhythm is
sical sound. Each melody can be sepa- much more important in music history
rated into a rhythm skeleton and a motion than is
generally recognized. Gregorian
skeleton, as is illustrated under *Melody. chant, in its Solesmes rendering as well as
There is, however, an additional ele- in the interpretation of the "mensuralists"
ment of musical rhythm which enters into [see ^Gregorian chant VI], belongs to
the picture as a fundamental factor, i.e., this category (the common reference to
accent. In fact, one and the same rhythm Gregorian rhythm as being "free" is actu-
pattern has entirely different meanings allymisleading; a certain freedom of per-
depending upon where the accent or dy- formance, involving ritardandos and ac-
namic stress falls [see Example], celerandos, may be applied to any type of
rhythm). So does modern ^Russian and
*Syrian chant as well as the humanistic
*ode and the *vers mesure of the i6th
century, the *plainchant musical, and the
French ^recitative of the ijth century.
Measured rhythm has gained considerable
importance in the works of recent com-
posers such as Stravinsky, Bartok, and
Hindemith, in which it frequently is no-
tated as *syncopation, i.e., as a temporary
displacement of regular meter and accent.
(c) Free rhythm, i.e., the use of tem-
poral values which have no common
met-
rical unit (beat). The existence of such
(quarter-note or eighth-note).
For an in-
fraction) of a fixed unit of time, called
beat, and in which the normal accent teresting attempt to escape the rhythmic
recurs in regular intervals, called measure. fetters of our notation, see *Prelude II
The basic scheme of time-values within (Louis Couperin). Free rhythm is also
each measure is called *meter. Inmodern actually present whenever a striking devia-
notation, the measures are marked off one tion from strict rhythm is demanded, e.g.,
from another by bar-lines. See the above by rallentando, accelerando, rubato.
Example, a-d. This is, aside from excep- HI. History of (Metrical) Rhythm.
(a) Prehistory. Whether Gregorian
tions mentioned below, the rhythm of chant
European music. For more details see had a free, oratoric rhythm or an essen-
under III. tiallymeasured rhythm is still an open
(b) Measured rhythm, i.e., a rhythm question. At any rate, it is now
generally
theo-
in which every time value is a multiple agreed upon (in contrast to earlier
ries, e.g., by Riemann) that it was
not in
(or fraction) of a fixed unit of time, but
[640]
RHYTHM RHYTHM
metrical rhythm, i.e., that it had no regu-
1300-1600. Around 1250 the first at-
larly recurrent accents. A
different situa- tempts were made to introduce duple
tion is encountered in the case of the meter. An interesting remark in a con-
*hymns. As early
earliest poetic texts, the
temporary treatise (Pseudo- Aristotle; cf.
as the 4th century the *Ambrosian hymns CS i, 271) not only refers to this daring
had strictly metrical melodies, as we know innovation, but also indicates the strength
from St. Augustine's testimony. The nu- of the opposition it met: "... If somebody
merous office hymns of the loth to the were to ask whether a song can be formed
1 2th century as well as the rhymed by imperfect (i.e., duple) longac (i.e.,
"^sequences of, e.g., Adam de St. Victor half-notes) exclusively just as it can be
(d. 1192) introduced strictly metrical formed by perfect longae (i.e., triple or
poetry, e.g.: O salutaris hostia, Quae caeli dotted half-notes), the approved answer
pandis ostium, etc. This, however, was is no; since
nobody can sing a succession
not immediately accompanied by the in- of pure imperfect longaeT In order to
troduction of metrical rhythm, as the ac- understand this position, it must be re-
companying example shows, the rhythmic membered that, to the 13th-century mu-
rendering of which leaves room for con- meter was something "per-
sician, triple
jecture, but
is
certainly not "metrical" (as fect," it had
because "beginning," "mid-
indicated below the staff). dle," and "end"; duple meter, on the
(b) Modal Rhythm. It was not until other hand, had "beginning" and "mid-
shortly before 1200 that strict metrical dle," but no "end," and was, therefore,
mic] of the organa, clausulae, etc., of the not stop, however, before such scholastic
reasoning, and
shortly after 1300 duple
and meter were recognized as of
triple
equal right in all degrees, from the max-
$A- lu- ima to the semiminima or, as we would
JlJ
say, from the whole-note to the quarter-
note, so that all meters, %, %, %, %,
School of Notre Dame. This epochal became This system, which is
available.
innovation must be credited to Magister the basis of the ^mensurations of *men-
Leoninus. While his organa (dupla) sural notation, was established by Philippe
would seem to represent an intermediate de Vitry (c. 1320). Hand in hand with
type, including sections in modal rhythm this freedom of meter went a rapid ad-
alongside with others in the free rhythm vance in the use of rhythmic subtleties
of the earlier period (*St. Martial), his and finesses, such as dotted rhythm (the
successor Perotinus established the exclu- 1 3th century had given preference to the
regulate uniformly the entire fabric. This musica del ritmo (1910); K. Wilson, in
rhythm, which is most clearly realized in ML viii, no. i; M. Lussy, in i; H. VMW
the dance, becomes the rhythmic basis of Cowell, in MM v, no. 4.
all music from c. 1600 to 1900, Bach being
denburg Concertos of Bach. After 1750, Ribs. The sides of instruments of the
the development of music offers little in-
violin family, connecting the back and
terest from the rhythmic point of view
the table.
until Brahms who, familiar with the mu-
sic of earlier periods, made ample use of Ricercar(e), ricercata [from It. ricer-
rather complicated cross-rhythms, synco- car e y to search.] A
term which, during
pated formulae, unusual triplet forma- the 1 6th and I7th centuries, was applied
[see *New music]. For more details see chief characteristic therefore, the imi-
is,
[642 ]
RICERCAR RICERCAR
(a) The
Instrumental Ricercar. Instru- viermusi^ 1899, p. 33), according to
mental pieces in the style of the motet which the fantasia is mono-thematic, the
occurred as early as with Isaac (c. 1450- ricercar poly-thematic, does not stand the
1517), Hofhaimer ( 1459-1537), and other test of thorough investigation. Prob-
contemporary composers. Some of the ably no clear distinction can be
made,
former's "Instrumentalsatze" [e.g.,DTCte since the term fantasia was used for a
14.1, nos. 42, 51] and of the latter's *car- variety of types some of which approxi-
mina [cf. H. J.Moser, Paul Hofhaimer, mate the much more clearly defined ricer-
WerJ^e, p. 102] might well be considered car [see *Fantasia (5)].
the point of departure of the ricercar. It (b) The Organ Ricercar. The history of
may, however, be noticed that some of the imitative ricercar for the organ begins
Isaac's instrumental pieces approach the with Girolamo Cavazzoni's Intavolatura
character of the *canzona rather than that doe recercari canzoni himni magnificat!
of the ricercar [cf. HAM, no. 88]. The of 1542/43. The four ricercars contained
earliest ensemble pieces named ricercar in this publication [cf. HAM,
no. 116]
(to be found in publications by lacques are remarkable because they exhibit cer-
Buus, 1547; Willaert, 1549, '59; Tiburtino tain peculiarities of style and form which
da Tievoli, 1549; Annibale Padovano, make the organ ricercar a form in its own
1556) can also be characterized as textless right, not a mere "textless motet" as is
motets, although some of them exceed largely the case with the instrumental
the confines of proper motet style owing ricercar. The most important difference
to their considerable extension or to a is their sectional construction which forms
pieces as organ music, as has been done in HAM, no. 249b]), until Bach closed the
the case of Padovano (ed. by N. Pierront, development with his famous ricercar
1934) [see ^Ensemble]. (acrostic title: R-egis I ussu C-antio E-t
A
much-discussed problem is that of R-eliqua A-rte C-anonica R-esoluta:
the distinction between the 16th-century Upon the King's Demand, the Theme
and the contemporary
ricercar fantasia. and Additions Resolved in Canonic Style)
The theory, advanced by M. Seiffert from the ^Musical Offering, 1748.
(Seiffert-Weitzmann, Geschichte der Kla- II. The Non-Imitative Ricercar. The
[643]
RICERCAR RICERCAR
earliest pieces
bearing the name ricercar somewhat in the function of a prelude,
as well as numerous later examples from because each of the two ricercars is fol-
the i6th and i7th centuries show traits of lowed by a piece in the same key, a Salve
style and form which set them clearly virgo and an O
Stella marts
evidently
apart from the type just described. It is the "motets" of the title.
difficult to find a common denominator
(c) For Viols, etc. Theoretical writers
for all these pieces. Perhaps they such as Ganassi (Regola Rubertina, 1542;
might
be described as being designed to exploit newed. by M. Schneider, 1924) and Diego
the idiomatic resources of the various in- Ortiz (Tratado de glosas, 1553; new ed.
struments for which they were written, by M. Schneider, 1913) use the term ri-
somewhat in the character of our etude. cercar for instructive pieces designed to
(a) For the Lute. The numerous lute demonstrate the skillful playing of the
ricercars contained in Petrucci's Intabola- viola da gamba. Ganassi's pieces are in-
tura de lauto i, ii, iv (1507/8; iii is lost) teresting for the extensive use of double-
are the earliest pieces bearing this name. stops [cf. HAM, no. 119], while those by
They show no connection with the motet, Ortiz serve to illustrate the art of variation
being short pieces in free lute style, and and ornamentation. Clearly to the same
consisting chiefly of passages and chords, category belong 17th-century ricercars
much like a prelude. Counterpoint is re- for violoncello solo (without accompani-
duced to a bare minimum, and imitation ment), much in the character of a concert
is
practically absent [cf. HAM, no. 98; etude, by Giambattista degli Antoni and
SchGMB, no. 63b], It must be noted, by Domenico Gabrielli (1689; cf.
owing to an increased ability of the lute (p. 295) speaks of "the masters who com-
players who by then regarded the poly- pose ricercars and solfeggios." These
phonic style as idiomatic to their instru- pieces are particularly interesting as po-
ment. tential predecessors of Bach's two-voice
(b) For the Organ. The earliest organ inventions.
pieces called ricercar are found in Marc- Lit.: W.
Wasielewski, Geschichte der
antonio da Bologna's Ricercari moteti lnstrumentalmusi\ im 16. Jahrhundert
canzoni (1523). Like the lute pieces, they (1878), Beilage (nos. 12-15 ^ or ^ ute I 7~ >
have no connection with the motet. They 1 8 for ensemble, 20, 21,
24 for organ);
are lengthy pieces written in the Hhordal O. Kinkeldey, Orgel und Klavier in der
and scalic style of the toccata rather than Musit^ des 16. ]ahrhunderts (1910; exam-
ples); G. Frotscher, Geschichte des Orgel-
in the contrapuntal style of the motet. In
spite of their length they apparently served spiels ( 1935), passim; H. Opienski, "Quel-
RICOCHET RING DES NIBELUNGEN
ques considerations sur Forigine des ri- (Mezzo-Soprano). Implored by his sis-
ccrcarcs pour luth" (in ^Editions XXIV, ter,Sparafucile agrees to murder, instead
B, 3/4); A. Einstein, "Vincenzo Galilei of the Duke, the first person who will
c il duetto didattico" (LRM xi). enter the inn, and Gilda, overhearing this,
sacrifices herself. Rigoletto receives from
Ricochet [F.]. See *Bowing (e). Sparafucile a sack which he believes to
contain the corpse of the Duke until fi-
Riddle canon. See *Canon (i) II.
nally, opening it, he discovers that of his
Ridotto own daughter.
[It.]. Reduced, i.e., arranged
Its gruesome plot places
(for PP., etc.). Rigoletto in
the category of the "horror-opera" which
Riduzione had a great vogue around 1850. How-
[It.]. Arrangement.
ever, the action is full of moments of gen-
Rigaudon, rigadoon. A Provencal uinely dramatic tension, and the music,
dance of the iyth century [see *Dance in particular, elevates the opera far beyond
music III] used in the operatic ballets of the level of, e.g., Meyerbeer's Robert le
Campra, Rameau, and also adopted into Diable. Together with // Trovatore
the optional group of the suite (Pachelbel, (1853) and La Traviata (1853) it: repre-
Bach). Among the earliest extant exam- sents the crowning-point of the Italian
[645]
RING DBS NIBELUNGEN RITMO
lective basic idea may be said to be the interrupted flow [see *Opera X; *Reci-
ancient Germanic conception of the tative; *Leitmotifj.
world consisting of three realms strug-
Ripieno [It., filled up]. In lyth- and
gling against each other: the light realm
of the gods (Walhalla, with Wotan, his 18th-century orchestral music, particu-
larly in
the *concerti grossi, the term de-
wife Fricka, the Fire God Loge); the
notes the "reinforcing section" of the or-
realm of men (Earth, represented by
Hund- chestra, comparable to the "rear section"
Siegmund, Sieglinde, Siegfried, modern
of the violins, etc., in the orches-
ing, Hagen, Gunther, Gutrune), and the
tra. Therefore, "ripieni" indicates the
dark realm of the Nibelungs, a race of
fullorchestra (////, concerto grosso), as
dwarfs living beneath the earth ( Alberich,
distinguished from the soloists (concer-
Mime). In addition there are the Val- The term "senza how-
Wotan's daughters (Briinnhilde tino). ripieni,"
kyries,
ever, is not identical with "orchestra si-
and her sisters), the Giants (Fasolt and
lent," but calls for the leading members
Fafner), and the Norns, goddesses who
only of the orchestra, i.e., for a smaller
represent the eternal destiny to which
ensemble used for the accompaniment of
even the gods are subjected. Two basic
the soloists (concertino). Ripienista (Ri-
plots are merged in the libretto. The first
is an orchestral
is a legendary plot centering around the pienist) player.
magic ring which, forged by Alberich, Riposato [It.] . With a feeling of repose.
falls successively into the hands of Wotan,
of Fafner (who guards it as a dragon), Riprendere [It.]. To take up (the
of Siegfried, who gives it to Briinnhilde original tempo).
as a sign of his love (in Siegfried) but, in
Ripresa (i) Repeat or repetition
[It.],
the Gotterddmmerung, takes it again (also of a performance, opera, etc.).
away from her. The second is a human (2) Recapitulation (in sonata form).
plot centering, in Die Wal^ure, around
(3) In the i^h-century *ballata (and in
the incestuous love of Siegmund and its descendant, the *frottola) the *refrain.
Sieglinde and, in Siegfried, around the
(4) In 16th-century dances, a repeti-
love of their son Siegfried and Briinn-
tion in varied form fcf. Th. Norlind, in
hilde, while, in the G'otter-dammerung, SIM See also * Reprise.
vii] .
ginning to the end of each act in an un- dication "ritmo di tre (quattro) battute"
RITORNELLE ROLLSCHWELLER
indicates
(Ninth Symphony, Scherzo), roque, characterized by an abundance of
the
groups of three (four) measures, merely decorative scroll and shell work
speed of the piece being so fast that there and by a general tendency towards ele-
is one beat
only to the measure. gance, hedonism, and frivolity. These
traits are also patent in iSth-century
Ritornelle, ritournelle [F.], ritor-
music, in which Rococo designates the
nello [It.], (i) In the i^h-century
period of the "gallant style," which, with
*madrigal, the last two lines of the stanza.
This ritornello is not a refrain; as a mat-
its emphasis on pleasantness and pretti-
ness, forms a marked contrast to the im-
ter of fact, the madrigal never has a re-
pressive grandeur of the true Baroque
frain, in contradistinction to the *ballata
style. The main period of Rococo may
and its later derivative, the *frottola, the
be said to extend from 1725 to 1775. It
refrain of which is called *ripresa. must be noted, however, that the move-
(2) In early 17th-century operas [Monte- ment started at a considerably earlier time
verdi, Orfeo (1607)] an instrumental in- in where
France, Francois Couperin
terlude preceding or following after an
(1668-1733) represents the musical
aria, scene, etc. Aside from the *sin-
counterpart of the first Rococo painter,
fonias which serve a somewhat different
Watteau (1684-1721). From France it
purpose, the ritornelli are the only in-
spread to Germany (Telcmann, 1681
strumental pieces in the early operas.
1767; Mattheson, 1681-1764) and Italy
Later there is frequently thematic rela-
(Domenico Scarlatti, 1685-1757). The
tionship between the ritornello and the wholehearted adoption of the Rococo style
aria. (3) In the German 17th-century resulted in a deterioration of artistic
strophic songs, called *aria (Erasmus standards under musicians such as Bal-
Kindermann, cf. DTB 21/24; Adam
bastre, Daquin, Nichelmann, Grazioli,
Krieger, cf. DdT 19), an instrumental
Sacchini, and many others who fill the
interlude of four to eight measures played
volumes euphemistically called "The Old
after each stanza; thus, an instrumental
Masters of the Pianoforte." Although as
*refrain [cf. HAM, no. 228; SchGMB,
early as1740 Johann Stamitz, the founder
nos. 2093, 210]. (4) Modern writers of the *Mannheim School, established a
occasionally use the term for the recurrent
novel style of a more vigorous nature,
tutti portions of the concerto grosso or of
Rococo elements are still present in the
the rondo. (5) The ritournelle is a works of C. P. E. Bach, Haydn, and Mo-
17th-century dance in quick triple time, zart. See *Gallant style; *Empfindsamer
by far the most frequent dance type in
the ballets of Lully.
Stil. Cf. LaMWC, 530*!.
(6) Ritornello also
denotes a type of Italian popular poetry,
Rogue's March. A tune of English
consisting of three-line stanzas, the first origin which was used when a soldier
and last in rhyme (similar to Dante's was expelled from the army. Cf. GD iv,
terza rima).
416, and iii, 316.
Riverso, rivolto [It.]. Terms denot- Rohrblatt [G., strip of cane]. The
ing properly *in version (of intervals, *reed of the clarinet, oboe, etc., instru-
chords, or parts), but also used in the ments which are called Rohrblattinstru-
meaning of *retrograde motion. See *Ro- tnentc.
vescio.
Rohrstimmen, Rohrwerk [G.]. The
Rivolto [It.]. Inversion (of intervals, reed department of the organ.
chords, and subjects).
Rolle [G.]. German iSth-century term
Rococo [from F. rocaille, shell]. In the
(Turk) for the *turn.
Fine Arts and applied arts (interior deco-
ration, cabinetmaking) a designation for Rollschweller [G.]. The crescendo
the iSth-century outgrowth of the *Ba- of the organ.
pedal
[647]
ROMANCE ROMAN SCHOOL
Romance [F.], Romanze [G.], Ro- nesca; cf. HAM,
no. 192). The basic mel-
manza [It.]. In French (Italian) ro- ody the descending tetrachord (which,
is
mance (romanza) means a lyrical and in the iyth century, was widely used as a
usually sentimental song; romances sans *ground), this motive coming to a tonic
paroles, songs without words. The
i.e., close in the repetition:
a-g-f-e-a-g-fe-
German term is used chiefly for instru- d [see the
accompanying example, by
mental pieces of a particularly tender Valderrabano]. The Romanesca, there-
character (Mozart, Pianoforte Concerto fore, belongs to the category of soprano
D minor; Beethoven, Romanzen, op. 40, ostinato [see *Ostinato] rather than
50) or (probably with reference to the basso ostinato (ground) as it is usually in-
medieval origin of the word romance) for terpreted [cf. MoML, 702; RiML, 1539].
songs in which an adventure as if "of In ^til-century examples the structure is
olden times" is told (e.g., Pedrillo's Ro- frequently obscured by the then customary
manza in Mozart's Abduction from the barring in duple meter, as, e.g., in the
Seraglio). Romancero (the Spanish word Romanesca by Marini [see *Editions II,
for troubadour) is used as a designation 7; cf. HAM, no. 199] . Cf. also RiHM ii.2,
for a collection or songs, such as
might 88f (Rossi), and 353f (Kittcl); ^RiMB,
have been sung by a romancero. no. 8 1 (Rossi). The Romanesca melody
is also used in numerous *passamezzos.
Roman chant [L. cantus Romanus, can-
tilena Romana]. That branch of Chris- Roman Festivals. See *Symphonic
tian chant which developed in Rome. It
poem.
is
usually called *Gregorian chant, after
Pope Gregory I (c. who it
Romanian letters [G. Romanus-buch-
540-604), put
in final order. was gradually adopted
It staben]. A
system of letters said to have
in almost all the Western been invented by a legendary 8th -century
places of Chris-
tian worship. See under *Chant. papal singer called Romanus. The sys-
tem is
explained by Notker Balbulus
Roman de Fauvel. See ^Sources, no. 8.
(GS i, 95) and others, and is used in
various neumatic MSS from St. Gall,
Romanesca. A
famous melody of the
i6th century which appears first in Span- Metz, and Chartres. These letters were
ish lute books [Narvaez (1538); Mudarra designed to be used in connection with
the neumes in order to clarify certain
(1546); Valderrabano (1547)], under
details of pitch, rhythm, or performance
the name "O guardame las vacas" or
not indicated by the neumes themselves.
"Romanesca O guardame las vacas" as a
Among the numerous letters mentioned
theme for continuous variations [see
*
Variations I] in the character of a cha- by Notker only a few gained practical
significance, chiefly those which refer to
listening, while the greatest works of the is romantic." Although such a statement
Romantic era are, no doubt, those which is either a falsification or a triviality, de-
derive substance and balance from the pending upon how seriously the term
classical principles of form and structure, "Romantic" is taken, there have been
$uch as the symphonies of Brahms and earlier periods of music history which
Bruckner. Shortly after 1900 there be- bear an unmistakable resemblance in
ment" (MQ xxii); A. Schering, "Kritik (2) An instrumental form of the i7th
des romantischen Musikbegriffs" (JMP century, consisting of a reiterated *refrain
xliv); V. Basch, "Le Romantisme de and different "couplets": A B A C A D
Schumann" (RM v); A. Coeuroy, "De- ... A. Whether this form is an out-
bussy et rharmonie romantique" (RM growth of the medieval rondeau is, to say
ii); A. Farinelli, "II romanticismo e
la the least, doubtful; no connecting links
musica" (RM1 xxxiii). exist between the old and the new form.
This rondeau is the most frequent form
Romanus-buchstaben [G.]. See *Ro- of theFrench clavecinists (Chambon-
manian letters.
nieres, Louis Couperin, d'Anglebert,
Romanze, Romanzero. See *Romance. Francois Couperin, Rameau), as well as
of contemporary orchestral and operatic
Rondador. See *Panpipes.
music (Lully). The refrain as well as
Ronde [F.]. See *Notes and rests. each couplet is a well-marked strain of
8 or 1 6 measures. Each couplet usually
Rondeau, An
important form of
(i) emphasizes a different key, e.g., the first,
medieval French music, frequent in the
tonic; the second, dominant; the third,
monophonic songs of the trouveres (i3th relative minor; etc. [examples in HAM,
century) as well as in the polyphonic no. 277]. In the late i8th century, the
music of the i4th and i5th centuries. The
17th-century rondeau developed into the
musical structure of the rondeau is always *rondo form of the sonata.
ABaAabAB (capital letters indicating
the *refrain), except in the earliest period Rondellus. Medieval Latin term desig-
nating (i) the monophonic *rondeau
[cf. HAM, no. i7c]
*
or (2) a canonic
form similar to the Round.
1.4.7. fcnwafomeai mis man coeur 2.9. Ei man pen-ser
9. Jfrnpir-tt-m, A- nut fuer 6. ri-Ant et dnr Rondena. See *Fandango.
5. Si mont sorpris
sv vteir oeil
tions of *Frottole). Examples in HAM, tion is usually called rondo, the inter-
nos. i7c, i9b, 36, 48, 68, 69, 71, 72. See mediate sections, episode or diversion,
*Rondellus (i). The rondo form has frequently been used
Lit.: F. Gennrich, Rondeaux, Virelais, for the last movements of sonatas and con-
ROOM ACOUSTICS ROTROUENGE
certoswhen a joyful and playful conclu- A triad, seventh-chord, etc., is said to be
sion was desired. Numerous examples of in root position if the root is the lowest
rondo form exist in the final movements note; otherwise, it is in *in version. Sec
of Beethoven's earlier pianoforte sonatas *Harmonic analysis IV.
(op. 2, no. 3; op. 13, etc.) and in prac- A
Rosalia. disparaging term denoting
tically all the concertos of the Viennese and unimaginative appli-
the schematic
classics. Earlier less-developed examples
cation of sequential treatment, such as
occur in the sonatas of Johann Christian
occurs frequently in the works of second-
Bach (e.g., no. 6 of the new ed. by L.
class composers of the period 17501850.
Landshoff), in the independent rondos of The word in to se-
applies particular
Ph. Em. Bach (e.g., Clavier-Sonaten
nebst Rondos quences which, owing to the exact repe-
einigen furs Pianoforte, tition of the intervals, involve modula-
1780), and in the early works of Haydn tion of the key to the higher second, e.g.,
(e.g., Sonata no. 24, op. 17, 3). See *So-
G-C-A-D-B-E, etc. The poor effect of
nata B III (b).
The term rondo form is also used, par-
[652]
ROTTA RUBATO
"Ma rotruenge finira ." Only one of
. . . I a c
these, Chanter m'estuet (Raynaud, no. II c b
636), is preserved with music and shows III b
the following structure: a a a B c, B being
Itappears that the melody of a round al-
an internal refrain "Oies pour quoi."
ways consists of sections of equal length
From this evidence it has been construed
which are so designed as to make good
that the musical form of the rotrouenge
harmony with each other. Accompany-
was characterized by the repetition of the
ing is an example (by M. Praetorius,
same melody for all the lines of the
1571-1621) together with the resulting
stanza, except for the two last, or the
harmony. The earliest and most famous
last, e.g.: a a a a B [cf. AdHM,
195].
The same structure occurs in the *laisse.
Other pieces, probably belonging to the
same category (though not originally re-
ferred to as rotrouenge), anticipate the
refrain melody for the last line of the
body, e.g.: a a a b B [cf. HAM, no. i9d]
or a a b B [ReMMA, 220]. The latter round is the *Sumer-canon of the I3th
type, which isfrequent, ap-
relatively century which is designated as rota
proaches the *balladc (a a b); in fact, (wheel). The *rondellus of the i3th cen-
various pieces which have been repro-
tury was much the same thing, possibly
duced as rotrouenges are clearly ballades, lacking the initial imitation, i.e., with all
e.g., "J'a nus hons pris" of Richard the the voices starting simultaneously (after
Lion-hearted [cf. HAM, no. I9a]. Cf. the repeat sign); cf. i, 319. OHFor a
F. Gennrich, Die altfranzosische Rotrou- example, notated in the form
14th-century
enge (1925): id., "Das Formproblem des of a circle, cf. RiHM i.2, 352; also P. Au-
Minnesangs" (Deutsche Vierteljahrs- bry,Les plus anciens monuments de la
schrift fur Literaturgeschichtc ix, 306). musique jrancaise (1903; facsimile).
Rounds enjoyed an extreme popularity in
Rotta, rotte, rota. A medieval instru- in that variety
England, particularly
ment usually identified with a *lyre (in
known as *catch.
some books even with a lute!). Accord-
ing to recent studies, however, it was
Rounded chanson. See *Barform II.
ody to its
beginning, repeating ad it tempo consisting of slight accelerandos
libitum. The result of a three-voice round and ritardandos which alternate accord-
musical
is indicated in the following scheme: ing to the requirements of the
[653]
RUBATO RUGGIERO
expression. There has been a great deal means of expression occur in the lute
of discussion regarding the nature of the fantasias of Luis Milan's El Maestro
tempo rubato, and writers have gone so (i535)> * n which alternation of quick
far as to maintain that the term rubato and slow is
prescribed by a priesa and
is the most difficult to define of all musi- a espazio [cf. ApNPM, 190].
cal terms. Actually, all the supposed dif- Henry T. Finck, Musical Progress
Lit.:
ficultiesand perplexities disappear if it (1923), chapter vi; John B. McEwen,
is remembered that there exist two types Tempo Rubato or Time-variation in
of rubato, one which affects the melody Musical Performance (1928); J. A. John-
only, and one which affects the whole stone, Rubato (1931); B. Bruck, Wand-
musical texture. lungen des Begriffs tempo rubato (Diss.
The existence of the former type does Erlangen 1928); L. Kamienski, "Zum
not have to be demonstrated to anybody tempo rubato" i). (AMW
familiar with modern jazz. It is surpris-
ing, however, to see that it was also uni- Rubeba, rubible. Same as *rebec, or
versally known in the second half of the possibly an instrument of the same design
but of a larger size.
1 8th
century, as appears from remarks
in the writings of Tosi (1723), Quantz Riickpositif [G.]. In German organs
(1752), C. P. E. Bach (1753), Leopold of the 1 6th to the i8th century, a small
Mozart (1756), and D. G. Turk (1789), structure located at the back of the organ-
all of whom maintain that the rubato
ist, screening him from the nave.
applies only to the melody and should
not affect the accompaniment. Chopin Riicksichtslos ohne Riicksicht
;
is also
reported to have practiced and [G.]. Without consideration. Ruc^sichts-
taught this type of rubato, which, natu- loser Kontrapunkt, the modern "reckless"
rally, is restricted to the limits of one or counterpoint, without regard to har-
two measures, after which the accents of monic considerations.
melody and harmony will again coincide. Rueda. A
The second Spanish (Castilian) round
type of rubato, i.e., that
dance in fast quintuple time. See *Zort-
which affects the whole musical fabric,
would hardly need any further comment ziko. Cf. H. Collet, "La Musique espa-
were it not for the fact that several gnole moderne" (BSIM iv).
[654]
RUHELOS RUSSIAN MUSIC
lection of It is of African character, with
17th-century *laude (Corona *Jazz III] .
Probably the earliest extant Ruggiero body, rather than of the feet.
[655]
RUSSIAN MUSIC RUSSIAN MUSIC
(more than 80), most of which appar- of highly popular songs, and the latter
ently denote melodic formulae. In cer- is still remembered as the composer of
tain MSS two rows of symbols appear, "The Red Sarafan." Alexei Verstovsky
which have tentatively been interpreted (1799-1862) deserves mention as a fore-
as indicative of singing in two parts runner of the first great Russian com-
[see also *Kondakarion]. In the i6th poser,
Glinka. W. A.
century this notation was improved by II. Michael Glinka (1804-57) is the
Shaidurov, who added letters in red ink acknowledged father of Russian music.
(hence the name "cinnabar letters") The pre-Glinka composers were feeble
which fixed the intervallic meaning of imitators of the Italians or Germans.
the kriuki symbols, a development com- In Glinka's music, however, there is a
parable to that leading from the staffless new element of nationalism, revealed
to the intervallic neumes of Gregorian particularly
in his patriotic opera Life A
chant [see *Neumes Unfortunately,
II]. for the Czar (1836), produced in Soviet
at the same time the Znamenny chant Russia under the title Ivan Susanin\ his
deteriorated, through the interpolation second opera, Russian and Ludmilla
of meaningless vowels, syllables, and un- (1842), has some Oriental elements.
authentic coloraturas resulting from the Alexandre Dargomizhsky (1813-69), a
license and rivalry of ambitious singers younger contemporary of Glinka, was
[see *Anenaiki]. A reform was carried the precursor of the modern period of
out by Mesenetz, who in 1668 codified national Russian music. His operas
the chant and adopted for its fixation Russalfy (1856) and The Stone Guest
the five-line staff with distinctive notes (1867) are remarkable for the realism of
("Kiev signs"; cf. WoHN i, 120 f). At their music. Alexandre Serov (1820-
about the same time, polyphonic singing 71) wrote in the Western tradition. His
was officially adopted by the Russian opera Judith (1862) is conceived in the
church. All these reforms were rejected, monumental style of Meyerbeer, but his
however, by the ras%olni\i (Old Be- later operas Rogneda (1865) and Evil
lievers), among whom the old chant and Power (1870) are imbued with Russian
the kriuki notation survive to this day. song element. Anton Rubinstein (1829-
The majority of the Russian chants are 94) was chiefly known as a great pianist,
based upon a system of eight echoi [see but his numerous operas (Dmitri Don-
*Echos] each of which consists of me- sfoy, Feramors, Nero, The Maccabees),
lodic figures (called popievty) which written in the conventional style, were
form the basis of all the chants written in very popular. The opera Demon (1871)
that particular echos [see *Melody types] . still survives in the Russian operatic reper-
perial opera from 1776 to 1794. The ond and Third symphonies have 'been
earliest Russian composers, such as revived. The somberness of Tchaikov-
Maximus Beresovsky ( 174 5-77) , Dimitri sky's personal philosophy is revealed in
Bortnianski (1751-1825), and J. Fomin these symphonies, which are marked by
(1761-1800), all studied with Italians a feeling of tragic helplessness and de-
and wrote operas in the Italian style, spair. Tchaikovsky's operas on Pushkin's
while Alexei Titov (1769-1827) imitated subjects, Eugene Onegin (1879) and
Mozart to some extent. His son Nikolai Pique Dame (1890), are extremely popu-
Titov (1800-75) and Alexander Var- lar in Russia. The continuator of Tchai-
lamoff (1801-48) wrote a great number kovsky's tradition was Rachmaninov
RUSSIAN MUSIC RUSSIAN MUSIC
(1873-1943). Close to Rachmaninov in and Sergei Vasilenko (b. 1872) have writ-
musical philosophy stands Nicolas Medt- ten symphonic and operatic music in the
ner (b. 1880), who writes chiefly for piano manner of the Russian National School.
and whose style veers toward neo-classi- Alexandre Scriabin (1872-1915), a
cism. Anton Arensky (1861-1906) and composer-mystic, is an isolated phenome-
Vasily Kalinnikov (1866-1901) also fol- non in Russian music. His musical style
lowed in the Tchaikovsky tradition. stems from Wagner and Chopin, and in
Contemporaries of Tchaikovsky were his symphonic and piano works he
Mily Balakirev (1837-1910), Nicolas reaches the threshold of atonality. His
Rimsky-Korsakov (18441908), Alexan- symphonic poem Prometheus (1910) is
der Borodin (1833-87), and Modest based on a six-tone chord, derived from
Moussorgsky (1839-81). With a second- the upper harmonics of the natural scale.
ary composer, Cesar Cui (1835-1918), The greatest of Russian modernists,
these names are known as the Mighty Igor Stravinsky (b. 1882), is the legiti-
Five, so describedby the music critic mate successor of the Rimsky-Korsakov
Vladimir Stassov (1824-1906), or, more line, his symphonic poem The Firebird
broadly, as founders of the Russian Na- (1910) being closely related to Rimsky-
tional School. Moussorgsky, although in- Korsakov's last period. Stravinsky's Le
ferior in technique to his colleagues, tow- Sacre du Printemps (1913) has exercised
ers above them in sheer genius. His opera profound influence on the development
Boris Godunov (1872) exercised pro- of modern music. Stravinsky abandoned
found influence on new music every- the Russian style in favor of *neo-classi-
where. The unfinished opera The Wed- cism in 1924. He lived in Western
ding foreshadows the modern develop- Europe from 1914 to 1939, and since then
ment of short opera. Balakirev wrote has settled in America. Serge Prokofiev
two symphonies and a symphonic poem, (b. 1891) has, since 1933, associated him-
Tamara, the latter in an orientalistic self with Soviet music. His music is
style. Borodin is the author of two sym- optimistic, with a considerable admix-
phonies and an opera, Prince Igor. The ture of sarcasm and irony. He
has writ-
"Polovtzian Dances" from Prince Igor ten operas (Love for Three Oranges,
exemplify Russian orientalism at its best. 1921; War and Peace, 1941), symphonies,
Rimsky-Korsakov, the most prolific of several concertos for piano and violin,
the Five, composed nine operas. The seven piano sonatas, etc. His symphonic
last three, Kastshei the Immortal (1902), fairy tale Peter and the Wolf (1936) has
The Invisible Town of Kitezh (1907), been extremely successful. Nicolai Mias-
and The Golden Cockerel (1908), consti- kovsky (b. 1881) belongs to the Moscow
tute an introduction to the modern pe- school of neo-romantic composers; he is
riod of Russian music. His symphonic the author of twenty-four symphonies.
tional tradition in the symphonic field work issued from the pres-
greatest single
was Alexandre Glasunov (1865-1936). ent war,and its performances in Russia,
He wrote eight symphonies but no operas. England, and America were sensational
Ipolitov-Ivanov (1859-1935), Reinhold events. The Eighth Symphony, composed
Gliere (b. 1875), Alexandre Gretchaninov in 1943, has aroused as much enthusiasm
[657!
SAGBUT
the powerful hold which Shostakovitch xxviii-xxxi);N. Findeisen, "The Earli-
exercises in the musical world. Among est Russian Operas" (MQ xix); id., "in
other Soviet composers to be mentioned SIM ii; E. Oliphant, "A Survey of Rus-
arc Ivan Dzcrzhinsky (1909), Alexandra sian Song" (MQ xii); A. Lourie, "The
Mossolov (1900), Aram Khatchaturian Russian School" (MQ xviii); L. Saba-
(1903), Tikhon Khrennikov (1913), Leo neev, "Music and Musicians in the
Knipper (1898), Alexandra Krein (1883), ILS.S.R." (ML xv, no. i); W. J. Birbeck,
Gregory Krein (1880), Julian
his brother "Some Notes on Russian Ecclesiastical
Krein (1913), son of Gregory, Michael Music" (PMA xvii); V. Belaiev, "The
Gniessin (1883), Vissarion Shebalin Folk Music of Georgia" (MQ xix); P.
(1902), Michael Starokadomsky (1901), Panoff, "Die Volksmusik der Grossrus-
and Dmitri Kabalevsky (1904). sen" (DM xxi, no. 5), For detailed bibli-
Lit.: G. Abraham, Studies in Russian ography cf. Orlov's Musicalnaya Litera-
Music (1935); id., On Russian Music tura (Leningrad, 1935). N. S.
(1939); M. D. Calvocoressi and G. Abra-
ham, Masters of Russian Music (1936); Russian Quartets. Beethoven's string
M. Montague-Nathan, A History of Rus- quartets op. 59, nos. 1-3, composed in
sian Music (1914); id. Contemporary 9 1807, also known as "Rasoumofsky
Russian Composers (1917); R. New- Quartets" because they were commis-
march, The Russian Opera (1914); L. sioned by the Russian Count Rasoumof-
Sabaneyeff, Modern Russian Composers sky. In nos. i and 2 Beethoven has used
(1927); id., Geschichte der russischen a "Theme Russe" which he took from a
Musi\ (1926); LavE $.5, 24861!, ii.i, 159!! collection of 150 songs published by Ivan
(modern), ii.4, 2355!! (church music), Pratch in 1790. The name is also ap-
ii.5,27453 (folk music); P. Panoff, Die plied, for an unknown reason, to Haydn's
altslavische Vol^s- und Kirchenmusi\ quartets nos. 37-42, following after the
(BiiHM, 1929); G. Abraham, "The Ele- Sonnenquartette, nos. 31-36.
ments of R. Music" (ML ix, no. i); id.,
"The Foundation Stone of R. Music" Rute [G., rod]. A
sort of birch brush
St. Anne's Fugue. Popular designation triple meter which usually appears as a
of Bach's great organ fugue in E-flat *Nachtanz of the *passamezzo (passa-
on account mezzo con suo saltarello) or of other
il
major (ed. Peters, vol. iii),
of the similarity of its theme to the be- dances in even meter. Sometimes both
dances use the same melody in different
ginning of a 17th-century hymn known
as St. Anne's tune GD The rhythm [cf. SchGMB, 95, 119; W. Mer-
[cf. iv, 499].
at the end of Bach's ian, Der Tanz in den deutschen Tabu-
fugue appears
laturbuchern, p. 92; see also *Proportz].
*Clavierubung, part III (1739) and is
The saltarello continued as a popular
f dance throughout the i9th century, but
tc .. .j J came to be executed much more rapidly
||> r I
[659]
SAMBA SARABAND
compositions for organ (Hofhaimcr, music III] in slow triple meter and of
Kottcr, Schlick; cf. H. J. Moscr, Fruh- dignified expression, usually without up-
meister des deutschen Orgelspiels) which beat, frequently with an accent or pro-
usually include only the odd-numbered longed tone on the second beat and with
verses (Salve regina; Ad te clamamus; feminine endings of the phrases.
Eia ergo; O
clemens; O
dulcis), the The saraband probably came from the
others (Vita dulcedo; Ad
tc suspiramus; Orient (Persia) and appeared in Spain
Et Jesum; O pia) being sung alter natim in the early part of the i6th century.
in plainsong. Cf. HAM, nos. 100, 139. Originally it must have been a wild and
Maier, Beitrdge zur Geschichte
Lit.: J. even lascivious love dance, since it is de-
dcr Marienantiphon Salve Regina ( 1934) ; scribed and severely attacked as such by
K. Dezes, in ZMW
x; P. Runge, in various writers, among them Cervantes.
Liliencron Festschrift (1910). Particularly characteristic is the follow-
ing passage from a Tratado contra los
Samba. A
Brazilian dance in square
Juegos Publicos (Treatise against Public
time, derived from the *maxixe, fre- Amusements) of Mariana (1536-1623):
quently used for the Carnival festivities. "... a dance and song, so lascivious in
It appeared in New York in 1938. There its words, so ugly in its movements, that
also exists a rural type which is faster and it is enough to inflame even very honest
more violent. people." The dance was actually sup-
pressed in Spain, c. 1590, by Philip II,
Sambuca. An ancient Greek instru-
but continued to exist under the name
ment, harp or psaltery, probably of Phoe- zarabanda throughout the i7th and i8th
nician or Hebrew origin. The name was centuries as a quick dance with a char-
also used for a small flute made from the
elder bush [L. sambucus} and in the
acteristic alternation of % and %
meter. [Cf. LavE i.4, 2098, 2247.] As
Middle Ages for the *hurdy-gurdy (sam- late as Thomas Mace, in his Mu-
1676,
buca rotata; sambuca probably corrupted
sicf('s says that "Sarabandes
Monument,
from *symphonia). are of the shortest triple time, but are
Sanft
Ramsbotham,
[G.]. Soft, gentle.
vol. 3].
MS, new
^
Sanglot [F., sigh]. French i8th<entury
name for an appoggiatura or passing
^
tone sung to plaintive words such as
"Oh" or "H<9as."
under the titles Graduate Sarisburiense musitylischer Spass (1787, K.V. 522),
with its good-natured mockery of peasant
(1894) and Antiphonale Sarisburiense
music, in the Beckmesser Scene of
(1901-25). Cf. his The Sarum Gradual Wag-
and the Gregorian Antiphonale Missarum ner's Meistersinger, and in Berlioz' Sym-
(1896). phonic phantastique in which the dis-
torted presentation of the *Dies irae por-
Sassofono [It.]. Saxophone. and fiendish laugh-
trays hellish despair
Satire in music. Satire, irony, and ter. One of the firstmodern composers
caricature are by no means as foreign to to write satirical music for its own sake
music as one might think at first. While was Enrico Bossi (Pezzi satirict).
fifty years ago writers of philosophical Lit.: H. F. Gilbert, "Humor in Music"
and aesthetic dissertations were able to (MQ xii); R. D. Chenneviere, "Eric Satie
"prove" that such things had no place in and the Music of Irony" (MQ 1919);
musical expression, the development of A. Einstein, "Die Parodie in der Villa-
the past 30 years has brought forth abun- nella" (ZMW ii).
dant evidence of the contrary. In fact,
Satz [G.]. (i) Movement (of a sonata,
satirizing is one of the most characteris-
symphony, etc.); e.g., erster Satz, first
ticfeatures of 20th-century music, and no
movement. However, Hauptsatz, Seiten-
account of the revolutionary movement
satz (Nebensatz) denote the first and sec-
known as *New Music would be com- ond theme within a movement. (2)
plete without pointing to the important
Style, manner of writing; e.g., strenger
place which satire, irony, and caricature
(freier) Satz, strict (free) style.
played in the efforts to overthrow the tra-
dition of the 1 9th century. French com- Saudade. Portuguese term for longing,
posers particularly have used ridicule as nostalgia; hence, denomination for Bra-
[661]
SAUTILU6 SCALE
zilian dances of such character (Villa- and nos. 3 to 5 arc most commonly seen.
Lobos, Milhaud). Illustration on p. 152.
The sound of the
saxophone is ex-
Sautille [P.], See *Bowing (d). tremely variable. Being intermediate be-
tween the timbres of wood and brass, it
Savart. The unit of system of loga-
a
passes from the softness of the flute over
rithmic pitch-determination introduced the broad, mellow tone of the cello to the
by the Frenchman Savart (1791-1841). metallic strength ^f the cornet. These
It is based upon the facts that the loga-
properties together with its great flexi-
rithm of 2 (frequency of the octave) is
bility have given it a prominent place in
0.30103 and that, therefore, the logarith- jazz bands. The principal member of the
mic frequencies of all the intervals lie
family is the alto saxophone (also made
between o and 0.30103. For greater con- in F), which has been employed for solos
venience figures are multiplied by
all
by many French composers, first by Kast-
1000, so that the octave measures 301 ner in Le Dernier Rot de Juda (1844),
Savart. This system is very convenient,
subsequently by Delibes, Thomas, Saint-
since for all
particularly practical pur- Saens, Bizet, and d'Indy. Richard Strauss
poses the figure 301 can be replaced by introduced a quartet of saxophones in his
300, so that each semitone equals 25 Domestic Symphony, and Hindemith
Savart. It was later supplanted by Ellis' used the saxophone in his opera Cardillac.
system of *Cents, in which all the figures Lit.: J. Kool, Das Saxophon (1931);
are four times as large (exact relationship: E. Rosenkaimer, "Das Saxophon in seinen
i Savart = 3.99 Cents). See ""Intervals, W. D.
(DM xx.i2).
Friihzeiten"
Calculation of, V.
Sax(o)tromba. A modification of the
Saxhorn. See *Brass instruments III *saxhorn, with a less conical bore, ap-
proaching that of the trumpet (tromba).
Now little used.
Saxophone. A family of hybrid instru-
ments invented by Adolphe Sax of Brus- Saxtuba. The bass of the *saxhorns.
sels in1840. They are played by a single Scala, La. See *Opera houses VII.
beating reed, as are the clarinets, but are
conical in bore, as are the oboes. The Scala enigmatica. An arbitrary scale,
body of the instrument is of metal, as in c-db-e-flf-gff-alf-b-c', used by Verdi in
the brass instruments. The saxophones are his Ave Maria (1898).
treble clef, and with the written chro- great number of scales. The basic scale
of European music is the diatonic scale,
comprising the tones cdefgabc' (plus
octave extensions), i.e., the tones given by
the white keys of the pianoforte. It con-
her
sists of whole-tones (t) and semitones
matic compass shown. The Sopranino (s) in the following arrangement: 1 1 s t
sounds a minor third higher than writ- t t s. This scale is
usually referred to as
ten, the Soprano a major second lower major scale (properly C-major scale; see
than written, etc. Nos. i and 6 are rare, III) as distinguished from the minor scale
SCALE SCALE, SCALING
in which the arrangement of intervals is: For more may be had to
details reference
t s 1 1 1 1 s, e.g.: c d eb f g a b c' (for more the separate entries. Tables showing the
details see *Major and minor scale). difference between these scales are found
Both the major and minor scales occur under *Temperament and Intervals
also in "transposition," starting with
i.e., (p. 362). Still greater deviations are met
another tone than c, e.g.: d e ftt g a b c'# with in the numerous Oriental scales,
7
d', or d e f g a b c'J d . Thus there are 12 such as the *Javanese salcndro and pelog,
major and 12 minor scales, one in
scales the *Hindu sa-grama, the * Arabian 17-
each *key. All the tones found in any of tone scale, the * Japanese scales, etc.
the above scales can be combined in one III. In the preceding explanations the
scale, the chromatic scale, which consists term scale was used in the sense as ex-
of twelve semitones. This all-inclusive plained in the initial definition, i.e., as an
also known as *duodecuple scale,
scale, ordered arrangement of pitch material.
forms the tonal foundation of modern Usually, however, another consideration
music, the other scales now being consid- enters into the conception of "scale,"
ered as selections thereof [see *Gapped namely center tone (tonic, home tone).
scales]. Naturally, numerous other selec- This means that the various tones of the
tions are possible and have occasionally not considered as equally impor-
scale are
been employed, particularly the *whole- tant,but are related and subordinated to
tone scale, the so-called *gypsy-scale, and one of them. Thus, the diatonic scale is
the ^pentatonic scale. The accompanying usually interpreted as a "C-major scale,"
table illustrates the details of construction: in consideration of the fact that is its C
initialtone [for an ingenious method of
constructing the diatonic scale without
preference given to one tone, see *Hexa-
chord]. Actually, any of the tones of the
diatonic scale (as well as of the other
scales) can be designated as the center
tone, a possibility which is the basis of the
system of the medieval *church modes.
In the interest of clarity, the term "scale"
Recently attempts have been made to should be avoided for these "centralized
broaden the tonal material of music by scales."Thus, what is frequently called
the introduction of *quarter-tones, result-
"Lydian scale" is properly termed "Lyd-
ing in a quarter-tone scale of 24 tones to ian mode," or, more exactly, "Lydian
the octave. mode (or F-mode) of the diatonic scale."
All the scales explained above can
II. The so-called C-major scale is the "C-
be derived from the diatonic scale which mode of the diatonic scale," the other
was already used by the ancient Greeks. major scales being transpositions thereof.
Upon closer examination, however, it ap- The same terminology can be applied to
pears that this scale underwent minute the other scales, e.g., "D-mode of the
changes owing to the different systems pentatonic scale," etc.
of intonation (tuning) used in the vari- Actually, the medieval modes (as well
ous phases of music history from about as the Greek
"scales") included another
500 B.C. to A.D. 1750. Thus, the Greek element of limitation, i.e., *ambitus.
diatonic scale was based on the*Pythago- Thus, the medieval Hypolydian is the
rean system, while in the Middle Ages "c-c' segment of the F-mode of the dia-
certain intervals of *just intonation crept tonic scale."
in [particularly, the *third], a fact which, Lit.: A. H. Fox-Strangways, in ML vii,
in turn, necessitated the adoption of vari- no. 4; V. de Rubertis, in RM1 xxix.
ous systems of *temperament the last and
final of which was that of equal tempera- Scale, scaling [G. Mensur] The term .
ment, established in the time of Bach. isused in organ parlance to indicate the
SCALE DEGREES SCHERZO
ratio of the length to the width of a pipe. Schalmei [G.]. See *Oboe family III.
cipal flue stops) gives a soft sound with Schellen [G.]. Tambourine. Schcllcn-
few overtones, whereas narrow scaling
baum, Turkish *crescent. Schellentrom-
(used in Gamba, Violin, etc.) makes the mely tambourine.
sound thin, sharp, and rich in overtones.
A term such as "Diapason of 6" scale" Scherzando [It.], Scherzhaft [G.].
means that the C of this stop has a diam- Playful.
eter of 6", the other pipes being larger
and smaller in proportion to their length. Scherzo [It., joke, play], (i) A move-
ment, usually the third, of sonatas, sym-
Scale degrees. Special names and signs in concertos),
phonies, quartets (rarely
used in *harmonic analysis to denote the which was introduced by Beethoven to
various tones of the scale as they occur as
replace the *minuet. Like this, the
the roots of triads, seventh chords, etc. scherzo is followed by a *trio after which
These names are: tonic (I), supertonic the scherzo is repeated. Occasionally
mediant (III), subdominant (IV),
(II), Beethoven, Seventh Symphony) the
(e.g.,
dominant (V), submediantor superdomi- scheme of alternation is extended to S T
nant (VI), subtonic (VII). The most S T S. The distinguishing features of the
important of these are the *tonic, the scherzo are rapid speed in -meter, %
*dominant, and the *subdominant. vigorous rhythm, a certain abruptness of
Scampanio [It.]. Chimes. thought involving elements of surprise
and whim, and a character of bustling
Scampata [It.]. Same as *charivari. humor which may veer from the playful
to the ominous (e.g., in Beethoven's
Scandicus. See *Neumes I.
Fifth Symphony). It goes without saying
Scanning [G. Sfondieren]. See *Po- that the line of demarcation between the
etic meter. minuet and the scherzo is by no means
always clear. Some minuets of the late
Scat singing. See *Jazz IV.
Haydn approximate the scherzo, as do
Scemando also minuets by Beethoven such as that of
[It.]. Diminishing.
his first PF. Sonata; on the other hand,
Scenario. A
skeleton libretto of a play
Haydn used the term scherzo in some of
or an opera showing the characters, num- his earlier works (Russian Quartets, nos.
ber, and general nature of the scenes, etc. 37-42) for pieces which are hardly differ-
The German word Scenarium, on the con- ent from his minuets. The great masters
trary, denotes a full libretto with detailed of the true scherzo are Beethoven, Schu-
directions for the scenery. The Nationalist
bert, and Bruckner.
Schallbecl(en, cymbals. Schalloch, sound (2) Chopin and Brahms (op. 4) have
hole, Schallplattc, record. Schallwcllen, employed the term for independent pieces
acoustical waves. in which sections of a highly dramatic
SCHIETTAMENTE SCHNELLER
and somewhat gloomy character (scherzo) Schnabel [G., beak]. The mouthpiece
alternate with others of a more lyrical ex- of the clarinet and the recorder; see
pression (trio). 'Mouthpiece (b), (d).
(3) In the Baroque period the term
scherzo was used for vocal pieces in a
Schnabelflote [G., beak flute]. Old
name for *recordcr.
lighter vein [Monteverdi, Scherzi musi-
cali (1607); Cifra, Scherzi sacri (1613);
Schnadahupfl [from Bavarian schna-
Marini, Scherzi e canzonette a i e 2 voci, dern, to prattle, and Hupf, jump]. A
1622], as well as for instrumental pieces type of Bavarian-Austrian folk song, fre-
of a somewhat fanciful character similar
quently with improvised humorous texts
to the *capriccio [A. Troilo, Sinjonie, between an iterated refrain. Cf. K. Rot-
scherzi . ..
(1608); Johannes Schenk, ter, Der Schnadahupfl-Rhythmus (1912).
Scherzi musicali (c. 1700) for viola da
gamba and bass [see *Editions XXIX, Schnarre [G.]. Rattle. Schnarrtrom-
28]; J. S.Bach, in Partita no. 3]. mel, snare drum. Schnarrwer^ old term
Lit.: G. Becking, Beethoven's Scherzo- for the reed department of the organ.
thema (1921).
Schneidend [G.]. "Cutting," i.e., with
Schiettamente [It.]. Sincerely, simply. utmost precision.
(1903) a new impetus has been given to terms are often used synonymously to
the establishment of scholae cantorum designate grants of for study in
money
[666]
SCHOLARSHIPS SCHOTTISCHE
the institution granting the awards. A women who intend to pursue a profes-
common way of administering such funds sional career in music.
Matthay Scholar-
is in "tuition scholarships," which take ship (about $1000), to enable pianists to
the form of a remission of part or all of study in London with Matthay.
the student's tuition costs. Unfortunately Thefellowships granted by the Gug-
such a practice has led to abuse in some genheim Foundation are of a different
instances; the granting of tuition scholar- sort. They are usually granted to
persons
ships has been only a means of reducing who have passed the student stage, and
prices to compete with other schools. The are given in composition or in musical
fairest methodof awarding scholarships research.
is
by competition, and this method is The American Academy in Rome offers
used, especially in applied music, by some several fellowships in music. These are
of the larger schools. In some instances, granted to young composers of unusual
especially in the larger schools, certain promise. They require that the candidate
comparatively small sums are given as reside at the Academy in Rome. At pres-
scholarships for specific studies, such as ent (1942) they have been discontinued
piano, voice, violin (e.g. Eastman School, and $1000 prizes in composition are of-
New England Conservatory). The Juil- fered instead.
liard School of Music, however, grants II. Other Countries, i. Prix de Rome.
full tuition fellowships to all students Awarded by the Academic des beaux arts
who are admitted to the Graduate School of Paris annually (since 1803) after se-
(not to those studying in the Institute of vere competitive examination, including
Musical Art), while making no provision the composition of a cantata. The first
for the students' living expenses in New prize consists of a four-year stay in the
York. The same is true of the Curtis In- Villa Medici in Rome, the second is a
stitute in Philadelphia. gold medal. Among the winners of the
2. Fellowships.These are granted "Grand Prix de Rome" have been Halevy
principally by universities or by corpora- (1819), Berlioz (1830), Bizet (1857),
tions. Generally they bear a name, have Debussy (1884), Charpentier (1887), Flo-
a fixed value, and specify in what field the rent Schmitt (1900). Ravel was among
holder shall work. Most fellowships carry those who failed to win it.
Belgium has
a large enough stipend to enable the also a Prix de Rome, awarded every sec-
holder to live modestly. They arc awarded ond year.
for advanced work in various fields of 2. The most important English prize
music musicology, composition, per- is the Mendelssohn Scholarship, founded
formance, pedagogy, etc. Resident fel- in awarded annually for composi-
1847,
lowships are given for work in a specific tion, and valued at present from about
institution; traveling fellowships oft$h re- 150 per annum. Except for A. S. Sulli-
quire the recipient to go abroad. -Most van (1856-60) and Eugen d'Albert
fellowships are granted primarily to en- (1881-82) no outstanding composer ap-
able an advanced student to continue his pears on the list of the holders [cf. GD\
education. Some of these are: also Suppl. Vol.].
Pulitzer Travelling Scholarship (about 3.For the German prizes cf. the ar-
[667]
SCHRAMMELQUARTET SCORDATURA
much
with the quicker *ecossaise. It was Schwungvoll [G.]. With flan.
alsoknown in England under the name
"German polka." Scialumo [It,]. See Chalumeau (2).
As if
facilitating difficult passages, or changing
Schrittmassig [G.]. walking. the tone color. Scordatura was frequently
A dance of Ba- used in the lute music of the i6th and
Schuhplattler [G.].
varia, the characteristic feature of which i7th centuries, the most common method
is
clapping of the knees and shoe soles being the lowering of the lowest string
with the hands. The music is that of the from A G
(Laute im Abzug, bordone
to
staves. For the arrangement and reading prano, alto, etc. The earliest manuscript
of a modern orchestral score see *Orches- part books date from c. 1450 (Glogauer,
tra and orchestration V. Miinchner *Liederbuch). This method
the facility of grasping
is
was particularly advantageous for print-
Score-reading
from a chamber-music, vocal, or orches- ing and, in fact, was almost exclusively
still more
complicated by the customary
bar-lines (earliest example in Cipriano de
use of different *clefs for different voices Rore's Madrigali, 1577). It is interesting
to note that the largest score ever written
or instruments and, in the case of orches-
tral scores, by the custom of notating a
is that of a
53-voice Mass by Benevoli
number of the wind instruments as ^trans- from c. 1650 [DTOe 9.!; see *Roman
School]. The arrangement in part-books
posing instruments. Cf. H. GM, Directions
M. survives, e.g., in the four volumes contain-
for Score-Reading (1924); Bernstein,
Score Reading (1932). ing the parts of Beethoven's string
II. Score arrangement, i.e., a notational quartets. Cf. R. Schwartz, "Zur Partitur
[669]
SCOTTISH MUSIC SDRUCCIOLANDO
Cambrensis (c. 11471220) who in his (1847-1935), J. B. McEwen (b. 1868),
famous Topographia Hibernica (c. 1190) and William Wallace (b. 1860) partici-
states that "in the opinion of many, Scot- pated in the recent rise of English music.
land has not only equalled Ireland, her See *Strathspcy; 'Lament; *Pibroch.
teacher in music, but has ... surpassed Lit.: D. Baptie, Musical Scotland: Dic-
her." While, prior to this time, music tionary of Scottish Musicians from about
was exclusively in the hands of the *bards, 1400 (1894); J- Love, Scottish Church
there now developed folk music of a Music (1 89 1 ) ; J. Glen, Early Scottish Mel-
more popular character, and polyphonic odies (1900); H. G. Farmer, Music in
music was cultivated in at least one place, Mediaeval Scotland (1930; also in PMA
the monastery of St. Andrews. It was 56); N. Diem, Beitrage zur Geschichte
here that the MS Wolfenbiittel 677 (c. der schottischen Musi\ im ij. Jahrhun-
1250) was written, the earliest preserved dert (Diss. Berlin 1919); A. Carmichael,
book containing the *Magnus liber or- Musica gadelica, 4 vols. (1900-41); H. G.
gani and the additional repertory of the Farmer, "Some Early Scotch Composers"
School of *Notre Dame. Although the (MA ii); J. Beveridge, "Two Scottish
bulk of its of French origin,
contents is 13th-century Songs" (ML xx, no. 4); G.
its last
(nth) contains a collec-
fascicle Abrahams, "Burns and the Scottish Folk-
tion of two-part pieces which is very prob- song" (ML iv, no. i).
ably of insular origin, although not neces-
sarily Scottish [see *English music II].
Scriptores [L., writers]. term used A
as a short reference to two important pub-
It not until the i6th century that
is
lications ofmedieval treatises on music,
sources of Scottish music are encountered,
viz., a MS namely: (a) Scriptores ecclesiastici de
incorrectly labeled "Antipho-
musica sacra potissimum 3 vols., ed. by
narium" in the Advocates Library of y
(d. 1579), and others. Another composer treatises(9th-nth centuries), the Cousse-
of this period was Patrick Douglas of ma^er Scriptores those of the i3th and
whom a few motets remain in a at MS i4th centuries [see *Theory]. The con-
Christ Church, Oxford. tents are given in full in iv, 704(1. GD A
The of Scotch on Greek music has
collection of writers
scarcity 16th-century
church music and the complete lack of been published by K. v. Jan under the
secular compositions (madrigals) offers title: Musici scriptores graeci (1895,
a striking contrast to the wealth of Eng- '899)-
lish music during the same period. Since
Scrittura [It.]. The commission to
there is much evidence in contemporary
write an opera for the next season, granted
documents (Court records, etc.) showing
that music played a prominent part in by the opera company.
the cultural life of Scotland, it is assumed Scucito [It.]. "Unsewed," i.e., discon-
that destruction of sources went much far- nected.
ther here than in England. ScottishNo
composers of note are known until the end Sdrucciolando [It., sliding]. Same as
of the i9th century when A. C. MacKenzie
*glissando.
SEA TRUMPET SEMITONE
Sea trumpet. Erroneous translation of Seikilos Song. One of the few rem-
*tromba marina. nants of ancient Greek music, a short
lyrical song from the 2d century B.C. at
Seashore tests. See *Tests.
the earliest [see *Greek music III]. Cf.
Seasons, The. See *Oratorio IV. HAM, no. 6c; SchGMB, no. i.
Secco [It.]. Dry. See also under *Reci- Seises [Sp. sets, six]. A
group of six
tative. (or more) choir boys who perform dances
with singing and clapping of castanets
Sechzehntel [G.]. See *Notes. before the high altar of the Cathedral of
Seville on great festival days (formerly
Second [F. seconde\ G. Sefande]. See
also in other churches of Spain). Vittoria,
^Intervals.
Guerrero, Morales, and others have writ-
Secondary dominants. See *Domi- ten music for these liturgical dances.
nant (i). However, the music now used is of a re-
cent date and of mediocre quality. Cf.
Seconda volta [It.]. See *Prima volta.
R. H. Stein, "Die Kirchentanze in Se-
Seele [G., properly, soul]. *Sound post villa"(DM xv.i).
(of the violin). Seiten- [G., side]. Scitcnbcwegung,
Seelenamt [G.]. *Requiem Mass. oblique motion. Seitenthema, Seitensatz,
the second theme of a movement in so-
Seelenvoll [G.]. Soulful. nata form, or of other forms.
Segno [It., sign]. A sign in the form Sekunde [G.]. Second. SeJ(unda1(1(prd
of an S which is used to indicate the be- under * Seventh-chord],
[see
ginning (dal segno, dal S.) or the end
(al segno, al S.) of a section to be played
Semi- [L., half]. Semibiscroma, semi-
or to be repeated. breve (semibrevis), semicroma, semtfusa,
semiminima, semiquaver, see *Notes; also
Segue [It., follows]. Request to join ^Mensural notation. Semichorus, half-
up the following movement without break chorus. Semidiapente, Latin term for the
(segue I'aria, segue la coda). It is also diminished fifth. Semiditonus, Latin
used to mean: continue in the same man- term for the minor third. Semiditas, in
ner, for instance, with a certain pattern *mensural notation (*proportions), same
of broken chords which is written out in as proportio dupla.
*
full only at the beginning [see under Ab-
breviations]. Semiseria [It.]. Eighteenth-century
term for an opera scria which contained
Seguidilla. A national dance from An-
a number of comic scenes.
dalusia (southern Spain) in fast triple
time, similar to the *bolero but quicker. Semitone [L. semitonium]. The half
It is sung and danced to the accompani- of a whole-tone, the smallest interval of
ment of the castanets and the guitar, with European music. The octave consists of
four bars of castanet rhythm recurring twelve semitones and the diatonic scale
after each verse (*copla). In the first act includes two semitones [sec *Scales],
of Bizet's Carmen there is a Seguidillc The exact measurement of a semitone
which unfortunately is not a very good varies slightly according to the system of
example of the species. Statements re- tuning. In
equal temperament [see
garding the "Moorish origin" of this ^Temperament] each semitone equals
dance are without foundation. exactly 100 *cents, while in the other
Sempre [It.]. Always; e.g., sempre le- sequences [see *Sequence (2)], the term
gato, always legato. sequence being used for the combination
of these melodies with the text. Cf. A.
Senkung [G.]. See under *Arsis and
Hughes, Anglo-French Sequelae (1934).
thesis.
made abundant use of a cheap type of se- lar length of the stanzas and the absence
providing suitable texts to the long vo- remarks (underlaying of a text to a pre-
calizations over the final vowel of the existing vocalization) would cause us to
Alleluia (the so-called *jubilus), in order expect. Frequently it is only the begin-
to facilitate memorizing them. However, ning of the sequence which shows a cer-
recent investigations (H. M. Bannister, tain relationship to the alleluia, the con-
C. Blume) have made it probable that tinuation being free [for an example of
before Notker there existed sequences in an unusually close agreement, cf .
BeMMR,
northern France (Jumieges) as well as 85 and Schubiger, no. 18; also HAM,
in Provence (*St. Martial at Limoges). no. i6a]. Moreover, the style of the se-
The term sequence [from L. melodies is quite different from
sequi, to quence
follow] is probably explained by the fact that of the older chants, owing to their
that the sequence "follows" immediately wider range as well as to the much larger
after the alleluia, replacing its verse [see use of formal devices such as repetition
[673]
SEQUENCE SERENATA
of motives, sequential treatment [sec *Se- schule von St. Gallen (1858); A. Hughes,
quence (i)], variation-like elaboration Anglo-French Sequelae (1934); P. Au-
of standard phrases, etc. In a way, the bry-Misset, 'fLes Proses de St. Adam de
sequences may be said to open a new Victor (1900); Cl. Blume, "Vom Alleluia
phase in European music, i.e., the begin- zur Sequenz" (KJ, 1911); A. Gastoue,
ning of "composition" in the proper sense "Sur les origines de la form 'sequentia'
"
of the word [cf., e.g., the sequence Ad- . . .
1906, p. 165); J. Hand-
(KIM,
ducentur in Hughes], schin, in ZMW
xii, xiii; P. Aubry, in
In Germany, Wipo (c. 1000-50) was TG v, vi, vii; J. Wolf, in xlii; A. RMI
an important successor of Notker [cf. Hammerich, Mediaeval Musical Relics of
HAM, no. i6b], while in France, Adam Denmar^ (1912); C. A. Moberg, Vber
of Victor (d. 1192) introduced a new
St. die schwedischen Sequenzen (1927).
type, that of the rhymed sequence
His poems are hymns, Seraphine. See under *Harmonium.
(Reimsequenz) .
whole of the musical compositions of the the simple homophonic style which was
canticles and other invariable items demanded by Archbishop Cranmer. Ap-
(Kyrie, Creed) contained in the Book of parently the musicians were not enthusi-
Common Prayer, as distinct from the sim- astic about this injunction, for it was not
ple harmonization of plainsong (preces, long before William Byrd (c. 1542-
responses, chants for the psalms) and 1623), the first great master of Service
fiom the *anthems. The settings of the music, reverted to the polyphonic tradi-
Service are grouped under three main tion of the Flemish masters in his mag-
nificent Great Service. In his Second
headings: the Morning Prayer (includ-
Service with verses to the organs and in
ing the *Invitatory Psalm Venite exul-
temus, the *canticles *Te Deum, Bene- the Third Service (repr. in *Editions
dictus es, Dominus Deus Israel, and the XXVIII, 2) he introduced important nov-
and el methods of performance: in the former
alternatives Benedicite Jubilate); the
the contrast between solo singers accom-
Evening Prayer (including the canticles
*Magnificat and Nunc dimittis, with the panied by the organ ("Verse'') and
alternatives Cantate Domino and Deus chorus ("Full"); in the latter, half-
misereatur); and the Communion (in- choruses in alternation with the full
cluding the Kyrie, the Creed, the Sanctus, chorus ("Can.," "Dec.," "Full"; see
and the Gloria in excelsis; today also the *Poly choral style). The most important
Benedictus and the Agnus Dei). All writers of Services after Byrd are Weelkes,
these items were taken over from the Tomkins, and Orlando Gibbons. Weelkes
Roman Catholic rites, as appears from wrote 10 settings of the Evening Service,
the fact that they are traditionally re- to 6 of which there is a corresponding
ferred to by their original Latin desig- Morning Service. Most of these, how-
nations, although the texts themselves ever, are incompletely transmitted. Tom-
are, of course, in English [see *Canticum; kins wrote 5 settings of the Morning and
*Mass]. A"Full Service" includes all 7 of the Evening Service. It should be
(or nearly all) the items listed above, noted that the Communion Service
usually composed in one and the same quickly
lost the importance which its
[675]
SERVICE SEVENTH
model, the Mass, has always maintained cance. For literature see under *Cathedral
in the Catholic Church, and that, there- music. Also A. Hughes, "i6th-Century
fore, the interest concentrated upon the Service Music" (ML v, nos. 2 and 4).
other Services, chiefly the Morning Serv-
Sesqui- [L., from semique, plus one
ice. The Services ofWeelkes and Tom-
half]. Latin prefix used to denote frac-
kins as well as Gibbons' two Services
tions the numerator of which is
larger
make use of the chorus as well as of solo
voices accompanied by the organ. In some by one than the denominator, e.g., sesqui-
of them there are alternate sections of alteral (one plus one half), sesquitertia:
accompanied solo ("verse") and of
chorus. A C
, sesquiquarta: , etc. In early musical
After these masters there begins a long
period of stagnation and deterioration of theory these terms were used to denote
the Service. The "Great Service" was either ratios of vibrations (i.e., *inter-
almost completely neglected and the vals), or ratios of time-values (i.e., *pro-
"Short Service" became the accepted For instance, sesquialtera
portions).
model for composers such as William means, in discussions of the intervals, the
Child (1606-97), Benjamin Rogers * Acoustics
fifth [see III], while, in
(1614-98), Henry Aldrich (1647-1710), treatises dealing with proportions, it de-
John Blow (1649-1708), Henry Purcell notes temporal values corresponding to
(1659-95), William Croft (1678-1727). our triplet notes (three triplet notes equal
This lack of interest is all the more sur- two normal notes). The former meaning
prising in view of the remarkable ad- occurs also in the organ stop called Sesqui-
vance of the anthem in the same period,
altera, originally a mixture stop combin-
notably under Blow and Purcell. In this ing the octave with the fifth, but usually
connection it should be noted that neither
including also other harmonics, such as
Purcell's Te Deum in D nor those of the third in various octaves. Another
Handel belong to the category of the
term for sesquialtera is *hemiola.
Service since they were written for special
Sestetto Sextet.
occasions, not for daily use. The standard [It.].
[676]
SEVENTH CHORD SEXTOLET
Seventh chord. A chord consisting of root (g) omitted. Owing to its equidis-
the third, fifth, and seventh above the tant construction, any of its tones can be
fundamental. In a given key there are considered as the home tone, so that one
seven such chords, one on each degree of and the same chord may serve as a domi-
the scale, e.g., in C 7
Major: c-e-g-b (I ), nant to four different keys. In each case
7 7
d-f-a-c' (II e-g-b-d' (III ), etc. By
),
the chord must, of course, be written dif-
far the most important of these is that on ferently, as is shown in Ex. i. Still other
the fifth degree, the so-called dominant resolutions result from the fact that the
7
seventh chord: g-b-d'-f (V ). Each chord can also be interpreted as the sev-
seventh chord is capable of three inver- enth chord of the raised supertonic, as
to whether its lowest illustrated in Ex. 2. Owing to its Protean
sions, according
tone is the third, the fifth, or the seventh.
Below are the dominant seventh chord
and its three inversions, together with
their designations in *harmonic analysis
and with the corresponding German
terms:
ors, sung when engaged in pulling the Shift. In violin playing, see *Position.
ropes or any other kind of work calling
Shimmy. See *Jazz III.
for concerted effort. Well-known shanties
are:The Wide Missouri; The Banks of Shivaree. American of
corruption
Sacramento; The Rio Grande. Cf. F. *charivari.
Rickaby, Ballads and Songs of the Shanty-
Shofar. An
Boy (1926); R. R. Terry, in ML i, nos. i
ancient Jewish instrument
and 3; id., in PMA xli; H. Whates, in made from a ram's horn and used up to
Siciliano. A
i7th- and iSth-century present
musical education the blame for
dance type of Sicilian origin, in very mod- which lies with the ijiuaic teachers the
t679 ]
SIGHT-READING SINFONIA
great majority of whom do not realize his fingers by In sight-reading,
his eyes.
the importance of sight-reading and do however, the player is expected to rely,
notknow how to teach it. not on his memory, but on his faculty of
The problems of sight-reading are immediate and quick apperception; more-
somewhat different in the various fields over, his eyes must be fixed not on his
of musical activity. In singing, not much hands, but on the music page. This lat-
more is required than a thorough ac- ter technique constitutes the very basis of
quaintance with the elements of musical any success in playing at sight on the
melody and rhythm and with their nota- piano. The student must be taught to fix
tion. In recent years this basic study has his eyes unerringly on the music and to
been emphasized in a number of music make his fingers rely exclusively on touch,
schools where it is taught under the name "feeling their way" through the keyboard
of *solfege. Another important means of as a blind man does with his stick. Simple
ordinary musical notation. Methods such which is also an important factor of piano-
as the English *Tonic Sol-fa avoid many forte playing in general [see *Pianofortc
of the complications inherent in the tra- playing IV J.
ditional system of musical notation (clefs, Still greater are the intellectual demands
signatures, accidentals, etc.), but they re- in the case of playing from score of cham-
strict the student to a limited field of ber or orchestral music. See *Score. Cf.
music, while, on the other hand, famili- W. G. McNaught, "The Psychology of
arity with the foundations of the ordinary Sight-Singing" (PMA xxvi).
notation opens to the student the entire
Signal. See *Fanfare; *Military band.
field of music, choral as well as instru-
mental and orchestral. at the begin-
Signature. Signs placed
II. The
situation of the violin player is
ning of a composition, indicating the key
not very different from that of the singer
[see *Key signature] or the meter [see
since his music is, in the main, also re- "Time signature].
stricted to melodic progression in one
line. As in singing, the facility of grasp- Signet. Same as *Sennet.
ing immediately the significance of inter- Silence [F.]. Rest.
vals and of rhythmic figures isprerequi-
site for playing at sight. As in the case Sillet [F.]. (i) *Nut (of the violin).
of the singer, group performance is of the (2) *Fret (of the lute).
highest importance, either with an accom-
Similar motion. See *Motion.
panying pianist, or in a chamber en-
semble, or in a student's orchestra. Simile, simili [It.]. Indication to con-
III. The pianist's problems of sight- tinue "in a similar way," e.g., with the
reading are of a different nature. Here same kind of bowing, or with the same
the difficulties are considerably greater,
type of broken chord figure, etc.
[680]
SINFONIA DOMESTICA SINGING
three-voice inventions. (3) In the Sinfonische Dichtung [G.]. *Sym-
early Baroque period (1600-1750), name phonic poem.
for orchestral introductory pieces of Ital-
ian origin. These were short pieces de- Singakademie. A society for concert-
signed to serve as an introduction to an giving founded at Berlin in 1791 by Chris-
opera or an operatic scene (Monteverdi, tian Fasch. Today it is mainly known
Orfeo, 1607; Stefano Landi, // San Ales- through its concert hall.
sio,1634 [cf. HAM, no. 208; RiHM ii.2,
255, 263]; Michelangelo Rossi, Erminia Singing. I. Singing is, no doubt, the
del Giardano, 1637; Monteverdi, L'ln- most ancient and widespread type of
coronazione di Poppea, 1640, etc.); an or- music making, being the only one (except
chestral suite for whistling) which does not
(Salomone Rossi, Sinfonie depend
e gagliarde . . .
, 1607, '08, '13; Johann upon an instrument. For the historian,
Jakob Lowe, Sinfonien, Gagliarden, this fact has, unfortunately, the disadvan-
Arien . , 1658; Johann Rosenmiiller,
. . tage of leaving him without any informa-
Sonate da camera doe Sinfonie Alemande, tion regarding the early practice of sing-
Correnti , 1670; Johann Fux, Con-
. . . ing while, in the case of instrumental
centus, cf. DTOe
23-ii); or a cantata (e.g., practice, the numerous pictorial repre-
two cantatas by Provenzale, cf. RiHM sentations or literary descriptions of in-
and sonatas were also designated as Sin- (Chinese, Japanese) or to the singing of
fonias [see *Sonata B, I, II] Possibly the . primitive tribes (Indians, Africans) to
latter term carried the connotation of or- see that the human vocal apparatus can
chestral performance, not necessarily im- be used in very different ways. Such dif-
ferences are partly due to anatomic pe-
plied by the others. It was not until c.
culiarities of the various races but also to
1690 that the operatic Sinfonia became
standardized (by Alessandro Scarlatti; a large extent to training and taste. Even
cf. HAM, no. 259) into what is usually in the European history of music the
called "Italian overture" [see *Overture] "timbre" of the voice has not remained
which is one of the ancestors of the mod- unchanged. Although, of course, state-
ern *symphony. Examples of 17th-century ments in this matter are necessarily some-
Sinfonias in SchGMB, nos. 151, 191, 211, what hypothetical, there is reason to as-
220, 223, 224, 229. The last of these shows sume that the singers of ancient Grego-
the merging of the Sinfonia with the trio- rian chant preferred an Oriental, some-
sonata. For an unusually early example what nasal timbre (as is still frequently
heard in Catholic churches). The strik-
of "symphonia" (i5th century), strik-
ingly similar in style and form to
the ingly high range of much i4th- and 15th-
Toccata in Monteverdi's Orfeo, cf. RiHM century music is explained by the exten-
sive use of the *falsetto. The celebrated
ii.i, 42 and 207.
*castrati of the I7th and i8th centuries
opera, and in modern jazz we are wit- Landini) and of the early i5th century
nessing the cultivation of special manners (Dufay) is even higher, from
f to c", thus
of singing which, although not recog- calling for the use of falsetto in the mel-
nized as artistic, help to illustrate the ody. An important change took place
variability of the vocal timbre. around 1450 with the rise of the *Flem-
II. There is an infinitely greater ish School. The bass voice was "discov-
amount of variability if questions of style ered," and it was here for the first time
and performance are taken into consider- that the texture of polyphonic music be-
ation. Particularly interesting is the am- came separated into four different ranges,
ple use which, from pre-Christian times corresponding to that of the bass, tenor,
down through the ijth century and later, contralto, and mezzo-soprano. Since prac-
was made of localization. The singing tically all the music of this period is
as a phonetic formation derived from the brought about the decisive change in this
trilling of the tongue against the roof of matter, the various roles now being given
the mouth a vocal technique which
(1-1-1),
to voices of a characteristic range. The
is still
widely used in the Orient. Among leading hero (primo huomo) is a castrato,
the most striking features of early vocal the leading heroine (prima donna) a high
III. Another interesting point of view prano Lucrezia Agujari (1742-83) could
is that concerned with the vocal ranges. reach c"".
Although there always existed voices of IV. The i pth century brought about
the same ranges, high, medium, or low, the "scientific" study of the vocal ap-
as we have them today, in early pe- paratus and of its use in singing. Manuel
riods these were far from being used to Garcia (1805-1906) laid the foundation
the full extent that they are today. The for this study in his Memoire sur la voix
average range of Gregorian chant is from humaine which he presented to the French
c to e', that is, the range of the tenor voice. Institut in 1840 and which was followed
the in 1847 by his Traite com let de fart du
Practically all polyphonic music of f
I3th century still is within this range in chant. Among his pupils were Jenny
tained its artistic peak in Mozart's Ent- the Cappella Sixtina, the chapel built by
juhrung aus dem Serail (1782), other Pope Sixtus IV in 1471-84. Since 1480
important examples being Ignaz Um- there has existed another choir, the Cap-
lauff's Die Bergfyappen (1778; DTOe pella Giulia (richly endowed by Pope
18.1), Dittcrsdorfs Doctor und Apoth- Julian II), which is domiciled at St. Pe-
efcr (1786), Johann Schenk's Der Dor]- ter's and which has frequently, but in-
barbier (1796; DTOe 34), and Schubert's correctly, been called Sistine choir. Both
Die Zwillingsbruder (1819). The Sing- bodies have been greatly admired for the
spiel is the ancestor of the German Ro- excellence of their vocal technique, in-
mantic opera of the i9th century. Oper- volving long crescendi and decrescendi,
atic works with spoken dialogue occur and many refined shades of sound. How-
as early as the i7th century, e.g., S. G. ever, from a musical and historical point
Staden's Seelewig (1644) [cf. MjM xiii], of view, their performances of Palestrina,
Wolfgang Briegel's Das Triumphierende etc., are decidedly in mediocre taste, over-
and W. Franck's Die
Siegesspiel (1673), laden with romantic sentimentality, and
drey Tochter Cecrops (1679) [cf. AMP much inferior to those of other bodies,
iv]. See *Opera VII; *Comic opera II such as the Schola Cantorum of Paris.
(0- Lit.: F. X. Haberl, Die romische Schola
Lit.: H. M. Schletterer, Das deutsche Cantorum . . .
(1887; also in VMW iii);
Singspiel (1863, '79); H. Graf, Das Sing- R. R. Terry, in MA iii; E. Celani, in RMI
spielrepertoire Berlins ijji86 (1934); xiv; K. Weinmann in AMW ii; R. Casi-
G. Calmus, Die Singspiele von Standfuss miri, "I Diarii Sistini" (Note d'Archivio
und Hitter (1908, B1M); E. O. Beer, i
[1924] to date).
Mozart und das Wiener Singspiel (Diss.
Sistrum. An ancient Egyptian rattle
Vienna 1932); R. Krott, Die Singspiele
used especially in the worship of Isis. It
Schuberts (Diss. Vienna 1921); R. Eit-
consisted of a metal frame with loose
ner, in MfM xiii (Seelewig); G. Schmidt, metal bars, the frame attached to a handle.
inAMF iv (Cecrops); W. Stauder, in In modern writings the term sistre some-
AMP (Joh. Andre*); P. Nettl, in ZMW
i
times occurs as a wrong spelling for
V. Helfert, in
vi (Singballett); ZMW v *cistre.
(Wiener Singspiel); F. Bruckner, in SIM
v (Benda). D.J.G. Si tace [It.]. It keeps silent.
[685]
SLUR SOCIETIES
Slur, (i) A curved line placed above or regular meetings at which papers of mu-
below a group of notes to indicate that sicological interest are read. A national
they are to be played legato, e.g., with one convention is traditionally held each year
stroke of the violin bow, or with one in connection with the M.T.N.A. conven-
breath in singing. If the notes to be found tion [see (6)]. Two yearly publications,
under the slur have staccato dots, the Papers Read by the Members of the
meaning of the combined signs is *por- A.M.S. (PAMS) and Bulletin of the
tato. A slur connecting two notes of equal AM.S. (BAMS), are issued.
pitch is
properly called *tie or bind. 3. I.S.C.M. (International Society for
(2) An ornamentation resembling the Contemporary Music). The Society was
French tierce coulee [see *Appoggiatura, begun in Europe in 1922; the United
Double II]. States Section was founded in 1923. The
(from the constitution). The Society is papers are read and discussions carried
divided into regional chapters which hold on by educators from all sections of the
[686]
SOCIETIES SOCIETIES
country and from all branches of mu- International Society for Contemporary
sic education. A
volume of Proceedings Music [see III, 3].
published annually, containing re- 4. Gesellschaft der Musikfreunde. The
is
prints of the papers read at the conven- oldest and most important musical so-
tions. ciety of Austria (Vienna), founded 1813,
7. N.A.S.M. (National Association of largely through the efforts of Joseph von
Schools of Music). An organization of Sonnleithner. It has been active in vari-
professional music schools the aim of ous directions: (a) Conservatory, founded
which is to unify the curriculum, main- 1817, ^ rst director Salieri; (b) Sing-
tain the standards, and serve as an ac- verein,an amateur choral society of out-
crediting organization for music schools. standing rank, founded 1859; (c) Gesell-
Annual meetings are held in conjunction schaftsorchester (today Orchester Verein),
with the M.T.N.A. [see 6]. Much of the an orchestral society, first amateur, later
credit for the N.A.S.M.'s development professional,founded in 1859, first con-
belongs to Howard Hanson, its present ductor Hellmesberger, present conductor
president. Furtwangler; (d) Music library, founded
II. Europe, i. Allgemeiner Deutscher 1819 [see *Libraries C, Vienna]; (e)
Musikverein. Founded 1861 by Franz Museum, containing autographs, letters,
Liszt and Franz Brendel, having as its pictures, musical instruments (Haydn's
purposes: (i) the furthering in a pro- piano), and musical curios (Beethoven's
gressive sense of musical life in Germany; car trumpets).
(2) to look after the interests of the pro- 5. Incorporated Society of Musicians.
fessional musicians and composers; (3) An English society founded in 1882 by
to support needy composers and their James Dawber and Dr. Henry Hiles for
survivors. The Society has given over 60 the furtherance of the following objects:
festivals (Tonkiinstlerfeste) in various (i) the union of the musical profession
cities of Germany. in a representative Society; (2) the pro-
2. Bach-Gescllschaft. A German so- vision of opportunities for discussion; (3)
1900, after the last volume had been is- large cities. The which has a
Society,
sued. Simultaneously, a "Neue Bach- membership of 3800 professional musi-
Gesellschaft" was founded to carry on the cians, is generally recognized and con-
work of completing the original edition sulted by Government Departments.
by publishing corrected revisions and 6. tot Bevordering der
Maatschappij
practical Since 1904 this society
scores. Toonkunst. The largest musical society
has issued an annual Bach-Jahrbuch con- in Holland, founded in 1829 and located
taining articles on Bach and related sub- in Amsterdam. It includes more than 40
throughout Great Britain. Primarily it active in the editing of old music [see
is an organizing and educative, not a "Editions XXIX].
concert-giving, institution. It has more 7. du Conserva-
Societe des Concerts
than 50 centers with over 3500 members toire. Founded by Habeneck in Paris,
and an even greater number of associates. probably 1792, for the purpose of giving
The Society is the British section of the concerts [see *Concert II]. It was dcfi-
SOCIETIES SOGGETTO CAVATO
nitely established in 1828 and has, from complete and more detailed information
then, continued to the present day to give regarding the American societies see
concerts with conservative programs. Pierre Key's Music Year Boo fa regarding
8. Societe* Nationale de Musique. the others, see A. Einstein, Das neue Mu-
Founded in Paris, 1871, by Romaine Bas- sityexifon (1926), article "Vereine," and
sine and Saint-Saens, for the purpose of RiML, i92off. E. B. H.
giving performances of living French
Soggetto [It.]. Subject or theme. In
composers. At the first concert a trio by
Cesar Franck was performed. 18th-century theory the term is used in a
Internationale
more special sense to denote a fugal theme
III. International, i.
of a more or less orthodox character
Gesellschaft fur Musikwissenschaft (In-
ternational Society for Musical Research). (somewhat similar to the subjects of the
[688]
SOGITHA SOLFfcGE
62]. See *Mass B, II (b). Cf. A. Thur- Pabbaye de Solesmes" (Revue dcs Deux
lings, in KIM, 1906, p. 183. Mondes, Nov. 15,
their activity on behalf of the restoration are properly called vocalises [F.], voca-
of Gregorian chant. Their main achieve- lizzi [It.] ,
but the name solfeggio also has
ments are two: First, the edition of a cor- become more common for this type,
rect text ofGregorian chant at its high- which includes virtuoso exercises of the
point of development (9th, loth centu- greatest difficulty and frequently involves
ries). This edition was officially adopted passages much too rapid to be "sol-fa"-
in 1904 under the name Editio Vaticana, ed.
to supplant the corrupt versions of the Vocal exercises without text occur in
Editio Medicea (i6th century) and the great number throughout the i7th cen-
similar Ratisbon Edition of the late i9th tury under the name "ricercari" [see
century [see *Liturgical books II]. Sec- *Ricercar II], In 1786 a volume Soljeges
ond, the first serious attempt toward a d'ltalie was published in Paris which con-
solution of the problem of the rhythm of tained exercises by Scarlatti, Porpora,
Gregorian chant. The Solesmes interpre- Caffaro, and
others, to be treated either as
tation of Gregorian rhythm has won wide solfeggi or vocalizzi. famous collec- A
acclaim and was recognized officially by tion is the Solfeges du Conservatoire ',
Pope Leo XII; however, it has also met which contains contributions by Cheru-
with serious criticism on the part of vari- bini and other professors of the Paris
ous musicologists [see *Gregorian chant Conservatoire. An outstanding collection
VI]. The leading personalities in the mu- of recent date the Repertoire moderne
is
Mocquereau (1849-1930), who inaugu- (2) The term has been adopted to de-
rated the publication of early neumatic note instruction in the rudiments of
MSS, called PaUo graphic Musicale [see music, i.e., the study of intervals, rhythm,
*Editions XXIII] and who was also the clefs, signatures, etc. Extensive courses
chiefchampion of the Solesmes theory of in "Solfege," sometimes covering four
Gregorian rhythm (Le Nombre musical years of study, were first introduced
in
[689]
SOLFEGGIETTO SOLMIZATION
Solfeggietto [It.]. Title used by some movable names, to be used with the hexa-
composers (C. P. E. Bach) in the mean- chord on G
(G A B-c d e), on c (c d e-f
ing of "little study." g a), and on f (f g a- bb c d; the hyphen
indicates the semitone *mi-fa); for more
Sollecitando [It.]. Hastening, for-
details on this system see *Hexachord.
ward.
The name solmization [L. solmisatio] is
Solmization (from sol-mi). I. General derived from the combination sol-mi
term for systems of designating the de- which, however, denotes, not g-e, but
grees of the scale, not by letters, but by g-a, the syllable mi (i.e., a) being under-
syllables. The syllables mostly used today stood as belonging to the hexachord on f.
are: do (or doh), re, mi, fa, sol, la, si (//). Thus, it denotes, properly speaking, not
There are two current methods of apply- so much the Guidonian syllables as such,
ing these syllables to the scale degrees, but the concomitant principle of muta-
known as "fixed do" and "movable do." tion (change from one hexachord into
In the former, the syllables are applied another). It is interesting to note that
to "fixed" notes, i.e., to those of the C the Guidonian syllables were also used
major scale (do = C; re = D; etc.). In as the basis of a "fixed do" terminology,
the latter, they are applicable to any major that is, in the compound terms Cja-ut,
scale, so that do, re, mi, etc., denote tonic, D-sol-^re, etc. [see *Hexachord],
supertonic, mediant, etc. (e.g., in D III. Guido's system remained unal-
major: D, E, Ftf, etc.). The former sys- tered until the end of the i6th century
tem of course, essentially identical
is, when more and more extended use of
the
with the current system of tone letters, chromatic tones and transposed keys ren-
as there is an exact and
unchangeable dered it more and more unsuitable.
correspondence between the letters (C, About 1600, French musicians began to
D, E . .
.) and the sylables (do, re, use the Guidonian syllables in a fixed
mi, . .
.). The syllables have, however, position, ut for C, etc. In order to com-
certain advantages, chiefly that they lend plete the octave, the syllable si (probably
themselves better for singing purposes derived from the last words S-ancte
[see *Solfege] and that they have more I-oannes of Guido's hymn) was intro-
"individuality." They are used chiefly in duced, and around 1650 the rather unsing-
France and Italy. The movable syllables able syllable ut was replaced by do (Otto
are of a much wider
application and can Gibelius, Seminarium modulatoriae vo-
be used with great advantage in element- catis, 1645; cf. RiML, 2097). Simultane-
ary studies, such as scales, different clefs, ously, various attempts were made to in-
intervals, simple modulations, etc. A troduce new systems, e.g., the "voces
modern system of "movable do" is the belgicae" of Hubert Waelrant (1517-
*Tonic-sol-fa. This is widely used in Eng- 95 ): bo ce di ga lo ma ni (known as
land. See *Sight-reading. "Bocedization"), or Daniel Hitzler's
II. The use of
syllables for the designa- (1576-1635) "Bebezation" la be ce de me
tion of tones is very old. The Chinese }e ge, or Heinrich Graun's (1701-59)
had such a system and tone-syllables are "Damenization" da mi ni po tu la be
used in *Hindu music. The ancient
still all ephemeral attempts which are occa-
Greeks employed the syllables tah, td, toh, sionally classified as "Bobizations.'* In the
teh (ra, rrj, TO), TC) for the tones of the United States a simplified system of sol-
descending tetrachord (e.g., a, g, f, e). mization, known as *Fasola, was widely
It is probably from similar syllables (va, used during the i8th century. More re-
VTJ, va>, ve)
that the Byzantine enechemata cently, attempts at reform have been
[see *Echos] and the *Noeane of West- made in England and in Germany, with
ern medieval theory were derived. The the idea of making the solmization syl-
inventor of the modern system of solmi- lables more
useful for the purpose of ele-
zation was Guido of Arezzo (980-1050) mentary instruction and of sight-singing
who used the syllables ut re mi fa sol la as [see *Tonic Sol-fa; *Tonika Do;. for two
[690]
SOLO SONATA
other Germansystems, Tonwort and music (quartet, trio, quintet, etc.), and,
Zale, ct. MoML, 199 and 534]. with certain modifications, the concerto.
Lit.: G. Lange, "Zur Geschichte der The difference lies only in the perform-
Solmisation" (SIM i); F. Ring, "Zur ing bodies, the symphony being a "so-
altgriechischen Solmisations-lehre" (AMF nata" for orchestra, the quartet a "so-
iii); Ch. E. Ruelle, "La Solmisation
chez nata" for four strings, the concerto a
les anciens Grecs" (SIM ix); H. Miiller, "sonata" for a soloist plus orchestra, etc.
"Solmisations-silben in der Medicaischen From this it
appears that the sonata is by
Choralausgabe" (AMW i); RiHM i.2, far the most important form of 19th-
167-187. century music, since it includes practi-
cally all the great master works of the
Solo [It., alone], (i) Designation for concert from
present-day repertory,
executed by one performer, either
pieces
Haydn and Mozart to Brahms, Bruckner
alone (piano solo; violin solo, e.g., Bach's and more recent composers.
Sonatas for violin solo), or with accom-
The normal scheme for the movements
paniment of the piano, organ, orchestra, of a sonata (symphony, etc.) is: Allegro,
etc. (2) In orchestral scores the term is Adagio, Scherzo (or Minuet), Allegro.
used for passages which are intended to While the terms Allegro (Allegro molto,
stand out in relief. (3) In concertos, and
Presto) Adagio (Largo, Lento)
designation for the soloist, in distinction merely mean "quick," "slow," the term
from the orchestra (tutti). (4) In the Scherzo or Minuet has a specific impli-
early concerto (Bach, Handel) the term a dance-like char-
cation, namely that of
is also used in the orchestral parts for pas-
acter. This movementis sometimes miss-
sages which are to be played "senza ripi-
ing, particularly in the sonatas of Mozart
eni" [see *Ripieni]. See also *Ensemble. and in most of the concertos. Symphonies
Solo organ. See *Organ III. frequently open with a slow Introduction.
The above scheme is observed in the great
Solo pitch. A pitch slightly higher than majority of sonatas (symphonies, etc.).
normal; it is used occasionally in order Notable exceptions are Beethoven's Moon-
to obtain greater brilliancy of tone. Sonata (deliberately designated by
light
Beethoven as Sonata quasi una fantasia)
Solovox. See *Electronic musical in-
which consists of Adagio, Scherzo, Presto;
struments I.
his op. in, consisting of Introduction,
Soltanto [It.]. Solely, only. Allegro, Adagio; and Liszt's Sonata in
B minor, consisting of one movement
Sommesso [It.]. Subdued. with contrasting sections.
Sonante Not only the sonata as a whole, but its
[It.]. Sounding, resonant.'
single movements also are subject to cer-
Sonata [from It. suonare, to souno*]. tain principles of form which are usually
A. General. The term sonata, in its pres- adhered to by composers more strictly,
ent-day meaning, denotes an instrumen- needless to say, by Mozart and Beethoven
tal composition for piano (piano sonata), than by Cesar Franck or Hindemith. The
or for violin, cello, etc., with piano accom- first movement (Allegro) is practically
paniment (violin sonata, cello sonata), always in what is somewhat mislead-
which consists of three or four independ- ingly called "*sonata-form"; the second
ent pieces, called movements, each of (Adagio) is usually in sonata-form or in
which follows certain standards of char- ^ternary form, but may also be in *binary
acter and form, to be explained subse- form or in variation form; the third move-
quently. It must be noted, however, that ment is normally in the ternary form
practically all the features of the sonata Scherzo-Trio-Scherzo [ see *Scherzo ] ;
are also found in certain other types of the last movement (Allegro, Presto) is in
instrumental music, namely, the sym- sonata-form or *ron do-form (occasionally
phony, the various species of chamber variation form). The fact that, certain
[6gi]
SONATA SONATA
exceptions notwithstanding, the above lished. These can be characterized as one-
scheme is rather strictly adhered to in all movement pieces which fall into a num-
sonatas,symphonies, quartets, written ber (from five to ten or more) of short
between 1780 and 1880 the strongest is sections (approximately from four to
guished from the contemporary motet, Examples are the sonatas by Purcell
among ethers, by its clearer sectional (1683, '97) in which the fugal movements
structure, frequently involving repetition are labeled "canzona," and Buxtehude's
schemes such as AAB, ABB, etc. In sonatas op. i (1696; cf. DdT n), the
Italy, this vocal form was transferred, sixth ofwhich falls into 13 sections, alter-
around 1540, to the organ and, around nately slow and quick [cf. also the Sym-
1580, to instrumental ensembles and was phonies by Pez, in 27/28]. DTB
called here canzona d'organo and can- II. 1650-1730. After 1650 there de-
zona da sonare respectively [see *Can- velops, chiefly in Venice under Legrenzi
zona (5)]. The latter type must be con- (1626-90), a certain standard structure
sidered as the real ancestor of the sonata. consisting of two fugal allegro movements
Between 1600 and 1650 an enormous at the beginning and the end, frequently
number of instrumental ensemble pieces, with identical or related thematic mate-
entitledCanzone, Canzone da sonar. So- rial, and a homophonic movement in
natc (the simplified term Sonate appears dance-like triple meter in the middle, a
first in publications by Giov. Croce, 1580; three-part scheme which is usually en-
Andrea Gabrieli, 1586; and Cesario Gus- larged to four or five movements by the
sago, 1608), Sinfonie, etc., were pub- insertion of shorter adagios before or/
SONATA SONATA
and after the slow movement. A piece composers, such as Bach, Handel, Jean-
such as Legrenzi's Sonata "La Valva- Marie Leclair (1697-1764; see *Editions
sona" of 1655 (OCM iv), with its four XXVI, 27), while the Italian composers
movements, Allegro-AdagioAllegretto of this generation frequently preferred
scherzando- Allegro (the inscriptions are enlarged or shortened schemes. E.g., the
not original), comes surprisingly close to violin sonatas by Veracini (1685-1750)
the form of the classical sonata [for an- have from five to eight movements [see
other example cf. RiMB, no. 102], Need- ^Editions VI, 34] those of Tartini ( 1692
,
less to say, there is no historical connec- 1770) usually three: slow-fast-very fast
tion between this "Venetian sonata" and [see *Editions VI, 32], those of Locatelli
the Viennese classical form. The "sym- always three: andante-allegro-minuet
metrical" construction of this sonata type (or aria con variazioni).
is even more
conspicuous in many sonatas According to medium the repertory of
by the Bolognese [see *Bologna school] the Baroque sonata falls into four cate-
Gio. Batt. Vitali (1644-92), written in five gories: those written in one part, in two
movements: Allegro Adagio Scherzo- parts (a due), in three parts (a tre), and
Adagio-Allegro (the term "scherzo" is in four or more parts. The most famous
adopted here for the sake of short refer- examples of the first category are Bach's
ence); cf. his Sonata from 1667 in OCM Sonatas for violin solo and for cello solo
iv. Vitali's compatriot Gius. Torelli (c. [for earlier compositions of this type see
16501702) introduced, in his Sinfonie a *Violin music; * Violoncello]. The "so-
2, 3, 4 istromenti (1687), a novel form in natas a due" usually call for three per-
four movements, Adagio-Allegro Ada- formers, one for the melody part (mostly
gio-Allegro, a form which, under the violin) and two for the realization of the
name sonata da chiesa, was adopted by thorough-bass part [see *Thorough-bass].
allthe later composers, notably Arcangelo This type, usually referred to as "violin
Corelli (1653-1713) in his 24 Sonate da sonata" (sometimes, somewhat mislead-
chiesa a tre (1683, '89). A
sonata by Tom- ingly, as "solo violin sonata"), was culti-
maso Vitali (c. 1665-1750) of 1693 [re- vated as early as 1617 by Marini (Affetti
produced in SchGMB, no. 241], written musicali) in a strikingly virtuoso style
in this form, shows the "archaic" cyc-
still employing trills,rapid runs, double-stops,
lical treatment of the first and last move- etc. [cf.SchGMB, 183; RiHM ii.2, 96].
ment. It should be noted that Corelli's The more promi-
virtuoso element is even
second "adagio" retains the triple meter nent in the sonatas of the Germans Joh.
and the homophonic style of the central H. Schmelzer (1623-80) and Franz H.
"scherzo" of the earlier type, but usually Biber (1644-1704; cf. SchGMB, no. 238).
in a slower speed, adopting the character The "sonata a tre" or trio sonata, the most
of a sarabande. The final movement also important type of all, was executed by
shows dance-like rhythm, in the character one, two, or four performers, practically
of a gigue, minuet, gavotte, etc. This ob- never by three [see *Trio sonata], while
servation is important because it serves to the "sonata a quatro" or "a cinque," culti-
correct the current distinction between vated mainly in the 1650-80 period, prob-
the sonata da chiesa (church sonata) and ably was for small orchestral ensemble
the sonata da camera (chamber sonata; [see *Sinfonia (3)]. Johann Jakob
see under *Suite IV) on the basis of the Kuhnau (1660-1722) was the first to
absence or presence of dance-like move- write sonatas (da chiesa) for the harpsi-
ments. It is only in the later examples of chord alone, in his Klavieriibung ii and
the sonata da chiesa that the dance char- Frische Klavierjriichte (both 1692),
acter of the last two movements tends to III. 1730-80. The emergence of the
disappear. Numerous examples of the "Viennese classical sonata" of Haydn,
pure chiesa-type, i.e., sonatas in four Mozart, and Beethoven is one of the most
idealized movements, slowfast-slow difficult chapters of music history and t
fast, occur in the works of non-Italian in fact, one of the least explored. This
[6931
SONATA SONATA
surprising fact is due, not so much to lack (1685-1757). It will suffice to mention
of material or to negligence on the part schemes such as Andantino Allegro
of scholars, but mainly to the exceptional Presto; Larghetto Allegro Minuetto;
complexity of phenomenon. The
the Allegro Minuetto [cf. the *Hafner col-
change from the Baroque sonata to the lection] in order to illustrate the situation
classical sonata involves much more than in the period from c. 1730 to 1760. Hay-
the change from a four-movement scheme dn's (1732-1809) early sonatas still be-
Adagio-Allegro-Adagio-Allegro to a long to this loose type. The introduction
three-movement scheme Allegro-Adagio- of the four-movement scheme Allegro -
Allegro or another four-movement scheme Adagio Minuet Allegro must be cred-
Allegro-Adagio-Scherzo-Allegro. It in- ited to the founder of the *Mannheim
volves also, and chiefly, changes of style School, Johann Stamitz (1717-57), who
and of formal structure of the single used it
symphonies and chamber
in all his
movements. Furthermore, the repertory pieces as did also most of his successors,
now becomes divided into the three spe- Anton Filtz, Anton Stamitz, Ignaz Holz-
cies of soloist sonata (piano sonata), bauer, and others [cf. DIB 3.1; 7.ii; 8.ii;
chamber sonata (quartet), and orchestral 15; 16]. Practically all the symphonies
sonata (symphony), each of which fol- and quartets by Haydn and Mozart are
lows a separate line of development, in four movements, while their sonatas
though within the same general frame. are in three movements only. With Bee-
It is
clearly impossible to describe this thoven, the four-movement scheme be-
complex phenomenon within the limita- came the standard type for all the cate-
tions of a reference book, all the more gories of the sonata, and the minuet was
since, in spite of numerous special studies, replaced by the *scherzo.
no comprehensive survey has as yet been (b) Form of the single movements, in
made. Only the briefest outlines can be the Rococo sonatas of the mid- 1 8th cen-
given and these, for the sake of clarity, tury (Sammartini, Rutini) practically all
under three points of view: (a) form-at- the movements except, of course, the
large; (b) form of the single movement; minuets are in binary form B, withA
(c) style. both sections repeated. The development
(a) Fornvat-large. The three-move- leading from this form to the sonata-form
ment form Allegro-AdagioAllegro orig- of the first movement is described under
inated with the Italian overture of Ales- *sonata-form. The development of the
sandro Scarlatti [see *Overture I]. An- other movements has been little investi-
tonio Vivaldi (c. 1680-1743) established gated. Suffice it to mention that in the
it as the standard form of the concerto *Haffner collection ofc. 1760 there is one
[694]
SONATA SONATA
mically incisive style of Vivaldi as well as to note that, except for the last eight so-
by the facile melody-style of the Rococo natas (opp. 79, 81, 90, 101, 106, 109, no,
composers [see *Gallant style] which, in in), these sonatas were all composed
turn, was largely derived from operatic from 1795 to 1805. Beethoven's successor
models. The change towards a more dra- in the field of the piano sonata was Franz
matic manner of writing is usually cred- Schubert. The general neglect of his so-
ited to the Mannheim School, although natas is just as deplorable and unpardon-
Italian composers (particularly Sammar- able as that of Bruckner's symphonies.
is
tini, 1701-75) worked in the same direc- Schumann's sonatas demonstrate, in gen-
tion [see *Mannheim School]. C. P. E. eral, the incapacity of this composer to
Bach cultivated a highly expressive style master the large forms, while Chopin's
[see *Empfindsamer Stil] which exer- two sonatas in B-flat minor and in B mi-
cised considerable influence on the young nor, together with Liszt's B Minor Sonata,
Haydn, while his younger brother Johann are the outstanding examples of the Ro-
Christian Bach represents the link be- mantic sonata, a category to which Mo-
tween the Italian gallant style and Mo- scheles* Sonate Melancolique may be
zart. Muzio Clementi's sonatas antici- added. Brahms's three piano sonatas, opp.
pate many of the dramatic elements of the i, 2, and 5, stand out among the small
Beethoven sonatas. number of important piano sonatas writ-
IV. 1780 Present. The Viennese clas- ten after 1850. The noval trends of the
sical sonata, as represented by the piano early 20th century [see *New music J
sonatas, quartets, and symphonies of evoked a distinct aversion against the so-
Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven, forms nata as a typical representative of the 19th-
a climax of the whole development known century tradition. Some composers such
to every music lover. In referring the as Busoni and Ravel took refuge in the
reader to the articles on *String quartet less pretentious type of the ^sonatina,
and ^Symphony we restrict ourselves to but it was not until after the emerging
a general outline of the development of of *neo-classicism (around 1920) that
the sonata, mainly for pianoforte. Stravinsky and Hindemith turned again
Although the sonatas by Mozart, piano to the form of the sonata. Particularly
as well as violin, are the earliest normally the latter's three piano sonatas would
considered by the amateurs, students, and seem to open a period of new life for
virtuosos of these instruments, the piano this form with its imposing history of
sonatas by C. P. E. Bach and those by 300 years.
Haydn may be expressly mentioned here Lit.: General: W. H. Hadow, Sonata
because they represent an artistic treasure Form (190-); J. S. Shedlock, The Piano-
of great significance, many of them being forte Sonata (1895); O. Klauwell, Ge-
definitely superior to some of the early schichte der Sonate (1899); B. Selva, La
Mozart sonatas. In his late sonatas, how- Sonate ... (1913); R. Refoute, La Sonate
ever, written after 1780, Mozart reached de piano ( 1922). To I and II: J. W. von
a beauty and truthfulness of expression Wasielewski, Die Violine im ij. Jahr-
as well as a balance of form which make hundert und die Anjange der Instrumen-
these compositions unsurpassed master- takomposition (1874); id., "flnstrumen-
works. It may be remarked that there is talsatze vom Ende des 16. bis zum Ende
no. justification for connecting his C mi- des 77. Jahrhunderts (1874, 1905); A.
nor Fantasy K.V. 475 with the C minor Schlossberg, Die Italienische Sonate . . .
[695]
SONATA-FORM SONATA-FORM
HausmusiJ^ iii, p. 37); A. Schering, "Zur are discernible. It is probably correct to
Geschichtc der Solo Sonata . ." (Rie- .
say that 80 per cent of all the movements
rnann Festschrift, 1909); S. Clercx, "}o- found in the sonatas, symphonies, quar-
hann Kuhnau et la sonate" (RdM xv). tets, concertos, trios, etc., from 1780 to the
To 111: M. Lange, Beitrage zur Ent- present day, are written in sonata-form,
stehung der siidwestdeutschen Klavierso- strictly or freely applied.
nate im 18. Jahrhundert (Diss. Giessen I. A movement written in sonata-form
1930); F. Torrcfranca, Le Origine italiane falls into three sections, called exposition,
del romanticismo musicale (1930); B. development, and recapitulation (also
Studeny, Zur Geschichte der Violinso- called statement, fantasia section, and re-
nate im 18. Jahrhundert (Diss. Munich statement), the last being usually followed
1911); A. Stauch, dementi's Klavierso- by a shorter or longer coda. In the exposi-
naten . . . (Diss. Cologne 1929); E. Stilz, tion the composer introduces his musical
Die Berliner Klaviersonate zur Zeit Frie- ideas, consisting of a number of themes;
drichs des Grossen (Diss. Greifswald in the development section he "develops"
1929); H. Michel, La Sonate pour clavier this material, and in the recapitulation he
avant Beethoven (1907); V. Helfert, "Zur repeats the exposition, though with cer-
Entwicklungsgeschichte der Sonaten- tain modifications. In practically all the
form" (AMWvii); F. Tutenberg, "Die sonatas of the earlier period the exposition
is repeated, as is indicated by the repeat-
Durchfiihrungsfragen in der vorneuklas-
sischen Sinfonie" (ZMW
ix); E. Bosquet, sign at its end, a sign which is also helpful
"Origine . de la sonate
. . de 1698 a . . . for the reader in finding the end of the
1742" (La Revue Internationale de Mu- exposition and the beginning of the devel-
sique, 1939, p. 853); F. Torrefranca, "La opment section. Accordingly, the structure
Creazione della sonata dramatica moder- of sonata-form is indicated by the scheme
[696]
SONATA-FORM SONATA-FORM
melodies occurring in each group being the tonic (not, as formerly, in the domi-
considered as continuations of these two. nant) so that the whole movement comes
There is usually a noticeable difference in to a close in the tonic. In modern sym-
character between the first and the sec- phonies (Sibelius) the recapitulation is
ond themes, the former being, e.g., dra- frequently drastically reduced, e.g., to
matic, the latter lyrical. Furthermore, the a restatement of the principal theme
second theme is in another key, normally only.
in the key of the dominant if the tonic is The coda which, in many instances, is
major, and in the relative key if the tonic only a closing sentence of moderate length,
is minor. Towards the end of the second assumes, in others, considerable propor-
group one frequently finds a "closing tions and sometimes spreads out into an-
theme" which stands out for its individ- other development section (e.g., in the
ual character. In later sonatas or sympho- first movement of Beethoven's Eroica).
nies (Brahms, Bruckner) this adopts a Sonata-form may be diagramed thus:
significance equal to that of the two other
||:Exp. :||Dev. Recap. Coda
themes, and Bruckner, particularly, reg-
I II (III) I II (III)
ularly uses three themes in three distinct T D TT
groups of the exposition.
The development is the central section II.
History. Sonata-form emerged in
of the movement, on account of its posi- the early part of the i8th century as
tion as well as its character. The style
an amalgamation of formal and stylistic
and treatment here differ radically from encountered in several earlier forms,
traits
opment section more than anywhere else sections. The carrier of the
development
the composer is free to use his ingenuity which led to the adoption and amalga-
in forming a dynamic body from the mation of these principles was the Nea-
building material at his disposal. Some politan operatic sinfonia [see *Sinfonia
composers have occasionally used new (3); ^Overture (i)]. The first move-
themes and new material in the develop- ment of the Overture (Sinfonia) to Fran-
ment sections, but most of them seem to cesco Conti's opera Pallade trionfante of
have taken pride in showing what they 1721 is a fully developed example of so-
can accomplish without doing this. nata-form [cf. AdHM ii, 797]. The same
The recapitulation normally contains form was applied to chamber music by
all the material of the exposition, although Maria Veracini (1721) and Giov. Batt.
usually with certain modifications, par- Pergolesi (c. 1730), to the piano sonata by
ticularly in the bridge passages. One C. P. E. Bach ("Prussian" Sonatas, 1742),
modification is obligatory, namely, that and, at about the same time, by Giovanni
which makes the second theme appear In Platti (b. c. 1700). The changes which,
[697]
SONATA-FORM SONG
between 1725 and 1775, ^d from the Sonatina. A
diminutive sonata, with
"Rococo" sonata-form to the "classical" fewer and shorter movements than the
sonata-form are, above all, changes of normal type, also usually of lighter execu-
style, from the stereotyped brilliance of tion, designed for instruction (Clementi,
the early Neapolitans (A. Scarlatti) to a Kuhlau). Recent composers, however,
pre-Mozartian style of lively or singable such as Busoni, Ravel, have written so-
melody (Pergolesi, J. Chr. Bach), a pre- natinas of considerable technical difficulty
Beethovian style of dynamic abruptness and artistic aspiration. See under *So-
(Stamitz; see *Mannheim School), and nata B IV.
to the "*empfmdsamer Stil" of C. P. E.
Bach and the early Haydn. In addition, Song. A
song may be defined as a short
the scheme of sonata-form underwent composition for solo voice, usually but
various changes, two of which may be not necessarily accompanied, based on a
singled out here: first, the abandoning of poetic text, and composed in a fairly sim-
the repetition for the second section, i.e., ple style so designed as to enhance rather
the change from ||: A :||: B A :|| to than to overshadow the significance of the
||
A :|j B A; and second, the dropping
: text.
out of the main theme at the outset of the Just as *singing is the most ancient and
development section. Both features, which most widespread kind of music-making,
are left-overs from the binary form of the so song stands out among all the forms
dance movements, are still found in most and types of music for the age of its tradi-
of Haydn's sonatas (e.g., op. 42, no. 8 in tion and for the largeness of its repertory.
A-flat), the former also in a number of Referring the reader to the article on *folk
sonatas by Mozart, as well as in Beetho- song we restrict ourselves here to a con-
ven's Piano Sonata in F# (op. 78). sideration of the art-song, i.e., song as a
The above survey will suffice to show personal creation aiming at artistic per-
that the emergence of sonata-form is the fection.
result of a gradual development carried I.
Up to 1600. While most of the few
on by a great number of composers, not remnants of Greek vocal music fall out-
the achievement of any single "inventor side the category of song, owing to their
of sonata-form" such as have been pre- liturgical a charming lyrical
affiliation,
sented by various scholars (Riemann: song has been preserved in the *Seikilos
Stamitz; Adler: Monn; Helffert: Bohe- song. A
few examples of medieval Latin
mian composers; Torrefranca: Platti). lyric songs have been preserved, notably
Riemann's claims in favor of Johann Sta- the loth-century love song "O admirabile
mitz as the originator of sonata-form are Veneris ydolum" [cf. BeMMR, 72], the
definitely unjustified since in practically melody of which is interesting on account
all his
symphonies Stamitz uses a mosaic- of its clear G major tonality. The "Planc-
likealternation of recurring fragments tus Karoli," a mourning song for the
which is somewhat similar to the con- death of Charlemagne, 814, is written in
Domenico Scarlatti's sonatas.
struction of neumes which cannot be deciphered [cf.
A symphony from 1740 by the Viennese the fascimile and the abortive attempt at
Monn (DTOe 16.1), on the other hand, transcription in CD v, if]. Around noo
shows the essential features of sonata- a great flowering period of song started
form, exposition, development, and re- with the French ^troubadours and *trou-
capitulation, as well as two distinct themes veres,and continued with the German
in the exposition. It is interesting to note *Minnesinger and *Meistersinger. The
that the basic structure of sonata-form also devotional songs of Italy and Spain,
occurs, on a much smaller scale, in the known as *laude and *cantigas, may also
scherzos or minuets of the sonata, as well be mentioned in this connection. While
as in many folk songs; see *Binary and allthe previously mentioned songs are
ternary form II. For literature see under unaccompanied, songs with instrumental
'Sonata (Lit.: To III). accompaniment figure prominently in the
[698]
SONG SONG
musical literature of the i4th century in French tradition of song. Among the ear-
France and in Italy [see *Ars nova; *bal- liest and most impressive
examples are the
lade, *madrigal I; *rondeau;
*ballata; sixteen songs by Duparc (1848-1933),
*virelais].This development reached a composed between 1868 and 1877. About
wonderful climax in the chansons of the the same time Faure (1845-1924) began
*Burgundian masters Dufay and Bin- to write songs, mostly in cycles such as
chois (both born c. 1400). Around 1450 La bonne chanson (1892), La Chanson
the rise of the ^Flemish school with its d'Eve (1907-10), Le Jardin clos (1915-
emphasis on polyphonic and sacred music 18), L Horizon
f
chime'rique (1922). In
put the lyrical song into an eclipse from the meantime Debussy (18621918) had
which it emerged again in the 16th-cen- appeared with his sensational Chansons
tury lute songs [see *Villancico] of the de Bilitis (1897) which marked a decisive
Spanish Luis de Milan (El Maestro, 1535), turn away from German models towards
Valderrabano (Silva de Sirenas, 1547), a typically French (impressionistic) style
and others. Whether the early 16th-cen- and expression. The songs of Ravel and
tury were accompanied solo
*frottole Albert Roussel follow the same general
songs or choral music remains open to trend. The more recent development of
question. A
large number of beautiful French vocal writing shows a shift from
lute songs (*ayres) were written in Eng- impressionism towards neo-classicism or
land around 1600 by John Dowland, towards a sophisticated type of pseudo-
Thomas Morley, and many others [see popular chanson.
^Editions XI ]. At the same time the *air The Russians, beginning with Glinka,
de court was cultivated in France. It was have evolved a highly effective type of
supplanted, during the iyth and i8th cen- romance, usually in symmetrical (terna-
turies, by the more popular types known ry) song-form. Thus, the songs of Tchai-
as *vauxdevilles, *pastourelles, *berge- kovsky, Rachmaninov, Gretchaninov, Gli-
rettes, and *brunettes. ere, are mostly lyrical and somewhat sen-
II. Baroque. The rise of *monody, timental, with texts taken from mediocre
about 1600, brought with it fresh impetus contemporary poets. Moussorgsky cre-
for the composition of songs, by its em- ated a vigorous and un-academic type of
phasis on good and careful declamation song, often employing an expressive and
as well as by the reduction of the accom- realistic recitative a style which influ-
paniment to its bare essentials. It is in- enced not only the Russian but also
teresting to note that in Italy, where this French and Spanish song-writers. Rim-
movement originated, it did not lead to a sky-Korsakov, Balakirev, and Borodin
lasting tradition of song writing, the rea- wrote numerous songs in a strongly na-
son being that all the interest was focused tionalistic idiom, with emphasis on an
on the opera which demanded a more elaborate accompaniment. The Soviet
pretentious and elaborate type of vocal school largely follows the Moussorgsky-
music than simple lyrical songs, the *aria. Borodin tradition, but Tchaikovsky's in-
In Germany, however, the new tendencies fluence also apparent.
is
led to a flowering period of genuine songs The Italian song literature of the i9th
which opens the glorious tradition of the century consists of a great number of
German lied which is treated separately popular and sentimental songs of an ap-
under the heading *lied. pallingly low level of taste. Here the pre-
Modern Song.
III. It was not until occupation with the opera, together with
long after the German lied had reached the lack of a tradition of Italian folk mu-
its
high-point under Schubert that a new sic, proved fatal for the song, and it was
activityin the field of art-song started not until the reversal of these trends,
among the other nations, particularly in around 1910, that Italian composers took
France, where composers of rank, in- a serious songs. While the
interest in
spired by the refined poetry of Verlaine songs of Ottorino Respighi are written in
and Baudelaire, inaugurated a typically the sensuous and hedonistic style of the
[699]
SONG CYCLE SOPRANO
lateRomanticism, there has been recently Tieck); Faure*'s La bonne chanson (1892;
a trend towards simplification and to- poems by Verlaine); Debussy's Chansons
wards archaism, based on the study of old de Bilitis (1897; poems by Pierre Louys).
Italian song types (Casella, Malipiero,
Song-form [G. Liedform]. A gener-
Petrassi).
In England, also, hardly any song of ally accepted,though not very fortunate,
importance was written during the i9th designation for the simple ternary form
and Their Stories (1931); G. Kobbe, Fa- song. However, it would be quite diffi-
cult to carry through such a distinction,
mous American Songs (1906); W. T.
e.g., in the case of the dances (all binary)
Upton, Art-Song in America (1930);
in Bach's suites, where the term "song"-
H. C. Colics, Voice and Verse (1928);
F. Kidson, English Songs of the Georgian
form might perhaps be applied to the
minuets or bourrees, but is rather out of
Period',H. P. Greene, "Stanford's Songs"
"The Future of the place for the elaborate allemandes or
(ML ii, no. 2); id.,
no. i); M. Cooper, gigues.
English Song" (ML i,
"Liszt as a Song Writer" (ML xix, no. 2); Songs Without Words. See *Lieder
E. Walker, "Songs of Schumann and ohne Worte.
Brahms" (ML iii, no. i); H. Bedford,
"Unaccompanied Song" (ML
iii, no. 3); Sonnenquartette. See under ^Russian
E. Oliphant, "A Survey of Russian Song" quartets.
(MQ xii). See also *Ayre , *Ballad, Sonneries trum-
[F.]. Signals given by
*Folk song; *Lied; *Shanty; *Text and church
pets or by bells.
music.
Sonsbouches [F.]. The stopped notes
A in horn playing. See *Horn I.
Song cycle [G. Liederfy-eis] string .
[700]
SOPRANO CLEF SOUNDHOLES
and the "male soprano," i.e., either a 1620). Later constructions frequently
*falsettist or, formerly, a *castrato. The used complete violins, violas, etc., which
term is also used in connection with cer- are placed inside a big circular bow and
tain instruments, to denote the highest pressed against this, in different positions,
member of a family, e.g., the soprano by a mechanism connected with the key-
recorder. board. Regarding the fourth category,
see ^Electronic musical instruments. Cf.
Soprano clef. See *Clefs.
SaRM, 360; GD v, 82; GD, Suppl. Vol.,
Sorcerer's Apprentice, The ("L'ap- 59 8ff.
prenti sorcier"). See ^Symphonic poem
Sostenuto, sostenendo [It.]. Sustain-
IV.
ing the tone or slackening the tempo.
Sordamente [It.]. Subdued, muffled. Andante sostenuto calls for a slow an-
dante.
Sordino (i) See *Mute.
[It.], (2)
Old Italian name for the *kit or the Sostenuto pedal. See *Pianoforte I.
*clavichord.
Sotto [It.]. Under. Sotto voce (under
Sordun. See *Oboe family III. the voice) means performance, vocal or
instrumental "in an undertone," i.e., with
Sospirando [It.]. Sighing, plaintive. subdued sound. M.d. (Mj.) sotto means
Sostenente right (left)hand underneath the other
(sostinente) piano-
forte. Generic name for a
pianoforte (in pianoforte playing); see *Sopra.
which produces a sustained sound, as the
Soubrette [F., a young servant]. The
violin or the organ. A
great number of term has been adopted into German usage
such instruments, all more or less ephem-
to denote operatic sopranos of a light and
eral,have been invented. There are four
somewhat comical type, e.g., the Zerlina
principal means of obtaining the desired in Mozart's Don Giovanni. The cor-
effect: (i) by currents of air directed responding French term is dugazon y
against the strings; (2) by repeating ham- after a famous singer Louise Dugazon
mers; (3) by a bowing mechanism; (4) who excelled in such roles.
(1755-1821)
by means of electricity. The first method
was used in Schnell's AnSmochord [see Sound board [F. table d'harmonie; G.
under * Aeolian harp]. The second, in Resonanzboden]. In pianofortes, the
which rapidly striking hammers produce wooden surface expanding beneath the
a tremolo, was invented by Hawkins in strings which serves as a resonator (also
1800, improved in the Melopiano of c. called *belly). Most defects in sound,
1873, and patented, in a new form, by such as usually develop pianos after a
in
E. Moor in 1931 and by Cloetens in 1932. number of years, are due to the cracking
The third is realized in a great number or bending of the sound board.
of instruments, generically called piano-
Sound-film. See *Electronic musical in-
violin [G. Bogen%lavier\ Streic heavier \
struments VII.
Geigenwer1(\ > of which the *hurdy-
gurdy may be considered the ancestor. Soundholes [F. ouie\ G. Schalloch; It.
Usually, the ordinary violin bow is re- The apertures in the shape of an
occhi].
placed by one or several wheels bearing / (F-holes) which are cut in the table of
rosined strings, and set in rotation by a violins, etc. Their function is to give
foot-mechanism, while the strings are greater freedom of movement to the cen-
pressed against the wheel by a mecha- segment of the table, thus making it
tral
nism connected with the keys. The first more serviceable for its purpose of rein-
perfect instrument of this type was Hans forcing the tones produced by the strings.
Haiden's Gambenwer\ (c. 1575; de- Savart (1791-1841) has shown by experi-
scribed in Praetorius De Organographia, ments that in violins, violas, etc., the tra-
1619 and Teatrum Instrumentorum, ditional /-form of the holes is superior to
[701]
SOUND IDEAL SOURCES, MUSICAL
any other form. In earlier instruments ries: Gregorian chant; Secular monoph-
of the violin type (viols) the holes were ony; Organ music; Polyphonic music.
in the shape of a sickle or half-moon (C- For the first category, see ^Editions
holes). The apertures of lutes and guitars XXIII; for the second, see under *Trou-
are in the form of a full circle in the cen- veres, ^Minnesinger, *Laude, *Cantigas;
ter of the table [see *Rose]. Their par- for the third, under *Organ music I. The
ticular shape and position bring about most important sources of polyphonic
prolongation of the sound while the music prior to 1450 are listed below.
soundholes of the violins have rather the
Before noo. Theoretical treatises dealing
opposite effect. with *Organum; Winchester T roper [>see
Sound ideal, A recent term (transla- under *Troper],
tion of G. Klangideal) used by music 1 2thCentury, i. MSS
of *St. Martial,
historians to refer to the characteristic c.1150: Paris B.N. lat. 1139, J7/9> 3549
"sonorities" of the various periods of London, Br. Mus. Add. 36881. MS
music, particularly the earlier ones. For 2. Codex Calixtinus
of Santiago de
instance, the *Burgundian sound ideal Compostela, c. 1150 [cf. P. Wagner, Die
(early i5th century) is that of a light, Gesange der ]a\obusliturgie (1931)].
multicolored combination of vocal sound
i^th Century. 3. Various MSS containing
with many instrumental timbres of a the repertory of the School of Notre
somewhat nasal character, extremely rich Dame. The three most important of these
in overtones, indeed rather harsh and are indicated under liber or-
*Magnus
piercing. To this sonority that of the For the others cf. F. Ludwig, Refer-
gan i.
which it was originally introduced), but tery of Las Huelgas near Burgos (Hu).
chiefly to convey the vibrations of the
Contents: motets and monophonic
table to the back of the instrument and hymns. New ed. in H. Angles, El Codex
musical de Las Huelgas, 3 vols. (facs.,
to bring the various vibrating sections
into conformity with each other. The comm.), 1931.
transcr.,
correct position of the sound post is Codex Torino, Turin,
7. Bibl. Reale,
[702]
SOURCES, MUSICAL SOUTERLIEDEKENS
10. Uachaut MSS of the Bibl. Nat., tents: similar to that of 20. Cf. AMW
Paris.Contents: complete works of G. vii, 236.
de Machaut (1300-77). New ed. in F. 22. Bologna, Bibl. Univ. 22/6. Con-
Ludwig, G. de Machaut, Musifolische tents: similar to that of 20. Cf. WoGM i,
[703]
SOUTH AMERICAN MUSIC SPANISH MUSIC
importance lies in the fact that the melo- musical history are still obscure, owing
dies are not newly composed, but taken partly to the lack of source material, partly
from popular folk melodies of the period, to the fact that the extant material has
and that the editor has indicated with been jealously guarded by narrow-minded
each melody the beginning of the original state and town authorities. Only during
secular text, thus preserving to posterity the last decade has a somewhat more
a wealth of early folk melodies, mostly obliging attitude been taken.
from the Netherlands. In 1556-57 Clem- I (Until 1500). The Christianization
ens non Papa published the same melo- of Spain which took place during the 4th
dies in a three-voice setting [cf. Ex. in century led to the establishment of the
BeMMR9 259], while his pupil Gherar- so-called Visigothic chant, the Spanish
dus Mes made an edition in four parts counterpart of the Gregorian (Roman)
(1561). chant. It persisted until about the nth
Lit.: E. Mincoff-Marriage, *Souter- century when it was superseded by the
Uede\cns (1922; D. F. Scheur-
facs. ed.); Gregorian chant. Since it remained in
leer, DC Souterliede^ens (1894); K. P- use during the Arab domination (711-
Bernet Kempers, in Tijdschrijt der Ver- 1085) it is usually referred to as *Moz-
eeniging voor Nederlandsche Muzie^ arabic chant [see also *Chant]. In the
GeschiedeniSy xii (1928); H. Commer, p re-Arabic period Seville, Toledo, and
*Collectio operum musicorum Batavo- Saragossa were great centers of musical
rum, xi (Clemens non Papa). culture, particularly under the bishops
St. Leander (d. 599) and St. Isidore (d.
South American music. See *Latin
636). The latter's writings contain valu-
American music. able information concerning contempo-
rary practice of church music [cf.
Soviet music. See ""Russian music. There num-
ReMMA, no]. also exist a
ber of secular songs, unfortunately no-
Sp. [G.]. Short for *Spitze.
tated in neumes which cannot be de-
Spacing. The arrangement of the notes ciphered. One of the most discussed
of a chord according to the demands of problems of early Spanish music is the
the single voices. When the three upper Arabic element which, according to some
voices are as close together as possible, scholars (Farmer), exercised a basic influ-
the spacing is described as close position ence not only on Spanish music but also
or close harmony [Ex. i, 2]; sometimes on European music in general. Few of
these sweeping claims have stood up
under the scrutiny of unbiased examina-
I]. A highly
tion [see
* Arabian music
Spanish music. Spain has an ancient ReMMA, 267f; AdHM, 181; ApNPM,
and extremely interesting tradition of 2i2f], Very likely one of the
most impor-
music. Unfortunately many phases of its tant sources of the repertory of the French
r .
SPANISH MUSIC SPANISH MUSIC
School of Notre Dame, the MS Madrid, portant organ pieces written before Bach.
Bibl. Nat. Hhi6? (formerly 20486), was No less
outstanding are the Spanish lute
written in Spain. The influence of French composers Luis Milan, Luis de Narvaez,
polyphonic music is also apparent in the Enriquez de Valderrabano, Miguel de
Codex Hudgas (or Codex Burgos} [see Fuenllana, Diego Pisador, and Esteban
^Sources, no. 6], which contains original Daza, who published lute music between
Spanish pieces, monophonic as well as 1535 and 1576 [see *Vihuela]. The above
polyphonic, and in which Johan Rodriguez list may be completed by the names of
is
repeatedly mentioned as a composer. musicians who were active mainly in the
From 1300 till 1450 we have very scant field of theory: Juan Bermudo, Tomas de
information about the music in Spain, Santa Maria [cf. O. Kinkeldey, Orgel und
and musical sources are entirely lacking. Klavier . .
(1910)], Diego Ortiz (Tra-
.
piled shortly after 1500, the *Cancionero Schneider, 1913), and Francisco Salinas
musical del palacio [see *Sources, no. 27] , (1513-90) whose De musica libri VII
contains, among its 459 compositions, a (1577) is a valuable, yet little explored,
vast number of pieces by 15th-century source of information [see *Tempera-
Spanish composers such as Johannes de ment II]. See also *Madrigal IV; *En-
Cornago (also represented in the *Trent salada.
codices), Juan Urrede, Fernando della After 1600 the polyphonic tradition was
Torre (fl. around 1450), composers who continued mainly by Aguilera de Heredia
wrote secular polyphonic compositions in (b. 1570?), Joan Pujol (1573-1626; com-
the styles of Dufay and Ockeghem and in plete works ed. by H. Angles, 1926-32),
the French forms of the ^ballade and the Mateo Romero (d. 1647), Carlos Patino
*virelai. The latter form was widely (d. 1647), and Joan Rebello (1609-61).
adopted, under the name
of *villancico, The School of Montserrat, entirely un-
by the later composers of the Cancionero, known until recently, has stepped into the
notably the poet-musician Juan dell En- foreground, owing to the publication of
cina (1469-1529?) [for a list of other the works (motets, Masses, villancicos) of
composers cf. RiHM ii.i, 284] A famous
.
Joan Cererols (in D. Pujol, Mestres de
theorist of thesame period was Ramos I'escolania de Montserrat^ 3 vols., 1930).
de Pareja (14401521; see *Theory II). For the organ music of this period see
II (1500-1800). The 1 6th century is *Organ music II (d).
the golden period of Spanish music. In The middle of the iyth century saw the
the fields of sacred vocal polyphony as rise of the *zarzuela, the Spanish type of
well as of organ and lute music it has opera, which, however, differs essentially
produced masters of the highest rank. In from that of the other countries. After
the group we find Cristobal Morales
first 1750 it was replaced by more popular
(c. 1500-53), his pupil Francisco Gue- types of lyric theater, the *tonadilla and
rrero (1528-99), the "Spanish Palestrina" the *sainete. During the i8th century
Tomas Luis de Victoria (c. 1540-1611), became more and more
Italian influence
and Juan Gines Perez (1548-1612). Mo- predominant in Spain, owing mainly to
rales particularly stands out as a great the unlimited power which the Italian
genius who sometimes even surpasses a castrato Farinelli, favorite of King Philip
master like Josquin in a typically Span- V, held. Operas of Neapolitan composers
ish
expression of dark-glowing ecstasy, were performed at the royal theater and,
and whose motet "Emendemus in melius" on the other hand, two Spanish musi-
is one of the
greatest works in all music cians were absorbed completely by the
composer of the opera Una cosa rara and his brother, Rodolfo (b. 1900, now
Giovanni, a fact which is all the more re- well as a virtuoso type of instrumental
markable as Soler's opera had completely music in the national Spanish manner
eclipsed for a time Mozart's Figaro. The (Violin Concerto, 1942). The Catalonian
Spanish harpsichord music of the Rococo composer Jaime Pahissa (b. 1880, now
is represented chiefly by Antonio Soler living in Buenos Aires) has developed a
(1729-83). He wrote a great number of personal system of composition, based ex-
harpsichord pieces in the style of Dome- clusively on unisons and multiple octaves
nico Scarlatti who was active in Madrid producing a polyphonic effect through
from 1729 to 1754. contrary motion (Intertonal Suite). Os-
Ill (1800 present). During the first car Espla (b. 1886) is distinguished in
half of the i9th century musical produc- Spanish music as a theorist as well as a
tion came to an almost complete stand- composer. Julian Bantista (b. 1901, now
still. Bellini, Donizetti, Rossini, reigned living inBuenos Aires) is the composer
supreme on the operatic stage, until the of modernistic pieces outside of the na-
popular zarzuela, in the form of short tional tradition.
comic operas with spoken dialogue, was More than any other country Spain is
revived by F. A. Barbieri (182394). conspicuous for its wealth of national
Felipe Pedrell (1841-1922), Tomas Bre- dances which, time and again, have in-
ton (18501923), Ruperto Chapf (1851 spired the fancy of composers, Spanish as
1909), gradually worked towards a more well as foreign. See Alala; Alborado;
artistic type of Spanish opera. Aurrescu; Bolero; Cante hondo; Fan-
The founder of modern Spanish music dango; Flamenco; Folia; Guajira; Haba-
is Isaac Albeniz (1860-1909) who became nera; Jaleo; Jota; Muileira; Murciana;
famous mainly through his "Iberia" Pavane; Polo; Rueda; Saeta; Sarabande;
(1906-09), a collection of 12 piano pieces Sardana; Seguidilla; Seises; Solea; Zort-
in which Spanish dance rhythms are pre- ziko. Also Auto; Mystery; Sainete; Tona-
sented with a most colorful imagination dilla; Zarzuela; Madrigal IV.
and a virtuoso piano technique. His Lit.: G. Chase, The Music of Spain
brother-in-arms was Enrique Granados (1941; bibl.); LavE .4, pp. 1913-2400;
(1867-1916) numerous piano
whose A. Soubis, Histoire de la Musique: Es~
pieces, notably the
"Goyescas" (1912-14), pagne, 3 vols. (1900). To I: J. B. Trend,
though lacking the dash and exuberance The Music of Spanish History to 1600
of Albeniz' music, are actually closer to (1926); P. Aubry, "Iter Hispanicum"
the national soul of Spain in their aristo- (SIM viii, ix); I. Pope, in Speculum ix
cratic grace and elegance. Even more (i3th-cent. song); O. Ursprung, in ZMW
"Spanish" in its tense passion and ardent iv ( i4th-cent. songs) H. Angles,
;
in Kroy-
severity is the music of Manuel de Falla er-Festschrtft, 1933 (i5th-cent. song); G.
(b. 1876), author oftwo important op- Chase, "J uan del Encina ." (ML xx, no. . .
eras, La Vida
breve (1907) and El Re- 4). See also under *Mozarabic chant;
* To II: H. Col-
tablo de Maese Pedro (1922, after an *Cantigas; Villancico.
episode from Don Quixote), and of the let, Le Mysticisme musical espagnol au
ballet El Sombrero de tres picos (The xvie siecle ( 1913) M. Eslava, f Lira sacro-
;
[706]
SPARTE SPRINGER
2 vols. (1926, '32); F. Pedrell, Sperdendosi [It.]. Fading out.
de organistas clasicos espanoles (1908);
L. Villalba Munoz, \Antologia de organis- Spezzato [It.]. See *Cori spezzati.
tas cldsicos espanoles\ H. Angles, Musici
Spianato [It.]. "Leveled," i.e., smooth,
organici J. Cab^nilles opera omnia (1927 even.
36); W. Apel, "Early Spanish Music for
Lute and Keyboard Instruments" (MQ Spiccato [It.]. See *Bowing (d).
Spatium [L.]. The space between two Spitze [G.]. Abbr. Sp. indicates in vio-
linmusic the point of the bow; in organ
lines of a staff.
music the toe of the foot.
Speaker key. In wind instruments a
Spitzig [G.]. Pointed, sharp.
key which the production of
facilitates
tones by overblowing. It opens a small Sponsus play. See *Liturgical drama.
hole which causes the air column to vi-
brate in one-half or one-third of its entire Sprechgesang [G. sprechen, to speak].
German term for * recitative; also for the
length. The oboe usually has two such
"elevated" speech used in the ^melodrama
keys, producing the first and second oc-
(more properly called Sprechstimme).
tave respectively, while the clarinet has
only one, producing the twelfth. Springbogen [G.]. Sautille, spiccato;
see *Bowing (d).
Speaking stops. On organs, all the
can Jacopone da Todi (c. 12281306), whole-tones and semitones, as well as the
and still sung today at the feast of the modifications of pitch produced by acci-
Seven Dolours (Sept. 15). For the text dentals (e.g., C-double-sharp is actually
and the liturgical melody cf. GR, 445. higher in pitch, but lower in staff location,
The famous text has also been composed than D-flat).
by Josquin, Palestrina, Astorga (ed. by The use of horizontal lines for the rep-
R. Franz), Steffani, Al. Scarlatti, Caldara resentation of pitches occurs first in the
(cf. DTOe 13.1), Pergolese, Haydn, Schu- *Musica enchiriadis (9th century). How-
bert, Rossini, Verdi, Dvorak, Stanford, ever, only the spaces between the lines are
and Szymanovski. used here, with the syllables of the text
Lit.: Bitter, Studic zum Stabat Mater written in at their proper place [cf.
STAFFLESS NEUMES STIL
ApNPM, facs. 42]. The invention of the Star-Spangled Banner, The. The
staffproper is ascribed to Guido of Arezzo ^national anthem of the United States of
(c. 1000) who, in his Regulae de ignotu America, officially adopted by a Bill passed
cantu [GS ii, 34], recommends the use on March 3, 1931. The words were writ-
of three or four lines, denoting f a c' or ten by Francis Scott Key in September,
d f a c' (the use of one or two lines, red 1814, while he watched, from the cartel-
for f and yellow for c', occurred in ship "Minden," the British bombardment
slightly earlier MSS). The four-line staff of Fort McHenry, near Baltimore. It is
has been preserved to the present day for sung to a tune by the English John Staf-
the notation of Gregorian chant. For the ford Smith, composed originally for a
writing down of polyphonic music the poem "To Anacreon in Heaven." It is
five-line staff was used as early as 1200 not known whether Key had this tune in
[cf. ApNPM, facs. 47] . For compositions mind when he wrote his words, or wheth-
in simple note-against-note style (*con- er text and music were united later, pos-
ductus) the different staves were fre- sibly by Joseph Hopper Nicholson. Cf.
quently written so closely that they give O. Sonneck, The Star-Spangled Banner
the impression of a single staff of ten or (1914); J. Muller, The Star-Spangled
more lines [cf. ApNPM, facs. 46]; how- Banner (1935).
ever, the fact that on such a staff the same
clef letter (c') is used simultaneously in
Statement. Same as exposition in *So-
nata-form.
different positions clearly shows that this
is a juxtaposition of several staves, not Steel guitar. See *Electronic musical
one single staff. It was not until the i6th instruments III.
century that real staves with more than
five lines came into general use, for the Steg [G.]. Bridge of the violin, etc. See
ously cultivated during the I7th century practiced in the I3th century, suggested
in Rome [see *Roman School]. Stile and facilitated by the fact that in the or-
concertante (moderno), the style of con- gana tripla and quadrupla of this period
certo-like treatment, i.e., of rivaling in- (Perotinus) the two or three parts above
struments [see *Concerto III]. Stile con- the tenor move in the same range. The
citato,style of dramatic expression and accompanying example, from Walter
excitement (Monteverdi, "II Combatti- Odington's treatise [cf. CS i, 247], serves
mento di Tancredi e Clorinda," 1624; cf. as an illustration. Cf. also *HAM, nos.
W. Kreidler, H. Schiitz und der Stile 32C and 33b. Better known, though not
concitato von Monteverdi, Diss. Bern usually recognized as such, is the strict
voices, so that, e.g., the soprano sings the in particular, it is called a divided stop if
the whole rank of pipes is divided into a
m number on ^harpsichords.
Stopped notes. See *Horn I.
part of the alto and vice versa (without Stopped pipe. See *Organ IX; also
the octave transposition, found in *in- *Wind instruments III.
[710]
STOPPING STRINGED INSTRUMENTS
Stopping, (i) Onstringed instruments name was used by Giov. Macque (d. 1614)
(violins, lutes), the placing of the tips of for a prelude in free style [see *Editions
the fingers of the left hand so that they XVII, 4 pp.
, 60, 69].
shorten the vibrating length of the string.
Strawfiddle. See *Xylophonc.
See ^Double stops. (2) On the natural
horn, see *Horn. Straziante [It.]. "Tearing," piercing.
Stracciacalando [It.]. Prattling. Street organ, hand organ. A *me-
chanical instrument of the barrel-and-pin
Stradivarius violins (frequently ab-
breviated Strad). See * Violin. principle in which the pins operate reed
pipes similar to those of the organ. A
Straff [G.]. Tense. crank turns the barrel and also operates
a bellows which furnishes the air to set
Strambotto. A type of 15th-century the reeds into vibration. The instrument,
Italian poetry, written in stanzas of eight
which is associated with the Italian street
lines in iambic pentameters, with the
musician and his monkey, is popularly
rhyme scheme ab ab ab ab or, more fre-
but erroneously called *hurdy-gurdy.
quently, ab ab ab cc (the latter type
is
known as ottava nma\ cf. Byron's "Don Streich- [G. streichen, to bow] . Streich-
14) strambotti are composed in strophic quartett (-quintett), string quartet (quin-
form, the music of the first two lines be- tet). Streichtyavier, piano-violin [see
eral term for pieces in free style or involv- Stringed instruments. Instruments
ing some sort of fanciful treatment.
As in which the sound-producing agent is a
early as the end of the i6th century the stretched string. The scientific name is
STRINGENDO STRING QUARTET
ing by hammer. Ordinarily, the name 51, op. 67) who filled the traditional form
stringed instruments ("strings") denotes with a new expression of restrained Ro-
the members of the violin family or of manticism. The Romantic period of the
the violin type. Cf. H. Panum, The string quartet came to its conclusion with
Stringed Instruments of the Middle Ages the works of Dvorak (eight quartets,
(1941); A. Riihlmann, Geschichte der 1874-1895), Franck (D minor, 1889),
1
Bogeninstrumente ( 882) .
d'Indy (op. 35, 1890; op. 45, 1897; op. 96,
1930), and Max Reger (opp. 54, 74, 109,
Stringendo [It.]. Quickening, accele- 121, 133).
rando.
The French impressionism with its em-
String quartet [F. quatuor h cordes; phasis on coloristic effects and the tur-
G. Streichquartett}. Chamber music for bulent decades of the early 2oth century
four strings, practically always first and with their complete disintegration of all
second violin, viola, and cello. The string previous standards [see *New music]
quartet is the chief type of ^chamber mu- were not particularly favorable to the
sic and is frequently considered, by seri- cultivation of so traditional a form as the
ous musicians as well as by cultured ama- quartet. Nonetheless, the quartets of this
teurs, the ideal type of music, because "it period are interesting documents showing
always says what is necessary, and never the attempt to utilize the medium of
too much." For its form, see the explana- strings a vehicle for impressionistic
as
tions given under * Sonata. methods (Debussy, Ravel); for atonality
I. The Present Repertory. The present- (Schonberg, Alban Berg, Webern); for
day repertory of string quartets begins twelve-tone technique (Schonberg, op.
with the later quartets of Haydn (written 30); for motoric and percussive rhythms
between 1780 and 1790) and with those (Bartok, nos. 3 and 4); for neo-classical
by Mozart written in the same decade. texture (Stravinsky, Sessions, Piston); for
In these works Haydn and Mozart estab- an archaijj, f olkiorism (Malipiero, Rispetti
lished the string quartet not only as a e strambotti); for quarter-tone technique
definite ensemble and form, but also (Bartok, no. 6, Burletta), etc.
tinguished entertainment" into a realm with the latter, since the medium of four
of sublime thought and of transcendental strings was almost completely abandoned
subjectivism.Beethoven's successor was in the Baroque period, except in England
Franz Schubert whose late quartets (A where the *fancy was cultivated until c.
STRING QUARTET STROPHIC BASS
1680. Still more amateurish is the at- tedes Haydn'schen Streichquartetts" (in
tempt, made
in a recent reference book, Gesammelte Aufsatze i, 224^); M. Scott,
"
to single out a special composition (by (ML xi, no. 3); E. Goos-
"Haydn's '83'
Allegri, 1582-1652) as "the first work sens, "The String Quartet since Brahms"
for four stringed instruments" [see also (ML iii, no. 4). See also *Chamber music.
A. Eaglefield-Hull, in MQ
xv] . Even be-
Chamber music
fore Allegri was born a great number of String quintet. for
five strings. See *Quintet.
such pieces had been written any one of
which might just as well be called "the
Strings. Colloquial abbreviation for the
first string quartet." During the first half
stringed instruments of the orchestra
of the yth century quite a number of
i
(string section) or of the string quartet,
four-voice instrumental pieces were writ-
quintet, etc.
ten in Italy and Germany; these, however,
would seem to have been destined for String trio. Chamber music for three
small string orchestras rather than for a strings. See *Trio.
gin much before 1750. The question of Stromento [It.]. Instrument. Stro-
[7x31
STROPHIC SONG SUBDOMINANT
of using the same bass line for all the compared with that of the Meistersinger:
stanzas of a song, with varying melodies work style); to composers (e.g., the style
in the upper part. From the *ground of Wagner as compared with that of Bee-
proper (basso ostinato) the strophic bass thoven: personal style); to types of com-
is distinguished by its considerably longer position (operatic style, symphonic style,
extension and by the fact that it comes to motet style, church style); to mediums
a definite close at its end. Briefly, basso (instrumental style, vocal style, keyboard
ostinatoand strophic bass are examples style); tomethods of composition (con-
of continuous and sectional "^variation, trapuntal style, homophonic style, mo-
respectively. A
typical example of strophic nodic style); to nations (French style,
bass (by Alessandro Grand i, 1620) is re- German style); to periods (Baroque style,
produced in RiHM
ii.2, 39-45. See *Can- Romantic style); etc. Naturally, several
tata I; *Aria III; *Ruggiero. such points of view may be combined in-
to one, as, e.g., "Beethoven's symphonic
Strophic song. See under through- "German Romantic style," "instru-
style,"
composed. mental style of the
Baroque," etc.
Strophicus. See *Neumes I. The stylistic point of view was intro-
duced into music by the Italian writers of
Strumento d'acciaio. See under the lyth century who invented a remark-
*Glockenspiel. able vocabulary to denote various "lan-
and as an element of unification. Early low the tonic These terms are
(e.g., f-g).
music (prior 1500) has no subjects
to important in the theory of the *church
proper, unless the borrowed *cantus firmi, modes, all of which have the subtonium,
which form the basis of numerous com- except for the Lydian and Ionian. The
positions (motets), are considered as such. replacement, in any of the other modes,
During the second half of the i5th cen- of the subtonium by the subsemitonium
tury (Ockeghem, Isaac) characteristic (e.g., the use of fft in Mixolydian) was
considered as *musica
figures (motives) were gradually adopted
ficta.
the character of a *concerto-grosso move- Suite (from the incidental music to Ib-
ment. Those of the first three partitas are sen's play, 1875), Tchaikovsky's Nut-
modeled after the ^Inventions (as are also crac\er Suite (from the ballet, 1892),
numerous preludes of the * Well-tem- Stravinsky's Petrouch\a Suite (from the
pered Clavier) , that of the fourth is a 1911). In the period from 1915 to
ballet,
French overture [see *Overture I], and 1930 the "back-to-bach" movement led
the last two borrow their style from the to a somewhat demonstrative revival of
*toccata. The dance movements are in- the abstract (non-operatic) suite, and
variably in binary form, either symmetri- Bach's example served as welcome pre-
cal (i.e., with both sections of about the text for the introduction of jazz dances
same length) or asymmetrical, i.e., with into the field of art music (Hindemith,
the second section expanded in a manner Suite 7922; Krenek, Schulhoff, Conrad
foreshadowing the sonata-form [see *Bi- Beck).
nary and ternary; *Sonata-form], Stylis- III. The Suite before Bach. The devel-
tically the dances of the optional group opment leading to the suites of Bach pre-
form a contrast to the others, being usu- sents an interesting picture of interna-
allysimpler in style and more clearly sug- tional cooperation. Briefly stated, Italy
gestive of dance types. The reason for this contributed the early development (i6th
important difference is that the allemande, century), England the gigue, Spain the
courante, sarabande, gigue, are much sarabande, France the great wealth of
older types which originated in the i6th dance types (early i7th century), and
century and which, at the time of their Germany the conception of the suite as a
adoption as the constitutional elements of unified and definite musical form.
the suite (c. 1650) had already lost their The origin of the suite is usually looked
dance connotation and had become ideal- <
for in the frequent combinations of two
ized types, rhythmically weakened but dances, one in duple time, the other in
SUITE SUITE
triple time, such as occur throughout the velopment. Not only did they transform
1 6th century, e.g., Pavane Galliard or the allemande, courante, gigue, sara-
Passamezzo Saltarello [see *Nachtanz] .
bande, from their 16th-century plainness
More important than these somewhat ir- to Baroque refinement (the * courante is
relevant combinations are the combina- particularly interesting in this respect),
tions,not infrequent in 16th-century lute but they also enlarged the repertory by
books, of three or more dances played in those numerous dances which were
succession. Examples are the combination adopted, around 1700, into the optional
Basse danse - Recoupe Tordion which group of the suite.
occurs in the lute books of Attaingnant To the best of our knowledge the crea-
(1529), Passamezzo Gagliarda Pado- tion of the classical suite must be credited
vano in that of Rotta (1546), or Passa- to Johann Jacob Froberger (1616-67)
mezzo Padovano Saltarello
Ripresa who, born in Stuttgart, educated partly
in that of Waisselius (1573). After 1600 in Rome and spending the late time of his
this course was further pursued by Ger- life in France, was eminently suited for
man composers such as Paul Peuerl, Isaak the task of imbuing the German "Renais-
Posch (both in DTOe 36.ii), Samuel sance"-suite of Peuerl and Schein with the
Scheidt (1587-1654), and Hermann stylistic achievements of the French Ba-
Schein (1586-1630), each of whom es- roque. It must be noted that, around
tablished his own standard form, e.g., 1650, the prevailing type of suite was one
Paduana - Intrada Dantz Gagliard in three movements only: A C S. Many
(Peuerl, 1611; cf. EiBM, no. 26), or Pa- suites of Froberger have this scheme, as
vana Galliarde Courante Allemanda do also all those by Kindermann (c. 1645;
Tripla (Schein, Banchetto musical?, cf. DTB 21/24) and nearly all the instru-
1617; cf. no. 199). While the idea
HAM, mental suites of the Kassel MS (ed. by
of the suite as a unified musical form is ficorcheville). The gigue was introduced
clearly present in these compositions, it is at a slightly later time as an "optional"
lacking in the works of French composers dance, either before or after the courante,
such as Jean-Baptiste Besard (1567-?), with the sarabande retaining its position
Chambonnieres (1602-72), Louis Cou- as the concluding movement: A-C-G-S
perin (1626-61), d'Anglebert (1635-?), or A-G C-S. In Froberger's autograph
who merely arranged the dances either MSS his four-movement suites invariably
aggregation still exists in the harpsichord that the positions of the sarabande and
works of Francois Couperin (publ. 1713 the gigue were exchanged, as appears
30) who, perhaps deliberately, avoids the from the earliest printed edition of his
name suite then long established suites(published posthumously in 1693)
and prefers the more suitable name "Or- which bears the remark: "mis en meilleur
dre" which might well be applied in the ordre" (put in better order). Other ex-
case of the earlier French composers like- amples of the A-C S-G arrangement
wise. occur in the suites of Georg Bohm ( 1661
If the French failed to grasp the idea of I733)-
the suite as a musical form, they made Around 1700 we find the earliest exam-
other important contributions to its de- of the "complete suite," e.g., in Johann
ples
SUITE SUMER IS ICUMEN IN
Krieger's suites (Seeks Musi\alische Par- marche, chaconne, bourre*, traquenard,
tien, 1697; DTB 18; see *Partita) which and many Such suites, briefly
others.
follow the scheme A-C-S-G-O and in called "Ouverture," were written by Jo-
those of Pachelbel (1699; DTB
2.1) which hann S. Kusser (Composition suivant la
have the arrangement A-C-O-S-G. methode jran$aise, 1682), Georg Muff at
}. S. Bach seems to have been the first
to (Florilegium, 1695/96; DTOe
i.i, i.ii),
place the O-group before the gigue. J.K. F. Fischer (Le Journal de Printemps,
IV. The Sonata da Camera. Side by 1695; DdT 10), J. A. Schmierer (Zodia-
side with this "central development" there cus musicus, 1698; ibid.}, Joh. Jos. Fux
were others of a somewhat freer char- (Concentus musico-instrumentalis, 1701;
acter, chiefly in the field of chamber and DTOe 23-ii), Telemann (Musique de
of orchestral music. In Italy the suite was table, 1733; DdT 61/62), and J. S. Bach
cultivated mainly as a chamber music (4 Orchestral Suites). Bach also trans-
type, under the name of sonata da camera ferred this type to the harpsichord in his
(chamber sonata) as opposed to the so- Franzosische Ouverture (contained in the
nata da chiesa [see *Sonata B, II], As *Clavierubung iii, 1739) as did Georg
early as 1629 and 1637 we encounter Bohm before him [see his Sdmtliche
instrumental suites such as Sinfonia Wer\e i (1927), no. 2]. In its use of
(Brando) Gagliarda Corrente in pub- "modern" dances this suite comes much
lications by G. B. Buonamente [cf. P. closer to the 19th-century type than the
Nettl, in ZMW ix]. The earliest extant idealized "classical" suite.
record of the term sonata da camera is in Lit.: K. Nef, Geschichte der Sinjonie
a publication (from 1667) of the German und der Suite (1921); F. Blume, Studien
Johann Rosenmuller (1620-84) which con- zur Vorgeschichte der Orchester-suite im
tains pieces mostly in the form Sinfonia - 15/16. Jahrhundert (1925); G. Conda-
Allemanda Corrente Intrada Ballo min, La Suite instrumental (1905);
Sarabande [cf. DdT 18; HAM, no. 218]. AdHM i, 563*!; E. Noack, "Ein Beitrag
After Buonamente no other Italian so- zur Geschichte der alteren deutschen
nate da camera are known until Corelli's Suite" (AMWii); T. Norlind, "Zur Ge-
op. 2 (1685) and
op. 4 (1694), containing schichte der Suite" (SIM vii); G. Adler,
twelve suites each, mostly in four move- in RMI iii (Gottlieb Muffat); B. Wojci-
ments such as Preludio Allemanda kowna, in ZMW v (Joh. Fischer).
Corrente (or Sarabanda) Giga (or Ga-
Suivez [F.]. Same as *colla parte.
votta) [Ex. in HAM, no. 253]. Vera-
Sonate da camera (op. i) show the
cini's
Sul [It.]. On, Sul G, on the G-string
at.
tendency towards amalgamation with the of the violin. Sul ponticello indicates
sonata da chiesa, by the inclusion of free
bowing near the bridge; sul tasto, sulla
movements, e.g., Fantasia - Allegro -
tasttera, bowing near the finger board.
Allemanda Pastorale Giga.
See *Bowing (k), (1).
V. The French Overture. Still another
type of suite, designed for orchestral per- Sumer is icumen in. A famous com-
formance, originated (we may assume) position of c. 1310 [see Addenda, p. 825],
in a practice similar to that exemplified preserved in MS Brit. Mus. Harleyan
by, e.g., Tchaikovsky's Nutcracker Suite, 978 (facs. reprod. in GD v, frontis-
i.e., the performance of Lully's operas or piece; in OH 333, and elsewhere) writ-
i,
stage ballets "in abstracto," as a succession ten in the form of two simultaneous cir-
of their most successful dance numbers cular canons, the upper in four parts, the
preceded by the operatic overture. This lower (called pes in the original) in two.
idea was taken over by numerous Ger- This piece, called *rota in the original, is
man composers who wrote orchestral remarkable not only as the oldest existing
suites consisting of a French overture [see canon, but also for its charming and folk-
*Overture I] followed by a series of like character in melody as well as in har-
"modern" dances, such as rigaudon, mony. Its artistic and historic signifi-
SUMMATION(AL) TONES SWEDISH MUSIC
cance, however, is frequently grossly over- French term soupir, however, denotes a
rated. Regarding the former point it may quarter-note rest. See *Notes.
be noticed that its very structure as a cir-
Sussurando [It.]. Whispering.
cular canon excludes really great artistic
excellence, much in the same way as is the Sustaining pedal. The sostenuto ped-
case with the innumerable rounds of the al (middle pedal) of the ^pianoforte.
1 and i9th centuries, even including
8th Sometimes used for the damper pedal
those by Haydn, Mozart, or Beethoven. (right pedal).
Regarding the latter point it suffices to
mention that a canon-like exchange of Svegliando [It.]. Brisk, alert.
thusiasm over historical knowledge that prior to the iyth century. Dietrich Buxte-
it cannot be taken seriously. hude was born in the Swedish town of
Brahms has imitated the construction Helsingborg, but his German parentage,
of the Sumer canon in his op. 113 (Ka- his life (mostly in Liibeck), and his work
nons), no. 13. definitely classify him as a German
com-
poser. Another German, Gustav Diiben
Summation(al) tones. See *Combi-
(1624-90), who became court conductor
nation tones. in 1640, is important as the compiler of a
See *Scale degrees.
famous MS collection of music, now in
Superdominant. the possession of the library of Upsala.
Superius. See *Part books. His sons succeeded him in his position at
the court. The first native composer of
Supertonic. See *Scale degrees. Sweden was Johan Helmich Roman
Surprise Symphony. Haydn's Sym- (1694-1758), who studied in London
phony in G major (no. 3 of the Salomon under Ariosti and Pepusch, possibly also
Symphonies; no. 94 of the current enu-
under Handel. He became director of the
court music in 1729 and wrote a consid-
meration), composed in 1791; so called
on account of the "surprise" caused by erable number of instrumental and vocal
the sudden ff-chord in the middle of the pieces in the style of Handel [cf. RiML,
peaceful theme of the slow movement. Johann Joachim Agrell (1701
J
538].
Another name, referring to the same ef- 63) spent most of his life in Germany
fect, is Drum Stroke Symphony. (Kassel, Niirnberg) while, on the other
hand, the German Johann Gottlieb Nau-
Suspension, (i) See *Nonharmonic mann (17411801) is worth mentioning
tones II. (2) An
18th-century agre*- for the success of his operas Amphion
ment, in which the written note is slightly (1776) and Gustav Vasa (1783), both
delayed by a short rest: produced in Stockholm. Other Germans
who played a role in the musical life of
Sweden were G. J. Vogler (Abbe Vogler,
[720]
SWISS MUSIC SYMPHONIC POEM
the author of the *Dodekachordon Syllabic style. See *Gregorian chant
(1547). Benedictus Appenzeller [cf. W. III.
wang (fl. 1700) from Weissenburg, better Symphonia [Gr., simultaneous sound],
known as Albicastro, wrote trio sonatas (i) Ancient Greek term for unison, as
and concertos.
distinguished from antiphonia, the octave
The inborn Swiss penchant for com- [see *Antiphonl and *paraphonia, the
munity life and festive gatherings found fifth; also for consonance. (2) In the
an expression in the foundation of nu- Middle Ages the term was applied to vari-
merous choral societies a movement ous instruments, the drum (Isidorus de
which was inaugurated by Hans Georg Sevilla, 7th century), the *hurdy-gurdy,
Niigeli (1773-1836) and which brought also called clnjonie (loh. de Muris, c.
about a remarkable repertory of outstand- 1300), the bagpipe (hence the modern
ing compositions for male chorus, notably name *zampogna), and a type of clavi-
by Karl Attenhofer (1837-1914) andFrie- chord (i6th century). (3) Beginning
drich Hegar (1841-1927). The two out- with the 1 7th century the name was used
standing representatives of modern Ger- for various types of orchestral music which
man-Swiss music are Othmar Schoeck (b. gradually led to the modern ^symphony,
1886), chiefly known as a writer of lyrical but which, for the sake of clarity and dis-
songs, and Hermann Suter (1870-1926), tinction, are discussed in this book under
who wrote string quartets and sympho- the heading of *sinfonia.
nies. The connection with France and
with the novel tendencies of the 2Oth cen- Symphonic poem. I.
Symphonic poem
tury (*Ncw music) is represented by or tone poem is the name given to a type
Frank Martin (b. 1890) and Ernst Levy
of 19th-century symphonic music which
(b. 1895, now in the United States), while is based upon an extramusical idea, either
the Germanic influence appears in Kon- poetic or descriptive. Thus the symphonic
rad Beck (b. 1901). The Swiss-born poem belongs to the general category
Ernest Bloch (b. 1880, now in the United known ^program music of which it
as
States) is a champion of national Jewish represents the most recent and most thor-
music. ough embodiment. The term is usually
Lit.: LavE 1.5, 2665*1*; AdHM ii, 1038*1, restricted to compositions in one move-
Aunderts, 3 vols. (1927-34). For addi- Faust (1854-57), anc Dvorak's symphony
l
tional bibl. cf. MoMLy 777. From the New World (1893) belong to
SYMPHONIC POEM SYMPHONIC POEM
The symphonic poem prop-
this category. Wheel (1871) and Phaeton (1873), and
erwas inaugurated by Liszt in his one- by Franck with Les Bolides (1876), Le
movement compositions Ce quon entend Chasseur maudit (1882), Les Djinns
sur la montagne (1848, after a poem of (1885), an d Vsycht (1886, with chorus).
Victor Hugo), Tasso (1849, after Byron), III. A new period of the symphonic
Les Preludes (after Lamartine's Medita- poem began in 1895 when Richard Strauss,
tions poetiques),Mazeppa (1851, after after some preliminary works of lesser
Hugo), Die Ideale (1857, after Schiller), importance (Aus ItaUen, 1887; Macbeth,
Hunnenschlacht (after a painting by Kaul- 1887; D
n J uan > 1888), made an outstand-
bach, showing the slaughter of the Huns), ing contribution in his Tod und Ver-
Hamlet (1858), etc. Usually these com- tyarung ("Death and Transfiguration").
positions follow, in a somewhat free man- Itwas particularly the realistic approach
ner, the form of the first movement of a and the extremely bold and skillful han-
symphony [see *Sonata-form]. com- A dling of the orchestra which made this
position such as Beethoven's Coriolanus work famous, although it met with vio-
Overture (1807) may be considered as lent criticism on the part of the profes-
a predecessor of the symphonic poem. sional writers and of a large section of the
II. Liszt's innovation was eagerly seized
public. In 1895 he wrote Till Eulenspiegely
upon by a great number
of composers to by far his most spontaneous and best
whom literary, pictorial, and other ideas work. There followed: Also sprach Zara-
revealed a new source of inspiration. Par- thustra ("Thus Spake Zoroaster," after
ticularly favored were works descriptive Nietzsche, 1896); Don Quixote, a series
of national life and scenery, and it was a of free variations which include such re-
happy circumstance that the symphonic alistic effects as the bleating of sheep and
poem came into being at the same time a wind machine to represent an imaginary
that Nationalism was awakening in mu- Ein Heldenleben
flight through the air;
sic. The first contribution in this particu- ("A Hero's Life," 1898), a musical auto-
larprovince were Smetana's six symphonic biography including among its scenes one
poems Ma Vlast ("My Fatherland"), called "The Hero's Battlefield" in which
composed in 1874-79 [earlier symphonic the artist fights his critics who, as may
poems of his were Richard 111 (1858), well be imagined, do not fare too well.
Wallcnsteins Camp (1858), and Hafon His Sinjonia domestica (1903) describes,
Jarl (1861)]. His example was followed with realistic rather than musical success,
by a host of successors, and there is scarce- a day in the composer's family life, and
ly one country which has not been de- his Alpensinjonie (1915) is a detailed de-
scribed in music. Compositions such as scription of a day's experience in climbing
Borodin's Steppes of Central Asia (1880), the Alps.
Saint-Saens's Africa (1891), Sibelius' Fin- IV. Shortly before 1900 two important
landia (1899), Vaughan Williams' A symphonic poems were written in France,
London Symphony (1914), Respighi's Debussy's impressionistic L'Aprts-midi
Fontane di Roma (1917), F. Grofe's d'un faune (1895) and Paul Dukas' re-
Grand Canyon, E. Bloch's America alistic L'Apprenti sorcier (1897). Both
(1928), illustrate the scope of the "musi- of them have the distinction, not shared
cal atlas" which, perhaps not by mere other works of the category, of
by many
chance, includes few, any, pictures from
if
possessing outstanding musical qualities
Germany and France where the national even apart from the realization of the
movement had but little following. programmatic idea. Sibelius wrote a
The poetic type inaugurated by Liszt number of tone poems, mostly based on
was continued, among others, by Tchai- the Kalevala, the Finnish national epic:
kovsky who wrote the symphonic poems En Saga (1892), Kullervo (1892), The
Romeo and Juliet (1870), France sea da Swan of Tuonela (1893), Lemminl(ainen
Rimini (1876), and Hamlet (1885); by and the Maidens (1895), Lemmintytinen
Saint-Saens with Omphale's Spinning in Tuonela (1895), The Return of Lem*
SYMPHONIE FANTASTIQUE SYMPHONY
min1(ainen (1895), Pohjolas Daughter theme, called idee fixe. In the "March to
(1906), Nightride and Sunrise (1909), the Scallold" the caricatured appearance
The Bard (i^i^) Luonnotar (1913)? The
9 of the *Dies irae melody is worth men-
Oceanides (1914), Tapiola (1925). To tioning.
the listof 20th-century symphonic poems
may be added Debussy's La Mer (1903- Symphony. A symphony may be de-
05), consisting of three pieces ("De 1'aube fined as a sonata for orchestra. For all the
a midi sur la mer"; "Jeux de vagues"; details ofform, the reader is referred to
"Dialogue du vent et de la mer") in which the explanations given under *sonata,
atmospheric sensations are captured *sonata-form, etc. Naturally, the use of a
with consummate skill; Stravinsky's Fire- large orchestral body instead of a single
worJ(s (1908); Loeffler's A Pagan Poem instrument (pianoforte sonata) or a small
(1909), based on an Eclogue by Vergil; group of performers (trio, quartet) leads
Elgar's Falstaff (1913), perhaps the most to a broadening of the form (the sym-
detailed musical description of a literary phony is normally in four movements of
Roman Trilogy Fon-
subject; Respighi's considerable extension, frequently pre-
tane diRoma ("The Fountains of Rome," ceded by an introduction) and also ac-
1917), Pini di Roma ("The Pines of counts for differences in style, for greater
Rome," 1924), and Feste Romane ("Ro- richness in texture and variety of colors,
man Festivals," 1929). A. Honegger's for a greater emphasis on climactic effects,
Pacific 231 (1923) and Rugby (1928), for stronger contrasts within a single
realistic glorifications of themodern age, movement as well as between one and the
indicate, in their subject-matter the other.
machine and active sport as well as in I. The Present-day Repertoire. This
their percussive and motoric idiom, an begins with the latest symphonies of Mo-
attempt to instill new lifeblood into the zart and Haydn. Mozart, although the
symphonic poem which, with its sensu- younger man by nearly a quarter of a cen-
ousness and over-refinement, had outlived tury, was the first to write truly great
its time. On the whole, this attempt has symphonies, namely the *Prague Sym-
not proved successful. The neo-classical phony (D major, K.V. 504, written in
tendencies of the present day with their 1786) and his last three symphonies, in
emphasis on purely musical forms and E-flat major (K.V. 543), G minor (K.V.
styles would seem to have brought the 5=50), and C major (* Jupiter Symphony,
development of the symphonic poem to K.V. 551), written in June, July, and Au-
its conclusion. gust 1788.Among Haydn's symphonies,
Lit.: R. Mendl, "The Art of the Sym- which number more than one hundred,
phonic Poem" (MQ xviii). only the twelve written in 179095 for
Salomon, his London impresario, show
Symphonic Fantastique. A symphony the same maturity of style as those by Mo-
phonic poem] and in the development of ing that special type of instrumental mel-
the *leitmotif. The five sections of the ody which is comparable in greatness, al-
symphony (with its subtitle "Episodes though different in character, to the melo-
from an Artist's Life") are headed: "Reve- dies and themes of the Bach-period; a
ries-Passions," "A Ball," "Scene in the melody which is unified and individual
Country," "March to the Scaffold," enough to serve as an impressive motto
"Dreams of a Witch's Sabbath," and are and yet which lends itself to all the ma-
held together by the use of a recurring nipulations demanded in the development
[723]
SYMPHONY SYMPHONY
section. Hand in hand with this goes an its
style from a straightforward dyna-
increasing emancipation of the lower in- mism and Romantic lyricism
to a pliable
struments from their former servant role of great impressiveness. Bruckner, on the
as a mere chordal background, leading to whole a more truly creative genius than
their active participation in the statement Brahms, established a symphonic form
as well as in the development of the themes and style of his own the artistic signifi-
*
[see Accompaniment] . cance of which is even today far from be-
Beethoven, in limiting himself to nine ing understood or recognized. Scarcely
symphonies as compared with the sev- second to Beethoven in the greatness of
eral score written by his predecessors melodic invention, he created an "archi-
established the character of the symphony tectural" type of symphony whose huge
asan "individual," rather than as an "ex- dimensions are matched by a deeply reli-
ample of a type." His first two sympho- gious ethos and an almost superhuman
nies (op. 21, in C, 1800; op. 36, in D, pathos. His movements, as compared with
1802) already show, if compared with those of Beethoven, are the realization,
those of Haydn and Mozart, a greater se- not so much of one continuous thought,
riousness of purpose, a more dynamic but of changing visions, each represented
vitality, larger dimensions, and a more as a painting in its frame, with the result
advanced orchestration. The later ones, that a static (sectional) element is inter-
particularly the nos. 3 (*Eroica, op. 55, polated between the dynamic forces of the
1804), 5(C minor, op. 67, 1809), 6 ^Pas- single sections (first, second, third theme,
toralSymphony, op. 68, 1809), and 9 etc.)and the huge arch of the whole
(*Choral Symphony, op. 125, 1817-23), movement.
stand out as unparalleled peaks of sym- Much better known than Bruckner's
phonic literature. Beethoven's heir to the symphonies are those by Tchaikovsky,
symphonic tradition was Franz Schubert although only the sixth (Pathetic Sym-
(eight symphonies), mainly with his lyr- phony, 1893) can be included in the list of
ico-dramatic Unfinished Symphony (B truly great works. Its highly subjective,
minor, 1822) and the magnificent C ma- even autobiographical, nature forms a
jor Symphony, no. 7 (1828). Of equal most interesting contrast to the almost
artistic rank is Hector Berlioz' *Sym- liturgical character of Bruckner's sym-
phonie fantastique [see also *French mu- phonies. Dvorak wrote nine symphonies
sic] while the four symphonies of Men-
the last of which is the popular "From the
delssohn (C minor, 1824; Scotch Sym- New World" (op. 95, 1893). Other works
phony, 183042; Italian Symphony, 1833; of this period are the D
minor Symphony
Reformation Symphony, 1830-32) and by Franck (*888), and d'Indy's "Sym-
the four symphonies of Schumann (B-flat, phonic sur un chant montagnard fran-
"Spring," 1841; C
major, 1846; E-flat, 9ais"(i886).
"Rhenish," 1850; D
minor, 1841, revised Gustav Mahler, one of the first admirers
1851) are noticeably weaker in substance of Bruckner, followed, in his nine sym-
?nd expression. phonies (written from 1888 to 1909), the
Although in the subsequent decades the trend toward huge symphonic di-
latter's
novel type of the *symphonic poem ab- mensions, but from a more subjective and
sorbed the interest of composers, the sym- Romantic standpoint. Taking the mod-
phony arrived at a new peak around 1880, ern position that "the contents should
mainly with the four symphonies of shape the form," he largely discarded the
Brahms (op. 68, 1875; op. 73, 1877; op. traditional forms (sonata-form, ternary
90, 1883; op. 98, 1885) and the nine sym- form, etc.) of the single movements, mak-
phonies of Anton Bruckner (particularly ing his symphonies deeply moving expres-
no. 4, 1874; no. 5, 1876; no. 6, 1879; no. 7, sions of his spiritual experiences, messages
1883; no. 8, 1885; no. 9, 1894). Brahms of a life filled equally with tragic despera-
took over the basic idea as well as the form tion and with never diminishing hope.
of the Beethovian symphony, modifying A characteristic feature is the frequent
[7^4]
SYMPHONY SYMPHONY
use of solo instruments as well as (in nos. the field of chamber music. It developed
2, 3, 4, 8) of solo voices, to say nothing in particular from the Italian
operatic
about the masterly orchestration in gen- overture which was called Sinjonia avantl
eral. Frequently the massive chording of opera and which, around 1700, had been
I'
phonic style. Sibelius wrote seven sym- fonia, see *Sinfonia; see also *Overture I).
phonies of which the first three (1899, Although examples of such sinfonias oc-
1901, 1904-07) are conceived in an idiom cur as early as in the works of Alessandro
mixed of Romantic, national, and impres- Stradella (c. 1645-92; operatic cantata //
sionistic elements, while with his Fourth Barcheggio, 1681) the type became estab-
Symphony (1911) there occurred a de- lished under Alessandro Scarlatti (1659-
cided change towards purely musical pur- 1725), who used it first in his opera Dal
pose and design. His symphonies, though male di bene, of c. 1696. It should be noted
extremely popular in England and in the that in Scarlatti's sinfonias the slow section
United States, have never gained a foot- is
always short and transitional in char-
hold in continental Europe. acter; that the first as well as the second
The radicalism of the movement known section usually closes with a half-cadence;
as *New music led to a rather general and that the third section is in the char-
neglect of the symphony, the huge form acter of a minuet or gigue [for an example
and dramatic emotionalism of which did cf. HAM, no. 259], While this
type was
not agree with the novel tendencies of the perpetuated in a rather unimaginative
20th century. Nonetheless, composers of manner by the later composers of the Ne-
more conservative affiliation continued apolitan opera [see *Neapolitan School],
to cultivate the symphony, e.g., Roussel the tendency towards a more developed
(four), Vaughan Williams (five), Rach- type appears in the sinfonia of the opera
maninov (three), Prokofiev (five, includ- Pallade trionjante (1722) of Francesco
ing the "Classical Symphony," op. 25, Conti (1681-1732) who worked in Vi-
1917), Howard Hanson (four). Around enna. Here the first and the third sections
1930, however, progressively minded com- are independent movements in sonata-
posers also turned their interest to the form, with two themes, development and
symphony, frequently in a compact one- (shortened) recapitulation, while the
movement form or with choral participa- middle movement still is transitional in
tion. Among this group we find Stra- character [reprint in H. Botstiber, Ge-
vinsky ("Symphony of P$alms," with schichte der Ouverture (1913); also
chorus, 1930), Honegger "(1930), Roy AdHMy 797]. The operatic sinfonias
Harris (five symphonies, 1929-35, one a were frequently played in concert per-
cappella, one for chorus and orchestra), formance, a practice which, around 1730,
Malipiero (1934, '36), Piston (1938, '44). led to the composition of independent or-
A special place must be reserved for the chestral pieces in the same style, the first
Russian Dmitri Shostakovich who, at the symphonies proper. Locatelli (1693
age of 38, could boast of a record of eight 1764), Rinaldo di Capua (c. 1700-^. 80),
symphonies among which the ist, 5th, and G. B. Sammartini (1701-75) were
and 7th have been particularly successful, the pioneers in this field. Particularly Ri-
owing mainly to a skillful blending of naldo's compositions are remarkable for
modernistic and popularizing elements. form and their "dy-
their relatively large
The most prolific symphonist of the pres- namic" resembling that of the
style
ent day is, no doubt, Nicolas Miaskovsky *Mannheim group. German composers
(b. 1881), composer of 24 symphonies. such as Georg Monn (1717-50) and Ge-
II. The Early History. The symphony org Wagenseil (1715-77) in Vienna,
developed during the i8th century side by Franz Xaver Richter (1709-89) and Jo-
side with the *sonata, its counterpart in hann Stamitz (1717-57) in Mannheim
SYNCOPATION SYNCOPATION
developed the symphonic dualism (first mally weak beats of the measure, namely:
and second theme) and cultivated a style (a) by holding on over the strong beat;
of dynamic and militant conciseness (b) by having rests on the strong beats;
which the later Mannheimers (Beck,
Cannabich, Anton Stamitz) mitigated by
the inclusion of melodic and lyrical ele-
ments, thus preparing the way for the
symphonies of Haydn (1732-1809) and
Boccherini (1743-1805). See also *So-
nata; *Sonata-form.
<o |JJJJ|
Lit.: To O. Downes, Symphonic
I:
im 18. Jahrhundert (1925); R. Sond- maintain and emphasize the normal pulse
of the meter. In the late works of Bee-
heimer, "Die formale Entwicklung der
thoven, however, there occur the earliest
vorklassischen Sinfonie" iv); id., (AMW
"Die Sinfonien Franz Becks" iv); (ZMW
id., in ZMW (Sammartini); id., in
iii
[726]
SYNEMMENON SYRIAN CHANT
ring, while, in modern music (jazz), it brosian hymns). Ambrosius also imported
rather has the effect of a shock. Still an- from Syria the practice of *antiphonal
other type of syncopation, resulting not singing. Important successors of Ephrem
from a displaced accent in unchanged were Narses of Edessa (end of the 5th
meter, but from a sudden change of the century), Jacob of Serugh (451-528), and
meter frequent in the pieces of
itself, is Simeon of Gesir, the Potter (after 500).
modern composers, particularly those of They founded a novel principle of poetry,
Stravinsky [Ex. 4]. based upon a given number of accents in
Syncopation appears first in the French a line, with a changeable number of weak
Ars nova (G. de Machaut), and reached syllables in between, similar to doggerel
its all-time peak of complication in the verse. The two chief types of ancient
music of the late I4th century (Cunelier, Syrian poetry are the madrashe (ode),
Grimace, Cordier, Solage, and others). It consisting of a number of stanzas for a
should be observed that, in 14th-century soloist with a refrain for chorus, and the
Synemmenon. See *Greek music II (a). as are evident in Syrian chant may well
be the result of i8th- and 19th-century
Syntagma musicum. See *Theorists. Occidental influence [cf. ReMMA, 70],
A characteristic trait of Syrian church
Syntonic comma. See *Comma. music is the use of standard melodies for
a number of different poems of a similar
Syrian Chant. Syria, being one of the verse-pattern. Such standard melodies
countries to be Christianized, has a
first (which allow for a certain amount of
long and interesting history of church rhythmic modification) are known as ra-
music. Christian poetry reached an early qolo (for similar methods used in other
peak in the hymns, still in use today, of musical traditions, see *Melody types).
St. Ephrem (d. 373) which represent the In a Syrian MS
of c. 515, the Plerophoriai,
beginning of Christian hymn writing
1
brose, bishop of Milan (d. 397; see *Am- giqucs syricnncs et chaldienncs, 2 vols.
TABLATURE
(1926, '28); A. Z. Idelsohn, "Der Kir- Syrinx. The Greek name for the *pan-
T. Abbreviation of tonic, tutti, toe (in tem in his Orgelbuchlein when there was
pedal parts of organ pieces), trill (in 17th- not sufficient space on the page to com-
century music, usually a mordent only), plete the piece in ordinary staff notation;
tasto, talon (in violin music). In 16th- i. *Buxheim Organ Boo\, c. 1460
century *part-books, abbreviation of tenor.
clarify additional details of the notation. semitones, i.e., d# or cb. The rhythmical
II. Spanish Keyboard Tablature. Here values are indicated above the staff by the
a number of lines (three, four, five) rep- accompanying signs, the first of which
resent the different voice-parts of a com-
position. The figures i to 7 stand for the i r r ^
notes of the diatonic scale beginning with
f (i=f; 2 = g; 3 = a; 4 = b or bb, accord- represents the semibrevis (usually tran-
ing to whether the sign b or B is given at scribed as half-note). In spite of the con-
trapuntal character of i6th- and 17th-cen-
3. Cabcz6n, Obras de Musica, 1578
tury lute music, no differentiation is ever
/-
made between the different temporal val-
ues of simultaneous sounds, e.g., between
an eighth-note in the upper part as against
a simultaneous half-note in a lower part.
The rhythmic signs merely give the short-
est of all the simultaneous notes, e.g., the
accidentals, etc.). They are a "finger- tions (as to this point, cf. ApNPM, 6off).
notation" [G. Griftschrift], as distin- IV. French Lute Tablature. This sys-
guished from the usual "pitch-notation." tem differs from the Italian merely in de-
In the Italian system six horizontal lines tails. The staff has only five lines which
represent the six strings of the lute, tuned represent the five highest strings in their
G-c-f-a-d'-g', in reversed order, so that natural order (as in Milan), while the
[7*9]
TABLATURE TACE
lowest string is
represented underneath the alphabet (complied by two special
signs designated here 7 and 9) for
on short ledger lines. Instead of the ci- the
d... frets 1-5; the same letters with dashes for
phers o, x, 2, 3 . . . , the letters a, b, c,
are used, with a standing for the open the higher These tabulations show
frets.
string. See Ex, 5. After 1600 this system h denotes the tone b
that, e.g., the sign
H. 1611
(two semitones above a), and the sign x
5. Bataille, Airs,
the tone f (five semitones above c). See
Ex.6.
6 H. Gcrlc, Lautenbuch, 7552
rr rtr rrr t
VI. Modern
Tablatures. Tablature no-
tation used today for several popular
is
7 .
E. A <L g b *'
shows the most common the position of the fingers. similar meth- A
system of desig-
nation: figures 1-5 for the open strings
od is used for the four-stringed ukulele.
Tactus. The i5th- and 16th-century Tagliato [It.] . An obsolete term for the
term for beat, in its *alla-breve sign.
temporal significance
as well as in the
meaning of "conductor's
There is, however, an essential Tagelied [G., day song]. See *Alba.
beat."
difference between the tactus and the Taille [F.]. Old name for a middle
modern beat in so far as the former is a voice, particularly the tenor. The term
relatively fixed duration of time, about was also used for instruments performing
M.M. 50-60 (one second), while the lat- such parts, e.g., faille de basson y tenor
ter may take on any value between large oboe; faille de violon or simply faille,
limits, according to the tempo and char- viola. The indication "taille" in some of
acter of the composition. This means Bach's cantatas would seem to always call
that in the period of Flemish music there for the tenor oboe (oboe da caccia, Eng-
uniform "normal tempo" from
existed a lish horn). In French lyth-century organ
which only slight deviations were pos- music an inscription such as Recit de
sible. Since the tactus was normally rep- tierce en taille means solo-passage (rScif)
resented by the semibrevis (5), the proper in a middle part (taille) for the left hand,
tempo of the motets of Ockeghem, Jos- played on the organ stop Tierce. Haute
quin, Palestrina, can be expressed by the tailleand basse taille denote higher and
metronomic mark: 5 = M.M. 5060. For lower tenor parts.
certain complications, caused chiefly by
the use of the alla-breve sign $ instead of
Takt [G.]. (i) Beat (schwererjeichter
the "alla-semibreve" sign c, cf. ApNPM, Ta\t> i.e., strong, weak beat); (2) meas-
ure (nach 10 Tauten, after 10 measures);
188-195. $ ee a ^ so *Tempo marks.
In the i3th and i4th centuries there (3) meter, time (%-Taty9 %
-meter). 1m
existed similar units of time, called *tem- Tafy, in strict tempo and meter; Tatyart,
meter; Tafymassig, in strict meter; Taty-
pus (e.g., Franco of Cologne) which,
however, were considerably shorter of
messer, metronome; Tatystoct^ baton;
duration and which changed somewhat Ta\tstrich) bar-line; Ta^tvorzeichnung^
time signature; Tatywechsel, change of
during the course of these centuries. There
also was a successive shift in the note val- meter; Tafyzeichen, time signature; fafc
ues used to represent the "normal beat,
>? ny to indicate the beat.
tamboura, tampur, etc.). A lute with a faithfully for his return. Act II shows the
long neck and a small round body, found Sangerkrieg in which Elizabeth's hand is
in Persia, Arabia, India, etc. See *Lute II. to be the prize of the contest [see *Puy],
While Wolfram and the other Minne-
Taner [Sp.]. Sce*Tastar. singer praise virtuous love, Tannhauser
in shameless defiance extols the sensuous
Tangent [G. Tangents]. Sec 'Clavi-
chord. pleasures of love lust. Indignantly all the
ladies leave the hall,and only Elizabeth
Tango. A modern dance which origi- remains. Deeply touched by her faithful
nated around 1900 in the suburbs of love, Tannhauser expresses his penitence,
Buenos Aires from elements of the *haba- and joins a procession of pilgrims, to ob-
nera and the *milonga. After 1905 it tain forgiveness from the Pope. In Act III
adopted syncopation as its characteristic the pilgrims return from Rome, but- with-
trait. It was soon imported into the ball- out Tannhauser, and Elizabeth, who has
rooms of the whole world, creating a sen- been waiting for him, goes away broken-
sation and shocking the Church and edu- hearted. Finally Tannhauser appears,
cators into open denunciation of the dance seeking again the cavern of Venus, since
as utterly immoral [see *Forlana], Later the Pope has not forgiven his sin. In this
it became more tame and was widely cul- moment a funeral procession arrives, car-
tivated in good society. About 1920 the rying the body of Elizabeth, and Tann-
tango made its way into the realm of art hauser, overwhelmed with emotion, joins
music, especially in the modern suites of her in death. Pilgrims enter carrying
[73*1
TANTO TECHNIQUE
Tannhauscr's staff which has put forth shawm (oboe mouthpiece) with five or
fresh leaves in evidence that God has for- more holes. The modern tarogato, built
given him. by W. J. a wooden saxophone,
Schunda, is
The score of Tannhduser shows Wag- i.e., with a clarinet mouthpiece. It has a
ner working with the tools of the "grand somewhat darker timbre than the normal
opera" of Meyerbeer and Bellini, but try- saxophone. See *Clarinet II. Illustration
ing to create with them a new work of on p. 152.
higher artistic and human significance.
Tartini's tones. Same as ^differential
The formal structure is essentially that of
tones.
the traditional *number opera, with dis-
tinct arias, numerous choruses, and even
Taschengeige [G., pocket fiddle].
a ballet although the actual
(first scene), *Kit.
numbering of the different items is aban-
doned. The harmonic style also is fairly Tasso. See *Symphonic poem I.
military signals such as occur in the well- vanced technique may be conquered by
known melody of the *Rakoczy march. the precept: "think even faster than you
Later, the name was used for a wooden play" [see *Pianoforte playing VI].
The
[733]
TECLA TEMPERAMENT
desire for acquiring a perfect technique Handel, for the peace of Utrecht, 1712,
has led to a tremendous output of "tech- and for the victory of Dettingen, 1743;
nical studies" which intentionally neglect Graun, 1756, performed at the close of the
the musical element (still preserved to a Seven Years' War; Berlioz, for the Paris
certain degree in most *etudes) and pro- Exhibition of 1855; Bruckner, 1884;
vide only training for the fingers, etc. Dvorak, 1896; Verdi, 1898; Sullivan, for
Daily practice for this routine material is Queen Victoria's Diamond Jubilee, 1897).
generally recognized to be necessary for The English translation is "We praise
the improvement and the maintenance of Thee, O God"; the German (by Luther)
technique, even by the most advanced "Herr Gott wir loben Dich." Under the
virtuoso. It should hardly be necessary to latter title J. S. Bach wrote an extended
warn the student against overrating tech- organ piece (hardly to be classified as a
nique and technical studies, which are "Chorale prelude") in which he exhibits
nothing but the indispensable basis upon a great ingenuity in providing different
which to build up interpretation. polyphonic settings for the frequently
Tecla repeated phrases of the (somewhat sim-
[Sp.]. The Spanish i6th- and
plified) plainsong melody.
17th-century term for key and keyboard.
Musica para tecla (e.g., Cabezon's Obras, Telharmonium. See *Electronic mu-
1578) is music for keyboard instruments. sical instruments.
Tedesca [It., German, i.e., dance]. In Telyn. The Welsh harp. See *Harp III.
the 7th century, name for the *allemande.
1
Around 1800, name for the *Landler and Tema [It.]. Theme, subject.
similar dances in rather quick triple meter
[cf. Beethoven, op. 79 and op. 130] . Temperament [G. Temperatur]. I.
General. The term denotes those systems
Te deum laudamus [G. usually 7V- of tuning in which the intervals deviate
deum]. A celebrated hymn of praise and from the "pure," i.e., acoustically correct
rejoicing which has been erroneously at- intervals as used in the *Pythagorean sys-
tributed to St. Ambrose (hence the desig- tem and in *}ust intonation. These devia-
nation Ambrosian Hymn), but which was tions represent adjustments necessitated
probably written, both text and music, by the fact that the two systems just men-
by Nicetas (c. 400), Bishop of Remesiana tioned, although perfect within a small
(now Nish, Serbia). In the Roman lit- range of tones (mainly those of the C
urgy it is sung at matins of greater feasts major scale), become increasingly inade-
of a joyful character [cf. AR, 66**]. Its quate with the successive introduction of
present form is the result of several addi- the chromatic tones. For instance, the
*
tions and
intercalations such as are very acoustically perfect fifth [see Acoustics
uncommon in the tradition of Gregorian III] might well be used to obtain a suc-
chant [for the structure cf. GD v, 295; cession of five or six fifths, c, g, d, a, e, b.
also RiHM
i.2, 42 (in wrong rhythmic If, however, tones such as f#, dt, g#, d#
interpretation); P. Wagner, Einfuhrung are added in the same manner, the result-
in die Grcgorianischen Melodien, iii, 225] . ing tones cannot be satisfactorily used for
The Te deum has been widely used melodies such as d e flf g, or d# f g g#
outside of the service as a text for com- (meaning eb f g ab). Moreover, the
positions designed for occasions of thanks- twelfth tone of the succession of fifths, b#,
giving, e.g., after great victories. Com- is noticeably higher than the tone c which
posers of the 1 6th
century (Palestrina, it would represent in our system of nota-
Anerio, de Vaet) used the plainsong mel- tion [see *Circle of fifths] . It follows that
ody as a basis of contrapuntal elaboration, compromise methods are necessary which,
while later examples are free compositions instead of being perfect in the simple
in a grandiose style, frequently for double keys and intolerably wrong in the others,
chorus with orchestra (Purcell, 1694; spread the inevitable inaccuracy over all
[734]
TEMPERAMENT TEMPERAMENT
the tones and
keys. The most consistent in organs of the i6th century. However,
realization of this principle is the equal even this improvement was insufficient to
temperament which is universally used
satisfy the needs of the more fully devel-
today. Prior to its general acceptance oped system of harmonies, modulations,
various other systems of tempered inter- and keys as it arose during the I7th cen-
vals, generally referred to as "unequal tury. The increased use of keys with 3 to
temperament," were in use, among which 6 sharps and flats necessarily led to the
the mean-tone system was the only one to system of equal temperament.
attain practical significance. III. Equal Temperament. The prin-
II. The Mean-Tone System. This sys- ciple of equal temperament is to divide
tem, which was in use around 1500 (A. the octave into twelve equal semitones.
Schlick, Spiegel der Organisten , 1511)
. . . Since the frequency of the octave is 2, the
and fully discussed by F. Salinas (De mu- frequency s of this semitone is given by
sica libri VII, 1577), is based on a fifth
which is one-fourth of the syntonic *com- the equation: s 12 2; s = \/2 = 1.05946. =
ma (c. 20 *cents) smaller than the perfect The successive powers of this figure give
fifth (697, instead of 702 cents), the result
the frequencies for the tones of the chro-
matic scale, e.g., c=i; ctf= 1.05946; d =
being that four such fifths, if taken in 2 = = 3 =
succession (c-g d'-a'-e"), lead to a per- I.05946 1.1225; d# eb i.o5946
fect third (e"). In the simple keys with 1.14973, etc. Usually a logarithmic meas-
urement is used in which the whole oc-
one or two sharps or flats, the mean-tone
scale is very satisfactory from both the tave equals 1200 *cents, each semitone
melodic and the harmonic point of view. 100 cents [see intervals, Calculation of,
In fact, owing to the presence of a perfect IV, V].
third and an almost perfect fifth, the triads In equal temperament no interval other
sound much purer than in equal tempera- than the octave is acoustically correct or
ment. However, the continuation of the pure. The deviation of the fifth (2 cents)
is too small to be noticed at all. With the
series of mean-tone fifths leads to a very
noticeable discrepancy between the sharp thirds, the difference is considerably
and flat tones, namely to a difference of greater, the well- tempered third (400
1735]
TEMPERATUR TEMPO MARKS
not in accordance with the facts. The his- tissimo. More accurate are *metronome
tory of equal temperament can be traced indications, such as J = M.M. 100, i.e., the
back to 1518, when H. Grammateus rec- quarter-note lasts one one-hundredth of
ommended dividing the octave into 10 a minute. The practical limits for the
equal semitones and two of somewhat duration of the beat are M.M. 50 and
smaller size. V. Galilei, in his Dialogo M.M. 120. M.M. 60-80 represents a "nor-
(1581), proposed to use a semitone of the mal" tempo which agrees with various
frequency *% 7 (99.3 cents) which is a natural paces, e.g., that of moderate walk-
very good approximation of the well- ing or of the human pulse. The question
tempered semitone. The principle of of the "right tempo" for a piece is, as is
equal temperament was clearly expounded well known, one of the favorite topics
by the Chinese prince Tsai-yu in 1596, among musicians, listeners, and critics.
and by Mersenne in 1635. Contrary to The discrepancy in tempo encountered
common belief, Werkmeister never stated intwo performances of, e.g., the second
equal temperament cor reedy. The intro- movement of Beethoven's Seventh Sym-
duction of equal temperament into mu- phony is simply appalling, as is also the
sical practice was a very slow process. unyielding pertinacity with which each
Whether Bach's famous collection of conductor and his disciples usually defend
pieces in all the major and minor keys, their position. Such discrepancies are
the Well-tempered Clavier (1722), or its frequently explained as being conditioned
less complete predecessor, J. K. F. Fisch- by external factors, e.g., the size and re-
er's Ariadne Musica (c. 1710), referred to verberations of the concert hall, the so-
equal temperament or merely to a suffi- nority of the instruments, the size of the
ciently close approximation, is not en- Such an explanation, however,
orchestra.
tirely clear. At any rate, the system was would account only for minute modifica-
not universally adopted in Germany until tions, not for the startling differences
c. 1800, in France and England until c. found between a performance by, e.g.,
1850. Other systems of temperament, Toscanini and Stokowski. These are
such as that of the mathematician Leon- purely a matter of interpretation, and the
ard Euler (170783) and of Kirnberger differences encountered in the interpreta-
(1721-83), never attained practical sig- tion of the tempo are not more consider-
nificance. See also *Just intonation. able though perhaps more striking for
Lit.: P. Garnault, Histoire et influence the amateur listener than those en-
du temperament (1929); C. Dupont, Ge- countered in matters of style, phrasing,
schichte der musifolischen Temperatur and orchestral treatment. The observa-
(1935); J. M. Barbour, Equal Tempera- tions to be made with regard to *inter-
ment, its History from Ramis (1482) to pretation in general apply, equally, to the
Rameau (1737) (unpubl. diss. Cornell particular topic of tempo. See also *Tem-
University, 1932); H. J. Watt, in ML iv, po marks. For the tempo in early music,
no. 3; L. S. Lloyd, in ML xix, no. 4, xx, see under *Tactus.
no. 4, xxi, no. 4; id. 9 in v, no. 4 MR Lit.: E. O. Turner, "Tempo Variation"
(Mean-tone tuning); J. Handschin, in (ML xix, no. 3); R. Kolisch, "Tempo and
Schweizer Jahrbuch fur Musifaissen- Character in Beethoven's Music" (MQ
schajt ii; K. Hasse, in ZMW xiii. xxix); H. Gal, "The Right Tempo"
(Monthly Musical Record Ixix, 174). See
Temperatur [G.]. Temperament. also under *Metronomc.
Gleichschwebendey ungleichschwebende
T., equal, unequal temperament. Tempo giusto [It.]. Normal, proper
speed.
Tempo. The rate of speed of a compo-
sition or a section thereof, ranging from Tempo marks. In order to indicate the
the slowest to the quickest, as is indicated tempo of a piece, a number of Italian
by tempo marks such as largo, adagio, terms are used the most important of
andante, moderato, allegro, presto, pres- which arc given here, proceeding from
[736]
TEMPO MARKS TEMPUS
the slowest to the quickest: largo (broad), the earlier practice which indeed was of
lento (slow), adagio (slow; literally, at the type just described. Prior to 1600,
case), andante (walking), moderate tempo marks were practically unknown,
(moderate), allegretto, allegro (quick; since the pace of a composition was ex-
literally, cheerful), presto (very fast), pressed in the notation itself, the note-
prestissimo (as fast as possible). In addi- values then used having absolute dura-
tion to these, there exist terms calling for tions which were variable only within
gradual change of speed, mainly ritar- small limits [see *Tactus]. An isolated
dando (slackening) and
accelerando early example of tempo indication occurs
(quickening), while a deliberate unstead- in the lute book El Maestro (1536) of
iness of tempo is indicated by *rubato. Luis de Milan [see *Editions XXV, 2]
By the use of the different tempo marks who points out that certain sections of his
the duration of any given note value be- lute fantasias must be played "apriessa"
comes variable within large limits. In (quick), others "espacio" (slow). One
actual practice the range of variation is of the first composers to use the modern
still
considerably larger than one might tempo marks was Adriano Banchieri (c.
assume, owing to the practice of writing 1567-1634) who, in his Organo suona-
quick pieces in the larger values (whole- rino (1611, '22), prescribes Adagio, Al-
to eighth-notes), and slow pieces in the legro, Veloce, Presto, Piu presto, and
smaller ones (quarter- to sixty-fourth- Prestissimo [cf. ApMZ
i]. It may be
notes). Our two examples (i: Mozart, noticed that in the lyth and i8th centuries
Piano Concerto, A major, last movement; presto did not have the present-day mean-
2: Beethoven, Piano Sonata, op. 10, no. 3, ing of "extremely quick," but only meant
slow movement) show that the duration "quick." Thus, players of Bach's E minor
of the half-note may vary from less than Prelude from Wt.Cl. i commit a grave
half a second to four seconds. It is not easy error if
they try to play its final section
in a speed comparable to that of a presto-
etude by Chopin. It was not until the
time of Mozart that presto was used in its
present-day significance.
ciple were accepted, tempo marks would brevis while, with the beginning of the
become largely superfluous since the dura- Ars nova, the semibrevis was used in-
tion of the sound could be expressed by stead. However, the term tempus re-
choosing from a series of approximately mained connected with the brevis in an-
unchangeable note-values. other sense, i.e., as the indication of
This consideration is not meant as a its mensuration, signifying whether the
recommendation for reform of the pre- brevis was equal to three or to two semi-
vailing practice, but rather to clarify its breves (tempus perfectum, imperfectum).
significance, particularly in contrast to See *Mensural notation II.
[737]
TEN TERZETT
Ten. Short for tenuto. Tenoroon. See *Oboe family II, C.
Tenebrae [L., the dark, sc. hours]. Tenorschlussel [G.]. Tenor clef . Sec
The service and Lauds on the
of Matins *Clefs.
Wednesday, Thursday, and Friday (Good Tenor violin. See * Violin family (f).
Friday) of Holy Week, preceding Easter,
so called owing to the gradual extinction Tenso. A type of troubadour and trou-
of the candles which accompanies the vere poetry, in the nature of a (real or
celebration in an impressive ceremony. feigned) dialogue or debate referring to
At the first Nocturn the ^Lamentations political events or other "debatable" mat-
of Jeremiah are sung (LU 626, 669, 715), ter. A similar type was the jcu parti, i.e.,
[738]
TERZINA TESTS
Terzina [It.]. Triplet. lems. Both revised series measure the
same factors: pitch, loudness, time, tim-
Terzo suono. Tartini's name for the
*combination tones discovered by him.
bre, rhythm, and tonal memory.
The Kwalwasser-Dykema Music Test
Tessitura The developed by J. Kwalwasser and P. Dy-
[It., texture]. general
"lie" of a vocal part, whether high or low
kema has been available since 1930. It
consists of
in its average pitch. It differs from * range phonograph records measuring
in that does not take into account a few the following abilities and capacities:
it
tonal memory, quality discrimination, in-
isolated notes of extraordinarily high or
low tensity discrimination, feeling for tonal
pitch.
movement, time discrimination, rhythm
Testo [It., text]. *Narrator (in oratorios, discrimination, pitch discrimination, me-
lodic tastes, and rhythm imagery.
passions, etc.).
All the capacity tests are measures of
Tests and measurements in music. auditory perception and may be given in
Psychological tests in all fields had their groups or individually for the purpose of
inception at the time of World War I. individual diagnosis and prognosis. They
Tests in music have been devised to meas- can be given to those musically trained or
ure efficiency of teaching, general musical untrained, to adults and to children as
knowledge and
achievement, musical young as nine years or in the fifth grade.
taste or preference, and innate musical Early researches substantiated by later
capacity. They may be divided into two investigations proved that records of mu-
groups: (a) tests and measurements of do not vary with age, train-
sical capacities
musical capacities, and (b) tests and meas- ing, and general intelligence. A high In-
urements of musical abilities. The former telligence Quotient is no assurance of keen
are independent of training while the pitch discrimination or superior talent in
latter are dependent on capacity and train- any other musical factor. Training is ef-
ing. (Capacity means undeveloped, in- fective in developing the power to use a
nate, native talent, receptive powers, i.e., fixed capacity. Variation with age may be
potentiality for development; ability de- attributed to maturation, and may there-
notes acquisition of knowledges, skills, fore mean that there is no improvement
and technics, i.e., development of a ca- in the physiologic limit of pitch discrimi-
consonance, tonal memory, and rhythm. ing and experience of the examiner. It is
The 1939 revision consists of two series. generally agreed that no one should as-
Series A is suggested for group surveys to sume responsibility for the administration,
discover talent. Series B constitutes an interpretation, and application of tests
individual measurement where greater and results without knowledge of the
reliability is desired and is suggested as a nature of the psychology of music, prin-
ciples of testing, principles of musical
basic entrance requirement for admission in-
[739]
TESTUDO TEXT AND MUSIC
group may be clas-
Abilities: Tests in this Tetrachord. In ancient Greek music a
sified as (a) those
measuring appreciation succession of descending whole-
three
and information, and (b) those measur- tones, followed by a descending semitone,
ing* performance. Tests of appreciation e.g., e'-d'-c'-b, a-g-f-e. By joining sev-
and .information based on knowledge ac- eral such tetrachords the entire diatonic
quired in elementary school, high school, scale from e' down to A
was obtained [see
and college measure general information, *Greck music] It should be noted that,
.
mjultfple choice, true and false, or answer Lydian, etc., tetrachord) did not exist in
to a direct question. Tests measuring per- the Greek system. There existed, how-
formance include tests of sight-singing ever, chromatic modifications of the tetra-
ability, melodic and rhythmic dictation chord,the chromatic tetrachord e'-c'#-c'-b
(writing in musical notation what one and enharmonic tetrachord e'-c'-x-b
the
has heard played), and the analysis of (x designating the quarter-tone between
musical performances directly or from c'andb).
phonograph recordings by means of the Tetrardus. See *Church modes II.
recent developments in phonophotography
[cf. The Vibrato by Seashore]. Many Text and music. In vocal music, par-
college music departments have devised ticularly in songs, the consideration of the
placement tests in music which are given text is one of the prime concerns of the
to applicants for the purpose of estimating modern composer. Correct accentuation,
the extent and quality of the student's clarity of pronunciation, emphasis of im-
previous musical training. These tests portant words, etc., are the basic require-
often combine tests of appreciation and ments of good vocal style, but only the
information and tests of performance. indispensable premises to the main ob-
Lit.: C. E. Seashore, The Psychology of jective, i.e., to convey in musical language
Musical Talent (1919); id. 9 Psychology of the general character of the text as well as
Music (1938); id.y The Vibrato (1935); its fluctuating shades or contrasts. Any
H. M. Stanton, Measurement of Musical song, from Schubert to the present day,
Talent (1935); J. L. Mursell, Psychology will readily show the attention given by
of Music (1937); C. W. Flemming and composers to this matter. In fact, from
M. Flagg, Descriptive Bibliography of 1880 on, one finds a tendency to empha-
Prognostic and Achievement Tests in Mu- expense of the musical
size the text at the
sic (1936); S. K. Gernet, Musical Dis- melody which is frequently reduced to a
crimination at Various Ages and Grade mere "recitation" (Hugo Wolf, Debussy,
Levels (1939); V. R. Ross, Relationship Schonberg). It may also be noted that
between Intelligence^ Scholastic Achieve- modern composers have been very careful
ifrent and Musical Talent '(1937); H. in the selection of poetic texts for their
Lowery, in PMA Ixvii; C. E. Seashore, songs, choosing only poems of outstand-
in MQ i; J.
C. Moos, "The Yardstick ing literary value, and that, on the other
Applied to Musical Talent" (MQ xvi). hand, the 19th-century development of
;
D.D. poetry in which one encounters such out-
standing figures as Goethe, Morike, Bau-
Testudo fit., turtle], (i) The ancient delaire, Mallarme, has given a great im-
Greek *lyra which was frequently made petus to the rise and development of the
from a tortc^se shell. (i) A 16th-cen- song. On the other hand, it cannot be
tury humanistic name for* the lute (e.g., denied that occasionally matters have
L. Fuhrmanl, Testudo Gallo-Germanica, been carried to the extreme, and it is well
1615). to remember that Bach has written some
[74]
TEXT AND MUSIC TEXT AND j"ii.<irt
of his greatest arias to notoriously inferior of his preoccupation with purely musical
texts. (melodic) considerations, e.g., in his
/ / w
The above-mentioned principles of tex- cantata no. 105: "Hcrr gehc nicht ins
tual treatment developed gradually in the w / ' ' v
'
V
v
1 6th century, and were fully recognized Gericht," instead of Herr, gchc niYHt* ins
first by English composers [see *Just note Gcncht."
and accent]. Throughout the early his-
Two additional problems of textual
tory of music, however, examples abound treatment be briefly considered, viz.,
may
showing that composers were less strongly word painting and text repetition. The
interested in these matters and frequently
expression in music of characteristic
considered them as of secondary impor-
words such as "heaven," "laughter,"
tance. Two such examples may be men-
"to run," etc., occurs as early as in
tioned: an Ave regina by Dufay in which
Obrecht (c. 1430-1505) and Josquiir(tf.
the following declamation occurs: ra-dix, 1450-1521 ), and became a well-established
W ' V ' ' '
Y method of composition in the i7th century
an-ge-lo-rum, re-gi-na: and a motet from
[see *Word painting; *Affectenlehre].
the Roman de Fauvel (c. 1300) in which
Repetition of words or short phrases also
an almost deliberately absurd declamation
started with the Flemish masters (Obrecht
is used with the Ovidian hexameter: In
ber of phenomena resulting from the fact [Beethoven, Piano Sonata op. 106] illus-
that music is two-dimensional in char-
mixture of horizontal and vertical
trates a
elements which is particularly frequent in
acter, consisting of horizontal as well as
vertical elements. The former are repre- 19th-century piano music of high stand-
sented by the successive sounds forming ing (Beethoven, Brahms). As early as the
melodies, the latter by the simultaneous
1 7th century the strictly contrapuntal
texture of the polyphonic era was miti-
sounds forming harmonies
[see also
gated into a pseudo-contrapuntal texture
Counterpoint I]. The analogy between
music and the warp and woof of a fabric known as *freistimmig. In contrapuntal
music a distinctive feature of prime im-
is
particularly obvious in the case of part-
portance is the rhythmic relationship be-
music, i.e., music written in a given num-
ber of parts. Here each part represents a
tween the There exist two opposite
parts.
horizontal line of individual design, but types of polyphonic texture, one in which
the four parts move in identical rhythm
connected with the other lines by the
(vertical)relationship of consonance or
(as in a church hymn), the other in which
of harmony. Such music is said to be of they show complete rhythmic independ-
ence (as frequently in Palestrina or Bach).
contrapuntal or polyphonic texture. A
different situation exists in that type of Only the latter texture, known as *poly-
music commonly referred to as "accom- rhythmic, is contrapuntal in the true sense
of the word while the former, known as
panied melody." Here the texture is
*familiar style, borders on chordal tex-
primarily vertical, being based on a suc-
ture and is, indeed, frequently referred to
cession of chordal blocks which are hori-
as strict chordal style (in contradistinc-
zontally connected by a top melody. Such
tion to free chordal style in which there
texture is called chordal or homophonic.
is no restriction to a
Ex. i, (a) and (b), illustrates the two given number of
parts and
usually no horizontal movement
except for the top melody).
i' '- Another interesting aspect is the dis-
' tinction between "light" and "heavy"
textures. To the latter category beloog,
e.g., Gabrieli's *polychoral compositions
and Sibelius' symphonies; to the former
the chansons by Dufay [see *Burgundian
School] and Stravinsky's L'Histoire du
soldat. A
preference for light texture is a
*New music.
significant characteristic of
methods, applied to the same melody. In Occasionally the two-dimensional tex-
chordal style the accompanying chords ture of music is reinforced by diagonal
are frequently spread out in the form of threads. The most important phenome-
[742]
THEME THEORY, MUSICAL
non of this type is the *canon in which tion] .
John Cotton, fl, c. noo [see *Or-
there a consistent diagonal relationship
is ganum II]. The treatises of this group
between the two parts, owing to the imi- are reprinted in GS i, ii.
up with that of melody, are *rhythm and Henricus Glareanus, 1488-1563 [see *Do-
^phrasing. More on the scientific side is dekachordon; *Swiss music]. Adria-
the study of ^acoustics, ^intervals (calcu- nus Coclicus, c. 1500-63 [see *Musica
lation of), *scales, etc., while the philo- reservata], Niccolo Vicentino, 151172
sophical and speculative aspect falls under [see *Arcicembalo], Diego Ortiz, fl.
the province of musical *aesthetics. See 1547-65 [Tratado de glosas, 1553, repr.
also *Musicology. by M. Schneider, 1913; see *Spanish mu-
II.
History. The fourteen centuries of sic II; *Ricercar II (c)]. Gioseffo Zar-
European musical theory (c. 500-1900) lino, 151790 [Istituzioniy 1558, cf. GD v,
may be briefly indicated by the following 776ff; see *Dualism; *Ornamentation I].
names: Vincenzo Galilei, i533~after 1589
A (Until 1200). Boethius, c. 480-524 [Dialogo, 1581; see *Nuove musiche],
* Aesthetics Lodovico Zacconi, 1555-1627 \Prattica di
[see II; *Letter notation].
Hucbald, c. 840-930 [see *Musica en- musica, 15921619, cf. GD v, 772f],
chiriadis; *Dasia notation]. Oddo of Thomas Morley, 1557-1603 [Plaine and
Cluny, d. 942 [see *Letter notation]. Easie Introduction to Practicall Musicfa
Guido d'Arezzo, c. 995-1050 [see *Staff; 1597, repr. 1937]. Girolamo Diruta, c.
*Micrologus; *Organum II; *Letter nota- 1560-? [// TransilvanOy 1597 and later,
[743]
THEREMIN THIRD
cf, GD ii, 69; repr. by C. Krcbs, in VMW Passages in parallel thirds occur occa-
viii], Michael Praetorius, 1571-1621 sionally in the 13th-century organa [cf.
[Syntagma musicum, 3 vols., 1615-19, cf. J. Handschin, in Festschrift fur Guido
GD iv, 243^ vol. ii, Organographia rcpr. Adler, p. 57] and form the basis of the
in 'Editions XXVI, 13 and by W. Gurlitt English *gymel. As an integral element
(facs.)]. Marin Merscnne, 1588-1648 of harmony the third appeared in the
[Harmonic universelle, 1636; see *Tem- sixth-chord style [see *f auxbourdon ] of
pcrament III]. the 1 4th century; of melody, in the works
D (i7oo-prescnt). Jean-Philippe Ra- of Dunstable, c. 1400 [cf.,
e.g., SchGMB,
meau, 1683-1764 [Nouveau systimc de nos 34> 35; see a l so *Burgundian School] .
Bartha, "Studien zum Musikalischen the minor third as the third consecutive
7
Schrifttum des 15. Jahrhunderts"(^MFi). fourth (c-f-bb'-eb with the frequency
)
82
Theremin. See *Electronic musical in- .
Owing to the complex formation of
struments VI.
these fractions, both thirds were regarded
Thesis. See *Arsis and thesis. as dissonances. This interpretation per-
Third [F. tierce\ G. Terz\ It. terza] . The sisted throughout the Middle Ages, al-
fully admitted, and from a recent one ing, since singing in parallel thirds (*gy-
(post-tertian harmony, c. 1900-) in which mel) was actually practiced in England
it has lost its former dominant position much earlier than anywhere else. The
[see *Harmony II]. difference (in *cents) between the thirds
[744]
THIRTEENTH, CHORD OF THE THOROUGH-BASS
of the various systems from the or flat without figure calls
appears respectively for
following table. the major or minor third. The natural
Minor Third Major Third sign is used in a similar way. Sharping is
Pythagorean 408
294 frequently indicated by a diagonal stroke
Just Intonation 315 386
Mean-tone system 386
through the figure, or by an apostrophe.
315
Equal temperament 300 400 4. A
horizontal dash following a fig"
urc or a vertical group of figures indicates
The difference between the tempered
that the notes of the right hand arc to be
and the pure major third can easily be
demonstrated on an organ by playing on held, although the bass proceeds to other
tones.
one manual the tone e" with a normal
8'-register (principal), and on the second
5. A small diagonal dash indicates
repetition of the same figures above a
manual the tone c with a tertia-stop (5- ), changed bass note, i.e., sequential trans-
position of the chord.
which produces the fifth harmonic e" in The
6. figure o indicates tasto solo,
just intonation. i.e., no accompaniment other than the
bass note.
Thirteenth, Chord of the. See under
*Seventh chord. 7. Frequently, two or more successive
3. Chromatic alterations are indicated sical notes.At the proper places, the mu-
by a sharp or flat placed in front of (or, sicalmaterial used in the solo parts (voice,
occasionally, behind) the figure. A sharp violin) should be incorporated into the
[745]
THOROUGH-BASS THROUGH-COMPOSED
accompaniment, in free imitation, or in III. The thorough-bass practice of the
doubling thirds, or in contrapuntal con- Baroque grew out of the improvisation
trast. How far to go in this direction is methods of the i6th century. Towards
the most difficult and the most controver- the end of this century motets were occa-
sial issue of the whole matter. Obviously,
sionally accompanied on the organ by
this question cannot be answered cate- means of a bassus fro organo, i.e., a sepa-
gorically, as different situations are pre- rate bass part from which the organist
sented by different compositions and by played the harmonies. The earliest known
works from different periods. Within instance of this method is in a motet by
the course of time from 1600 to 1750 A. Striggio of 1587 [cf. M. Schneider, p.
the style of improvised accompaniment 67] . A
similar bass part, printed for Gio-
changed from simple homophony to real vanni Croce's Motetti of 1594, has # and b
counterpoint. Such elaborately contra- above the notes in order to indicate major
puntal realizations as have been given by or minor triads (thirds). The earliest
H. Riemann for arias of the mid- 1 7th examples of a basso continue with figures
century [cf. his Kantatenfruhling} are are Cavalieri's Rappresentazione and
entirely out of place. They are the result (loss completely) Peri's and Caccini's op-
of editorial ostentatiousness, rather than eras Euridice, all from 1600. Here, as well
of scholarly conscientiousness. On the as in numerous later works, different fig-
other hand, realizations such as appear in ures are used for the different octaves, e.g.,
some recent editions (Barenreiter Verlag, 10 for the tenth (upper third), 15 for the
Nagel) are decidedly too poor and un- double octave [cf., e.g., WoHN
ii, 315].
It would be entirely in keeping with the or narrative character in which the situ-
*Auffiihrungspraxis of the Baroque if the ation changes with every stanza as, e.g.,
players of such instruments would some- in Schubert's "Erlkonig." Early examples
what simplify the written f)art whenever of through-composed songs are the *vers
this includes rapid underlining
figures, of the troubadours and the *aria of the
intelligently the than
contours, rather Baroque period. In the i9th century F.
disturbing the equilibrium by a forced Schubert and Carl Lowe [see *Ballade
display of virtuosity. (G.)] were among the first to employ the
[746]
THUNDER MACHINE TIMBRE
through-composed style. This has been perjectum) could such a value be ob-
universally accepted by recent composers tained, by subtracting one from six (im-
(Debussy) for their lyrical songs. perfection).
[748]
TIMOROSO TOCCATA
ample occurs in the fourth measure of
Beethoven's Piano Concerto in G. P. A.
C.UJHJJJIJ.JJI
8 8
Tirana. A
special type of Andalusian
If, however (as usually in 16th-century dance-song. Bias de Laserna (1751-
vocal music; Palestrina), the composition 1816; see *Tonadilla) wrote a "Tirana
is notated in alia
breve, then the relation- del Tripili" which was famous all over
ship is, not 3:1, but 3:2 [cf. ApNPM, Europe throughout the i9th century.
193*1-
Around 1700 Tirare [It.]. To draw. Tira tutti
the symbol CO was used
to indicate measures of double length, (draw all), full organ. Tirarsi (to be
drawn) designates the sliding mecha-
i.e., % instead of %
(cf Bach, Partita no.
.
Timpani [It.]. *Kettledrums. Tim- Tirer, tirez, tire [F.]. Indicates the
pani coperti or sordi, muffled kettledrums. down-stroke of the bow [see *Bowing],
the drawing of organ stops, or a slowing
Tintant [P.], tintinnando [It.]. down of tempo.
Tinkling.
Toccata [from It. toccare, to touch, with
Tintinnabulum [L.]. Medieval term reference to the "touching" of the keys,
for bell.
as contrasted with the "sounding" of
[749]
TOCCATA TOMBEAU
the early Baroque period. They are writ- Schumann, Debussy (in Pour Ic Piano >
overflowing imagination without any re- the toccatas of Busoni (1921) and Petyrek
straining and binding principle of form. ( X 934)
A special type (already to be found with (2) Around 1600, the name toccata
his predecessors Trabaci and Mayone; cf. was also used for brass music in the char-
W. Apel in MQ xx) is the short liturgical acter of a festive fanfare, e.g., in the intro-
toccata (e.g., 'Toccata avanti 1'ele- duction of Monteverdi's Orfeo (1607).
vazione," i.e., to be played before the Why the same name was applied to pieces
elevation of the host; see *Offertorium), so different in characteris not clear. Pos-
(5) Crook (ton du cor, ton de rechange, between the keys of the tonic and of the
crook of the horn). (6) Ton bouche, dominant. In fact, with the theme in
stopped tone (of a horn); ton ouvert, question the "real answer" a-e'-c' . . .
open (natural) tone of a wind instrument. would bring about a somewhat irritating
clash between the low d in the subject
Ton [G.]. *Tone, chiefly in the mean-
and the high e in the answer. It is diffi-
ings (i) and (3).
cult to summarize rules as to when tonal
Tonabstand [G.]. Interval. and real answer is properly used. In gen-
Tonada. Spanish term for song in gen-
eral it
may be noticed that the fugal
themes called *soggetto lend themselves
eral; also used in the Latin American
more easily to tonal treatment, while the
countries.
more recent types of subjects called *an-
Tonadilla [Sp.]. A
short Spanish damento are frequently too "individual"
comic opera of popular type, for one to and well-defined to admit any modifica-
four characters, consisting of solo song tion.
and, occasionally, choruses. Its origins The dichotomy tonal-real has also been
were short scenic interludes performed
applied to entire fugues, a fugue being
between the acts of a play or serious called tonal if the answer is tonal; real, if
opera but (like the Italian *opera buffa) it is real. This distinction is, however,
it later became an
independent piece, and rather absurd. Obviously, it implies that
flourished from about the middle of the in a fugue one or the other type of answer
1 8th to the early ipth century. One of is strictly maintained. Although there
the first tonadillas is a comic musical dia- exist examples of "real fugue" (chiefly
logue between a woman
innkeeper and those based on an andamento-subject, e.g.,
an itinerant Bohemian written by Luis Wt. CL i, G
major, or the organ fugue in
Mis6n in 1757. Chief composers are A minor), there hardly exists an example
Mison, Pablo Esteve, and Bias de Laserna of "tonal fugue," since, in the further
(1751-1816). The tonadilla superseded context of the fugue unless it is of the
the *zarzuela which was an elaborately student's type the answers are likely
staged serious opera, mostly based on to waver between tonal and real.
mythological subjects. The terms tonal and real are also used
Lit.: LavE $.4, pp. 2227-57; J. Subira, in connection with imitation at intervals
La Tonadilla escSnica (2 vols., 1928); F, other than the fifth, particularly with the
Pedrell, Teatro lirico espanol ... (5 imitation at the higher or lower second
vols., 1897-98); M. Hamilton, Music in which occurs in sequential passages [see
Eighteenth-Century Spain (1937); J. Su- 'Sequence (i)]. This is called real if
bira, in 'Editions XXIV, B, 3/4. D. G. the intervals are imitated exactly, thus
[751]
TONALE TONALITY
involving modulation; tonal if it stays called one of the most striking phenom-
within the key. ena of music, viz., the fact that through-
out its evolution, in primitive and Ori-
Tonale [L.]. Same as *tonarium.
ental cultures as well as in Gregorian
Tonalitat [G.]. 'Tonality in the sense chant and in harmonized music, practi-
of "loyalty to a key," but admitting mod- cally every single piece gives preference
to one tone (the tonic), making this the
ulations into another key which are not
tonal center to which all other tones are
necessarily included in the German term
related the only exception being the
"Tonart." Thus, the beginning of Bee-
"atonal" music of the 20th century in
thoven's Waldstein Sonata shows the
"Tonarten" of C, G, B-flat, F, and C in which such preference is studiously
avoided.
quick succession but has only one "To-
nalitat," C major.
Although (with the just-mentioned ex-
ception) all music is tonal, the means of
Tonality. While the general meaning achieving tonality have, of course, greatly
of this term rather obvious, its exact
is
changed during the various phases of mu-
ramifications are difficult of definition. sical history. While in Gregorian chant
Numerous attempts have been made to and similar bodies of monophonic music
clarify its significance, some of which the relationships are of a purely melodic
show the tendency to preserve a certain character, a much more complex situation
ity called tonality might indeed be use- melodic movements. Broadened by the
fully nicknamed 'Keyishness,' to distin- ample use of chromatic alterations and of
guish it from all the musical joys of Key modulation into other keys, it prevailed
itself, just as a bather might distinguish throughout the i8th and ipth centuries,
the elemental joy of wetness from the act and, after a short eclipse caused by the
of swimming." Other authorities, how- radicalism of atonality, made its come-
ever, take a simpler point of view, de- back in that modification frequently re-
clining to make a distinction between ferred to under the name of "tonal cen-
tonality and key. Even so, there remain ter." In this modern type of tonality the
difficulties, and these would seem to be constituent triads of the older system have
caused mainly by the fact that, within the lost their former prerogatives, and the re-
last half-century, the "tonality"of music lationships to the tonic are made through
has undergone so radical changes that a dissonant (though not atonal) chords
definition put forward 30 years ago is, by which frequently result from an empha-
sis on linear
necessity, outdated at the present time. (polyphonic) texture.
From the present-day point of view it Ashort explanation is necessary in
seems best to interpret tonality as "loy- order to clarify the relationship between
alty to a tonic" in the broadest sense of the terms tonality and modality. In cur-
the word, or, as Vincent d'Indy puts it, rent usage these are mutually exclusive
as "the ensemble of musical phenomena terms, the former referring to music
which human understanding is able to written in a "key" (major or minor
appreciate by direct comparison with a mode), the latter to pieces written in, or
constant element the tonic." This defi- showing the influence of, the church
nition expresses what might well be modes [sec *Modality]. It goes without
TONARIUM TONGUING
saying that this usage is not compatible nonis (GS ii, 79), and the Commemo-
with the above broad definition of tonal- ratio brevis de tonis et f salmis modulandis
ity which includes all tonal relationships, (GS i, 213), both of the loth century.
whether "tonal" or "modal." If the ex- Cf. F. X. Mathias, Die Tonarien (1903);
planation of mode as the constituent scale M. Rungc, in MjM
xxxv.
is
accepted [see *Mode (i)], then tonal-
"modal" varieties,
Tonart [G.]. Key [see under *Tonali-
ity exists in different
tat].
based, e.g., on the church modes, the
major and minor modes, the pentatonic Tonbuchstaben [G.]. Tone letters
mode, the whole-tone mode, the diatonic [see *Letter notation].
mode [see *Pandiatonicism] or, as in
some modern music, the chromatic mode. Tondichtung [G.]. Tone poem; also
Tonality also exists in the quarter-tone any composition of a poetic character.
mode (e.g., in the Greek enharmonic Tone [F. ton\ G. Ton-, It. tono]. (i) A
genus), although modern quarter-tone sound of definite pitch and duration, as
music tends towards atonality.
distinct from noise and from less definite
The above explanations are made with
phenomena, such as the violin *porta-
a view towards clarification of some
mento. Tone, therefore, the building
is
fundamental facts rather than to estab-
material of music. (2) The interval of
lish a new terminology which, at any a major second, i.e., a whole-tone, as dis-
event, has expectation of being ac-
little
tinct from a semitone (minor second).
cepted. Other usages of the term tonality, This is the usual meaning of the term in
e.g., in the sense of "tonal system" (al-
English parlance in which the word
most synonymous with what has been "note" is used for the meaning (i).
termed above modality), or in the sense
(3) In the connections Gregorian tone,
of major-and-minor tonality (as opposed
Psalm tone, it means standard recitation
to modality in the accepted meaning of
formulae used for the singing of the
the term), have became firmly entrenched
psalms or other liturgical texts [see
in current usage, as a perusal of the litera-
*Tonus (3); *Psalm tones].
ture on this topic clearly shows.
Lit.: J. Yasser, A Theory of Evolving Tone color. See *Timbre.
Tonality (1932); I. S. Tovey, "Tonality"
Tone poem. Sec *Symphonic poem.
(ML ix, no. 4); J. Yasser, "The Future
of Tonality" (MM viii); H. Reichenbach, Tone row [G. Tonreihc] See twelve- .
[753]
TONHOHE TONMALEREI
practically all the wind instruments, but tions are indicated for the higher octave
is
particularly important and indispen- thus: a r m
or d
f
S
m', for the lower oc-
sable for the flute player. A special type tave thus: dir^m or d, r, f . m
For the mi-
of tonguing, called Flatterzunge or flut- nor scale the third degree becomes doh,
ter-tonguing, has been introduced by R. owing to the changed intervals of this
Strauss. It calls for a rolling movement scale: ItdrmfsL Actually this succes-
of the tongue, as if pronouncing d-r-r-r. sion represents the Aeolian scale (white
Double-tonguing is also called tippling. keys from A, or any transposition). In
order to arrive at the minor scale, the
Tonhohe [G.]. *Pitch. sixth and seventh degrees must be sharp-
it was occasionally indicated by the *ac- The tones and their relation to each
cents known as acute (high), grave (low), other are shown in a chart called Modu-
and circumflex (high followed by low). lator.
The term is used in connection
also If the piece modulates into another key
with a melody in order to indicate that this key indicated (in different ways),
is
a strong syllable of the text receives a and the tone syllables are now to be reck-
note of higher pitch than the surround- oned in the new key. For the indication
ing weak syllables. The tonic accent of meter and rhythm additional signs
plays an important role in the discussion (horizontal strokes, single dots, colons,
of Gregorian and other chants [cf. commas, etc.) are used.
ReMMA, passim]. Lit.: J. Curwen, The New Standard
Course of Lessons and Exercises on the
Tonic Sol-fa. An English method of Tonica Sol-fa Method (1900 and later);
solmization designed primarily to facili- W. R. Phillips, Dictionary of the Tonic
tate sight-singing. It was developed from
Sol-fa System (1909); W. G. Whittaker,
earlier methods (Lancashire system) by in ML, no. 4, and in MQ viii; J. Taylor,
Miss A. Glover and perfected about
S.
J. C. Ward, in PM
A xxiii; C. A. Harris, in
1840 by John Curwen (i 816-80). It is MQ iv; J. A. Fuller-Maitland, in vii. MQ
widely used for teaching purposes in
England, and has also become known in Tonika [G.]. Tonic. Tonity-Do, Ger-
some other countries, e.g., in Germany man modification of *Tonic Sol-fa. Cf.
(under the name Tonika-Do). A. Hundoegger, Leitfaden der Tonity-
Tonic Sol-fa is a system of "movable Do-Lehre (1929).
Do," i.e., the tone-syllables doh, ray, me,
Tonkunst [G.]. Music; Ton\unstler,
fah, soh, lah, te are used with reference to
the key of the piece or any section thereof composer.
where there is a change of key. The syl-
Tonleiter [G.]. Scale,
lables or, more properly, their initial con-
sonants d r m
f s 1 1 are also used for the Tonlos [G.]. Toneless.
notation of the music in a manner remi-
niscent of the German keyboard *tabla- Tonmalerei [G.]. Word painting or
tures of the i6th century. Octave repeti- descriptive music.
[754]
TONO TRACT
Tono [It.]. Tone; whole-tone; key; Touch [G.Anschlag]. Sec *Pianoforte
mode. Primo (secondo, etc.) tono, first playing (particularly IV and V),
(second, etc.) church mode.
Touche [F.]. (i) Key of the pianoforte.
Tonos, pi. tonoi [Gr.]. See *Greek (2) Finger board of the violin [see
music II (d). *Bowing (1)]. (3) 16th-century term
for fret (of a lute, guitar). (4) 17th-
Tonsatz [G.]. Composition. Tonsetzer,
century term (also used in English
composer.
sources) for the "orchestral" toccata [see
Tonschlussel [G.]. Clef. *Toccata (2)].
*tonality, used mainly in combinations Tour de gosier [F., turn of the throat] .
such as "Europaisches Tonsystem," "Ja- A vocal ornament of the i7th and i8th
vanisches Tonsystem," "Pythagoraisches centuries, consisting of a turn composed
Tonsystem." Cf. A. v. Hornbostel, "Mu- of five notes. The term also applied to
is
sikalische Tonsysteme" (in H. Geiger, the closing notes of the trill. P. A.
Handbuch der Phy$i\> 1928).
Tourdion [F.] . See under *Basse danse.
Tonus [L.]. (i) Whole-tone. (2)
Church mode, e.g., primus tonus, first Tourte bow. The violin bows made by
F. Tourte (1747-1835), the most famous
mode; tonus authenticus (plagalis), au-
thentic (plagal) mode. (3) Psalm tone
bow-maker. See *Bow. Cf . GD v, 366.
or other recitations (tonus lectionis, etc.).
Toye. Title of short and light composi-
Tonus in directum (indirectum), or tions of the virginalistic period.
changes. Cf. MoML, 199; A. Einstein, phon or response, and thus represents one
Das neue Musi%lexi%pn (1926), 647. of the few remaining examples of "direct
psalmody [see *Psalmody I]. All the
Torculus. See *Neumes I. tracts are in either the 2d or the 8th mode,
a restriction not elsewhere encountered in
Tordion. See under *Basse dance.
Gregorian chant. Actually, the restriction
Tornada [Sp.]. Refrain of a song. goes much farther since most of the tracts
are sung to a limited number of standard
Tosto Rapid; or immediately.
(or, more properly, standard
[It.]. melodies
Tostissimo, very rapid.
phrases) which are used, with minor
Tost Quartets. Twelve quartets by modifications, for a great number of texts.
Haydn, written 1789-90 and dedicated The principle may be illustrated by the
to Johann Tost, Viennese merchant and two subsequent schemes, the first for the
violin player. They comprise op. 54, nos. tractAttendite caelum, the second for
1-3; op. 55, nos. 1-3; op. 64, nos. 1-6. Sicut cervus (I, II, etc., indicate the dif-
[7-55]
TRADOLCE TRANSPOSING INSTRUMENTS
ferent verses; a, b, etc., various musical another key or in another octave than
phrases; c and c' the same phrase with that of their actual sound. This method
different ending): is
widely used for wind instruments, such
(a) I II III IV V as the clarinet in Bb, the natural tones of
abcc'b c' b cc'bcd which are the harmonics of Bb. Since the
(b) I II III player of such an instrument naturally
ab cc'bd cc'bd considers Bb his simplest key, it has be-
come customary to present this key to him
This method is reminiscent of the use
passing modulation; (2) for a lasting study of orchestral scores. Yet, contrary
to the general progressiveness of our time,
change of key effected with abruptness
rather than by regular modulation; (3) the transposed notation has successfully
one main section to another, e.g., from the Nearly allwind instruments, not
the
to the second theme of a movement.
first pitched in C, are transposing instruments,
with the exception of the trombones
Transposing instruments. Instru- which, although pitched to Eb, Bb, etc.,
ments for which the music is written in are written as they sound. The term is
[756]
TRANSPOSITION TRE
also applied to instruments such as the Trauermusik [G.]. Funeral music.
piccolo flute which
quite sensibly, no-
is, Trauermarsch, funeral march.
tated an octave lower than it sounds,
Traurig [G.]. Sad.
merely to avoid ledger lines. Here, only a
special clef such as would Trautonium. See *Electronic musical
| (see *Clcfs)
instruments VI.
be necessary in order to exclude such in-
struments from the category of transpos- Traversa [It.],traversifcre [F.],Tra-
ing instruments proper. versflote [G.]. Same as *transverse
flute.
Transposition. The rewriting or the
ex tempore performance of a composition La
Traviata, ("The Erring One"). Op-
at another pitch, i.e., in another key, e.g., era in three acts by Giuseppe Verdi, text
in E-flat instead of the original D, etc. Dame
by Piave after Dumas' La aux
This practice particularly frequent in Camillas, produced 1853. The scene is
is
songs, in order to accommodate the range contemporary Paris with the courtesan
of the different voices. A
good accompa- Violetta (Soprano) as the central figure.
nist should be able to extemporize trans- in love with Alfred Germont
Falling
The easiest transposition is that
position. (Tenor), she gives up her life of pleasure
of a semitone, e.g., from F to F-sharp, or and marries him (Act II) but, implored
from E to E-flat, since here most of the
by Alfred's father, Old Germont (Bari-
written notes remain unaltered, and only
tone), leaves his home and resumes her
a different signature has to be imagined. former life (costume ball, Act II). Alfred,
Transposition of a third, fourth, calls for not knowing that her change of mind is
a full acquaintance with harmonics, in-
only a pretext, insults her at the ball, but
and becomes, of course, in-
tervals, etc., in Act III he and the dying Violetta are
creasingly difficult in the case of music united in love.
involving many modulations, chromatic Traviata is one of the earliest instances
alterations, etc. of the use of a contemporary plot in op-
Trattenuto [It.]. Held back or sus- Tre [It.]. Three. A tre voci> in three
tained. parts.
Tre cordc, sec *Una cordc.
[757]
TREBLE TREMOLO
Treble [from L. *triplum]. The high- Tremolo [It., trembling], (i) On
est part of a choral composition, hence stringed instruments the quick reiteration
synonymous with soprano. However, of the same tone, produced by a rapid
treble clef is not the same as soprano clef up-and-down movement of the bow, in-
[see *Clefs]. For treble viol, recorder, dicated as in (a) [see (j)]. The
*Bowing
see under *Descant. string tremolo is an important orchestral
The old English terms treble, quatreble effect which is widely used for passages
(quadrible), and quinible, derived from of dramatic expression or for the purpose
L. triplum, quadruplum, quintuplum, of orchestral coloring. It appeared in
would seem have originated about 1400
to some of the earliest compositions for
with a then current method
in connection the violin (Biagio Marini, Affetti musicali,
of improvised five-voice *fauxbourdon 1617; cf. RiHM ii.2, 101). Monteverdi,
(properly, English discant), in which the in his Combattimento di Tancredi e Clo-
two upper parts of the normal (three- rinda (1624), used it as a pictorial means
voice) fauxbourdon were doubled at the to express excitement and danger, as
higher octave, similar to the octave-dou- which it has been used innumerable times,
bling used in the pth century parallel e.g., in Bach's St. Matthew Passion ("Und
organum. The two lowest parts were der Vorhang zerriss"), in the oracle scene
called tenor and *meane (replacing the L. of Gluck's Alccste> etc. The term is also
duplum). Thus, if the tenor with its used for the rapid alternation between
plainsong melody would start on d, the two notes of a chord, usually in the dis-
meane, treble, quatreble, and quinible tance of a third, as in (b), this being called
would start on a, d', a', d" respectively a fingered tremolo. Eighteenth-century
[cf. the articles "Quatreble" and "Quin- names for the string tremolo are bombo
ible" in J. A. H. Murray, New English [It.] and Schwarmer [G.].
[758]
TREMULANT TRENT CODICES
(2) On the pianoforte the string trem- one of the most detestable inventions of
olo imitated by the rapid alternation of
is modern organ building.
a tone and its octave or with another har-
Trenchmore. An English country-
monic interval (third, fifth). It occurs
dance of the 1 6th and I7th centuries, in
frequently in piano arrangements of or- meter with dotted rhythms.
lively triple
chestral music, but is rarely used in origi-
An amusing description from 1689, show-
nal compositions.
ing that its only rival in popularity at the
(3) In singing the term tremolo is un- court of King Charles was the cushion
fortunately used in a different meaning, GD v, 377.
to denote a slight fluctuation of pitch
dance, is quoted in
which is comparable to what the string Trent Codices [G. Trienter Codices}.
* Seven MSvolumes of 15th-century poly-
players correctly call vibrato [see Vibrato
(2)]. The true vocal tremolo, i.e., the phonic music, the first six of which were
quick reiteration of the same pitch, is an discovered by F. X. Haberl in the library
effect which is practically never used to- of the cathedral of Trent (in Southern
day. In early music, however, it was one Tyrol, also famous through the *Coun-
of the most important ornamentations. cil of Trent) and first described in his
Terms such as notae vinnulac ("neighing Dufay (1885). In 1891 they were pur-
notes") or notae tremulae, mentioned by chased by the Hofbibliothek of Vienna
early writers on Gregorian chant, indicate but became Italian state property in the
rather clearly vocal tremolos. Whether treaty of St. Germain of 1918. The first
neumatic signs such as the bistropha and six volumes (Codd. 87-92) contain 1585
tristropha [see *Neumes I] were per- compositions, mostly from the middle of
formed tremolo or a vibrato is not
as a the 1 5th century, while a recently dis-
entirely clear [cf. AdHM
i, 94], but 13th- covered seventh volume contains mostly
century terms such as repercussio gutturis duplicates. The major part of the collec-
[see *Plica]and reverberatio [cf. CS i, tion was written by Johannes Wiser for
91] would seem to indicate a vocal trem- the bishop Johannes Hinderbach. This
olo. In the early part of the lyth century which is by far the most impor-
collection,
the vocal tremolo was widely used under tant source of 15th-century music, con-
the name trillo, and was usually written tains compositions of about 75 composers,
out in quick notes [see Ex. (c), from French, English, Italian, and German,
Benedetto Ferrari's Varic musiche, 1633!!; e.g.,Dunstable, Lyonel Power, Reginald
cf. also GD
v, 20 (Caccini); iv, 234 CD Liebert, Ciconia, Brasart, Dufay, Bin-
(Porter); RiHM ii.2, 28, and 297 (Cac- chois, Ockeghem, Busnois, and Isaac. A
cini, Saracini) should be noticed that,
] . It large selection has been published in the
in this period, the term tremolo denoted following 6 volumes of the [see DTOe
a trill; see *Ornamentation I, III. *Editions VII, Collective Volumes] 7 :
In the 1 8th century the vocal tremolo and n.i (all the French, Italian, and Ger-
fell into disuse and was henceforth re- man secular songs); 19.! (5 complete
ferred to under derogative names such as Masses); 27.1 (Mass of Reginald Liebert,
chevrotcmcnt [F.] and Boc^striller [G.; motets, antiphons, hymns); 31 (Masses
cf. MoML, 82], both of which liken it to and Mass movements by various com-
the bleating of a goat [F. chevre, G. posers); 40 (sacred and secular motets by
Bocft. Dunstable, Dufay, Brasart, de Vitry, and
others).
Tremulant. A mechanical organ device Lit.: G. Adler, "Ueber Textlegung in
operated by a stop which produces alter- den Trienter Codices'* (Riemann Fest-
nating increase and decrease of wind schrijt, 1909); R. v. Ficker, "Die Kolo-
[759]
TREPAK TRILL
Heimat dcr Tricntcr Musikhandschrif- Cal visiuSyTricinia ( 1 603 ; expl in Sch GMB,
.
Triad [G.DreHfang]. A
chord of three blcment'y G. Triller; It. trillo], A musical
tones obtained by the superposition of
ornament consisting of the rapid alterna-
tion of a given note with the diatonic
two thirds, i.e., consisting of a third and
second above it.
a fifth above the root. There are four
I. The originated in the i6th cen-
trill
species of triad, major (major plus minor
tury as an ornamental resolution of a
third), minor (minor plus major third),
diminished (minor plus minor third), suspension dissonance at a cadence. Ex-
and augmented (major plus major third). ample i shows various forms of the 16th-
The former two arc consonant, the latter century trill: (a) and (b) represent the
two dissonant chords. Each triad (e.g., typical vocal cadence as it is found in the
works of Palestrina, Lassus, etc. The
other variants occur frequently in instru-
mental transcriptions of vocal works and
in independent keyboard compositions.
It is probable, however, that even in vocal
Triads: (a) major; (b) minor; (c) dimin-
ished; (d) augmented.
manica, Brabantica, ct Galllca . (1542); . . of the beat; (4) the note below the resolu-
J.Montanus and A. Neuber, Sclcctorum tion may be introduced, either near the
triciniorum discantus . . .
(1559); Sethis beginning or near the end of the trill.
[760]
TRILL TRILL
These characteristics remain to form choose interpretation (a), (b), or (c). If
the basis of the most important agrtmcnt the composer especially desired an execu-
of the 1 7th century, the French cadence tion as at (b) or (c) he used one of the
or trcmblemcnt, which was adopted in notations shown at (b) or (c).
Germany as the Triller, in England as the
does not affect the interpretation. hook A to accentuate the main note or to add
brilliance or color to the performance, as
extending downwards from the begin-
shown in Example 7 [a, Chopin (Bolero);
ning of the trill sign indicates a prefix
starting below the main note; a hook ex- b, Liszt (Hungarian Rhapsody no. 14)].
tending upwards represents an introduc-
The "main note" trill did not entirely
tory turn beginning with the upper auxil- supplant the traditional form, which often
iary [Ex. 5]. The prefix from below is appears in the works of Chopin, Schu-
mann, and Liszt. It is customary, however,
in the music of the Romantic and Modern
periods, for the composer to indicate the
first note of the trill by means of a small
grace note. In the absence of such indica-
tion the trill should begin on the main
note. P. A.
Reihe tyeiner Stuc^e, op. 37. (K.V. 563), Beethoven's opp. 3, 9, 87,
and a few later compositions.
(2) In the Scherzo or Minuet move-
ment of the sonata (symphony, quartet, Triole [G.], triolet [F.]. Triplet.
etc.), themiddle section played between
the scherzo (minuet) and its repetition Trionfale [It.]. Triumphant.
[see *Scherzo]. The
designation trio
comes from the lyth-century custom of Trionfo di Dori, II. See *Triumphes
of Oriana, The.
writing minuets and other dances in three
parts, frequently for two oboes and bas-
Trio sonata. The most important type
soon (Lully), a treatment which was used
of Baroque chamber music, written in
particularly for the second of two dances three parts, two upper parts of similar
played alternately, so that the arrange-
range and design and a supporting fig-
ment Menuet9 Menuet en trio, Menuet ured-bass part [see *Thorough-bassJ.
resulted. A good instance exists in Bach's
The trio sonata is usually
performed on
Brandenburg Concerto no. i, in which four instruments, two violins (or, in the
the minuet is fully orchestrated, while
earlier period, viols, cornetti) for the two
the trio is written for two oboes and bas-
soon. The accompanying example, from
upper parts, a cello (viola da gamba, vio-
lone) for the bass part, and a harpsichord
(organ, theorboe) for the bass part to-
gether with the realization of the thor-
ough-bass accompaniment. Other per-
forming bodies were occasionally em-
ployed, e.g., in Biagio Marini's Sonatas for
violin and organ op. 8 ( 1626) in which the
[763]
TRIPLA TRISTAN UND ISOLDE
Tarquinio Merula, Biagio Marini, and Triple concerto. A concerto for three
others [see 'Editions II, 7]. Towards the solo instruments, such as Bach's two con-
end of the i7th century the trio sonata certos for three harpsichords.
became established in two types, known
Triple counterpoint. See *Double
as sonata da chiesa (church sonata) and
sonata da camera (chamber sonata). Re- counterpoint.
garding the former, see *Sonata B, II; re- Triple-croche [F.]. See *Notes.
garding the latter, see *Suite IV. The
trio-stylewas cultivated particularly in Triple fugue. See *Double fugue.
France, under the name of sonate en trio G. Triole; It. tcr-
Triplet [F. triolet;
[see *Trio (2)]. The medium persisted A of three notes to be per-
zina] .
group
into the classical period, the last examples
formed in the place of two of the same
being those by Gluck (1746), the *Mann-
kind, indicated by a 3 and, usually, a slur:
heimers, and Haydn [Six senates a deux
violons et Basse , op. 8, c. 1762]. There-
after it changed into the classical trio for
three instruments, and with a fully writ-
m 3
n:
^3^
[Ex. la instead of ib]. The sources of feet) over which a single string was
I3th-and 14th-century polyphonic music, stretched. The string was not stopped, as
[765!
TROMBETTA TROMBONE
in violin playing, but slightly touched to ment with a cylindrical bore except for
produce harmonic notes, the bow playing the lower third of its length which gradu-
above the touching finger near the upper ally expands into the bell, and with a
end. Inside the long soundbox a great cup-shaped mouthpiece. It consists of two
number (up to fifty) of sympathetic separate pieces, one being formed by the
strings were fixed which
were tuned in mouthpiece and the bell, held together
unison with the playing string [see illus- by a crossbar, the other by a U-shaped
tration, on p. 800]. The most peculiar middle piece which, by means of another
detail of construction was the "trembling crossbar, can be moved away and towards
bridge," i.e., a bridge in the shape
of a the player and which, therefore, is called
wide inverted U
the right leg of which slide. This sliding mechanism takes the
was placed directly under the string, place of the valves used with the other
while the other was free to vibrate against brass instruments and, like these, serves
the soundboard so that a drumming noise to fill
gaps of the natural tones [see
in the
resulted, hence the German name Trum- *Wind instruments IV (a)]. There are
scheit (drum log). At the same time the seven recognized positions (six plus the
sound of the instrument is strikingly like original one) of the slide, each a semitone
that of a trumpet, thus leading to another lower and thus changing the natural tun-
possible explanation of the name trumpet ing of the trombone successively from,
(tromba). More difficult is the explana- say, B-flat into A, A-flat, etc. The range
tion of the adjective "marina" which ap- for each position is one of about two oc-
pears after 1600. It has led to various taves (Bib-Bb-f-bb for the normal posi-
fanciful explanations, the most amusing tion), but the lowest note of this series,
of which is that the instrument was used called *pedal tone, is difficult to produce
for signaling purposes in the Navy. A in the three lowest positions. Since the
(1905), p. 62], and the Swiss Johann The trombone can be regarded as the
Gletle (d. before 1684) wrote duets for bass of the trumpet although its tone is
the instrument (new ed. in A. Stern and more dignified and solemn, less brilliant
W. Schuh, Schweizer Sing- und Spiel- than the This difference in tone
latter's.
musi\ (Hug), vol. 6). A Memoire by J.-B. color is due mainly to the larger mouth-
Prin of 1742 is reprinted in BSIM iv piece of the trombone. Trombones have
(1908). For a detailed description of the been made in many sizes ranging from
instrument cf. N. Bessaraboff, Ancient soprano to contra-bass, and in many keys.
European Musical Instruments (1941), The four types used in the modern or-
3i7ff; also SaHMI 291, 304^ and GD v,
chestra are the tenor trombone, the bass
tion of the "double slide," the pipe being trombone for accompanying chords, e.g.,
bent into four parallel tubes. Wagner in- in the aria "Divinite du Styx" of his Al-
troduced it into his Ring, and other com- ceste, and Mozart gave the trombones a
posers have followed his example (e.g., prominent place in his The Magic Flute
d'Indy in A Summer Day in the Moun- and Don Giovanni. Beethoven introduced
tains). It is, however, very tiring to play, the trombones into symphonic music in
owing to the great strain on the player's the final movement of his Fifth Sym-
lungs and lips. phony, but it was not until after 1850
[767]
TROPARIUM TROUBADOURS
Troparium [L.]. Troper. See *Litur- quence, i.e., that of an early master rather
books L
gical than of an inventor. His Christmas trope
"Hodie cantandus est" [SchGMB, no. 3],
Trope [L. tropus]. (i) In certain medi- written in the form of a dialogue (dia-
eval treatises, synonym for modus, tonus, logue trope), is considered a forerunner
i.e., *church mode. (2) Same as *dif- of the *liturgical drama. Troping was
ferentiae. (3) See *Twelve-tone tech- used most frequently with the items of
nique (Hauer). the Ordinary of the Mass (Kyrie tropes;
(4) In the Roman liturgy of the pth to Sanctus tropes; Gloria tropes, also called
the ijth century a textual addition to laudes), and with the Benedicamus dom-
the authorized texts as they were set down ino (Benedicamus tropes). All the tropes
by St. Gregory (c. 600). There was, in were abolished by the *Council of Trent,
the above period, an extensive activity of and the five sequences which were re-
this kind, springing from the natural de- tained are the only remnant of a once
sire toward continued creative contribu- flourishing production. Traces of the
tion to the authorized repertory of texts. tropes survive, however, in the present
The from a few amplifying
tropes range names of many Kyries [see *Kyrie],
words interpolated between the Kyrie In musicological research, the term
cleison Kyrie-fons bonitatis-elei-
(e.g., troping is also used in connection with
son: *farced Kyrie) to lengthy explana- the polyphonic elaborations of liturgical
tory sentences (e.g., Surge-infida gens, chants. For instance, the early motet may
dejecta perfidia, quern demonstravit Stella be considered a "polyphonic trope" (or
regem regum venerare-et illuminare "vertical trope"), since here a new text,
cogita, spera et suspira, coelestia contem- elaborating upon the idea of the original
/>/0/^Jerusalem), and even to entire chant in the tenor, is used for the upper
poems placed between two words of an parts. Finally, the process of troping can
authentic text [cf., e.g., O. Ursprung, also be observed in trouvere music in
Katholische Kirchenmusi^, 68]. As re- which new texts were interpolated be-
'
gards the musical treatment of the tropes, tween the two halves of a refrain, a pro-
two categories must be distinguished: cedure which is believed to have been the
(a) Troped texts which were adapted to origin of the *rondeau (Gennrich), and
a pre-existing melisma, occurring in the which is clearly noticeable in the motets
original chant at the place of the trope entes [see *Ente].
(e.g., in a Kyrie on the syllable e). Here Lit.:See under *Sequence (2); also
the new text was underlaid to the single J. Handschin in ZMW
x.
notes of the melisma, so that a syllabic
setting resulted. Most of the shorter Troper. English for *troparium, i.e., a
HAM,
no. book containing tropes [see
tropes belong to this class [cf. liturgical
agreement among scholars regarding the cians of the Middle Ages in northern
roots of this movement. Arabic-Spanish France, where the movement, spreading
models as well as Carolingian love-lyrics from the Provence [see Troubadours],
and the adoration of the Virgin Mary started in the mid- 1 2th century with Blon-
have been cited as sources of origin. Very del de Nesles (c. 1150-1200) and Quesnes
likely, these all contributed certain im- de Bethune (1150-1224), continued with
pulses. Another much-discussed question Thibaut IV, King of Navarre (1208-53),
(of somewhat secondary importance) is and Perrin d'Angecourt (fl. c. 1250), and
to what extent the noblemen were as- closed with the commoner Adam de la
sisted in their creative or reproductive Halle (1220-87). Regarding the general
activities by individuals of minor birth, features of the movement, see *Trouba-
the so-called jongleurs. Probably the dours. About 800 songs are preserved
practice varied in different cases [see with their melodies. The chief sources
*Minstrels], Among the troubadours of trouvere and troubadour melodies are
who are known to us by their melodies Chansonnier de St. Germain (Paris, Bibl.
we find Guillaume de Poitou (1070- Nat. 20050; facs. ed. by G. Raynaud and
1127), Marcabru (a commoner, d. c. P. Meyer, 1892); Chansonnier de I'Ar-
1150), Bernart de Ventadorn (d. 1195), senal (Paris, Bibl. dc 1' Arsenal, 1598; new
Peire Vidal (d. 1215), Rambault de Va- ed. by Pierre Aubry, 19095); Chanson-
queiras (d. 1207), Folquet de Marseille nier du Roy (Bibl. Nat. 844; new ed. by
(d. 1231), Raimon de Miraval (d. c. J. B. Beck, 1938); Chansonnier Cangt
1220), Aimeric de Peguillan (1205-75), (Bibl. Nat. 846', new ed. by J. B. Beck,
and Guiraut Riquier (d. 1294), the "last 1927); Bibl. Nat. 25566 (publ. in E. de
of the troubadours." Coussemaker, Oeuvres completes du
Of more than 1000 troubaoour poems trouvere Adam de la Halle, 1872); Chan-
323 are preserved with their melodies in sonnier de Noailles (Bibl. Nat. 726/5);
the so-called *chansonniers [see under Chansonnier d'Arras (facs. ed. by A. Jean-
*Trouveres]. From the textual point of roy, 1925); Bibl. Nat. 845, 847, and nouv.
view these poems fall into classes such as acqu. 7050 [cf. AdHM i, 193; ReMMA,
*sirventes (songs of service, usually of 448].
political or moral contents), * planes The melodies of the trouveres, all
* albas
(plainte, song of mourning), monophonic as those of the troubadours,
(song of dawn), and others. The two show a considerably greater emphasis on
chief musical forms are the *canzo and formal structure than those from the
the *vers. The melodies of the trouba- Provence. As a matter of fact, it is here
dours (as well as of the trouveres) are all for the first forms
time that musical
monophonic, and were never accompa- proper were developed some of which
nied in the modern sense of the word. proved of long-lasting importance [sec
Instrumental participation in the perform- *Barform; *Virelai], The through-com-
ance, such as is suggested by some pic- posed type, called simply chanson (cor-
tures showing a singer holding a fiddle responding to the Provencal *vers, not
or being assisted by an instrumentalist, the *canzo), is relatively rare as com-
was restricted to a strict or slightly varied pared with various strict forms (formes
unison duplication of the melody [see fixes) such as the *rotrouenge, the *ro-
*Hetcrophony] or, perhaps, to some deau, the *virelai, and the *balladc [re-
short extemporization in the manner of garding a not very convincing genealogy
a prelude, interlude, or postlude. For the of these forms, cf . F. Gennrich, Grundriss
notation and rhythmic interpretation of einer Formenlehre des mittelalterlichcn
[769]
TROUVfeRES TRUMPET
Licdes (1932); also ReMMA,
219!!]. mann 1909); id., "Quatre
Festschrift,
Earlier forms of a more
narrative type are poesies de Marcabru" (TG x); H. J.
the * chanson de geste, and the *lai or Moser, "Zu Ventadorns Melodien"
descort. Other classifications, such as (ZMW xvi). See also the literature for
chanson de court, ^chanson de toile, special articles (e.g., *Rotrouenge, *Lai,
*tenso, or feu-parti, are made chiefly with *Modes, Rhythmic, etc.). (c) Publica-
reference to subject matters. tions of music: Various chansonniers
The melodies of the trouveres (and (see text); P. Aubry, ^Lais et descorts
troubadours) are practically all notated francais du Xllle siecle (1901); F. Genn-
in the symbols of *square notation, i.e., rich, "\Rondeaux, Virelais und Balladen,
with only one character for the single 2 vols. (1921, '27). (d) Philological
note (a square, usually with a tiny tail) studies:H. J. Chaytor, The Troubadours
and short ligatures for a group of notes (1912); R. Croft-Cooke, Troubadours
in place of a single one (in German writ- (1930); A. Jeanroy, Bibliographic som-
ings this notation is usually referred to maire des chansonniers francais du
as Choralnotation; see *Plainsong nota- moyen-age (1918); A. Jeanroy, Bibliogra-
tion). The rhythmic interpretation of phie sommaire des chansonniers proven-
this notation has 'been a subject of much caux (1916). For additional literature
204ff; AdHM i, i88ff; GeHM, 258^; B. has three * valves (rotary or piston) which,
Smythe, "Troubadour Songs" (ML ii, taken singly or in combination, lower the
no. 3); P. Aubry, "L'Oeuvre m&odique natural pitch of the instrument by one to
des trouveres et troubadours" (RMC vii). six semitones; hence, the name valve
[770]
TRUMPET TRUMPET
p. 97. The basic principles
of tone-pro- isolated instance. In 1638 thereappeared
duction on the trumpet are explained a Modoper imparare a sonarc di tromba
under *Wind instruments. (Method of learning to play the trumpet)
The modern orchestral trumpet is
by Fantini. Towards the end of the I7th
pitched in B-flat, and has the chromatic century the trumpets were quite fre-
compass shown. It is now usually no- quently used in operas, cantatas, etc., for
scenes of a military character or for the
expression of joyful triumph (Purcell,
Buxtehude). At this time there devel-
oped the art of playing the highest regis-
tated at the actual pitch, i.e., as a non- ter of the trumpet where the harmonics
transposing instrument, but this is a rela- form a full scale, while formerly only the
tively recent practice. In earlier scores low and middle registers had been used
(Beethoven, Brahms) it was usually no- in which fanfare-like motives only are
trates the general procedure. Even more sicalmusic of Turkey, as practiced at the
radical is a method advocated by E. Neu- court and the great monasteries at Con-
gebauer, which has pure fifths but slightly stantinople, is based on a fundamental
scale containing 24 notes to the octave,
sharp fourths and octaves. Tests have
shown it to be superior to the older meth- This scale is derived from the chief in-
ods. Cf. J. Redfield, Music: A Science and strument of Turkish musk, the long-neck
an Art (1928). lute,*tanbur, which has 24 frets. The
various tones of the scale are calculated
Tuning fork [F. diapason; G. Stimm-
mostly on the basis of the Pythagorean
gabel\ It. corista], A
two-pronged piece system (consecutive fifths) and differ
of steel used to indicate absolute pitch. therefore from those of the European
The modern tuning forks give the inter- LavE
*quarter-tone system [cf. \.<$ :
national pitch for the tone a (440 vibra- From this fundamental scale selec-
3016].
tions per second). The instrument was tions are made for the purpose of prac-
invented by John Shore in 1711, and im- ticalmusic-making and about one hun-
proved by Rudolph Konig, Paris, around dred different "modes" are distinguished,
1850. For the purpose of acoustical dem- Among mode Tchariguiah^
these are the
onstration entire sets of tuning forks are which the Pythagorean scale of C, and
is
built. They have great permanence in re- the mode Rastc, the most frequent of all,
taining their pitch, and produce almost in which the E and the B are those ol
pure tones, without harmonics. Cf. E. A.
Kielhauser, Die Stimmgabel (1907). *just intonation ( and -), i.e., a comma
4 8
movable metal clip or cylinder, attached the former mode. Thirty such modes arc
to the upper end of an open flue pipe. illustrated in LavE 1.5, 29975. No les<
the pipe can be adjusted. called Oussoul. This is derived from the
** K
mw
fe'ft-j'PliMyjjiHi
K I
'
'
fig
begins on the beat with the note above the
written note [Ex. i]. It is important to
note that the melodic form of the turn is
p P r v v \
identical with that of a trill with closing
nificent
The formula, illustrated in Ex. 2, occur-
Te^biri, also by him,
Bayram
the Sala, the Temdjid, the Sabah essalati, ring frequently in the works of J. S. Bach
the Miradjiye" [cf. E. Borrel, in GD,
and his contemporaries, actually consti-
tutes a single ornament; there should be
Suppl. Vol., 633]. The secular art music
is derived largely from Arabian practice.
no break between the turn and the ensu-
The most important type is the Fast, a ing trill. So closely was the sign in ques-
tion associated with this formula that it
sort of suite composed of several pieces,
was
instrumental and vocal, all in the same
was retained for the isolated turn, as
also its name, double cadence.
"key," i.e., in the same maqam [see
* Arabian music It will be noted that in Ex. 2 the sign
II]. The instruments
for the turnis
placed slightly to the right
(tanbur, oud, keman, *l(anun) are also
of the written note instead of directly
those used in Arabian music. Of particu-
lar interest is the music of the *Janizaries.
Lit.: GD, Suppl. Vol., 633*! (bibl.);
H. G. Farmer, Turkish Instruments of
Music in the ijth Century (1937); LavE
1.5,2845-3064; V. Belaiev, "Turkish
Music" (MQ xxi); R. Yekta, "Musique
orientale" (RMC vii, viii).
[774]
TURN TWELVE-TONE TECHNIQUE
this occurs only when another ornament the note requires three small notes, while
(generally a trill) is to be played immedi- the turn after the note requires four.
ately afterward, as in the double cadence. The turns of the Romantic composers
Later, however, this practice became quite often contain five or six notes. Their
common, as it appears in the accompany- rhythm is exceedingly flexible, the only
ing examples by Mozart [Ex. 3] and definite rule being that they are to be per-
Beethoven [Ex. 4]. formed in the time-value of the preceding
Until about 1750 the turn was regularly note [Ex. 9 and 10: Chopin, Nocturnes
performed as four equal notes, taking up op. 37, no.i and op. 48, no. i ] .
the whole time-value of the written note. Among the exceptional forms of turn
J. S. Bach frequently writes out this exe- are: (i) the geschnellter Doppelschlag, a
cution in ordinary notes [see Ex. 5, from rapid five-note turn .beginning with the
Wt. Cl. ii, no. 24]. K. P. E. Bach intro- main note [Ex. n, C. P. E. Bach]; this
duced the custom of playing the first two was known in Italy as gruppo (groppo)
notes of the Doppelschlag (as the turn was or gruppetto) in Germany as Rolle. (2)
now called) more rapidly than the last, as The prallender Doppelschlag, a turn com-
in Ex. 6 [Mozart, Violin Sonata G
mi- bined with an appoggiatura and short
nor] This execution does not apply, how-
. trill[Ex. 12, C. P. E. Bach]. (3) The in-
ever, to a turn that is played after the writ- verted turn, which is sometimes indicated
ten note or to a turn on a very short note. by the ordinary sign upside down or in a
The practice of indicating the turn by vertical position but is more often repre-
means of small grace notes (which be-
came popular during the classical period)
is more
ambiguous than the use of the sented by tiny notes as in Ex. 13 [Mozart,
sign, since not always easy to deter-
it is Rondo in A
minor] . P. A.
mine whether a turn upon a note or a
Tusch [G., from F. *touche, i.e., toc-
cata]. A fanfare played on brass instru-
ments. See *Tucket.
[775]
TWELVE-TONE TECHNIQUE TWELVE-TONE TECHNIQUE
himself strongly resented the use of this zontally or vertically, must always occur
term. No matter how it is called, it cer- in the arrangement of the series, and that
[776]
TWELVE-TONE TECHNIQUE TYROLIENNE
tions of the series are treated even more precludes tonal organization. N. Slonim-
individually. Meas. i brings the entire sky has experimented with the "tonal ap-
series in three chords of four tones each, plication of the twelve-tone technique,"
and meas. 2 applies the same treatment to in rows of four mutually exclusive triads
the retrograde inversion of the series, [cf. hispaper "Plurality of Melodic and
transposed a semitone below. In the fol- Harmonic Systems" in PAMS, 1938].
lowing three measures the ri-form of the Other composers who have worked with
the twelve-tone technique are Anton We-
Schonberg, Klavierstilck, op. jja
bern and, more recently, Ernst Krenek
$ -
(opera Karl V, 1932; Sixth String Quar-
tet, op. 78; Twelve Short Piano Pieces,
op. 83).
A different twelve-tone technique was
developed by Josef Hauer who starts from
the fact that there exist 479,001,600 (i.e.,
[777]
u.c. UNGEZWUNGEN
sung with that sudden change from the ballets (e.g.,Rossini, Guillaume Tell,
chest voice to the falsetto known as *Yo- Act III) and popular pieces written in the
del. The name is also used for operatic style of Tyrolean folk dance.
u
U.C. *Una corde. three. The is canceled by "tre
indication
corde" or "tutte corde" (t.c.). Beetho-
le
'Ud [Arabic, wood]. See *Lute, history.
ven, who was the first to indicate the use
tfber- [G., over, above], Vberblasen, to of una corda, not only calls for a gradation
[778]
UNGRADER TAKT URLINIE
Ungrader Takt [G.]. Uneven, c .,
i.
imaginary). This is a
gross exaggeration
triple meter. of the pertinent observation that the be-
partment. Its
general acceptance pro- is
[780]
V
V. Abbr. for (i) vide, i.e., "see." (2) can be lowered by six semitones, resulting
Violin (also V); W,
violins. (3) Voci, in a complete chromatic scale [see *Wind
e.g., 3 v, for three voices. (4) In liturgical instruments IV (c)]. It should be noted
books, y* means *verse. that the simultaneous use of two (even
[781]
VAPOREUX VARIATIONS
phone in English churches during the scribes segue subito for the purpose of a
1 8th and ipth centuries, to give out no- special effect); the latter, to those in which
tices. the theme is
only a short succession of
harmonies to be repeated over and over
Vaporeux [F.]. "Vaporous," hazy. again without any interruption. Another
important difference between the two
Variante [G.]. In H. Riemann's system
classes is that in the former a theme al-
of harmonic analysis, term for parallel
ways has a distinct melody while in the
key (substitution of minor for major, or latter it consists only of a scheme of har-
vice versa).
monies which is
frequently, but not nec-
Variation canzona. See *Canzona essarily, represented by a reiterated bass.
To distinguish between the two classes as
"variations of a melody" and "variations
Variations. The variation or, more of a bass" is not very fortunate, since there
fully, the theme with variations, is a mu- exist numerous chaconnes and passaca-
sical form based upon the principle of glias which are lacking a clearly designed
presenting a musical idea (theme) in an bass line [see *Chaconne and passaca-
arbitrary number of modifications (from glia]. At any rate, the length or shortness
4 to 30 or more), each of these being a of the theme and its sectional or continu-
"variation." Variations appear as inde- ous character are more pertinent marks of
pendent compositions (Bach's Goldberg distinction than the presence or lack of a
Variations; Beethoven's Diabelli Varia- bass. Border cases are the *strophic basses
tions) or as a movement of a sonata, usu- of the i yth century, whose theme is a bass
ally the slow movement (Beethoven's of such extension and completeness that
Appassionata, Ninth Symphony). a sectional structure results. The subse-
I. Theme. The theme is usually a sim- quent explanations refer chiefly to the
ple tune in binary form, ranging in length normal (sectional) type of "theme with
between 16 and 32 measures and fre- variations."
quently borrowed from other composers II. The Fixed Elements. It is evident
(e.g., Beethoven's variations on a theme that a variation of a theme will always
by Diabelli, or Brahms's variations on a have some features in common with the
theme by Handel). There exists, how- theme, and also that it will deviate from
ever, a special class of variations whose the theme in other traits. As regards the
theme is not a complete tune but is only former point of view, a distinction is fre-
a four- or eight-measure scheme of har- quently made between variations in which
monies or a bass line of the same length. the original melody is
preserved, these
Under this class fall the examples known being called melodic variations, and those
as *chaconne, passacaglia, *ground, and in which the original harmonies are pre-
*basso ostinato. To consider these forms served, these being called structural or
as from or even opposed to
different harmonic variations [cf. the article in CD
"theme with variations," as is done by which, however, not always consistent
is
some writers, is scarcely justifiable, since in the use of the last two terms]. This
variation technique is basic for one as for distinction is unsatisfactory for various
the other. The fundamental difference reasons. First, the terminology is unfor-
between the two classes of variations tunate, since the adjectives "melodic" and
might be by the terms
fittingly expressed "harmonic" are used with reference to
sectional variations and continuous varia- the fixed (i.e., unchanged) features while
tions. The former term applies to those similar terms such as. "rhythmic varia-
[782]
VARIATIONS VARIATIONS
tions" and "harmonic variations'* are fre- gories are not only of methodical but also
quently used in the exact opposite mean- of historical significance. Generally speak-
ing, a usage which deserves preference ing, category A prevails throughout the
and which adopted in the present ex-
is 1 6th iyth centuries, category B
and
planations [see below]. Second, aside throughout the classical period, category
from the ambiguity of meaning, the di- C is frequent among the Romantic com-
chotomy as such has little value, since the posers, and D is characteristic of themost
two types whatever they are called recent style (d'Indy, Reger, R. Strauss).
are not really of similar or comparable It should be noted, however, that all the
importance. Stability of the harmonic variations of the class referred to previ-
scheme (at least in its main outlines) is a ously [see I] as continuous variations be-
prerequisite for practically all variations, long to the category B (not A), since here
except the entirely free variations of mod- the thematic substance does not include a
ern composers (since Brahms). Stability melody so that by necessity each variation
of themelody is an additional restriction will be melodically independent. Since
which was traditionally observed in the this type of variations prevailed mainly
early period of variation (i6th, iyth cen- during the Baroque era, it
appears that,
turies) but is the exception rather than in this period, two categories of variations
the rule with composers such as Mozart, existed side by side, category for the A
Beethoven, Schubert, Brahms. sectional variations (such as Scheldt's
In studying the question of the fixed variations on a Passamezzo), and category
elements it is essential to bear in mind B for the continuous variations (passa-
that the main bond of connection between caglias, chaconnes, grounds).
the theme and any variation is the scheme It may be mentioned that there is still
of harmonies. Starting from the har- another category of fixation, which would
monically fixed variation as the normal have to be termed "melodically fixed,"
type, we find two others, one showing a and which includes variations in which
greater, the other a lesser degree of re- the melody is retained but the harmonies
striction to the theme. The former is that are altered. In the classical period this
in which, in addition to the harmonies, occurs only exceptionally as a "trick," an
the melody of the themeis kept more or instance in point being the variation no. 6
mere ornamentation of the
less intact (a of Beethoven's Eroica Variations, op. 35,
melody, which is one of the most fre- in which the original melody is harmo-
quent devices of variation, is not consid- nized in C minor instead of E-flat major.
new melody, so that all examples
ered as a This method attains a somewhat greater
of "ornamenting variation" would fall in significance, however, in the contrapuntal
the present category). The latter is that variations of the Baroque, in which the
in which the harmonies deviate deliber- melody is treated as a cantus firmus [cf.,
atelyfrom the original scheme so that only e.g., variation no. 4 of Samuel Scheldt's
its
larger outlines are preserved, such as Wehe Windgen wehe; DdT i].
the number of measures, the structure of III. The Variable Elements. Taking
sectionsand phrases, the cadential end- the consideration of the fixed elements
ings. For the sake of convenience these as a point of departure, the interest now
three categories, the harmonically and turns to the question as to variety is how
melodically fixed, the harmonically fixed, achieved in a variation. Although it is
[783]
VARIATIONS VARIATIONS
of characteristic figures, or by placing the turc, as it were some typical procedures
melody in one of die lower parts (contra- may be singled out as follows: (a) melodic
puntal variation] see Ex. 2). Under cate- variations, those in which a new mel-
i.e.,
[784]
VARIATIONS VARIATIONS
history of considerable length, all traces of character variations, in the style of a
of which are lost. By 1550 the evolution courante or sarabande. These are indica-
of the Spanish variations had come to its tive of a trend towards merging the form
peak and close in the masterworks of of variations with that of the *suite which
Antonio de Cabezon (1510-66; cf. HAM, is quite frequently encountered in the
no. 134). Cabezon's variations, called music of the Baroque. For instance, Wolf-
*diferencias [see also *Glosa], are mostly gang Ebner's 36 "Variazioni sopra un*
of the contrapuntal type which, needless aria dell' Imperatore Ferdinando III" [c.
to say, prevails also in the variations of 1660; TaAM vii] three groups of
fall into
[785]
VARIATIONS VARIATIONS
in his symphonies and, particularly, in his for a series of extremely difficult and ex-
late quartets, above all the Emperor Quar- tremely interesting variations. The fame
tet (op. 76, no. 4) with its variations on of Brahms as a master of this form rests,
"Gott crhalte Franz den Kaiser." With however, on his Variations on a Theme
Beethoven the variation form reached its by Handel (op. 24) for pianoforte, and on
all-time peak.He replaced the more con- his orchestral Variations on a Theme by
ventional methods, particularly that of Haydn op. 56 (also for two pianos). His
ornamentation, by a wealth of individual variations belong mostly to our category
treatments and ideas which evades all at- C, owing to the freedom with which he
tempts at summary description. He also treats the harmonies without giving up
was the to organize the mere succes-
first the structural outlines of the theme. Fol-
sion of variations into contrasting groups, lowing the precedent of Beethoven's
a procedure which is particularly patent Eroica and Diabelli Variations he usually
in his "continuous" variations in C minor climaxes the series of variations with an
op. 32 (sometimes described as a cha- elaborate fugue (in the case of the Haydn
conne). In his "Eroica" Variations op. 35 variations this is replaced by a passa-
he prefaces the theme by a short group of caglia).
"negative variations," so to speak, which d. (ipoo-present). Shortly before 1900
are based on the bass motive only. His two important examples of "free varia-
Diabelli Variations op. 120 (1823) are tion" were written, Vincent d'Indy's Istar
an incomparable treasure of ingenuity, Variations (1896) and Richard Strauss's
while in the variations of his late quartets Don Quixote (1897). The former are
and pianoforte sonatas technical methods "variations in the reverse" in so far as the
are sublimated into a new realm of tran- "theme" (properly, two thematic mo-
scendental vision, so that even the most tives) appears at the end, a procedure
conventional methods attain a new sig- of "disrobing" which is insinuated in the
nificance. Nowhere is this transformation title, Istar being the Egyptian goddess
more clearly patent than in the "orna- of Sin. In comparison with these two
menting" (Variations of the pianoforte works, the treatment of Elgar's *Enigma
sonatas opp. 106 and in. Variations is considerably more conven-
Hardly second to Beethoven is Franz tional, approximately along the lines of
Schubert in such great though little known Schumann's fitudes Symphoniques. The
works as his variations for four hands in last composer to work along these lines
B minor and in A-flat major, compositions was Max Reger, who wrote numerous
which are quite superior to his more pop- variations for pianoforte, organ, and or-
ular variations for two hands in B-flat chestra, among which the Pianoforte
major. Schumann's most remarkable con- Variations on a Theme by Bach (op. 81,
tributions are the fitudes Symphoniques 1904) and the Orchestral Variations on a
which open the field of free variations Theme by Mozart (op. 132, 1912?) are
since some of them derive not more from outstanding, while his Pianoforte Varia-
the theme than a germinating motive. In tions on a Theme by Telemann (op. 134,
his Andante and Variations for two pi- 1914) show the attempt, not very suc-
anos, on the other hand, he falls into his cessful, to revert to the tradition of the
habit of exploiting ad nauseam a some- Mozart period. The composers of the
what obtrusive figure or rhythm, as he so youngest generation have shown com-
frequently does in his later works. paratively more interest in the Baroque
Franz Liszt made very frequent and, type of the chaconne (Busoni, Krenek)
needless to say, effective use of a brilliant than in the traditional type of 19th-cen-
and highly virtuoso-like variation tech- tury variation.
nique in many of his Rhapsodies and, Lit.: R. Gress, Die Entwictyung der
particularly, in his variations on the theme Klavier-Variation von A. Gabrieli bis zu
by Paganini (Paganini Etudes, no. 6) /. S. Bach (1929); E. Reichert, Die Varia-
which was also used by Brahms as a theme tions-Arbeit bei Haydn (Diss. Vienna
VARSOVIENNE VENETIAN SWELL
1926); V. Luttmann, Brahms' Werf(e in in Venice. It was inaugurated by Adriacn
Variationsjortn (Diss. Vienna 1926); W. Willaert (c. 1485-1562) and included,
Schwarz, Robert Schumann und die Va- among others, Andrea Gabrieli (^.1510-
riation (1932); P. Mies, in AMF ii
(Mo- 86), Cypriano de Rore (1516-65) both
zart); V. Luythlen, in StM xiv (Brahms). pupils of Willaert Joseffo Guami (c.
1540-1611), Giovanni Gabrieli (1557-
Varsovienne. A Polish dance, named
1612), Giovanni Croce (c. 1557-1609), the
after the city of Warsaw, in slow mazurka
organ composers Jacques Buus (-1565)-
rhythm, usually with an accented dotted Annibale Padovano (1527-75), Vincenzo
note on the first beat of each second and
Bell'Haver (c. 1530-88), Claudio Merulo
fourth measure. It was popular in the
(1533-1604), and the theorists Niccola
ballrooms from about 1850 to 1870.
Vicentino (1511-72) and Gioseffo Zar-
Vater unser [G., father our]. German lino (1517-90).
version of the Lord's Prayer [Pater nos- While the contemporary *Roman School
ter}. It is sung as a hymn (Choral) to a represents the final high-point of a long
16th-century melody (by Luther?), which development of polyphonic music, the
has been used as a basis of compositions Venetian School is important mainly on
account of its novel ideas and progressive
by Hans Leo Hassler (10 choral settings
in Psalmen und Christlich Gesang, 1607; tendencies which, together with the Flo-
new ed. by Saalfeld), Ulrich Steigleder rentine *monody, paved the way for the
(Tabulaturbuchy Das Vaterunser . . . vier- 1 7th
century. Among these contributions
Bach (organ cho- are Willaert's chromaticism and freer use
zigmal variierty 1627),
of modulations, the toccata style of A.
rales), and others. Cf. HAM, no. I9oa-e.
Gabrieli and Merulo, Vicentino's daring
Vatican Edition (Editio Vaticana). speculations and experiments with quar-
See *Liturgical books II. ter-tones [see *Arcicembalo] , Zarlino's in-
Vaudeville [F., from vaux de Vire, the vestigations of *just intonation, *dualism,
and, to some extent, equal temperament;
valley of Vire, birthplace of a 15th-century
finally and above all, Giovanni Gabrieli's
poet who is said to have been the origi-
nator of the vaudeville; another, less fa- magnificent "Venetian style" with its
broad masses of sound, *polychoral treat-
vored, etymology is voix de ville^ voices of
the town, or a vau de ville, all about the ment, *echo effects, and progressive use
of instruments which makes him the "fa-
town]. In the i7th and i8th centuries, a
ther of orchestration" [see Orchestra-
short satirical poem sung to a melody of
tion]. The movement spread particularly
popular character. One and the same mel-
to Germany where Jacob Gallus (Handl,
ody commonly served for many different
texts written in the same poetic meter. 1550-91), Hieronimus Praetorius (1560-
The was the 1629), Hans Leo Hassler (1564-1621),
vaudeville principal type of
and Michael Praetorius (1571-1621) are
song in the early
opera-comique (1715-^.
the most important representatives of the
I 735)' A large collection of such songs
Venetian style (Deutschvenezianer) .
[787]
VENEZUELA VENI SANCTE SPIRITUS
Venezuela. During the Colonial period age, in both its artistic and folklore as-
and the early years of Independence, pects. Juan Bautista Plaza (b. 1898),
Venezuela had what was probably the archivist of the Escuela de Musica, has
most homogeneous and most flourishing made a special study of Colonial music
school of music in the whole of South and has produced a copious amount of
America. It was, moreover, a school of original work in both secular and sacred
music in the strictest sense of the term, forms. Vicente Emilio Sojo (b. 1887) is
since its representative figures were pupils director of the choral society, "Orfe6n
of the same teacher and followed the same Lamas," of the Escuela de Musica, and of
general style. The founder of this school the Orquesta Sinf6nica. He has com-
was Juan Manuel Olivares, who founded posed church and chamber music, choral
a philharmonic society in the capital works, and songs, and has also collected
around 1750. Olivares was also the di- and harmonized Venezuelan folk songs.
rector of a music academy founded by Juan Lecuna (b. 1898), for several years
Pedro Palacios y Sojo (d. c. 1800), an- a diplomatic attach^ in Washington, has
other eminent figure in the early musical published four pieces for piano based on
life of Venezuela. Other notable mem- Venezuelan traditional dances, and has
bers of this school were Jose* Francisco in MS various chamber music works.
Velasquez, Jose* Antonio Caro dc Boesi, Maria Luisa Escobar (b. 1903) has spe-
Jose* Cayetano Carreno, Jos Lorenzo cialized in stylizations of Venezuelan folk
Montero, and Jose* Luis Landaeta (who in music. Other composers who may be
1811 composed the Venezuelan National mentioned are Moists Moleiro, Jos An-
Anthem). The greatest composer of this tonio Calcano, Eduardo Plaza, Jose* An-
period, and the most famous produced by tonio Estevcz, and Evencio Castellanos.
Venezuela, was Jose* Angel Lamas (d. Reynaldo Hahn (b. 1875), though a
1814), author of the celebrated "Populc native of Caracas, was taken to France
meus" (1806) which the Venezuelans re- as a child and is generally considered
ciety.
and other popular forms have undergone
considerable Negro influence.
During the ipth century the outstand-
A. Calcano, Contribucidn al
Lit.: Jos6
ing composers were Jose Angel Montero
estudio de la musica en Venezuela (Ca-
(1839^-81), choirmaster of Caracas Ca-
who racas, 1939); Baltasar de Matallana, La
thedral, composed, in addition to
musica
religious music, 15 zarzuelas and the op- indigena Taurepan (Caracas,
era Virginia (1873); Felipe Larrazibal 1939); M. dc Lara, "Ritmo y melodia
natives dc Venezuela" (Boletin latino-
(1816-73), pianist and composer of a
celebrated trio for piano, violin, and cello; americano de musica, vol. iii, 1937); J. B.
and Federico Villcna (1835-^.1900), a Plaza, "Music in Caracas . . .
(1770-
(MQ xxix, no. 2). G. C.
prolific composer of Romantic tendencies. 1811)"
Turning to the contemporary scene we
find that the composers of today have Veni Sancte Spiritus. See 'Sequence
carefully cultivated their musical herit- (*)-
[788]
VENITE EXULTEMUS VERSET
Venite exultemus. Sec *Psalmody Verlierend [G.]. "Losing," fading out.
III.
Verloschend [G.]. "Extinguishing,"
Vent [F.]. Wind. Instruments vent, fading out.
wind instruments.
Vermindert [G.]. Diminished (inter-
Ventil [G.], ventile [It.]. Valve. val).
Ventilhorn, i.e., valve horn.
Vers [F., G.]. (i) See 'Verse. (2)
[G.]. Variations.
In the tradition of the Provencal trouba-
Veranderungen
dours, vers denotes a very ancient type of
Verbunko. *See Hungarian music II.
song characterized by the absence of
formal structure, such as exists with the
Verdoppeln [G.]. To double. See
canzo, rondeau, ballade, virelai; in other
*Doubling.
words, a through-composed melody,
Vergleichende Musikwissenschaft which was repeated with the various
[G.]. Comparative musicology. stanzas of the poem. Examples in HAM,
no. i8a; BeMMR, 106; ReMMA, 229.
Vergniigt [G.]. Gay.
Verschiebung [G.]. Soft pedal. See
Vergrosserung [G.]. Augmentation. *Una cor da; *Mutc.
Verhallend [G.]. Fading away. Verschwindend [G.]. Disappearing,
Verismo realism]. An Italian op-
[It., i.e., fading out.
eratic school of the late ipth century
Verse G. Vers; It.
[L. versus; F. vers;
which represents the musical counterpart
verso], (i) In poetry a line or less
of the literary "realism" of Zola, Flau-
correctly a stanza of a poem. In Ger-
bert, Ibsen, and others. Instead of the
man terminology Vers always means a
heroic, exalted libretti of the preceding
stanza, the single line being called Zeile.
operas which practically always dealt
(2) In Gregorian chant the term (ab-
with mythological or historical matters,
breviated y) denotes a verse of a psalm
realistic subjects from everyday life were
or canticle, or a sentence from other scrip-
chosen. As a matter of course coloratura
tural texts. Single verses of this sort
arias and other features of the earlier
occur chiefly in the graduals, alleluias,
Italian opera were abandoned in favor
and introits (in which they are indicated
of a melodramatic recitative which is
Ps., i.e., psalm) [see *Psalmody II, HI],
frequently much more naturalistic than
They are always sung by the soloist
Wagner's "unending melody." Mascagni's
Cavalleria Rusticana of 1890 (dealing
(though usually with a short choral open-
ing). The soloist connotation of the
with scenes from peasant life) and Leon-
cavallo's Pagliacci of 1892 (circus life)
plainsong verse survived in the Verse
Service and Verse Anthem of the Eng-
were the first products of the new move-
lish church. These terms denote settings
ment, which were followed, in 1900, by which include sections for solo voices, as
the Frenchman
Charpentier's Louise.
distinguished from the purely choral Full
Puccini's La Boheme (1896)represents Service and Full Anthem. (3) For
a somewhat modified verismo of a more
Cf M. Rinaldi, Musica organ verse, see *Verset.
lyrical character. .
Verkaufte Braut, Die [G.]. See versetto; Sp. versillo]. Organ verse, i.e.,
[789]
VERSETTO VESPERS
even-numbered verses of a psalm or can- Vers mesur. The term denotes a late
ticle replaced by organ vcrsets, in alterna- 16th-century French practice of setting
tion with plainsong performance for tbe poetic texts to music in a rhythm which
others [sec ^Magnificat], This practice reproduces exactly the strong and weak
was designed monotony of
to relieve the syllables of text, by giving the former the
the traditional method of psalm singing. exact double duration of the latter. This
Although, from the liturgical point of procedure which is observed, e.g., in the
view, it represents an abuse and decline, Chansonettes mcsur&es of Jacques Mau-
it has been a great stimulus in the field duit (1557-1627) and in Claude le
of organ composition. Organ composers Jeune's Lc Printemps (1603; see *Edi-
usually provided a number (from four to tions XVI, u, 12; Ex. in HAM, no. 138)
eight) of versets for each church mode is the continuation of earlier methods
ap-
(Versi octo tonorum). The vast reper- plied to the Horatian *odes. See also
tory of such versets includes contributions *Air de cour; 'Rhythm II (b). Cf.
by Johannes Buchner (*Fundamentum y LaMWC, 253ff; P.-M. Masson, "L'Hu-
c. 1530); Antonio Valcnte (Versi spiritu- manisme musical en France ..." (KIM,
al^ 1576); Antonio de Cabezon (Obras 1906, p. 170).
dc musica, 1578; cf. HAM, no. 133);
Christian Erbach (after 1600; cf. DTB
Verso [It.]. *Verse; *vcrset.
plying." While the organist plays, the ceded by an antiphon, a hymn, and the
clergy and choir merely repeat the words 'Magnificat. It is particularly important
to themselves. Pius X, in his *Motu from the musical point of view because
Proprio of 1903, abolished a good deal of it is, outside of the Mass, the only service
this practice. for which music other than plainsong is
Versillo [Sp.]. *Verset (K.V. 321 and 339) for voices, orchestra,
and organ, each comprising five psalms
Versmaass [G.]. Poetic meter. and the Magnificat.
[790]
VIA VIENNESE CLASSICS
Via [It.]. Away. Via sordini, remove voice. This unwelcome effect the singers
the mutes. call tremolo, thus using the term in a
sense altogether different from its proper
Vibrations. See *Acoustics I.
one.
Vibrato, (i) On
stringed instruments The vocal vibrato, whether in its mod-
a slight fluctuation of pitch produced on erate or exaggerated form, constitutes a
sustained notes by an oscillating motion danger for the singer, since most singers
of the left hand. Violin and violoncello use it without
being aware of doing so.
players use it freely in order to increase Apparently the reason for the perpetual
the emotional quality of the violin tone. use of a mannerism which every serious
Some great violinists have strongly ob- music lover detests is not so much lack
jected to the consistent application of this of taste on the part of the singers as their
technique, insisting that it be reserved lack of control of the vocal chords.
for moments of heightened expression. A
scientific study of the vibrato has
Sensible as such advice seems to be to been made by C. Seashore: The Vibrato
every musician and listener to music, the (1932), and Psychology of the Vibrato in
vibrato has been adopted by most players Voice and Instrument (1936).
as a basic technique, but is usually ap-
Victimae paschali laudes. Sec *Sc-
plied with sufficient moderation to pro-
duce no noticeable fluctuation of pitch. quence (2).
Lute players of the I7th century made Vide [F.] .
Empty. Corde a vide, open
a distinction between a vibrato produced See. The term is
string. [L.]. used,
by a motion of the finger [F. langcur\ with its syllables Vi de placed at
E. closed shafa see under *Grace; It.
separate places of the score, to indicate an
ondeggiamento] and one performed with optional shortening, the player being per-
the aid of a second finger which lightly mitted to proceed from the place marked
beats the string as close as possible to the Vi immediately to the place marked
stopping finger [F. *battement\ E. sting], -de.
A particularly striking vibrato is possible
on the clavichord [sec *Bebung], Viella, vielle. The most important
(2) Among singers there exists not string instrument of the I2th-i3th cen-
only uncertainty as to what vibrato means turies, mentioned by numerous writers
but also confusion with the term *trcm- and described in detail by Hieronymus
olo. According to some authorities the de Moravia, according to whom it had a
vocal vibrato is the quick reiteration of drone string and four fingered strings
the samepitch produced by a quickly [cf. WoHN ii, 220], Its prominent role
intermittent stream of breath with fixed is also attested in the inscription "In
vocal chords. This effect corresponds to seculum viellatoris" found with instru-
what the string players correctly term mental pieces of the century [see *In
i^th
tremolo. As explained under this head- seculum] . Later i5th century) the name
(
ing, it is never used in modern singing. was applied to the *hurdy-gurdy, prop-
Most singers use the term vibrato for a erly called vielle a roue (wheel viol). Il-
lustration on p. 800.
scarcely noticeable wavering of the tone,
an effect which would correspond to the
Vielstimmig [G.]. For many voices,
moderate vibrato of the violinist, since it
polyphonic.
increases the emotional effect of the sound
without resulting in a noticeable fluctu- Viennese Classics [G. Wiener Klas-
ation of pitch. Cultivated by many sing- sil(er]. Collective designation for the
ers, it is avoided by others as likely to Viennese masters of
music, classical
degenerate into a real wobble, caused by Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven. See
a lack of control over the vocal chords *Classicism. The term Viennese School
which may be due either to an insufficient may be used in a wider sense, including
technique or to extreme overuse of the predecessors such as Georg Reutter
[791]
VIERHEBIGKEIT VILLANCICO
(1708-72), Georg Chr. Wagcnseil (1715- of Gregorian chants, RiHM
i.2, pp.
77),and Matthias Monn (1717-50). Re- or of the two-voice "Ut tuo propitiatus,"
garding the latter two, see *Mannheim ibid^ p. 141, which may be compared
School. with that in ApNPM, 205]. Riemann's
principle has recently been adopted, with
Vierhebigkeit [G. Hcbung,
f/Vr, four; equally unfortunate results, by F. Liuzzi
stress]. A term introduced by H. Rie- in his edition of the 14th-century *laudas.
mann for musical phrases involving four See also *Plainsong notation.
accents (four measures) or multiples
The Viertel [G.]. Quarter. Viertclnote,
thereof. great majority of all melo-
dies and themes belong to this class, a quarter-note; Vicrtehon, quarter tone.
fact which was strongly emphasized by
Vihuela [Sp.]. Early Spanish name
Riemann, who claimed for it almost uni-
versal validity throughout the entire his- (i) for the viola (vihuela de arco\ cf. GD
iiiy 260). (2) More frequently, for the
tory of music. Such a contention goes
much too far. It was not until the end of Spanish "lute" of the i6th century (vihu-
clada mano). Actually, this instrument
the I7th century that the four-measure
had the flat and waisted body of a guitar
phrase became established as a principle
[see *Guitar family]. Since, however,
of structural organization of music other
the number and tuning of the strings as
than dance music and simple songs.
well as the notation and manner of play-
Composers such as Cesti and Carissimi
seem to have been among the first to use ing were the same as those of the ordi-
nary lute, it is usually classified as such.
it with some degree of consistency, thus
An impressive repertory of music for the
bestowing upon their music a novel touch vihuela has come down to us in a num-
of "popularization." It must be noticed
ber of Spanish lutebooks [see *Lute
that the somewhat obvious and facile
music; *Spanish music II].
regularity which attaches to
music writ-
ten in four-measure phrases is not with-
A repertory for the vihuela is also indi-
cated in the tides of the two remaining
out danger, a danger of which the great
books of Spanish 16th-century organ
masters have usually been aware, but
which lesser composers have not always music, by Hinegas de Vinestrosa (1557)
and Antonio de Cabezon (1578), both of
escaped. The accompanying example
which bear the remark: "para tecla,
harpa y vihuela" (for keyboard, harp and
lute). However, they do not contain
specific compositions for the last two in-
struments, but only strictly polyphonic
organ music most of which could not be
played on a harp or a lute without con-
siderable adaptation.
Lit.: J. B. Trend, Luis Milan and the
Vihuelistas (1925); G. Morphy, ^Les
Luthistcs espagnols (1902); L. Schrade
from Haydn's Quartet op. 20, no. 5 is one
[see 'Editions XXV, 2]; E. Tomer,
of the most striking proofs against the
\Colecci6n de vihuelistas espanoles del
idolization of four-measure phrases.
sigh XVI (1923); W. Apel, "Early Span-
Ricmann was particularly unfortunate ish Music for Lute and Keyboard Instru-
in his attempts to draw upon Vierhebig-
ments" (MQ XX); G. Chase, in BAMS
kcfc as a scholarly principle in interpret- vi.
ing medieval monophonic music. He has
not hesitated to apply truly procrustean Villancico [Sp., from vittano, rustic].
methods in order to force rhythmically In the i5th and i6th centuries a type of
free melodies into of four beats Spanish poetry, idyllic or devotional as
patterns
and four measures [cf. his interpretations to subject-matter, consisting of several
[792]
VILLANCICO VILLANELLA
stanzas (copla) linked by a reiterated re- and one copla form of a short
in the
frain (estribillo). A
considerable number strophic song with from 6 to 9 stanzas
of such poems, set for three or four voices [cf. D. Pujol, Mestrcs de I'escolania de
in a simple notc-against-notc style ^fa- Montscrrat, vol. iii, 1930; example in
miliar style), occur in the Cancioncro del HAM, no. 227],
Palacio (c. 1500; see *Sources, no. 27).
Most of these pieces show the form B A Villanella, villanesca [It., properly
canzon villanesca, rural song]. A 16th-
B A (derived from the French *virclai)
century type of vocal music which origi-
which, in the case of several stanzas, is
nated in Naples (v. alia Napolitana) and
extended toABBABBA...A [cf.,
which regarding text as well as musical
e.g., Cancioncro, no. 14; other examples
in HAM, no. 98; OH ii
style forms a sharp contrast to prob-
(1905), 308;
RiHM 11.1, 201; SchGMB, no. 966; LavE, ably a reaction against the refinements
of the contemporary madrigal. M. Prae-
i.4, 2007ff ] After 1500 the villancico was
.
After 1600 the villancico adopted an ticularly in its frequent use of "forbid-
den" parallel fifths [see Ex.]. The earli-
entirely different significance, i.e., of a
composition resembling a cantata or an
anthem, based on a religious text and
written in several movements for chorus,
soloists, and orchestra. These villancicos Dol - ce mi-se-ii - a, u-sdr At af-(amn
posers of such villancicos arc Carlos Pa- Italian flavor, and becoming cither more
tifio (d. c. 1680) and Fray Juan Romero civilized (Orlando di Lasso), or simply
(fl. c. 1670) [cf. LavE 1.4, 205off]. A dull.
number of villancicos are preserved in The villota represents a somewhat
MSS at the library of Munich [cf. the earlier type of dance song, more genuinely
catalogue by J. J. Maier], The scarcity folk-like, lacking the parodistic character
or inaccessibility of sources makes it of the villanella, and chiefly of North-
difficult to obtain a correct idea of this Italian provenance. Its local character is
gap has been filled in to some extent by Villote alia veneziana (1535), Villote
the recent publication of the villancicos padovane (1550), Villote alia napoletana
by Joan Cercrols, a member of the School ( 1 55 Q )> Villote mantovane (1583). Expl.
of Montscrrat, who died in 1676. His in BcMMR, 299. The recent attempt
villancicos consist of a choral cstribillo made by F. Torrcfranca to elevate the vil-
[793]
VILLANELLA VIOL
lota to the rank of a "missing link" be- in SIM xi; A. Einstein, "Die Parodic in
tween the Italian music of the i4th cen- dcr Villanella" (ZM W ii).
ship whatsoever to the choice lyrics also Europe and which was imitated by vari-
called "giustiniani" of the early 15th- II, under
ous sovereigns, e.g., by Charles
the name "King's Music."
century poet Leonardo Giustiniani ( 1385-
1446). The maschcrata is a type of vil- Vinnula. Sec *Ncumcs *Tremolo
I;
lanella designed to be sung during a
masked ball or procession [Ex. by Nola (3).
[794]
VIOL VIOL
ribs are deeper; (d) the normal number ceded by the *Innomines and *Brown-
of strings is six, instead of four; (e) the ings, the English 'fancy of the I7th cen-
finger 'board is provided with frets in tury steps out as the chief representative
the form of pieces of gut tied around the of English viol music [see also *Consort] .
finger board; (f) the sound-holes have Around 1660 the appearance of the violin
usually the shape of a c instead of an / inEngland quickly brought an end to
[see *F-holes]; (g) the bridge is less 'English music
this splendid period [see
arched thus facilitating the playing of V] The bass viol, however, had a longer
.
full chords; (h) the strings arc thinner career as a solo instrument, beginning
and less tense; (i) the viol is played with with the Recercadas for "violonc" and
an older type of bow the stick of which organ in Diego Ortiz* Tratado de glosas
curves outward from the hair [see *Bow] , (1553), continuing with famous players
and the hand is properly held under the such as Christopher Simpson (d. 1669;
bow, not over it as today; (j) the viols The Division Violist9 1659^), Andr
were not pressed against die shoulder but Maugars (born c. 1600), Hautman or
were held downward, resting on or be- Hotman (d. 1663), Jean Rousseau (Traiti
tween the legs of the player. Some of the de la vlole ) 1687), and with composers
above characteristics are frequently neg- such as Marin Marais (1656-1728; 5
lected in modern viol playing, e.g., the vols. of pieces for 1-3 viola da gambas,
use of frets and the downward position. 1686-1725), his son Roland Marais (two
II. Standard Types. In the ryth cen- books Pieces de violcs, 1735, '38), Johann
tury, the classical period of the viols, these Schenk (Scherzi musicali, c. 1692; sec
existed in three sizes, treble viol [F. 'Editions XXIX, 28, also no. SchGMB,
dessus de viole}, tenor viol (tattle de 245), Ernst Christian Hesse (1676-1762),
vlole) ^ and bass viol (basse dc vlole) y the August Kuhnel (b. 1645?; Sonate . . .
last being known also as viola da gamba ad una o due vlole da gamba, 1698; sev-
[modern G. *Gambc\ see *Viola (2)]. eral republished by A. Einstein, D6-
According to Th. Mace's Mustek's Monu- bereiner, Bennat), Antoinc Forqucray
ment (1676) a good set of viols or, as it (1671-1745; Pieces de violc, edited by his
was called, "chest of viols" consisted of son Jean-Baptiste; several republished by
"two basses, two tenors and two trebles: Carl Schroder), Louis de Caix d'Hervclois
all truly and proportionably suited." The (c. 1670-^. 1760; 6 books Pieces de vlole>
tuning of these instruments followed that 1725-52; several sonatas republished by
of the 16th-century lute, viz., in fourths Carl Schroder), and finally Karl Fric-
with a third in the middle: bass viol DG drich Abel, the last of the violists (1725-
c e a d'; tenor viol A d g b e' a'; treble 87; numerous MS
pieces, one sonata pub-
viol d g c' e' a' d". Towards
end of the lished by R. Englander; see Lit., Ein-
the i yth century French musicians added stein). Bach wrote three wonderful so-
a small viol tuned a fourth above the natas for viola da gamba (B.-G. ix, 1756?)
treble viol and called it pardessus de and the aria "Komm susses Kreuz" of the
vlole. The corresponding English term is St. Matthew Passion for viola da gamba
descant viol which, however, is used also and bass. There also exists an early so-
for the treble viol. nata by Handel [sec reference under
III.Viol Music. Although instrumen- 'Thorough-bass II].
talensemble music of the i6th century, IV. Special Types. In addition to the
such as the ricercares by Willaert, the aforementioned standard types there ex-
canzonas by Maschera, etc., were doubt- isted various other instruments of the
lessplayed on viols (as well as on other same family.
melody instruments such as recorders or i. Double-bass Viol [F. contrc-basse de
cornetts), it was in
England that viol vlole\ It. violone]. A six-stringed instru-
making, viol playing, and viol composi- ment tuned an octave below the bass viol.
tion reached its "Golden Age," mainly This is the ancestor of the modern
in the period from c. 1625 to 1675. 'double-bass which has retained some of
[795]
VIOL VIOL
the features of the viol family, together The literature for the viola d'amore is
with the alternative name bass viol. The quite extensive, considering the peculiar
violone frequently prescribed in Bach's traits of the instrument. It includes com-
cantatas probably was an intermediate positions by Attilio Ariosti (i666-r. 1740;
instrument between the old type with six 6 Sonatas, new ed., Augener, Durand);
strings and the modern double-bass. Jean-Baptiste Loeillet (1680-1730; 3 So-
Division Viol.
2. A
slightly smaller bass natas, ed. by Beon); J. S. Bach (1685-
viol which was preferred for the playing 1750; St. John Passion, Cantata no. 132);
of *divisions upon a ground and for simi- Michel Corrette (early i8th cent.; Sonata,
lar soloist performance. new ed., Lemoine); Haydn (1732-1809;
3. Lyra Viol. An
instrument still some- Divertimento, new ed., Nagel); and Karl
what smaller than the division viol. Since Stamitz (1746-1801; DTB 16; also new
its size was in between that of the bass ed., Schott). In 1782 Milandre published
viol and the tenor viol it was also called a Methode jacile pour la viole d'amour.
viola bastarda. The lyra viol, or "bass In the 1 9th century the instrument was
viol lyra-way" as John Playford calls it used by Meyerbeer (Les Huguenots),
(1658), differed from the other viols in Charpentier (Louise), Puccini (Madame
its tuning which was in fifths and fourths, Butterfly), R. Strauss (Sinfonia Domes-
e.g., C G
c e a d' or AI E A e a d', and tica), and Ch. Loeffler (The Death of
which was taken over from that of the Tintageles). In concert performance it
older lira da gamba, hence the name lyra- has been revived by Louis van Waefel-
way. This manner of tuning, which ghem (1840-1908), Carli Zoeller (1840-
greatly facilitated the playing of chords, 89), Francis Casadesus (b. 1870), and
was also known as "harp-way tuning" others. Hindemith wrote a Sonata (op.
(Th. Mace). The music for this instru- 25, 2) and a Concerto (op. 46, i) for
ment was written, not in ordinary nota- viola d'amore.
tion, but in *tablature [cf. the example 5. Baryton. An 18th-century instru-
in WoHN ii, 226f].
f
ment which might be considered as a
4. Viola d'amore [F. viole d amour].
viola da gamba provided with sympa-
This instrument was the size of a treble thetic strings, or, in other words, a larger
viol, from which it was distinguished size of the viola d'amore. The neck was
by the addition of *sympathetic strings usually carved out beneath the finger
made from thin wire which were board (leaving only an oblong frame) so
stretched behind the bowed strings, thus that the sympathetic strings could also be
pathetic strings, but with metal strings them were written for Prince Nikolaus
replacing the gut strings of the ordinary Esterhazy, who was a great lover of the
viols. Since this instrument had a metal- instrument. Among them arc Partien auf
lic timbre, the name viola d'amore (love die Viola Paredon by J. G. Krause (c.
viol) is not likely to refer to a "loving" 1700), 175 compositions by Haydn {cf.
sound, but perhaps to the peculiar shape C. F. Pohl, Haydn i, 249], 24 diverti-
of the scroll which usually was fashioned menti by Luigi Tommasini (1747-1806),
as a blindfold face like that of the god pieces by Joseph Weigl (1766-1820), and
Ajtnor [cf. SaHMI, 366f]. The English others.
violetmentioned by Leopold Mozart prob- Lit.: Viols in general: N. Bessaraboff,
ably was a larger variety of viola d'amore Ancient European Musical Instruments
with seven bowed and fourteen or fif- (1941), pp. 255-89, 357-73; G- R- Haves >
teen sympathetic strings [cf. Bessaraboff, Musical Instruments . .
;
.vol. 2: The
(1908); LavE ii.3, lySiff; W. Altmann (knee viols) and viole da braccio (arm
and W. Borissowsky, Literaturverzeichnis viols). The former which were held on
fur Bratsche und Viola d'amore (1937); or between the knees are the * viols; the
W. E. Kohler, Beitrdge zur Geschichte latter which were held against the shoul-
und Literatur der Viola d'amore (Diss. der (at least with the smaller sizes) are
Berlin 1938); F. Scherber, in Musityuch the immediate forerunners of the violins
aus Oesterreich (1910); W. Altmann, in * Violin
[see II], Later, these collective
Die Bratsche, no. 4; D. Fryklund, in terms became identified each with one
Svensl^ Tids\rijt for MusHtforstyiing iii special member of the group, the viola
(1921). Baryton: LavE ii.3, i779ff; da gamba [G. Gambe] with the bass viol
W. O. Strunk, "Haydn's Divertimenti [see *Viol II] the viola da braccio [viola;
,
for Baryton, Viola, and Bass" (MQ xviii); G. Bratsche] with the alto violin.
L. Greilsamer, in BSIM, 1910; D. Fryk- Lit.: B. Tours, The Viola\ R. DolejXi,
lund, in Svens^ Tidslyrtft for MusiJ(jors\- Modern Viola Technique (1939); Cl.
ning iv (1922), Viola da gamba and Meyer, ^Alte Meister des Violaspiels
other types: A. Einstein, Zur deutschen (Ed. Peters); R. Clarke, "The History of
Literatur fur Viola da gamba im i6/ ij. the Viola in Quartet Writing" (ML iv,
Jahrhundert (1905); E. Albini, "La Viola no. i).
da gamba in Italia" (RM1 xxviii); C.
Viola alta. See *Violin family (d).
Sachs, "Die Viola bastarda" (Z1M xv).
Viola bastarda. Italian name for the
Viola, (i) In modern usage, the second lyra viol [see *Viol IV, 3], not for the
member of the violin family [G. Bratschc; baryton [see *Viol IV, 5]. Cf. C. Sachs,
F. alto} . It is tuned a fifth lower than the in ZIM xv.
violin, c g d'
Nonetheless, its size is
a'.
[797]
VIOLE VIOLIN
only clues for the identification of the qualities,such as an expressiveness rang-
instrument arc two compositions by Telc- ing from the softest lyricism to the high-
mann, a concerto by Graun, and a Sonata est dramatic excitement, an extremely
per la Pomposa col Basso by Cristoforo soulful and sensitive timbre which comes
Gius. Lidarti from about 1760. From the closer than any other instrument to the
nature of these pieces it has been con- sound of the human voice, cresccndos
eluded that the viola pomposa was a and diminuendos unequaled by other in-
larger viola held on the arm (not under struments, and a great variability of per-
the chin) and with five strings, tuned formance which includes many types of
c g-d' a' e'. The violino pomposo bowing as well as the *pizzicato and the
found in some sources denoted the same use of "harmonics.
instrument. Cf. F. W,
Galpin, A. Dol- A singular glory surrounds the "old
metsch, G. Kinsky, F. T. Arnold, in ZMW violins." While all the other modern
xiii, xiv; F. W. Galpin, in xii; ML instruments (except the organ) have
SaHMI, reached their highest degree of perfection
within the last fifty years, the great period
Viole. F. for *viol. Violc d'amour,
of violin building followed very shortly
viola d'amore [see *Viol IV, 4],
after the emergence of the instrument as
Violet. A name sometimes given to the a definite type. From 1600 to 1750 there
viola d'amore [see *Viol IV, 4], worked at Cremona the great masters of
violin making, notably Nicolo Amati
Viole-tenor. Sec *Violin family (g).
(1596-1684), Antonio Stradivari (1644
Violetta. Name
for 16th-century 1737), and Giuseppe Guarncri, also
(i)
known as Giuseppe del Gesu (1681
three-stringed instruments of the violin
1742). Their instruments are priceless
type [see *Violin H]. (2) lyth/iSth-
treasures for which fabulous sums have
ccntury name for the viola, used by Rosen-
German com- been paid. Although the craftsmanship
miiller, Bach, and other
Violetta marina is a name for
and beauty of these instruments have
posers.
never been equaled, modern makers have
the viola d'amore. Violetta piccola was,
succeeded in producing instruments the
according to Praetorius (Syntagma mu-
sound of which cannot be distinguished
sicum, 1614-20), a small viol, but may
also have denoted a violin.
from that of a genuine "Strad," as has
been proved by actual tests in which old
Violin [F. violon\ G. Violins, Geigc\ It. and new instruments were played behind
violino]. I. General. The most impor- a screen before outstanding authorities.
tant of the stringed instruments, in the In particular, the widespread opinion
orchestra as well as in chamber and solo that the composition of the varnish has a
music. Its main parts are: (a) the body, decisive influence on the sound of a violin
consisting of the table (sound board), has been shown to be untrue. The in-
the back, and the ribs (side walls); (b) comparable luster of the old instruments
the finger board ending in the pegbox adds greatly to their beauty, but nothing
and the scroll; (c) the string holder (tail tangible to their tonal quality.
piece); (d) the bridge. Other details of II. History. The violin, as the main
the construction are shown in illustration representative of the class of "bowed
on Inside the body there is the
p. 799. stringed instruments" or, as they are sci-
*bass-bar glued to the table, reinforcing termed, "fiddles" [sec *Instru-
entifically
blocks glued to the corners of the bouts ments IV, B, 2], has a relatively short
and to die back, and the "sound-post fixed prehistory and ancestry. There is no evi-
between the table and the back. The vio- dence of the use of the bow (which dis-
lin has four strings tuned in fifths: g d' tinguishes the fiddles from the much
a'e". earlier lutes and zithers) prior to the 9th
The prominent which the vio-
position century when it ismentioned in Persian
lin holds in our music rests on its singular and Chinese sources. There is some evi-
[798]
VIOLINS I
[799]
II
VIOLINS H
I. Sarinda. 2. Kemantche. 3. Rcbab. 4, Giguc. 5. Rebec. 6. Rebec, I7th century.
7. Kit. 8. Vielle. 9. Lira da braccio. xo.Tromba marina, zi. Hurdy-gurdy.
[800]
VIOLIN VIOLIN
dencc in favor of the theory that the well as with the *violettas mentioned by
fiddle originated in Central Asia whence Lanfranco and Ganassi (1543). The lat-
it spread to the Far East as well as to ter instruments which had no frets and
Europe. The Chinese have a fiddle called three strings tuned in fifths came very
hu ch'in which has a small cylindrical close to the classical violin. A picture by
soundbox made of bambo or some other Gaudenzio Ferrari from about 1535
material, covered at the front with snake- shows violettas with shallow ribs, pointed
'skin and pierced diametrically by a long corners, round shoulders, a depression
neck in the form of a stick over which running around the edge, /-holes, and a
from two to four strings are stretched. scroll [cf. SaHMl, Thus only the
357].
The bow cannot be removed since it addition of a fourth string was necessary
passes between the strings, rubbing some in order to arrive at what might be called
of them from below, the others from "the first violin."
above. A
similar instrument is the Per- As is usually the case in historical evo-
sian \emantchc [see * Arabian music II], lutions, the emergence of a name does not
In India fiddles called sannda have truly coincide with the emergence of the thing
fantastic shapes such as only the Indian itself. Thus throughout the i6th century
fancy could have produced [cf. SaHMI, names such were ap-
as violini, violons,
227]. Slightly less fantastic are the shapes plied to viols and similar instruments.
of the Arabian *rebab the name of which Around 1600, violino denoted the *viola
recurs in the rebec of medieval Europe. rather than the violin, as, e.g., in Giov.
The earliest European fiddles had the Gabrieli's Symphoniae sacrae (1597) and
shape of a slender bottle or of a pear, in Monteverdi's Orfeo (1607) in which
and were known under various names: violino ordinario means the viola, violino
*rebec, *gigue, *lyra. The last of these piccolo the violin [cf. SaHMI, 358].
names persisted with the Italian *lira da The first known makers of true vio-
braccio and lira da gamba. The slender linswere Gasparo Bertolotti, called from
fiddle (rebec) persisted in the tyein gei- his birthplace "da Salo" (1540-1609),
gen [see below] and in the *l(it. The Gio. Paolo Maggini (15811628), both
most important medieval fiddle was the working in Brescia, and the brothers
*vielle of the i3th century. The develop- Amati (Antonio, c. 1555 after 1640;
ment during the ensuing two centuries is Hieronymus, c. 1556-1630) who founded
somewhat obscure. Suffice it to say that the fame of Cremona as the center of
the violin developed between c. 1550 and violin making. Hieronymus' son Nicolo
1600 out of several earlier types each of (1596-1684) is the first of the great triad
which contributed some of its essential of violin makers. The Amatis created the
features. Bearing in mind the character- classical shapt of the violin by flattening
istic differences between the violin and the body which is deeply bulging in the
the earlier viols [see under *Viol] quite instruments of Bertolotti, by deepening
a number of "predecessors" of the violin the middle bouts, sharpening the corners,
can be singled out. The practice of lean- rounding the holes in a more elegant
ing the instrument against the shoulder shape, and improving the varnish.
and bowing it
palm-downward oc- Nicolo Amati's pupil Antonio Stradi-
curred with the vielle. The tuning in con- vari built the most famous of all violins.
secutive fifths is documented as Working at first along the lines of his
early
as 1533 (Lanfranco, Scintille de musica) master, he created, in 1690, that model
and was consistently used with the three- which has become known as the "Long
stringed l(lein get gen (descendants of the Strad" (length 14^6 "*> width 8 in.;
slender rebec) throughout the i6th cen- ordinary length 14 in., width 8% in.).
tury (Agricola, Musica deudsch, 1528). In 1698 he returned to the shorter pat-
The rectangle between the finger board tern of the earlier period, and made vio-
and the upper end of the body occurs on lins of about 14 in. in length, but with
a *lira designed by Rafael (c. 1510) as widths similar to those of the "Long
[801]
VIOLIN VIOLIN FAMILY
Strad." It was in this pattern that, from linist'sDictionary (1925); E. van dcr
1700 on, Stradivarius made his finest Straeten, The History of the Violin, 2 vols,
instruments, such as the "Betts" (1704), (1933); H. Poidras, Critical and Docu-
now in the Library of Congress, the "Vi- mentary Dictionary of Violin Makers,
otti" (1709), the "Parke" (1711), the 2 vols. (1924, '29); P. Stoeving, The Story
"Boissier" (1713), the "Dolphin" (1714), of the Violin (1904); id., The Violin . . .
(1716), the "Maurin" (1718), the "Rode" Makers (1916); W. H. Hill, Antonio
(1722), the "Sarasate" (1724), the "Wil- Stradivari . . .
(1901); id.. The Violin-
helmj" (1725), die "Swan" (1735). All makers Guarneri Family (1931);
of the
in all Stradivari is believed to have made H. Pctherick, Antonio Stradivari (1900);
1116 instruments between 1666 and 1737; id.,Joseph Guamerius (1906); id., The
of these, 540 violins, 12 violas, and 50 Repairing and Restoration of Violins
violoncellos are actually known. (1903); W. L. von Liitgendorff, Die
Guarneri's work is on a different line Geigen- und Lautenmacher . . . , 2 vols.
from that of Stradivari. He revived the (1913, '22); O. Haubensack, Ursprung
bold and rugged outline, and with it the und Geschichte der Geige (1930); L.
massive build and powerful tone of the Grillet, Les ancStres du violon et du vio-
earlier Brescian masters, Gasparo di Salo loncellc . .
.
, 2 vols. (1901, *oj); A.
and Paolo Maggini. He was mainly in- Seiffert, "Eine Theorie der Geige" (AM W
terested in tone quality. In contrast to iv);A. Jarosy, "The Secret of the Italian
Stradivari he worked with no uniformity Violin Makers" (ML xvi, no. 2).
as to design, size, appearance, or finish,
relying only on his intuition and on ex- Violin concerto. See *Concerto II,
perimentation. in (b>.
Other famous violin makers of Italy
were the Ruggieri (Francesco, known as Violin family. The chief members of
"il Per," Giovanni Battista, and others) this family are the *violin, the *viola, the
whose instruments bear a general resem- violoncello, and the *double-bass. These
blance to the Amatis; the Rogeri (Gio- four instruments form the string section
vanni and Pietro) of Brescia; and the of the orchestra, the first three being used
Testore (Carlo Giuseppe, Carlo Antonio, also in chamber music [*string quartet].
and Paolo Antonio) of Milan. A famous For more details see the separate articles.
German violin maker, scarcely second to A great number of in-between sizes
the great Italians, was Jacob Stainer of have been constructed none of which
Absam in Tyrol (1621-83) whose tradi- achieved permanent importance. Among
tion was continued by the family of the these are (arranged according to size):
Klotz of Mittenwald in Bavaria (Ma- (a) Violino piccolo [G. Quartgeige].
thias, 1653-1743; Sebastian, 1698-?; and Bach scored for this instrument in his
others). Nine-tenths of the violins which Cantata no. 140, and in his first Branden-
pass as "Stainers" were made by the Klotz burg Concerto. The violini piccoli of
family and their followers. In England Monteverdi's Orfeo (1607), however, are
violin making began with Thomas Ur- true violins [see * Violin II; also * Viola],
quhart (active from 1670 to 1690) and (b) Contra-violin, introduced by *H.
continued with Edward Pamphlon (b. c. Newbold (c. 1930), slightly bigger than
1680) and Barak Norman (1688-1740). the normal violin and designed to take
A French maker of note was Nicolas the place of the second violin in chamber
Lupot (1758-1824), known for his valu- music.
able copies of Stradivari violins. (c) Contralto, a larger viola with a
Lit.(selected): E. Heron-Allen, De fuller tone, constructed by J.-B. Vuil-
Fidiculis Bibliographic 2 vols. (1890, laume, 1855.
'93); A. Bachmann, An
Encyclopedia of (d) Viola alta, constructed by H. Rit-
the Violin (1925); F. B. Emery, The Vio- ter and used during the Bayreuth Festi-
[802]
VIOLIN MUSIC VIOLIN MUSIC
vals 1872-75. This was a larger viola aria "Possente spirto" of Monteverdi's
(length 26 in.) and was later provided Orfco (1607). Giov. Batt. Fontana from
with a fifth string tuned c". Brescia (d. 1630) may be considered as
the first-known composer of violin music.
(e) Violotta, constructed by A. Stelz-
ner in 1891, a larger viola measuring 28 His Sonatas (publ. 1641) show a clear
in., tuned G d a e'. F. Dracseke, Max understanding of true violin technique
Schillings (Pjeijcrtag), and others have [cf. RiHM ii.2, nif; also in Wasielew-
scored for it. ski, Instrumcntalsdtze, see Lit.]. Two
(f) Tenor General name for
violin. composers living in Mantua treated the
various instruments of the size between instrument with a striking degree of vir-
the viola and the violoncello (27 to 28 in. tuosity, namely Biagio Marini (c. 1595-
in length). They were used mainly 1665) and Carlo Farina (fl. 1635-37).
around 1700, tuned F c g d' or (if with Their sonatas and other pieces make
F use of double-stops, tremoli
five strings) c g d' a'. Numerous in- trills, [cf.
struments of this type were built in the SchGMB, nos. 182, 183], and in Farina's
guished it strikingly from the viols, were of the Baroque. Their sonatas opened for
exploited, one of the earliest examples the violin new possibilities of lyric and
being the use of two solo violins in the passionate expression while their con-
VIOLIN MUSIC VIOLONCELLO
certos, particularly those of Tartini, arc violon, 3 vols. (1922-24); A. Bonaven-
written in a highly virtuoso style. tura, Storia del violino, dei violinisti e
Bach wrote an early suite (A major) della musica per violino ( 1926) F. David,
;
and his well-known six sonatas for violin ^fVorschule und hohe Schule des Violin-
and harpsichord. His six sonatas for spiels; D. Alard, "\Les Maltres classiques;
violin without accompaniment (actually G. Jensen, ^Klassische Violinmusifa H.
three sonatas and three suites, one of Riemann, ^Old Chamber Music; id.,
which includes the celebrated chaconne) "^Collegium musicum\ A. Schering, \Alte
represent the peak of a rather extended Meister des Violinspiels; J. W. Wasielew-
literature for the violin solo, including ski, \lnstrumentalsdtze des 77. Jahr-
pieces by Thomas Baltzer (c. 1630-63; hunderts\ L. Torchi, ^L'Arte musicale in
cf. SchGMB, no. 237), J. J. Walther Italia, vol. vii [see *Editions II] ; M. Scott,
(Hortus Chelicus, 1688), Nicola Matteis "Solo Violin Sonatas" (ML x, no. i); K.
(fl. c. 1670),
Biber (1644-1704), Gemini- Gerhartz, "Die Violinschule bis Leopold
ani ( 1674-1762), Telemann (1681-1767), Mozart" (ZMW vii); M. Pincherle, "La
and Johann Georg Pisendel (1687-1755) Technique du violon chez les premiers
[cf. A. C. Roncalio, in The Journal of Mu- sonatistes fran^ais" (SIM xii).
sicology, 1940, no. 3]. The violin pieces
of the *Mannheimer group, particularly Violoncello (abbreviated cello). The
the sonatas of Schobert (d. 1767), are bass size of the violin, tuned an octave
written in a dynamic style which fore- and a fourth below this: C G d a. It is
shadows the idiom of Mozart and Bee- about double the length of the violin
thoven [cf. DdT 39]. A
happy amalga- (48% in. as against 23% in.) with the
mation of this style with the achieve- other measurements nearly in proportion,
ments of the Italian school is represented except for the higher ribs (5 in. as against
by Giov. Batt. Viotti (17531824) among 1% in.). The violoncello came into ex-
whose 29 violin concertos the 22d stands istence together with the violinand the
out as a landmark of violin literature viola, two instruments by Andrea Amati,
(also 1 8 violin sonatas). Among his pred- made between 1560 and 1570 being the
ecessors Antonio Lolli (1730-1802) and earliest preserved specimens. Through-
Gaeto Pugnani (1731-98) must be men- out the 1 7th century it was used only for
tioned. accompaniment [see *Thorough-bass] .
With Mozart and Beethoven begins a Domenico Gabrielli (1659-90) seems to
new period of violin music which needs have been one of the first to cultivate it
spiels (1922); J. W. von Wasielewski, 1689; cf. SchGMB, no. 288) as they be-
Die Violine und ihre Meister (1883, last long in the same category as Bach's Cele-
ed. 1927; Engl. transl. 1894); id., Die brated six suites for cello solo. Another
Violine im 77. Jahrhundert (1874; Noten- composer of "Ricercate" for the cello was
beilage, published separately as Instru- Giamb. degli Antoni (1687, '90).
mentalsdtze)\ S. Pfau, Die Violinmusil^ Giuseppe Jacchini's Concerti . . . con
in Italien, 1600-50 (Diss. Berlin 1931); violoncello obligato, op. 4 (1701) open the
G. Beckmann, Das Violinspiel in Deutsch- repertory of the violoncello concerto which
land vor 7700 (1918); B. Studeny, Bei- was also cultivated during the i8th cen-
trage zur Geschichte der Violin-Sonate im tury by Antonio Vivaldi, F. dall' Abaco
18. Jahrhundert (1911); W. Lungers- (in Concerti da chiesa, op. 2, 1712-14),
hausen, Das Violintynzert der nord- Leonardo Leo (6 concertos, 1737/38),
deutschen Schule (1927); A. Pougin, Le Tartini (properly for viola da gamba),
Violon, les violinistes et la musique du Anton Filtz, Matthias Monn, Johann G. F.
violon du xvie au xviiie siecle (1924); Wassmuth (d. 1766), C. P. E. Bach, and
L. dc la Laurencic, L'ficole fran^aise du Haydn (eight concertos, two of which arc
VIOLONCELLO VIRELAI
preserved). Domenico della Bella wrote Violoncello (1921); C. Schroeder, Hand-
12 sonatas "a 2 violini e violoncello" boo\ of Violoncello Playing (1894); D.
(1704), G.-B. Bononcini (i665-after Alexanian, Theoretical and Practical
1648) a sonata for two violoncellos and Treatise of the Violoncello
(1932), J. W.
other solo pieces. Of greater importance von Wasielewsky, The Violoncello and its
isJacopo Bassevi, called Cervetto (1682- History (1894); M
Merseburger, Das
-
1783), who brought the cello into favor in Violoncello und seine Literatur (1920);
England and published Twelve (Six) B. Weigl, Handbuch der Violoncello
Solos for a Violoncello with a Thorough Literatur (1929); L. Forino, // Violon-
Bass for the Harpsichord (c. 1747 and cello (1905); E. Rapp, Beitrdgc zur Fruh-
c. 1749), as well as pieces for two and geschichte des Violoncello-fynzerts (Diss.
three cellos. He was followed by his son Wiirzburg 1933); H. Weber, Das Violon-
James Cervetto (c. 1745-1837) who pub- cellO'l^onzert des 18. und beginnenden 79.
lished Six Solos (c. 1775), Six Duets (c. Jahrhunderts (Diss. Tubingen 1932); F.
1792), etc. The Italian violoncello music Vatielli, "Les Origines de Tart du violon-
of the 1 8th century culminated in L. Boc- celle" (RM iv, no. 4); E. Albini, "Do-
cherini (1743-1805), composer of six con- menico Gabrielli . . ." (RMI xli).
certos and a number of sonatas for the in-
strument, as well as 1 two
13 quintets with
Violoncello piccolo. See *Violin fam-
cellos. An important method was pub- Uy (h).
lished in 1741 by Michel Corrette, who
Violoncino. Old name for violoncello.
devoted a full chapter to the higher thumb
positions. The classical school of cello Violotta. See *Violin family (e).
playing is the Essai sur le doigte du vio-
Virelai [probably from F. virer, to turn
loncelle . . .
(before 1819) of Jean Louis
who also around, and *lai] An important type of
.
Duport (1749-1819) composed
medieval French poetry and music, the
sonatas, duets, and other pieces for the
standard structure of which is as follows:
instrument.
The9th- and 20th-century repertory
1
text: ri r 2 li 1 2 la U TI TS
ginals had the shape of a small oblong III. Thomas Weelkes (c. 1575-1623),
box, to be placed on a table or even held Thomas Tomkins (1573-1656), Orlando
in the player's lap. Towards the end of Gibbons (15831625). It is interesting to
the 1 6th century the term was indiscrimi- note that William Byrd lived longer than,
nately applied to all types of harpsichord, or almost as long as, any of his successors,
whether rectangular, wing-shaped, or with the sole exception of Tomkins, and
trapezoidal [see *Harpsichord II]. The that the "three famous Masters William
common denomination was "pair of vir- Byrd, Dr. John Bull and Orlando Gib-
ginals," an idiom the origin of which is bons," as they are called in the title of the
unsettled (perhaps L. virginalis virgin- *Parthenia, were born exactly 20 years
als pair of virginals?). A
description apart. Although Byrd seems to have been
[806]
VIRTUOSO VOCALIZATION
the to cultivate the virginal inten-
first however, that the absence of words en-
sively (only a few scattered pieces, among ables the singer to utilize his "instru-
them the famous *Hornepype by Hugh ment" to a degree that is not possible in
Aston, exist in earlier sources), he repre- texted passages, and that throughout the
sents an artistic peak which dwarfs all the early history of singing (i.e., prior to
other virginalists except the last, Gibbons. 1800) composers have shown full appre-
Indeed, Byrd's natural charm and sim- ciation of this fact. Bach's and Handel's
plicity arc just as great as Gibbons' refine- works contain numerous vocalizations
ment and sovereign mastery. They indi- (usually called *coloraturas) of a highly
cate the beginning and the end of a move- and the untexted melis-
artistic character,
ment and development which, in a way, mas of Gregorian chant are even more
resemble that leading from Haydn and remote from any inference of virtuosity
Mozart to the late Beethoven. John Bull's for its own sake [see *Neuma],
importance lies mainly in his virtuoso-like though gener-
Particularly interesting,
exploitation of the technical means of his ally misunderstood, the role which
is
Vivace, vivamente, vivo [It.]. Quick, WoGM iii, 92] . See also *Text
and music
lively. Vivacissimo, very quick. (reference to Kyrie); *Frottola.
There exists a considerable literature
VI. Abbreviation for violin. Via., viola.
of pieces intended to be performed in vo-
Vlc. 9 violoncello. VIL, violins.
calization throughout; in other words, of
Vocalization [F. vocalise; G. Vocalise; pieces in which die human voice is treated
It. vocalizzo] An extended melody sung
. as an instrument, without a "disturbing"
on a vowel, i.e., without text. The term addition of words. This manner of per-
is used chiefly with reference to vocal ex- formance is indicated in various 16th-
ercises (^solfeggio) and has, therefore, century publications inscribed "da cantarc
e sonare" ("to sing and to play"), e.g.,
adopted a somewhat derogatory meaning,
implying technical display for its own Willaert's Ricercari of 1549. Since these
sake. The fact should not be overlooked, extended pieces (in three or four parts)
[807]
VOCAL MUSIC VOICE
have no text, they are meant (primarily, see *Colla. Voce di gola, throat voice,
to judge from the precedence given to the guttural voice; v oce di petto, chest voice;
word cantare) to be vocalized throughout voce di testa, head voice, *falsctto. Voci
in all the parts. It is interesting to note fan or eguali, equal voices.
that this practice persisted in the numer-
ous two-part ricercares of the lyth cen-
Voces [L.]. Voices. Voces aequales,
equal voices. Voces musicales, medieval
tury, some of which are expressly desig-
term for the tones and solmization syl-
nated as "vocal exercises" [see *Ricercare
lables of the*hexachord [cf. SchGMB,
II (c)
] Spontini, in his opera Nurmahal,
.
voices, e.g., Debussy (Sircncs, 1899), chinery of voice production are widely
f
Ravel (Vocalise en forme d Habanera, known, but usually only superficially un-
1907), and Medtner (Sonate-Vocalise, op. derstood. The larynx containing the "vo-
4 1 a; Suite-Vocalise, op. 4ib). Cf. M. calcords" initiates the tone in much the
Dange, "Essai sur la vocalise" (RM xvi). same way that the lips start the tone in the
mouthpiece of a brass instrument. The
Vocal music. Music written for voices, breath is pressed upward from the lungs
either solo or chorus (Choral music). through these "vocal lips" which are held
Practically all music prior to 1500 is vocal, closely together, at varying tensions ac-
as is nine-tenths of the music of the i6th cording to the pitch desired, setting the
century. During the Baroque period lips and the breath into vibration. This
vocal and instrumental music are about resulting tone is modified and strength-
equal in quantity and prominence, while ened by contact with all of the inner sur-
after 1750 instrumental music gains the faces of the mouth, nose, throat, and even
upper hand [see instrumental music; the lungs. If the singer or speaker be re-
also *Ensemble]. Following is a survey laxed yet vital, there will then be a balance
of the most important types of vocal mu- of the different resonances resulting in an
sic (italics indicate accompanied vocal agreeable tone.
music) : Singers will generally agree with the
A. Period of
importance
superior above statements. They also are in fair
(-1600): 6th~9th centuries: Gregorian agreement upon what constitutes an
chant. 9th~i2th (i3th) centuries: Se- agreeable tone. There is, however, a great
quence; Trope; Organum. i2th I3th difference of opinion as to how best to
centuries: Troubadours; Trouveres; Min- achieve this ideal; and the reason for this
nesinger. i3th century: Clausula; Con- disagreement is not difficult to see, as will
ductus; Motet. I4th century: Motet; be pointed out later.
Mass items; Ballade; Virelai; Rondeau; If it were always remembered that there
Madrigal; Ballata; Caccia. i5th centu- can never be a clear description of the real
ry:Motet (Flemish); Mass; Chansons. center and essence of singing, the final
1 6thcentury: Motet; Mass; Madrigal; understanding might be more easily at-
tained. Let one consider how he would
Polyphonic lied; Chanson; Frottola; Lute
describe the process of raising his arm or
song; Villanella.
B. Period of equal importance (1600- closing his eyes: the real impulse can only
1750): Cantata^ Opera; Oratorio; Aria;
be hinted at. Unfortunately the voice
Anthem; Glee. teachers' hints are usually wrongly taken
C. Period of inferior importance (1750- as statements of fact; or in other words,
prcsent): Lied; French, English, etc. what should be only sensation or imagi-
nation is confused with physical effort.
Song; Opera.
One cannot, for example, really throw
Voce, pi.voci [It.]. Voice. A due (tre) tone here or there to a localized point any
voci, for two (three) voices. Cotta voce, more than one can throw a handful of air
[808]
VOICE VOIC!
from place to place, since both are im- also be examining the result, and compar-
palpable. To imagine doing so, however, ing it with his desires. This of course dis-
is often helpful in achieving good tone turbs his concentration, and he sings un-
production. Thus we are often more con- naturally, into himself, instead of out to
cerned with what appears to be the fact the audience, clearly expressing the very
than with what actually is the fact. self-consciousness he seeks to eliminate.
When it is remembered how numerous The body coordinates automatically to the
are the muscles of the diaphragm, ribs, thought. But if there are many conflicting
throat, tongue, jaw, larynx, and so forth, thoughts, we are, in effect, trying to make
that are used in producing the voice, it is several conflicting coordinations at the
knows nothing about them. The fact that which further divides and complicates his
his tone is of bad quality is not of impor- problem.
tance in this discussion as the baby quite To meet this situation teachers devise
crying. The tone can be pleasant enough which result mostly in diverting attention
when the baby is pleased and happy. The from the disturbed areas. For example,
voice like the face expresses rather accu- the tongue under tension thickens and
rately what is in the mind. It is evident draws back, partly closing the throat. The
then that we are born with the instinctive back nasal passages become too stretched,
and freely
ability to use the voice easily or too relaxed; the jaw becomes set and
and with good expression, without any stiff, and a corresponding distortion ap-
instruction. This of course cannot be con- pears in the tone. If the pupil is taught to
sidered high art, but at least it has some- "place the voice" or imagine the vibration
thing to do with good free tond work. of the tone gently in the front mouth sur-
Why then do we not all sing with good faces, and the nose, the attention is re-
tone quality? Almost any singer will moved from the throat and tongue, which
agree that muscular tension is the main tend to relax, and the nasal passages be-
cause of our bad tones; and also it is evi- come free of their own accord. Unfortu-
dent that undue pressure or restraint of nately, the attention then being drawn in
the tone is the main cause of muscular the new direction, the singer will often
tension, and the main cause of this forcing feel he must push his tone into place,
or holding the tone is some form of self- causing a new set of tensions. Various
consciousness. This self-consciousness di- devices are then employed to teach the
vides the attention, expressing, so to speak, pupil to "support the breath," leading him
two or more thought paths at the same to find the knack of avoiding this "forc-
time, which is confusing both to the singer ing,"and bringing coordination nearer.
and the listener. It could be said, then, Thought now being upon the breath, the
that if the singer's mind were clearly, pupil tends to strain his breathing, feeling
vitally concentrated upon the expression that he is aiding the process. Tension re-
of his song, he would relax and sing well, turns and he finds his throat closing again.
and that the kernel of singing is mental Here can be seen the reason for the great
control: concentration enough to rule out disagreement among singers. No single
self-consciousness. This is
probably true, phase of singing will function well unless
but the practical objection to this point of coordinated with other phases. If "place-
view is the extreme difficulty of really ment" or focus is good, the breath will
clear concentration. For example, if one often coordinate to it with little or no con-
decides to think only of the phrase as he scious attention, so this individual will
sings, his mind will in spite of himself feel that attention to the breath is unneo
[809]
VOICE LEADING VOLKSTQMLICHES LIED
cssary. Another singer will find that if the Trained soloists frequently exceed these
breath "correct" the relaxation and focus
is ranges. Particularly the singers of the
need little thought, and will teach his 1
7th and i8th centuries possessed ranges
pupils accordingly, and moreover have which seem miraculous. The soprano
success with many whose thought and Lucrczia Agujari (1743-83) could reach
problem happen to fit into the teacher's c"", and a bass-part in Handel's Ads ct
own pattern. Thus we find fads spring- Galatea (1708), written for Giuseppe Bo-
ing up among sincere people. schi, shifts, within one measure, from a'
There are many ways to help the pupil to C$, more than 2% octaves. Russian
arrive at the goal of good singing. Per- basses are found who can sing down to
haps the best road is simply the one which FI, a fifth below low C.
he best understands. Anything that helps Among operatic singers further classi-
toward free, simple, vital, sincere, natural fications are made mainly with regard to
expression of a clear musical conception, the character and timbre of the voice:
without inhibiting counter effort, is good Dramatic soprano, with powerful voice
practice. and marked declamatory and histrionic
For a historical conspectus of the art of ability; Lyric soprano, with lighter qual-
singing, for related articles, and for lit-
ity and pleasant cantabile
style; Colora-
erature, see *Singing. R. Y. R. tura soprano, with great agility and a
high range.
Voice leading [G. Stimmfuhrung].ln Tenore robusto (robust tenor), with
contrapuntal music, the principles gov- and vigor; Lyric tenor, corre-
full voice
erning the progression of the various
sponding to the Lyric Soprano; Helden-
voice-parts (particularly of those other tenor (heroic tenor), combining agility,
than the soprano) not so much from
brilliant timbre, and expressive power.
the point of view of the resulting har-
Basso profondo (Basse profonde, "deep
mony, but with regard to the design of low range, powerful voice,
bass"), with
the individual lines. Principles such as
and solemn character; Basso cantante
preference of step-wise motion (at least
(basse chantante, "singing bass"), with
in the three upper parts), contrary *mo-
qualities similar to the lyric soprano;
tion in at least one part, avoidance of
Basso buffo, comical, agile.
*parallel fifths and octaves, form the basis
of voice leading. See Counterpoint. Voicing. In organ building, the adjust-
ment of /the timbre and the pitch of the
Voices, Range of. The human voices
pipes.
are usually classified in six types: three
female voices, soprano, mezzo-soprano, Voile [F.]. Veiled, subdued.
and contralto, and three male voices, ten-
Voix [F.]. Voice. Voix de poitrine,
or, barkone, and bass. In choral singing
chest voice; voix de tete, head voice; voix
the middle voice of each group is omitted.
The normal range of these voices may be mixte, the medium register. Voix celeste,
see *Vox angelica.
approximately described as an octave
Vokal [G.]. Vowel. Vofylisiercn, to
19' o vocalize; Vocalise, vocalization.
*' '=
I
[810]
VOLLES WERK VORIMITATION
a somewhat affected simplicity of expres- Boo\e [see *Virginal book] ; others occur
sion and style approximating folk music. keyboard works by O. Gibbons and
in the
Reynold Scot, in 1584, says that "night posers of the 1 8th and i9th centuries.
dansing witches brought out of Italy unto More recently, determined efforts have
France that danse which is called Lavolta." been made to raise the artistic level of the
Volti [It.]. Turn over (the page); volti Vorausnahme [G.]. Anticipation.
subito (abbr. v^.), turn quickly. Vorbereiten To
[G.]. prepare.
Volubile [It.]. Flowing easily. Vordersatz [G.]. First subject.
[8n]
VORNEHM WALDSTEIN SONATA
quartered note-values (*diminution), as and the added part in parallel *organum.
a preparation to the final appearance of See *Parts.
the chorale line in ks full note-values.
Vox angelica, coelestis, humana.
Usually each line of the chorale is pre-
ceded by such a Vorimitation. The illus- Organ stops which are supposed to repre-
sent the vokes of the angels, of Heaven,
tration is from Bach's organ chorale Ach
and of men, and which attract the interest
Gott und Herr.
of the public mainly, it would seem, ow-
w
Wachsend [G.]. "Growing," crescen- somebody making Christmas music in the
do. The term wait (wayte) was also
streets.
used for their characteristic instrument, a
Warme, Mit [G.]. With warmth.
shawm, as well as for the tunes played by
See*Tuba. the various local guilds, e.g., London
Wagner tuba.
Waits, Chester Waits. Many of these
Wait. Originally a watchman of an Eng- tunes are preserved in lyth- and i8th-
lish town who (like the Nachtwdchter in century dance books, such as Playford's
Wagner's Meistersinger) sounded the Dancing Master (1665). Cf. F. W. Gal-
hours of the night. In the I5th and i6th pin, "Shawms and Waits" (ML iv); J. C.
centuries the waits developed into bands Bridge, in PMA liv.
of musicians, paid by the town and beau-
Waldhorn [G., forest horn]. The
tifully uniformed, who provided music French horn, either natural or with valves.
on ceremonial occasions. They also played
or sang at Christmas before the houses of Waldstein Sonata. Beethoven's Piano
notables; it is in this meaning that the Sonata in C, op. 53, dedicated to his friend,
term survives, in present-day parlance, for Graf Waldstein.
[812]
WALK0RE WECHSEL-
Walkiire, Die. See *Ring des Nibe- waltz was already popular in Vienna in
lungcn. the time of Haydn and Mozart the
English singer Kelly records its vogue in
Waltz G. Walzer]. A dance
[F. valse;
1773 *tate ments found in a recent ref-
inmoderate triple time which originated
erence book to the effect that and
around 1800 and which not only has re- Haydn
Mozart wrote waltzes are misleading.
tained popularity to the present day,
its
The "Mouvement de Walze" found in a
but has also, time and again, inspired the
Haydn Sonata from about 1766 is a real
imagination of composers. The waltzes
minuet, and the above insdription is very
by Beethoven [vol. xxv of the B.-H. edi-
likely the addition of one Demar who
tion; cf. also the well-known Walzer of
the Diabelli Variations] still resemble the printed the work in his Mithode of 1806
earlier *Landler or Deutsche Tanz, as do
[cf. the reprint in BSIM vi, 34ff]. Mo-
zart's Deutsche Tanze (K.V. 509, 536,
also to some extent the numerous waltzes
are real Landlers, as far as die
by Schubert [vol. xii of the complete ed.] .
567,^etc.)
musical style is concerned. It is interest-
Weber's "Aufforderung zum Tanz"
ing to note that Beethoven's name has
(1819) for the first time shows that ir- been associated with a number of waltzes
resistible sway and characteristic accom-
("Beethoven's Last Waltz," "The Spirit
paniment which have remained associated
Waltz," "Jubelwalzer") the utter trivi-
with the waltz. For the later history of
ality of which clearly marks such attribu-
the waltz in art music it suffices to men-
tion as spurious.
tion the names of Chopin, Johann Strauss, Lit.: D. Weigl, Die Geschichte des Wai-
father and son (see DTOe
32.ii and 35.11), zers (1910); F. Niecks, "Concerning the
Berlioz (Symphonic Fantastique), Brahms
Waltz" (Z/M vi); J. Mendelssohn, in
(Liebeslieder Walzer), Richard Strauss StM xiii; P. Ncttl, in BUM iii.
(in Rosenfyvalicr) , Ravel (Valses nobles
et sentimentales; also La Valse, for or- Walze [G.]. (i) The crescendo pedal
chestra). of the organ. (2) In iSth-century par-
The waltz developed from an Austrian lance, -term for stereotyped undulating
peasant dance, the *Landler (the theory figures, such as an *Alberti bass.
of its French origin and its derivation
from the *volta is discussed and properly War of the Bouffons. See *Bouffons.
refuted in CD). As early as 1700 its char-
acteristic idiom appears in the ritornelle Wasserorgel [G.]. *Hydraulis.
of a pastoral Singspiel [see the accom- Water Music. An orchestral suite by
panying example]. The waltz was an Handel, composed in 1715 for a festivity
which took place in boats on the Thames.
Cf. W. Michael, in ZM W iv.
Wa-wan Press. An American publish-
ing firm, established by Arthur Far well in
1901, which specialized in the publication
of compositions based on Indian or Negro
epoch in the history of the dance because themes (A. Farwell, H. F. Gilbert, H. W.
it was the first dance in which the
part-
Loomis). It was sold to G. Schirmcr hi
ners embraced each other. Naturally this
1912.
evoked enthusiastic response as well as
violent protest. Burney, in Reese's Cyclo- Wechsel- [G., change]. Wechseldomi*
pedia (c. 1805), probably confusing wal- nante, the dominant of the dominant, i.e.,
zcn with sich walzen, makes an allusion the (major) supertonic. Wechselgesang,
to "rolling in the dirt of mire" and speaks alternative or antiphonal singing. Week-
about the "familiar treatment" and the selnote is somewhat
loosely used to denote
"obliging manner in which the freedom *nonharmonic tones involving a change
is returned
by the females." Although the of direction, e.g., cambiata, dchappcc,
[813]
WEHMOTIG WHOLE-TONE
appoggiatura; verlassene or Fuxsche and those Bach in the same key, e.g.,
of
Wechselnote is always the cambiata, par- those in G
minor (Wt.CL i), E major
ticularly in its combination with a sus- ( Wt. CL ii), and F major ( Wt. CL i)
(1722 and 1744) each of which contains Bach's Wohltemperiertes Clavier (1925);
24 preludes and fugues, one for each ma- C. Gray, The Forty-eight Preludes and
jor and minor key (C major, C minor, Fugues of J. S. Bach (1938); E. Prout,
Cf major, Cft minor, etc.). The name re- Analysis of Bach's 48 Fugues.
fers to the then novel system of equal
Welsh music. See *Bards.
temperament [see*Temperament] which
made possible to play equally well in
it
Weltlich [G.]. Secular.
all the keys, and of which Bach's collec-
tion was the first complete realization. Whistle. A very small and simple flag-
The first
printed edition appeared in 1799
eolet (end-blown pipe) with only six
(Kollmann, London). The pieces in the holes, made from wood, cane, metal, or,
two from widely different
collections date recently, celluloid.
periods of Bach's life. The most obvious In scientific classification whistle flutes
difference of style between the first and or fipple flutes denotes a category of flutes
second parts is found in the preludes in which are blown by means of a "flue"
aria style and in binary form which do not [see ^Instruments III, B, 2 (c)]. The
occur in the first collection. A
much dis- upper end of the pipe is stopped by a plug,
cussed question is that of the "proper" called fipple or Blocl^ (hence the German
instrument for these pieces, i.e., whether name Bloc\flote for the recorder), with
they are written for the harpsichord or for a narrow slit left, through which the
the clavichord. Usually this problem has breath led towards the sharp edge of a
is
been approached too much from that side opening. The same principle of sound
modern "either-or" point of view which generation is used in the "flue pipes" of
has proved detrimental in so many prob- the organ [see *Organ VIII ] To this cate-
.
lems of early music. Some scholars have gory belong several families, mainly the
gone so far as to maintain that certain *recorders and the flageolets. The latter
preludes of the Wt. CL are written for the differ from the recorder in certain details
clavichord while the corresponding fugue of construction, but mainly in the smaller
is written for the harpsichord. number of finger-holes, four in front and
An important forerunner of Bach's two thumb-holes in -the rear. Cf N. Bes- .
ing is the unmistakable thematic simi- Whole-tone. The interval of the major
larity between some of Fischer's fugues second. See "Intervals.
WHOLE-TONE SCALE WIND INSTRUMENTS
Whole-tone scale [G. Ganztonleiter]. Wiezuvor [G.]. As previously.
A scale consisting of whole-tones
only,
Winchester troper. See *Troper.
six to the octave.
Only two such scales
exist, namely: c~d-e-fjf-gtf-bb~c' and Wind band. See *Band.
c-d#-f-g-a-b-c#'. The whole-tone scale
lacks three of the most fundamental in- Wind-chest. In organs, an air-tight box
tervals of traditional music, i.e., the per- which receives the wind from the bellows
fect fifth, the perfect fourth, and the and from which it passes to the pipes
above it. See *Organ I.
leading tone. In fact, the exploitation of
its resources has been, in the hands of
Wind-gauge. In organs, a device in-
Debussy, one of the most obvious indica-
dicating the supply of air in the bellows.
tions of the 20th-century revolt against
In the modern electrically operated or-
the harmonic system of the ipth century.
it is
gans hardly necessary.
Owing to the presence of only one interval
the whole-tone scale completely lacks that Wind instruments. Generic term for
all instruments in which the sound-gener-
feeling of "centralization" and "localiza-
tion" which, in the normal scales or in ating medium is an enclosed column of
church modes, is indicated by the term air. They are, in scientific terminology,
"tonic." Its inherent indecision and vague- usually referred to as Aerophones, al-
ness make it an appropriate vehicle of the though, strictly speaking, this latter cate-
impressionistic style, but put a definite gory includes a subdivision, the "free
limitation on its usefulness for a more aerophones" which usually are not in-
constructive type of music. As a matter of cluded under the term Wind instruments
fact, after a short vogue in the first decade [see ^Instruments III A, B]. The main
it has lost most of its
of the 2Oth century, species of wind instruments are the *brass
glamour and seldom used today. Rebi-
is instruments (*trumpets, *horns, *tubas,
kov's (1866-1920) "Les Demons s'amu- etc.), the *flutes, the ^clarinets, and the
sent" written entirely in the whole-tone
is *oboes (the last three also called *Wood
scale, as are also sections of Debussy's winds), each of which receives special
"Voiles" (1910), while Busoni, in the treatment in this book. The subsequent
second movement of his Sonatina seconda explanations deal with their common
for the passages of the right acoustical properties.
(1912), uses it
Wiener Klassiker [G.]. "Viennese by proper control of the breath and the
classics. lips, called overblowing, a pipe
can easily
A
\^s
II
9 a
OBOES
I. Oboe. 2. English horn. 3. Bassoon. 4. Sarrusophone. 5. Tibia. 6. Indian double oboe.
7.Cromornc. S.Rankct. p.Dulcian. 10. Shawm, tenor. ii.Oboedccaccia.
[816]
WIND INSTRUMENTS WIND INSTRUMENTS
be made to sound not onlyits normal tone, is said to "overblow at the fifth" (correct-
the fundamental, but also the higher *har- at the tenth), while the instruments
ly,
monics. These tones constitute what is with a conoidal bore (oboes, horns, etc.)
called die "natural tones" of a wind instru- overblow at the octave. In German ter-
12345C7 8 9 10
minology the former class is called quin-
ment, c" e" g" bb" c"' d'" e'",
e.g.: c c' g' tierend [F. quintoyer], the latter otya-
etc. Another term for the fundamental
vierend [F. octavier].
tone is
pedal tone. On a number of in- IV. On a wind instrument which con-
struments the pedal tone is practically un-
and a distinction is made be-
sists of merely a
pipe the natural tones are
obtainable,
the only ones available (e.g., on the "nat-
tween whole-tube instruments in which
ural" horn or trumpet). In order to obtain
the air column can be made to vibrate as
the numerous tones between the gaps of
a whole, thus producing the pedal tone,
the natural series, means must be provided
and half-tube instruments in which even
to temporarily shorten or lengthen the
the slightest air pressure is likely to set up
pipe. These are chiefly four in kind: (a)
vibrations of the half length, thus produc-
To slides; (b) crooks; (c) valves; (d) side-
ing the first harmonic (c'). the for-
holes.
mer category belong all the wood winds
(a) Slide. This means that the instru-
and the brass instruments of wide bore
ment consists of two
separate portions of
(tubas); to the latter, nominally, the brass one within the other so
tubing, sliding
instruments of narrow bore (trumpets,
that it can be drawn out. Thus the tube
horns, trombones, higher saxhorns). It is actually lengthened, and in each posi-
should be noted, however, that good play-
tion a new series of natural tones, begin-
ers of the present day can obtain the pedal
notes on trumpets and saxhorns, so that ning respectively with C, B, Bb, etc., be-
comes available. Since the largest gap in
the French horn and the trombone in the
the series of overtones is the fifth (c-g'),
lower positions of the slide remain, for all
a complete chromatic scale can be obtained
practical purposes, the only half-tube in-
struments.
by the combined tones of seven series of
key mechanism [see *Key (i)]. If all the unequal elasticity of the wood, etc.
the holes are closed, the pipe sounds its However, more recent investigations have
fundamental. If some of the holes are shown that it is a defect inherent in the
opened, the acoustical length of the air design of the violin and the other instru-
column is shortened, and higher tones ments of the same family. It results from
are produced. The details of this process certain particularly strong vibration pat-
are too complicated to be briefly described. terns of the belly. Cf. C. V. Raman in
On the horns a limited alteration of Nature 97 (1916, 362-363 and
'17), pp.
in
pitch can be obtained by "stopping" [see Philosophical Magazine 32 (1916);
Horn]. }. A. Kessler, The Wolfnote (unpubl.
Lit.: A. Carse, Musical Wind Instru- diss. Harvard 1941).
ments (1939); GD v, 737ff; R. Dunstan,
in PMA xliv.
Wood winds. See *Orchestra I. Cf.
R. W. Wood, "The Woodwind Ensem-
Wind machine. A device designed to ble" (ML xv, no. i).
imitate the sound of wind, occasionally
Word-painting [G. Wortmalerei] .
used for descriptive purposes (R. Strauss, The expression through music of the
Don Quixote). It consists of a barrel ideas resident in or suggested by the
framework covered with silk and re- words of a song or other vocal piece. The
volved so that the silk is in friction against term is usually^taken to refer to the por-
cardboard or wood.
traying of single words or phrases which
lend themselves to treatment,
Wirbel [G.]. (i) The peg of a violin; specific
life of the erring ones) occur; here the Wutend [G.]. Furious.
x
Xylophone [from Gr. xylos, wood, and name hultze glechtcr ("wooden percus-
phone, sound] A
percussion instrument
. sion"; Arnolt Schlick, Spiegel der Orgel
consisting of graduated bars of hard- macher und Organisten, 1511) and
wood which are struck with a stick. Strohfiedel ("strawfiddle," so called be-
For the modern orchestral instrument cause the bars were lying on straw)
see *Percussion instruments A, 3. A jazz- Still other names are Holz harmonist
band variety is the *marimba. Xylo- [G.], gigelira [It.], and ligneum psal
phones are frequently used in primitive terium [L.]. Around 1830 a Russian
cultures, particularly in Africa, and have Jew, J. Gusikow, became famous as t
attained a high degree of perfection in player of the Strohfiedel and aroused the
the * Javanese orchestra. Around
1500 special interest of Mendelssohn (cf. GD
they became known in Europe under the v, 765). The instrument has been em-
YANKEE DOODLE ZANFONIA
ployed by H. C. Lumbye in his "Traum- of skeletons, and in several modern sym-
bildcr," by Saint-Saens in his Danse phonies, e.g., Shostakovich's Fifth Sym-
Macabre (1874), to describe the rattling phony.
Yankee Doodle. A
popular American song, with low vowels (a, o) used for the
tune which, in the course of 150 years, low tones, and high vowels (e, i) for the
has been used for a great number of texts high ones. Cf. E. v. Hornbostel, "Ent-
of a humorous character. The origin of stehung des Jodelns" (KIM, 1924).
the tune is just as mysterious as that of
the words "Yankee" and "Doodle." Its
Yueh ch'in. A Chinese guitar. See
*Guitar family.
first recorded appearance is in James
by the frequent and quick passing from ML, 785; P. Panoff, in BuHM\ E. Wel-
a low chest-voice to a high falsetto. The lesz, "Die Struktur des serbischen Ok-
quently in syncopation and in many other creasing influence of the Italian opera
rhythms in contrast to that of the melody. clearly present in the works of Jose de
Nebra (c. 1685-1768) also contributed
Zapfenstreich [G.]. A
*Tattoo; at to the decline of the zarzuela, a decline
special occasions, however, the Zapfen- which went hand in hand with that of
streich is a much more elaborate perform- the Spanish drama.
ance of military music, including signals Anattempt at revival in a more popu-
as well as marches played by a large band. lar form, made around 1770 by the drama-
tist Ramon de la Cruz in collaboration
Zarabanda [Sp.]. See *Sarabande.
with the composer Antonio Rodriguez de
The of the violin.
Hita (d. c. 1787), had only temporary
Zarge [G.]. <ribs
success. It was not until the middle of
published by Subira, 1933). In the later and even of American jazz), by Jacinto
part of the I7th century the zarzuela ap- Guerrero, Rosillo, and others.
proached the French ballet de cour, by Lit.: G. Chase, The Music of Spain
the emphasis on elaborate stage produc- (1941), passim (bibl.); E. Cotalero y
tion and the addition of ballets and of Mori, Historia de la Zarzuela i (1934);
popular dances accompanied by the gui- LavE 1.4, 2052^; A. Salazar, "Music in
tar andcastanets (Conde de Clavijo, c. the Primitive Spanish Theatre" (PAMS,
1700). This type of "aristocratic opera," 1938); G. Chase, "Origins of the Lyric
based largely on mythological subjects, Theatre in xxv); id., "Bar-
Spain" (MQ
reached its high-point with Sebastien bieri and the Spanish Zarzuela" (ML xx,
Duron (d. 1716)and Antonio Literes (d. no. i); J. Subira, in AM iv, no. 2; A.
after 1752). At the same time there arose Pedrell, in SIM iv.
[821]
ZAUBERFLOTE ZNAMENNY CHANT
Zauberflote, Die ("The Magic Flute"). Zink(en). German for the *cornett.
German opera in two acts by W. A.
Zirkelkanon [G.]. Circular canon.
Mozart, libretto (concocted of Oriental
fairy-tale and Freemasonry) by E. Schi- Zither, (i) A modern instrument used
kaneder, produced 1791. Tamino
chiefly by the Bavarian and Austrian
(Tenor), seeing a picture of Pamina
peasants (and their imitators), consist-
(Soprano), the daughter of the evil
ing of a flat wooden soundbox over which
Queen of the Night (Soprano), falls in from 30 to 45 strings are stretched. Four
love with her and, on orders of the
or five melody strings, nearest to the
Queen, goes out accompanied by the player, can be stopped on a fretted finger
bird-catcher Papageno (Baritone) to
board and are plucked by a plectrum.
rescue her from the temple of the High-
The other strings are plucked by the fin-
Priest Sarastro (Bass) where she is held
gers and are used for accompaniment.
captive, guarded and pestered by the Cf. Ch. Maclean, in Z/M x. (2) Sci-
Moor Monostatos (Tenor). Sarastro who entific name for a large class of stringed
holds Pamina only in order to "guide her instruments also called *Psalteries [see
to wisdom" finds Tamino worthy and Instruments IV, A, i (a)]. Illustrations
also promises that Papageno will find a on p. 823. (3) Sometimes wrong spell-
companion Papagena ( Soprano) but ing for *cither.
various ordeals (injunction against speak-
ing; passing through fire and water) are Zitternd [G.]. Trembling.
necessary before the lovers are united.
The Zauberflote, Mozart's last opera, Znamenny chant. Name for the chant
indicates a decided change in Mozart's of the Russian Church, as used from the
approach to opera, a change which, un- 1 2th through the iyth century. The
fortunately, was cut short by his death, in name is derived from znamia, i.e., sign,
1792. The Italian opera buffa idea, which
neume. The oldest extant musical monu-
prevails in *Figaro and *Don Giovanni, ments date from c. 1200, and are notated
is replaced here by a seriousness of in signs which are very similar to those
pur-
pose and sincerity of feeling which pre- of the early Byzantine notation. Later
Figaro and Don Giovanni. have not yet been deciphered. Eventu-
ally the number of signs was reduced and
Zeitmass [G.]. Tempo. certain auxiliary symbols were added, usu-
Zeitmesser [G.]. Metronome. ally in red ink (hence the name Cinna-
bar letters), by Schaidurov (i6th cen-
Zeunertanz [G.]. Old German for tury). At about the same time the simple
Zigeunertanzy i.e., gypsy dance (in H. outlines of the original chant were ampli-
Ncwsidler, 1535). fied into rich and ornamental contours,
and the two types were distinguished as
Ziehharmonika * Accordion.
[G.]. "lesser" and "greater" chant. Beginning
with the i
yth century there were abuses
Ziemlich [G.]. Rather.
[see *Anenaiki] which finally led to the
decline of the chant. See also *Russian
Zigeunermusik [G.]. Gypsy music. music I.
[822]
ZITHERS AND LYRES
i. Ch'in. 2. Vina. 3. Psaltery.
4. Egyptian Kithara. 5. Greek Kithara. 6. Greek
Lyra.
7. Kantele. 8. Zither. 9-Rottc. 10. Crwth.
ZOGERND ZYMBEL
Italian term for the inverted dotted tion in ternary form, also used for the
[824]
ADDENDA AND CORRIGENDA
TO ORIGINAL ENTRIES
Accidentals. The sign for the double- Alfred Hill (b. 1870), Roy Agnew (b.
sharp is used in Giov. M. Trabaci's // 1893), an d Margaret Sutherland
(b.
secondo libra de ricercare of 1615. . . .
1897). Fritz Bennicke Hart (b. 1874 in
England) settled in Australia in 1909 and
Acoustics. Lit.: Charles A. Culver, is now director of the Melbourne Con-
Musical Acoustics (1941). servatory. Australia's most outstanding
contribution in the field of music has been
Aesthetics of Music. Ill (b): An early made by Mrs. Louise B. Dyer through the
"autonomist" is M. de Chabanon, who in foundation of the Lyre Bird Press. The
1785 published De la musique consideree magnificent and invaluable publications
en elle me me. of this press include, among others, the
complete edition of the Montpellier Codex
Affektenlehre. Katz, Die mu-
Lit.: E. [see *Sources, no. 4], and the complete
sifalischen Stilbegriffe des 77. ]ahrun- works of Francois Couperin. Cf. Marks
derts (1926). Levine, "Musical Life in Australia and
New Zealand" (in Pierre Key's Music
Ambrosian hymns. Lit.: Emilio Gar- Year Boo\, 1926/27, p. 178); V. A. Ru-
bagnati, Gli inni del breviario ambrosiano croft, "A Survey of Music in New Zea-
(1897). land" (PMA, 1943, p. 56); Dai-kong
Lee, "Music Down Under" (MM xxii,
American music. P. 34, col. 2: for no. 4).
Schumann read Schuman.
B-A-C-H. Correct: W. Piston, Chro-
Anche. Also reed instrument, e.g., in matic Study on the Name of Bach. Add:
Trio d'anches. A. Casella, Due Ricercari sul nome di
Bach.
Aria. Lit.: L. Torchi, "Canzoni ed arie
. . . nel secolo XVII" (RMli). Ballet. II.Adolphe Ch. Adam wrote a
number of most successful of
ballets, the
P. 53, col. ex. 2, measure which was Giselle (1841). Danish ballets
Arpeggio. i,
2: first quarter note on each staff should were written by J. P. E. Hartmann (Val-
be dotted. \yrien, Thrymsfyiden) and his son E.
Hartmann (Fjeldstuen).
Ars nova. P. 56, col. 2: for Liege read P. 70, col. 2, lines 11-12: for
III. Marc
Blitzstein read Arthur Bliss.
Liege.
[825]
ADDENDA AND CORRIGENDA
Cancionero. An important recent pub- Clavichord. The "bundfreie" clavi-
lication R. Mitjana, J. Bal y Gay, and
is chord is expressly called for in the preface
I* Pope, Cancionero de Upsala (Mexico, to Johann Speth's Ars Magna Consoni et
Canon. Change the first sentence to Color and music. Lit.: Arthur Lange,
read as follows: "A polyphonic composi- Spectrotone System of Orchestration
tion in which one part imitated strictly
is ( 943); A. Lszl6, Die Farblichtmusi^
X
and for its entire length in another part, (1925); id., ^Kompositionen fur Klavier
or in all the parts." The term canon is und Farblicht (1926).
also used for the short "canonic" imita-
tions properly termed *stretto. Comic opera. Lit.: F. Vatielli, "Opcre
comiche di G. B. Martini' (RMI xxxix).
Chapel. P. 132, col. i: for Gratton read Copyright. P. 187, col. i, line 18: for
Grattan.
proclamation read proclamations.
Chinese music. Lit.: C. Sachs, The Coronation Concerto. There are two
Rise of Music (1943), pp. io5ff. Coronation Concertos by Mozart, K. V.
459 in F major (1784) and K. V. 537 in
Chorus. Add: (3) Same as refrain. D major (1788); the latter is the more fa-
mous. Both were played by Mozart at the
Chroai, Cf C. Sachs, The Rise
.
of Music
coronation of the Emperor Leopold at
Frankfurt in 1790.
Clausula. P. 156, col. i, line 27: for vers Courante. Cf. C. Sachs, World History
read verse. of the Dance (1937), pp. 36iff.
[8*6]
ADDENDA AND CORRIGENDA
Ecole d'Arcueil. The followers of J.Stainer, "\Early Bodleian Music, 2 vols.
Satie never actually convened in his home (1901); Ch. van den Borren, Sources of
at Arcueil. Keyboard Music in England (1913).
of the ... I5th Century. (3) Madri- Exposition. The term is also used for
English Harmony, vol. i, facsimiles, by with the first half of b (third single line).
H. E. Wooldridge (1897); v l- "> trans- In the case of eight-line stanzas (s s s s)
scriptions, by H. V. Hughes (1913). Add:
their musical scheme is a a b b.
[827]
ADDENDA AND CORRIGENDA
Goliard songs. A
number of the songs in early music, see under ^Ensemble. Cf.
are preserved with decipherable melodies also L. Hibberd, in MQ xxii, no. 2.
in the sources of Notre Dame [see
*
Sources, no. 3]. Invitatorium. P. 366b, lines 3 and 6,
read "Office of the Dead" for "Requiem
Gregorian chant. II: An invaluable Mass."
help for the study of the Gregorian texts
is C. Marbach, Carmina Scripturarum
Japanese music. Lit.: C. Sachs, The
(1927), which gives the sources for all Rise of Music (1943), pp. 1056.
the Scriptural texts of the Gregorian
chant.
IV. (a): In the tracts the repetitions are Jewish music. P. 382, col. 2, line 16:
essential to the form. Lit.: G. Stevens, for Spickler read Spicker.
Lit.: C. Sachs, The Rise of Music
"Gregorian Chant" (MQ xxx, no. 2).
(1943), pp.79ff.; O. Kinkeldey, "A Jew-
ishMusician of the i5th Century" (A. S.
Ground. Lit.: L. Propper, Dcr basso
Freidus Memorial Volume).
ostinato (Diss. Berlin, 1926).
Hindu music. Lit.: C. Sachs, The Rise Krakowiak [G.], Cracovienne [F.]. A
of Music (1943), pp. 15811. Polish dance named after the city of Cra-
A survey of the historical development cow. The music is in 2/4-time and em-
is
given in Fox-Strangway, pp. 83^. Cf. ploys simple syncopated patterns. The
also HAM, no. 4. krakowiak was danced by large groups,
with shouting, improvised singing, and
History of music. P. 339, col. i, lines striking of the heels together. It was in
Of the Historical Anthology of Music
6-8:
vogue in the early part of the nineteenth
by A. T. Davison and Willi Apel, Vol. I century and became known all over the
was published in 1946; Vol. II is in prep- world through the stage performances of
aration (1947).
Fanny Elssler. Chopin wrote a "Krako-
wiak" for. piano and orchestra (op. 14).
Hydraulis. Lit.: H. Degering, Die Or-
[828]
ADDENDA AND CORRIGENDA
Libraries. P. 403^ insert: national Congress of Musicology [New
Oxford. Bodleian Library and Christ York, 1939], 1944).
Church Library. Catalogue of MSS, by To B: O. Strunk, in Papers Read at the
G. E. P. Arkwright (1915); of printed International Congress of Musicology
music, by Aloys Hiff (1919). [New York, 1939 (1944)], makes a very
interesting attempt to distinguish between
Lied. Additional lit. in MoML, 452. various types of 16th-century motet on
the basis of a textual classification.
Liturgical books. Add under Proces-
sionale: The Processionale monasticum Music criticism. I. No less important
. .Ordinis Sancti Benedict! (1893) con-
. than Schumann is E. T. A. Hoffmann
tains many important responsoria, e.g., (1776-1822), whose reviews, written for
the Aspiciens a longe mentioned on p. the Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung
610. (Leipzig, i8o9ff.), include some admir-
able analyses of Beethoven's C-minor
Madrigal. Lit.: G. Cesari, "Le Origini Symphony, Coriolan Overture, Trios op.
del madrigale cinquecentesco" (RIM 70 and Egmont (cf. the cpl. ed. by W.
xix). Harich, vol. xii). -Lit.: I. Kolodin, The
Lit.: E. H. Fellowes, The English Critical Composer (1940); T. Stege,
Madrigal Composers (1921); id., The Bilder aus der deutschen
English Madrigal (1925),
Kirnberger, Der allezeit jertige Polonoi- also made with two or five prongs.
sen- und MenuettenJ(omponist (1757) A. ;
Laszl6, The Dice Composer (1941). National Anthems. "God Save the
King" is definitely not by H. Carey. Cf.
Mechanical instruments. Lit.: R. P. A. Scholes, God Save the King (1942).
Mosoriak, The Curious History of Music
Boxes (1943). Neapolitan School. Cf. E. J. Dent,
"The Nomenclature of Opera" (ML
xxv ).
Metamorphosis. Omit the last sen-
tence.
Notation. Lit.: J. Wolf, Geschichte der
Mensuralnotation (3 vols., 1904).
Middle Ages. Lit.: G. S. Bedrock.
"The Nature of Mediaeval Music" (ML
Ode-symphonie. The term is also used
xxvi, no. 2). for otherFrench compositions employing
an orchestra and a chorus, e.g., Bizet's
Monody. Lit.: O. Kinkeldey, Orgel und Vasco da Gama.
Klavier im 16. Jahrhundert (1910).
Opera. Lit. A: J. Towers, Dictionary-
Motet. Lit. A: H. Tischler, "The Motet Catalogue of Operas (1910).
. .Lit..
[829]
ADDENDA AND CORRIGENDA
Oratorio. Lit.: C. H. Bitter, Beitrdge is to be found, not in the melody, but in
zur Geschichte des Oratoriums (1872). the bass line: G-F-D-B flat-F-G (C-D-)
G. The same remark applies to the Folia
Orchestra. P. 52ob: Handel's "piccolo" and the Romanesca. Cf. O. Gombosi,
is, of course, a small recorder, not the "Italia: Patria del basso ostinato" (LRM
modern piccolo flute. Lit.: A. Carse, vii).
The Orchestra in the i8th Century
(1940). Phonograph and recorded music.
P. 572, col. i, line 17: for Kilpeinen read
Organ. Lit.: Adlung, Musica mecha- Kilpinen.
nica organoedi (1768; new ed. 1931); H. Lit.: D. Hall, The Record Boo\ (1940).
Degering, Die Orgel . . . bis zur Karo-
lingerzeit (1905). Piano duet, (a): Beethoven wrote sev-
eral piano duets, e.g., a Sonata op. 6,
Organ chorale. Stainton de B.
Lit.:
Three Marches op. 45, and op. 134, a
Taylor, The Chorale Preludes of J. S.
four-hand Great
arrangement of his
Bach (1942); H. E. Huggler, /. S. Bach's in B-flat for string quartet (op.
Fugue
Orgelbuchlein (Diss. Bern, 1930). Hindemith and Stravinsky
133). (b):
each wrote a sonata for two pianos (1942,
Organ Mass. Cavazzoni's organ Masses
1944). Lit.: A. Rowley, Four Hands,
are not completely for the organ, but for
One Piano (1940); K. Ganzer and L.
alternating organ and choir. Kusche, Vierhandig (1937).
delphia, c.
Ornamentation. For the 1774.
example
given on p. 546 the writer of this article
isindebted to W. Landowska, Music of Polymetric. The term is also used for
the Past (1924), p. 1316. modern editions of 16th-century vocal
music in which the bar-lines are placed in
Mu$i\ Archiv Nr. 65 (O. Vrieslander), Cl. ii, or the fugal theme of the Toccata
no. 6a. of his Partita no. 6, or D. Scarlatti's So-
nata in F minor xi, p. 144). All
(TaAM
Ricercare. The *neo-classical movement these examples show the sign in question
of the 20th century has led to a revival of on a "detached" note, as in Ex. (c), a
the ricercare, e.g., in B. Martinu's Tre
position which, regardless of the period,
Ricercari and in A. Casella's Due Ricer- would seem to call for the "rhythmic"
cari sul nome di Each. Schneller rather than the "melodic" Prall-
triller. In the fugal theme of Buxtehude's
Romanesca. F. Liszt wrote a modern Toccata in G
(Orgelfompositionen, ed.
composition on the Romanesca theme by Spitta, pp. the speed of motion
n6f)
(1860). See remark above under Passa- makes the use of the Pralltriller almost
mezzo. W. A.
impossible.
Rubato. Around 1800 the term rubato P. 674, col. 2, line 3: for de
Sequence.
was used to indicate free modifications, St. Adam de Victor read d* Adam de St.
not of temporal but of dynamic values, Victor.
on normally weak notes,
e.g., forte-accents
such as the second and fourth beat of a Sonata. End of II, p. 693^ Sonatas for
4/4-measure (Turk, 1789; H. Ch. Koch, cembalo occur in Gregorio Strozzi's Co-
1808; cf. Lit., Bruck). It is entirely pos- pried da sonar e of 1687. Similar compo-
sible that Chopin had this manner of per- sitions by Pasquini may well be of an
formance in mind when he prescribed even earlier date [cf. M. Seiffert, Ge~
"rubato" in his compositions. It should schichte der Klaviermusi\ (1899), p.
be noticed that he used this term almost
278].
exclusively in his mazurkas or for melo-
dies in the character of a mazurka (F Sonata-form. P. 697, col. 2: for Maria
minor Concerto, last movement), the very Veracini read F. M. Ver acini.
nature of which would seem to exclude The symphony by Mona mentioned in
modifications of tempo but readily ad- the second paragraph of p. .698 is found in
mits unexpected accents on the second DTOe xix, i, p. i. It is, however, a less
or third beat.
perfect example of sonata-form than is the
ADDENDA AND CORRIGENDA
first movement of a Trio by Pergolcsi (d. U. C. P. 778, col. \ : for corde read corda.
is reprinted in H. Riemann's
1736), which
Collegium musicum, No. 30. Urlinie. In the opening paragraph, re-
Tromba marina. The tenor, marked Villanella. E. Kiwi, Villanella und Can-
"Trompette," in Pierre Fontaine's chan- zonetta im 16. Jahrhundert (Diss. Hei-
son "J'aime bien celui" (c. 1400) is prob-
delberg, 1936).
ably written for the tromba marina. Cf.
P. Aubry, in SIM viii, 526. Violoncello. P. 804, col. 16 from
2, line
bottom: for 288 read 228.
Trouvferes. Lit.: A. Restori, "Per la
storia musicale dei trovatori procenzali"
Vocal music. Regarding the problem
(RM1 ii, iii).
of vocal versus instrumental style, in early
Twelve-tone technique. P. 777, col. i, music, see under *Ensemble. Cf. also L.
last musical example: the second note Hibberd, in M Q xxii, no. 2.
should be b-flat.
Lit.: E. Krenek, "New Developments Voices, Range of. Cf. A. T. Davison,
of the Twelve-Tone Technique" (MR The Technique of Choral Composition
(1945), p. 17.
ADDENDA AND CORRIGENDA
Wa-wan Press. Cf. article by E. Yankee Doodle. Cf. O. G. Th. Son-
Waters, in G. Reese, A Birthday Present neck, Report on Yankee-Doodle
to C(arl) E(ngel) (1943). (1909).
NEW ENTRIES
Ballad meter. This term is commonly Convertible counterpoint. Same as
employed to designate the most usual po- *invertible counterpoint.
etic meter of English and American bal-
lads, namely that also known as common Dice music. See ^Mechanical composi-
tion.
meter [cf. *Ballad, *Poetic meter II].
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