MUSA Numerical Methods NOTES

MUHAMMAD MUSA BIN YUSOF
A17KA0105
SKAW - BACHELOR IN CIVIL ENGINEERING
SCHOOL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
SSCE2393
NUMERICAL METHODS
CHAPTER 1 - 7
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CgePHtCnu mgrHop e1
t Yxorc;se 1.1 (Pap, 3)
Locale, t[,e root o$ the {oUouriDg nonhns*r eqruahons bu using
g raph;col rnetl.,od
o ?c+COS a- = O -) fCrT z lLt c.os x

CPS x.= -L
Q(r) Point o$ intersectibn is in
Ci, o)
fCa'Yg (b) t o
fc+) , -* + cosci)
-{ -!, _1I
2
l(o> = o+ coS (o)
=l
f(-i){(o> - _1I
z <,o
tence t e t/rt-z ,o)*
@ Stn L - ?L+ I =O =) fC");Sin e_-x + I
Sin zt = 7*-l
Poiqt o$ inlerse-ction [s in
{(rc)
(8, n)
{Ca)+Cb) < o
f Cs") -- sin (i) - s, I

"
o-Att
=
$Cn) , sin (fi) -fi + I
=
_a.\42
U=Sinz
f (tr")f Cnl = -o.414 e o
ience ,t g (!r, n) x
2 9in 7'tL : o =) Qbc) -- 2sin * - ?t
2 9fn T=?L
f(n)
J=]sinz Point of intersec,|ion is in
(-n,-i) ,o, (8, o)
(Ca1f(b) < o
tlence 4 e (-n ,-5 )
{,o X
\ e (Lr,n1
@ .Z*- | - "sin'zc = A" -) +L"d :Z*-l - €in,T

?t<-l ssihF
'
{(,)
g:Sinx- Poi61 of ;nte"e,olrbn rs in
I U=3ur--l
(t,
")
{b).f(b) ( o
{(i) = ?(\)-r- srn (L)
= - l.lt2_7
fCrrl =a(r)-I-sin(r)
= g.\25
I(iX (rr) = -\2.0 ?q Lo

llen cp tt e (\,")
s
of rqtorsechoo is in
gre'* foo Poiut
(o, r)
tbr)+Cb) L o
I Lo) = e-o-ZLo)
:I
f Cr; = {'-7L,1
= -2.602
{Co)46t). -2-6?z Lo
Aen6o t* e (o, r; x
bt = 1-zrt
{Cz") Polnt of inte.sq,ttoo is in
!,3* (- lro)
{(a)+tb) (o
{C-,) = )Gt) +3e-r - r
= -1.94e
f (o) = 2-Lo)+?e" -l
--.1 ,l-
+c-D f co; ='t-+q2 <O

Nence zt e (-t,o) X
IS€,CTION M fHO
r Eyerc\se L .2 (PaSe T)
@ SL,ow +\6\ t
-?L-l = O ).,ava 6,, rool in inle.val [r,z] . Find that root
usihg biseclion mtl\to/. St our all go.r" eolculalion in 3 de-rir"r,al places
xl =x+\ ) $Czc1=v-3-r-l
Po'nt ol inte.rsecton fs in
fc,.;
Lt,z7
l=x+1
fCa) f[b) < o
{Cr)= ts-l-l
:-l
7L f1z) = z3-z-l a;+b6
-) 2
fcl:96'r=-[ L
,l
Vlunre x* € (\,2)
!:zL!
F=x3-x-l O = o-oO5 raust hare cohstant sign (*/-)
t 41, bi ci f @) fCb;) $Cc;)

o -ooo 2. oO [,5oo - l.ooo ,
1 O 5.ooo o.S"E lxl
I \-o00 t.5oo l-a6o -t.ooo/ o.8?S -o-2q7 [x]
2 I'25 o l-5Oo \-3?5 -o-2q7 o-8?5 t o-226 Lxl
\-256 t.j?5 .?\ 3
\ _o.a\1 . O_zz1 -o.o\q txl
D
4 \ .3r3 1.775 t.\4* - o-o4q o-L25, o.o84 [x]

5 \.j13 r.s44 r.9:,e -o-o4q o -084 , o.olB [x:
G 1.3t3 \-32q l.3zl -o.ohQ t o.otg _o.ol6
[x]
7 I ,31\ 1.32q 1325 -o.ot6 o.o lg o-001 o.oo5
Etop wl'te-n \f (c;ll <e

si.lc.L If (ca) I = o.ool { o.oo5
l\ence t[e resf ?(f = C?= l'?zS x
@ Us;n g bieulba mathod {-d the .ool ol ll.,e follor,uro g e4yoltoo
ivr the Xiven rnlerval. Show all gour calcutatron in }-Aoit*al placeg
a)x-Tv =O ; o<z-( ; ._ _ ati+6

I e=o aoD 'a
) -'' z
fCrq =rL-z-L
F =X -2-x
L d; b; c; $(a;1 f(b;) f (c;\

o O.oo6 [-ooo o.5oo - l-oog., o.5oo -9-Zo1 I
Ix]
I o.5oo l.ooO )-"tO -o-2o+ O.5oo t o r55 Lxl
2 o.500 0.7UO o{.t5 -o-2o] z o.t55 -o.o23 Lxl
v o.625 0-750 0.689 _6-oLb o -155 / o06? Lxl
4 o-625 O-6Xg o.GST -o.oza O,OG? I o -oat Lxl
5 o-GL5 0,65+ 0.611l - 0.O23 o.o4 o -000 o.oo5
9;nc.e, lf(cr)l =o.ooo 1O-oO5

o
Aenc*. the .ool z* = CD = o -641 ,*

b) g* *2-% + 2c.c>s tt- - 6 = O f"t .-, .-_
rz7 ; 0, o.ods ,v2 v,
Ai+b;
*U)=*+2-n*Acos ?< -6
F=€+A-x+2cosX-6
i a; b; C6 $Ca;) f( u;) f (c,

o t.4ro 2-ooo t.600 /
.-\_fr01 o.go+ - l. o23 txl
I I.Eoo 2.O@ \.750 -\.oz3 t o -8ol - o'3or Lxl
2 r-?to 1-.OoO t-$75 -o3oE O.$OI t o4q4 Lxl
l.g?5 r.sl3 _o.bs/ o.
5 1.750 [911 ^ o.oG6 [x]
I t.g 13 l.g?5 l-g+4 -o.066 0.144 t o.06l lxl
5 l-8r 3 r.944 l -g2q -O '066 o_o6l \-o.ooz I {'o.oo5
.!,
o Venca tha root t: = O'r-" l-S2q- X
c) ?:-?C +i* -2 =O i oLt<-Ll ) L=o'oos
{C*) = ea - )L2 +?zc-2
F=S . X'+bX-T
i ai bt ci fCa;) {Cb;) $Cci)

o O-Ooo -ooo o.50o -t-ooO 2-+18 /
t o-iqq Lx)
I o-ooo o.roo o-25o -t -osg z o -8qq -o-o2g L*)
Z o-z5o o-50 o o'3?5 -o-oag O'|qq / o-43q Lxl
z o-z5o o-3?5 OStj -O.O28 O.A3q / o-Loq Lx]
4 o-a1o o -313 . o-Lgz - e-ol$ o -2o4, o-oqz Lxl
5 o25o d-z$A o-zc$ - o'O28 o -a\z' o -O?z txl
G o-25O O2b6: o-z5g -D-Ozg o-o32 :o'oa2 ( o-oo5
" .t Henca. tha .oo I 7t -- C6= O-zig *

o
@ First deterrnine t\e tnterval that contaio lhe'rool c,nr) then f,nd
thort roof ursing bisectioo rne|[gd.shourl all go*r culq.tlafioa io
3Dp
a)?re'-t=o =) f Ll = 3tea -l
?-aL
U\./ - I
x
fc.1 Poir,t o( intensection is rn
Lo, t]
f(al +(b) < o
{Co) =-l
7L f(r) --?lo,
fco)f(D =-?.\bs <o
; ?L* e (o,t)
F, gxd-t ; L ; o-oo! ) O _lv1 l
ta[ b; C; {@;1 {(u;) ik6S

O o-ooo r.ooO o.800 -l.oo6 ?,155 z t.4+3 LK]
I o.OoO o.5oo o-250 -\ .oog , 1.4+3 _o.obT Lxl
2 o-tSo o-5oO 0'3?5 -o.oTl l'473 t o.6?l Lxl
g o.2fo o"375 o-3r3 - 0-o3? o.6?l z o,294 Lxl
+ o -25o o3r3 o.212 -oo3T o-2s4, o.la2_ Lxl
5 o'L5 o o9;x2 o.26e -o.627 O-lzaz e.04t Lxl
6 o -LSo o2% 0-25g - o-031 o.o4 I o.o02 ( o.oo$
9tnce \fCcu;l = o.ooe I o.oo5
.t
0
l)enu $a rool 7t , C6 -- o.z5g x
b) \en +7r-l --O =) fC"-; = 3C+27_-l
3*= \-2*
Poiqf of interse ction iS irr
L- t,o ]
{Ca) {c6 < o
{c-t) = -l-x76
^ {(o)=z
9= I-zzc
fc-t)f Co) =-!-tq? I o
:, L* e elto)
t=\d*2{-l 3 -t{r1o j e = o-Oo5
t, aL bc ca Karl {G;) {k;)

C) -l-ooo Oooo -0.600 -l,gqc, 2.Ooo -o-lBo Lxl
l - o.5o o O .o OO - o-tTo -o.[ go 2-OOg z o.c{36 [x]
z- - o-500 -0350 -O3?5 -o.lgo o.426 t o-?tz Lxl
3 -o.5oo -o.3?5 - o-439 -o.l8o C--312 / o.060 Lxl
A -O.5oo -o.438 -O.qGq -0. [8gl ., o-o60 -0.06l Lx1
5 -o.46q - o.439 -o.454 -o.o 6l o.O6O

l:r-*3-l ( o.oo!
Since f.fCcrll
=
0.ool ( o.ooF
.l/
e
Hexz the too| # = C5=-o-454 *
c)Sin )L-Zzt +3=O =) fC^)=$nz -2t +?
Sin t-: La--3
yrzlL-3
+r,')
Poi''t ol tntuX*1,'on t9 in
Lt rzT
fCa){Cb) e o
t Ctl , \.841
f Cz):-o.oQl
fCt;P6=1 =-o'16+ < o
," x* e (t rzl
F= sin { -2t< +? j | {xLz j e=o.ao'

c d; b; cL {ut) {(b;) lG;)
o \-clo6 2ooo t.5oo l-S4l t - o.oql o.qql fr")
I \-500 2-ooO ['75o o.qqT / -o.oQ I o.4$4 Lxl
2 t.?so 2.ooo I .g?5 o.AB4 / -o,oql o-ao \ Lxl
3 1."675 2. ooo l.q3g 0 -2o11 t -o'aql 6.OST Lxl
4 l.q39 2 -ooo l.q6q o.o57 -ct.Oll z -o-ole Lxl
5 t.q?8 l.q 6q 1.q54 o.o*t t - o.ot6 o al4 Lxl
6 r-q54 l.q 6q l.1oz 6.ot4 -o-ot6 9-.o oo ( o-o oE
si nce lSccuy l , 0.ooo L O.oo5

J
L
Iluce lhe-root *, C6 = [.q62 rg
NgwtoN vauop
* €xercrge t.A (?age \5 -16)
Q fin/ the root o{ the, $ollowing eluafipn in given in{erva\ using
Newl-on rnethod. show all yorr. catcutatmn in f-o,r. olecr}nal places (4Dp)
a)13-z--l=o : t\rz) ) L,o-oaol

sal ?to=l.oooo
+
Can tals, valug in ran,O Lt rZT
fCrc) '-?L" ->t-l

$'b,-) =31-'-l
,...-ry _ x3-x- I
X=X
JX1
q t(-;
O l. c;ooo Lxl
I l' 5oo o Lxl
3 t$Lgl lxl ?,
t4 \,7247 I t
tlzt -nnl ;' Q -oao6 ( o'oo oE
5 I.3r4 ? l
Sto p iter alron wl. en W, -tt-t,-ll < 0
l\enco lha root i: = X-5--\-?z\7 ss

b) zs +)LL -7x-? = o ; [r,zl j L=O,ooo5
Sel ,Lo = l-oooo
i )c;
{Cr) = L? +%" -?* -?
o r.oooo Lrl
('(%) = Sztz +2n- -?
I 3-oooo [x]
,Xi _ $(x) 2 L-Looo Lxl
lo'r' {'(*i) 3 l.g3o2 Lxl
x?+x2 -3*-3 4 v??+s [x ]
X=X- €.
3xL +2x -g
5 t.?3zt t
\rr-*rf o.oo 0o.( o-ooo5
G t.+B2l
=
gince I t.+?zl- l'.?azr

[ = O < 0.oOD5
llence ll.e.ool 4-* TG l.?3zl ,(
= =
c)rz - 2n, - S=O ) f-t, q7 I L ro -ooo5

sot zco = Z-oooo
{C*) = )Lz -7?1} -5 L L;
('bd = 3r'- Azt o 2.o ooo t xl
I 3-z5oo t xl
2 z-91 t o t xJ
3 2-cqgo t xl
v-v-x?-zx'-5
,t r \
e
t
by, _ 4x 4 2.6q67
\xr -nol = o-oool r o. ooo E
5 2,bq'6 ]
s\qcQ, k^-alo6-z.Gqo1l o_ooot z o_ooo5

=
Hon cL +hL yaol v! = T5 = z.G4o6 *
d)tz+\t-l=o ; [-.q,-2) ) L, o-ooo5
5et xo= - 4.oooo
(C*l' tt"+?zL'-l , O L . X-r,
('C*) --?ztr + Gz-
o - 4-oooo Lx l
I -Z-Lqft Lxj
tl*it 2 -a-q6SS LxJ
Lirt = LC
II
f 'C*i I b _2.$eA4 Lxj L

X7 +?xa -l + -z-?7a4
t
Y=X- ( O.ocrots
3Y2 + 6x 5 4_.9+q+ J,"s-zrl =o.oooo
srnc,e l-t.q+a4 f 2.g? 4ta \ = 9 ( o-ooo5
l\eoee tha rool t = Ls = -2- ?744 X
e):r-coezt=e j Lo,yr) o-0 ooF

) e.=
set Lo-- o_oooo
fCzr) = >t- cogzc
i ',y,t
('CrL)=l.}Sfn2 o o-oooo Lxl

I i.oooo Lxl
{(tr,\ 2 o-a6o\ Lxl
f /Cx-5) b
1""'=Lr'' 3 o.?3e I t
X-cosx Wo-xzl =o-oooo ( o-ooo5
\./ _
'\
ru
t\-- A o-?tql
l+SrnX
lin cp. I o.+eat -o-T3ql -- o lo.aoo\

I
llenc.e the rOot ?d =L4= O-7341 {
f) ?t+Sin)c-?-a=O ) f-o,t7 i L=o-ooo:5
Sot Lo = I.OoOO
L )v;
tc,-)=?zt+sinz -e* o t .oooo Exl
+'Cl1\-- /rcosx-eiL I -o-?G64 Exl
a o-zqt\ Ix]
{crtc) o. 35e l txl
= ?
1'u' '>1:- €'crt6 e
4 0-7604 1 t
3X+s;nX -ex I \rs-*o = 0.O0OO < O.OOO5
Y= X- 5 (c-?6c,4
3+ coS X _gx J
gittcQ.t o.g 604-

O-?eo|l = o <oaool
fiUcs tha root )L* =Ts 0-3604 ,f
=
9) x-o.g-o.zsin x=o ; lo,lr] ; O=O-OOO5

Set zo: o-Oooo
fCzc)
i >L;
=L- o.B -o.z Siq ,"
('cr1= l-o-z cos>L
o o_oooo Lxl
ffi
I t -oooo [x]
*
2 o,eG45 I
o-oo 02 <o _ooo 5

3 O.q6 43 l'"*o =
v_ rz_ x-o.g_ogsinX
,\
l-o.z cosx
Sincg- \O.qGAZ-O.q 6h1l: oooo2 1o-ooos

Hence the .oot Z* = Xj= o-q6hy x
O f*a tha smallest posrlive roo| of foll owinq ectruaf ien usinsJ
Neurlon method.Show on gou. .alc,^tatirn iX ir/p
4) 3 t- ga =
g =>f Czc) =Zxr-ev Point ol ir*erserlron is in
3r" --eL Lo, t]
fCz) f(a)f 66;.o
Y=3* ,, aL
v--o
fco) = -1
{cl) >0-2917
{Co)f CD =-0.281? { O
," x! o (orl)
fr
\-- smatlest Posi+iv@ valv,o
Se* .Lo= o.oooo ; O: o.o0oS

by selliog Lo=t-oooO
{Cr.) 3x, -eT
=
7.;
{'c*1 = 6x--eL L ?L;
O o-oooo o t.oooo Lxl
;, ffi\ 2
1 -l.ooOO
_o.Dg67
r o.QlAz [x]
\:
3 _0.46qs a o.e loo ]
-x,l < L
I l*g
X=X_3x"-d A -o_4sqt 3 o-q too J
6x_ex
5 -o.45q0
#
6annot ac*eVl
Lacauiso root is
C-ve) whan set
?Co=O
Since \ootoo -o-qlool : o.oooQ z o.OoO5
l\evwo the root t = Ls' o-qtoo #

b)st" x - 2* 13 =O =) f(z) =Sr07c -2*+Z
Sin ?c =aa--3
Porntof rnterscclion rs ih
Lt,zl
f CaXCb> a o
€Ct) = \-BAIE
l(.el ---o'oqo1
f C\)f Cz) = - 0.16+o (O
,', %* e (Vz)
Se* ro= l-o O0O ) C=O-OOOS

f Cro = sio 'tt -7*+!
+'cD = (os^x -2 L
"Ll,
o t -oooo [x]
I 2-26\5, Lx]
)_ t.qAG? Lxl
X=X -
SinX -2*. +? z [-Q6zz r t
CoS X -2 l r- -r. I = o oooo(o-ooo5
I _46zzj
sincs lt.aezz-l.q,62zl = O,osoo ( o_ooo5

Venc?, the .oot f = 7-4-- ;4622o"
C) ?L2-l* +2-€* * a => fCzc) =?(-?-?v+2-€L
Z(?-?*+2 = e-L
f tr) 3=Lz$ztrz Pant o$ infe^seclion is in
V=e-L [0, r]
{ca)fCb) < o
fco) = I
{ Cr) = -e -3e?q
{b)f(t)=-o.3G?Q <o
.'. ?c* e (o r)
Sg+ Lo=o-oooo
I g=o;ooo5
{CA't-?x+a-€* i, x-,
{,CD =tt-?+e-d. o -oooo
o Lxl
o-5ooo Ix]
Vv:
I
o.6030 t,xl
e
y'-3x*2-e-' o-bgo t
X=X- 3
zx -7+{x -zst = O-Ooo0 < o.Ooo5
4 o-6040 1'*,
gince Io-eolo-o-6oqo
I = o.ooo0 <O.OaoF
Hance the "eo| z<! =
Lq = o-boqo x
d) x' r tO cos >r = O => €b) =t3+lo bs L
\O cos ?c = -7L2
fc*)
Poinl of iqfur\etl'bn iE lr)
to U =l0coSzc \,T,,J
/) Srnat[ss{ +vo
vatuo
{Ca>fCb) c o
* {ct; = 6.11$?o
+O) '-o.t6r5
f(r)fCz>=-t. o??q Lo
,'. T* e (JrZ)
9= -z]
ge.+ To= l-oooo ; e=o.Ooos
{Ca-): rc2+\o coszc 7d;

L
(b) -- 2-z''lo sin zc
o [-oOo o L*l
I t.44Bz Lxl
Y:'=":W 2. l.q6g4 txl
L
X2+\O coS X 3 r.q 681 t
Y = X- 1 \*o-r, I = o-@oo < OoooS
2X-tosiD x 4 t.qcy)
sincrL lt.n6r9-l.q6gql = o-oooo < oooo5
tlwcz the roo+ zl =4q,= l.q68q *
L
flxED POINT METH.D
* Exerciee L.G (?age 25-26)
C\he qr^ation zLA nzr*-xL-l=o has a root in Lt ,2)- Show that the
given e4,$alion cc^n be writt@n in eev\ra\ #orm of (ixed ?otnl
\tero|;sa eXuatron ?L,g(71) css tollow z
a) rt - ( ?xa +2xa +z\ b)x--(##)",

' \ [ttt +\n-\ )
c) x = (1+'rL-rL^Lz)t/4 ,\),
2L+ 3-ra ,/t
=( T )
Uso fixed poinl ltgrqtion {orrnu\or %i,+t = g(L) in qll abov@ cases lo
{rnd that roof sharling qrifh %o=l, Show atl J ov.r calcula5on in 4Dp
and Slop ite,ration aQlA" 2O itev-,atron if
lho rnelhoo\ sfill not converged-
a) + 3v+ +2{ z +2n'-tt -3 +bxq +7t =,ltt-a +2*,

tth
\ila +\*2
-rt = g*q +7t + 3
tt( A*+42-t) = Zxq +Z*" tZ
e=o,oo05 *
ZL = 3zo4 2X2 +3
= lcn)
U= 3x4 +t*+Z tt' =+ lTv\ 4zt423+4rc - I
V = ( Ate +t+x- l)-' V/ = - t (t4x3 + 4t- t) -' (tt* + h)

= - (ttx,* u)(4rcz + 4x-l)-2
g'Cn)= uv/+vtr'
+zx?+7)(rut+h)(4nt +t+x-tF, * G*+A2-lFl (tzxl + h:z)
={c,xA
ao=l t 3'(r)= g'Cl) = - O,3Z6d
I g'(r)l = ,-3 265 <l
,
aa gL*) salisf itcs convergetrcr- L x';
undrlion o \-oooo Lxl
Lrn,=(ffi) ', il,iii;,-,. "t,o
y=(3/',4+z/,2-3:\ 3 \'\241 J
'\ L4xz rAy-l ) gih6altu-x-rl 1 o.oao;/ .,, 7-,F=Lz=1.1241
xg
b) La *z* -- x+! glr-) = (*+g)t/, (a"+zfl"
L'Ltt'+Z)= t*g JJ
UV
^t'L '- 1L+9
g'(*)= dV/ +v u'
T"
*-ffi",xLL) rr= (zt+3)Ve v= (Nl+z-SUz
u'= (tt.aJ'r, (l) v,= -i@*ij 'r^ (rg
e=o.ooo| -_ -tc(Lo+z)' 76
g'(*)= -)((n"+21-e/z
A1)t ,*
?(-r.,=(g-Y'
'uc+l LrCnrzyt/z qx"+21-Uz
x =r x+-L \'" )[o=l', 9'( t) = -O...,OG

Lx'*2) lg'cr)l ' o -Zqoe 1 I
:, gCr) sa*is€res convetBene'

Ltt condihon
o .oooo L* ]
[
I r.r54? L*]
2 l-l{e4 Lxl
3 t.\LG4 t*l
4 t.\23G L xl
6 I't24'.|r,'e-Lsl<e,
6 l.tzA I J
since \l.t:41 -l.l24Zl =O.oool <o.ooo5

:. lhe .oot L* -- L6 = l.t24l
{
c) LA = b+tt -Z.t g(A = (g+x-2*r>"4
x. = (3t *-z*")V4 -- gL,o) g'cn)=
L+x ,*iro (t_ +*7
f C
Lo--lr gr(t)=-0.4460
0= o -ooo 5
l9'crl l = o'44 60 Ll
L [*r = (j rili -zztf )'/+ :. gLr) salisf res conver gencg,
condilion
x -'(?+X-zx')"0
i v-;
o t.oooo
I l.l84e
2 l.0gol
4 0l?
3 \.1 4
4 i. rolg
5 I .133q binc?- | t. tZr+o -l.tZa3\ = O.0oo ? <o.ooo5
6 I.llgo :, ll're rool t . ?Lut= l. tZ4 O 4

1 l. rz?Q
I l. tz tg
q 1.t255
lo 1.1232
\l [.1247
.\2 1. l23B
r3 \- 12la3 I
I \r,,+ -tLyl < e
r4 \. tzAo l
A) Z:tt = b+L-Lt I
3 C^)
JT
Arx-r+yv.
?La -- 3+*-t4
T -F (;) (z+tc-rt+il' (
g'c,-) -\
r - 4zs)
- r L+r-t[\Vz
"=t " J =9L*) To=1 , g'(l)= -O.arz4
lg'C}l= o-G124 < |
0--o.ooF :, 3L?L) sat;S{'es convTrgstrLe

condilion
zn,=(ry)\o
x=(ry)r"
-tL
L t
o \.ooo o
I taz47
L o.q47?
5 l-zz'ig
4 o-q$ +5
5 \4-?4
6 o.qg t 6
7 l-2356
B 0.Q?60
q 1.239?
\o oelct?
u \-2ht5
l2 0.Q658
r3 l.2A4l
r4 o.%GtZ
l5 1,7465
t6 o.QS?Z
l? I .24 85
Ig o-a{?6
rq 1.2504
20 o.q503
* Siop iieration a++er 20 iteratfovt becavse
gLrO slitl not @hv?rge
*
@ Wri+o the 4ollowing eflttfiion f(.n) =O into fixed point iteration
eguuho6 x=!bt) 0s givu-Awc| vtsing t;xeA point iteration frnd
the rocrl ol fCr")=O in giveq tnla"yo\'l and slo..ting wrtl", given Xo-
SL,ow q\\ gour calc.r\alion in 4DP.
cl) a
')L)-)t--l=o t ?L=
L+l
1L
, Lt,N t xo= 1.5
.1,
x'2t--- zL+l 9L,')= (ntt)Yz (n)-h

t= *+l u: (zt +t)Vz u'=
x--@
?L
t,
ibt+r;h
J?u V=L - /+7 V/ = -
f,x-3t"
T'Cl,) ? t1v +v v'
t
7'n
= -
,(zt+r)tzz
(rt )- r i* '^ (x*t1-tr.
Lo=1.5 i gt(r.F) = -o.l72l
{=o.ooOg
I9'(r.5)l o'l?71= 1l '
.'| gLL) salisfias
convergencp cond*r oo
Li+t =
a x; sinc& \t-3za+ -\.?zu6l *0.ooOl ( O OOOS

O l.5ooo .'. the root )L* --?L 6 -- l-2247
O
\ l.zct to
z t.z32l
t \'323\
A \.j251
5 t.3LA6
tL
6 \-Ltttl \t*,-xot
b) 2sin rz +?( =Q I sin-r l,l,z) t
) )c =
C*)-, ) Lo= |
I
.,
bg .rsing 1.,30 properhes : sin(A-0) = sinA cnsg- sing coSA
gin (fl1_2rr)= sinII?L cos2rr _ sin2Tr cos ITz
= sin Tz
2 sin(nz -zn) + x =o
sin(tI?r-21I) = -*
2
t\x-2rr -- sin-r
Ct)
x-> =|stn-'G)
* = f stn-' (t)r, = 9u)
s@=I si6-r(-t).,
g'czt)= I f t\
r JF,)T(-Z)
-t
=_\'/ t \
zr[@/ Sincg[ t.af tl -l.6g ztl=s.s.o3<ct-ooo,
.'. the root r* =L6= l-68 Lq X
Lo=l i g '[ r) = -O_ \g 39
lg,cr)l = o.ttjg 1l
,
lr l1r) satr sfres conygrg?nca
condilion
L 7i
o l-o@o
0=O.ooo$ I r.$3?3
Lir,= 2 1_6to4
ds,n-'(*)* ? \-6q65
4 t-6?+?
5 \.6$32
c l_69t6
7 t-6$2..1 ,
r;;; Itzt-xrl tE'

I '
C)%-lan ?L=O t L=,1- -l +t ) Lh ,sJ , Lo-- 4
lan r )L
I
v
'tc= lan tL
g@ = Ctan L)-l- tt +z-
l\ 9'@) = - Cr) (nan *) - Gt)t" *l
tavrr- ^)'"(sec"
^ I = - ser-L tL ,-
I .r- t
O= '
lo.vtl?L t''
tan zt ?L
I
Lo-A t gtC+1 -_ _0.6g3b
l?L'. ?c= I I
+ 7L = g(1)
'tan zc 7L I g'c\l= o'68 35 ( \
.'. 3Ca,) Sdhsfigs (rrnvmg(.Aez condi{lOn

0= o-ooo5
\
'r*'r.*,
Lc*r=
#,
X=,1 -I+X
\anX X
L V,i
o 4.oo oo
I t\6177
2 h.4q60
3
i",i;i} t"o 'Lbt <z
!
since t +-+Of4 - A.qq34 l = o_oooo lo.ooos
' .', )ho roo) zt* = Lq= A.,tfilq
#
d) 3*-€j .o ) x--{+2z- Lo,tl , %o=o
Llc +'2
J
+2zc: 9c^> = (9*+z'(3,.+z)-l
3l,a +2X = gL +27c
rO*+z) +2t-
u=*+zx at: eT+2
= ea
v , (zx+z)-l vl -- -l (zx +z\a (z)
e7+27
=9(x) t
bx+z 9'C^> = ttV +t/ t^t
=-h(t+zlc) *ex+2
(?z'tt1t" Ax+D
f,,: O-ooo5
%i*, = O*t *a'ct

;. g(t) satis{ies ohvfiLnce condi}fon
3ri +t
X-- d +2x
3x +2
t, 7L,i
o O-oooo
I o. 50 oo
z o-?568
3 o.BE36
4 o.ggq I
5 o -10 23
G o.{ o+ I
? o -q,o$q
8
-rst <z
q Z';:;:o]
'".
9inc4 [o9o qq -o.qoq 6l = o.ooo3 10 -ooo5
.'. tL'a .oot ztt= Tq=o-eOel
*
e)x-@szt=O ) 2L- coSL+itL , lO,t1 t Lo=o
J
7-z C.OS * 9(z'; =
\ Lr,oSz+z)
+?Li azc= **
*rl** g,(*) -- C-sn rr + r)
jr= f
#=gi^) ' Xo=c) : 9'@) = o.5 1\
.'. $Czc) SahSf;gS conv%rgr2kcg corrdil,.on
0= o-0005
tlr--
@s Li' +Lc
'-L+l'-
\, - cogX +f,
7
i ti
O o.Oooo
I o.5ooo
2 0.6899
3 o-?3o4
4 0.7?77
5 o.?3sq t,
6 l\?q-7'5\ e
<
ct'?310
Sinc e lo-?3qo - o.l?gql = o.oool 1 o.ooo!

:, llre rool t! = il6 = O-??1O X
+) Lt +?t* -l =o tx= I
J t*zc
, Lo, t7 t {o=O'
I
v
kb+ztL -- \ gCA= I t*,.f
1L2 (z+t) = 1 g,cn)=
"
-*(r+*i?r"
I
t- -
^tL
L+l Lo=Q: |'CO;= -O.5
z --ffi I
= gc^) \g'co)l = o.5 < I
;, gL^-) safisf,zs converyence co ndi*ion
Z=o.ooog
?Li+r =
f,= I
Jr+x
i' xt
o o-oooo
I l.Oooo
2 o.?0?l
3 0.?654
q o.a6l6
5 o_?E E4
6 o.?E 4g l
lx+-z-el < e
7 o.?EAq J
since. I 0.?54q - o q5 4gl * o.ooal ( o.ooo5

.'. th a .oot ,C! * L? = o -?b 4i x
3) Jlc -4x+2 --o t ?L=+ , [t ,zJ , Lr--l
\tt= E +Z
}bq= +z)
+(.[zc
,=fi;, =Nr) s'c,q=
+(+) tt/^
=
**'n
e ^ o.oooE 'tLo= | ; g'(l) = o.ll-i 1 t
^,- - W+2
_ .,. $(,zr) salrsfigs @nvlrE?Jce condit;on
^-c+l T
X=J7+z
+
L x_;
O t-ogoo
l o-?50 0
2 0.7165
g o-71t6
: 3:llll i'"-1,*t <
gac& o.?l o8 -o.? loq = o-o ool < o -o ooi

[ |
; lhe root f , LE = o-Tlog t
h)coSx-7xt3=o t CrS ?( +3 I rLt,2)
)dz
T t'Lo=l
,t
gL?L) (coszr- +3)
2?c= cos * +t = +
L=cos*+g g'c*) = z)
z =!c*) +(-sih
ilo=\ l g'e)= -o,A2o7
l7'ct>l , o. 4zo? ( I
L=o.ooo5 .', 3Czu) Sat,sf,'eS convergehCo cond,JOn
1t Co$ x +t
(a+r=T
X = coq X +3
2
L ,lL;
o \.og oo
I t.??o z sr nco \ t. sza5- $z lg,l = o.0oo3 I O.0Aci6
L 1.4C)1 o .',fl'rg rool 2(! =xrz= 1.52?5
T t.5945
*
4 l.4q 3l
5 l.53gg
6 1.5t60
7 l.527ta
I t'5zt?
q r.5245
Io 1.5231
il l.5z3S
\2 \,5235 Ito-rrl < L
\)z* +7* -br-F=o
IW
tL=
2x+t
,lt,z) ) ko=l
t
v
L'(z^+3) = ?tt +S lh) = (?x+S)h (zt+?iY"
q 7- ?x+5
- u= (?x+ilv" u,=
'' '|vag *G)Gt+E\b
v = (Lxrz\b r, -i()(ra+g7-3rz
L--w
lm z g(*)
=
{tA= tvvt + vvrt

= - (s*+5Y r trz1zx*gir,
2(g7r+5l
,\?/Lrr,,
W"t
e , O.ooo $
Lr--\ : g'Ct) = -o.cst\6,
?(-:..=W-
wt J zx;rg (
l9'0;\:o'o158 I
v _ t2,,G5'
l- i. g)x) satisf;gs conv}ry?lyr6g conolilron
^-J2X+?
t i{-;
o t-0000
I \.264q
L il 'l
\.26 ,
<0
3 \-z6,rJla|-L'l
since I l.zcr2 - I-2611 I = o.oool 4 o.ooo 5
:,lho roOl f =L3--t.261211

'te +en-z
, [-\,ol , Lo = -l
3r= x"+e? -A gh)= (x.+"tt-a)

+
n--- %"rr*-a = gc' 1'u) ttr+eL)
3
=
[
?C6: r. \; 9' C-t) = - O.54QO
l3l(-r)l = o'544o L l
0= o -ooo5
,'. $(zc) SaliSf;gs conv(crgutce co nd,*ion
Lirt = X-iz + eLi -,
3
X: \7rd-z
9
L 7.t
o -"l.Oo Og
I *o-zt07
L -o.3glq
3 -o.3qob I
h -o-34r3J\Lq-74ltL
Sinc4 l-o.ZaO3 r o-?qo5l =o-ooay I o-ctoog

;, lh e rool { -- oo= -0,?4o?6a
A17KA0105
ELIMINATION METHOD
***Exercise 2.1
Solve the following 1-8 system of linear equations using
(a) Gauss elimination
(b) Gauss elimination with partial pivoting
Show your calculation in 4DP.
1 2 4 𝑥1 11 1 2 4 11 18
1. a) 4 1 −1 𝑥2 = 6 [A|b] = 4 1 −1 6 10
2 5 2 𝑥3 3 2 5 2 3 12
𝑚21 = 4/1 = 4 ; −𝑚21 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 → 𝑅2
𝑚31 = 2/1 = 2 ; −𝑚31 𝑅1 + 𝑅3 → 𝑅3
Operation: −𝑚21 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 → 𝑅2 Operation: −𝑚31 𝑅1 + 𝑅3 → 𝑅3

-4 (1) + (4) = 0 -2 (1) + (2) = 0
-4 (2) + (1) = -7 -2 (2) + (5) = 1
-4 (4) + (-1) = -7 -2 (4) + (2) = -6
-4 (11) + (6) = -38 -2 (11) + (3) = -19
-4 (18) + (10) = -62 -2 (18) + (12) = -24
1 2 4 11 18
0 −7 −17 −38 −62 𝑚32 = 1/−7 = −0.1429 ; −𝑚32 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 → 𝑅3
0 1 −6 −19 −24
Operation: −𝑚32 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 → 𝑅3
-0.1429 (-7) + (1) = 0
-0.1429 (-17) + (-6) = -8.4293 1 2 4 11 18
-0.1429 (-38) + (-19) = -24.4302 0 −7 −17 −38 −62 = [U|d]
-0.1429 (-62) + (-24) = -32.8598 0 0 −8.4293 −24.4302 −32.8595
The equivalent system is given by Ux = d,

or
1.0000𝑥1 + 2.0000𝑥2 + 4.0000𝑥3 = 11
0.0000𝑥1 − 7.0000𝑥2 − 17.0000𝑥3 = −38
0.0000𝑥1 + 0.0000𝑥2 − 8.4293𝑥3 = −24.4302
By using calculator to solve the simultaneous equation:
𝑥1 = 2.6271
𝑥2 = -1.6100 Solution: x = 𝑥̂ = (2.6271 , -1.6100 , 2.8982)
𝑥3 = 2.8982
A17KA0105
1 2 4 𝑥1 11 1 2 4 11 18
1. b) 4 1 −1 𝑥2 = 6 [A|b] = 4 1 −1 6 10
2 5 2 𝑥3 3 2 5 2 3 12
𝑅1 ↔ 𝑅2 (𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑖𝑣𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔)
4 1 −1 6 10
1 2 4 11 18
2 5 2 3 12
𝑚21 = 1/4 = 0.25 ; −𝑚21 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 → 𝑅2

𝑚31 = 2/4 = 0.50 ; −𝑚31 𝑅1 + 𝑅3 → 𝑅3

-0.25 (4) + (1) = 0 -0.5 (4) + (2) = 0
-0.25 (1) + (2) = 1.75 -0.5 (1) + (5) = 4.5
-0.25 (-1) + (4) = 4.25 -0.5 (-1) + (2) = 2.5
-0.25 (6) + (11) = 9.5 -0.5 (6) + (3) = 0
-0.25 (10) + (18) = 15.5 -0.5 (10) + (12) = 7
4 1 −1 6 10 4 1 −1 6 10
0 1.75 4.25 9.5 15.5 𝑅2 ↔ 𝑅3 (𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑖𝑣𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔) 0 4.5 2.5 0 7
0 4.5 2.5 0 7 0 1.75 4.25 9.5 15.5
𝑚32 = 1.75/4.5 = 0.3889 ;
−𝑚32 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 → 𝑅3
-0.3889 (4.5) + (1.75) = -0.0001 = 0
-0.3889 (2.5) + (4.25) = 3.2778 4 1 −1 6 10
0 4.5 2.5 0 7 = [U|d]
-0.3889 (0.0) + (9.50) = 9.5
0 0 3.2778 9.5 12.7777
-0.3889 (7.0) + (15.5) = 12.7777

or
4.0000𝑥1 + 1.0000𝑥2 − 1.0000𝑥3 = 6
0.0000𝑥1 + 4.5000𝑥2 + 2.5000𝑥3 = 0
0.0000𝑥1 + 0.0000𝑥2 + 3.2778𝑥3 = 9.5
𝑥1 = 2.6271
𝑥2 = -1.6102 Solution: x = 𝑥̂ = (2.6271 , -1.6102 , 2.8983)
𝑥3 = 2.8983
A17KA0105
1.4 −3.4 8.3 𝑥1 2.4 1.4 −3.4 8.3 2.4 8.7

2. a) 3.1 7.1 −4.7 𝑥2 = 5.1 [A|b] = 3.1 7.1 −4.7 5.1 10.6
5.6 3.8 1.2 𝑥3 1.4 5.6 3.8 1.2 1.4 12
𝑚21 = 3.1/1.4 = 2.2143 ; −𝑚21 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 → 𝑅2
𝑚31 = 5.6/1.4 = 4.0000 ; −𝑚31 𝑅1 + 𝑅3 → 𝑅3

-2.2143 (1.4) + (3.1) =0 -4 (1.4) + (5.6) =0
-2.2143 (-3.4) + (7.1) = 14.6286 -4 (-3.4) + (3.8) = 17.4
-2.2143 (8.3) + (-4.7) = -23.0787 -4 (8.3) + (1.2) = -32
-2.2143 (2.4) + (5.1) = -0.2143 -4 (2.4) + (1.4) = -8.2
-2.2143 (8.7) + (10.6) = -8.6644 -4 (8.7) + (12) = -22.8
1.4 −3.4 8.3 2.4 8.7 17.4

0 14.6286 −23.0787 −0.2143 −8.6644 𝑚32 = = 1.1895 ; −𝑚32 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 → 𝑅3
14.6286
0 17.4 −32 −8.2 −22.8
-1.1895 (14.6286) + (17.4) = -0.0007 = 0
-1.1895 (-23.0787) + (-32) = -4.5479 1.4 −3.4 8.3 2.4 8.7
0 14.6286 −23.0787 −0.2143 −8.6644 = [U|d]
-1.1895 (-0.2143) + (-8.2) = -7.9451
0 0 −4.5479 −7.9451 −12.4937
-1.1895 (-8.6644) + (-22.8) = -12.4937

or
1.4000𝑥1 − 3.4000𝑥2 + 8.3000𝑥3 = 2.4
0.0000𝑥1 + 14.6286𝑥2 − 23.0787𝑥3 = −0.2143
0.0000𝑥1 + 0.0000𝑥2 − 4.5479𝑥3 = −7.9451
𝑥1 = -1.9850
𝑥2 = 2.7415 Solution: x = 𝑥̂ = (-1.9850 , 2.7415 , 1.7470)
𝑥3 = 1.7470
A17KA0105
1.4 −3.4 8.3 𝑥1 2.4 1.4 −3.4 8.3 2.4 8.7

2. b) 3.1 7.1 −4.7 𝑥2 = 5.1 [A|b] = 3.1 7.1 −4.7 5.1 10.6
5.6 3.8 1.2 𝑥3 1.4 5.6 3.8 1.2 1.4 12
5.6 3.8 1.2 1.4 12

3.1 7.1 −4.7 5.1 10.6
1.4 −3.4 8.3 2.4 8.7
𝑚21 = 3.1/5.6 = 0.5536 ; −𝑚21 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 → 𝑅2

𝑚31 = 1.4/5.6 = 0.25 ; −𝑚31 𝑅1 + 𝑅3 → 𝑅3

-0.5536 (5.6) + (3.1) = -0.0002 = 0 -0.25 (5.6) + (1.4) =0
-0.5536 (3.8) + (7.1) = 4.9963 -0.25 (3.8) + (-3.4) = -4.35
-0.5536 (1.2) + (-4.7) = -5.3643 -0.25 (1.2) + (8.3) =8
-0.5536 (1.4) + (5.1) = 4.3250 -0.25 (1.4) + (2.4) = 2.05
-0.5536 (12) + (10.6) = 3.9568 -0.25 (12) + (8.7) = 5.7
5.6 3.8 1.2 1.4 12

0 4.9963 −5.3643 4.3250 3.9568 𝑚32 = −4.35/4.9963 = −0.8706 ; −𝑚32 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 → 𝑅3
0 −4.35 8 2.05 5.7
0.8706 (4.9963) + (-4.35) = -0.0002 = 0
0.8076 (-5.3643) + (8) = 3.3298 5.6 3.8 1.2 1.4 12
0 4.9963 −5.3643 4.3250 3.9568 = [U|d]
0.8076 (4.3250) + (2.05) = 5.8153
0 0 3.3298 5.8153 9.1448
0.8076 (3.9568) + (5.7) = 9.1448

or
5.6000𝑥1 + 3.8000𝑥2 + 1.2000𝑥3 = 1.4
0.0000𝑥1 + 4.9963𝑥2 − 5.3643𝑥3 = 4.325
0.0000𝑥1 + 0.0000𝑥2 + 3.3298𝑥3 = 9.1448
𝑥1 = -1.9840
𝑥2 = 2.7407 Solution: x = 𝑥̂ = (-1.9840 , 2.7407 , 1.7464)
𝑥3 = 1.7464
A17KA0105
3 4 3 𝑥1 16 3 4 3 16 26
3. a) 1 5 −1 𝑥2 = −12 [A|b] = 1 5 −1 −12 −7
6 3 7 𝑥3 102 6 3 7 102 118
𝑚21 = 1/3 = 0.3333 ; −𝑚21 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 → 𝑅2
𝑚31 = 6/3 = 2.0000 ; −𝑚31 𝑅1 + 𝑅3 → 𝑅3

-0.3333 (3) + (1) = 0.0001 = 0 -2 (3) + (6) = 0
-0.3333 (4) + (5) = 3.6668 -2 (4) + (3) = -5
-0.3333 (3) + (-1) = -1.9999 -2 (3) + (7) = 1
-0.3333 (16) + (-12) = -17.3328 -2 (16) + (102) = 70
-0.3333 (26) + (-7) = -15.6658 -2 (26) + (118) = 66
3 4 3 16 26
0 3.6668 −1.9999 −17.3328 −15.6658 𝑚32 = −5/3.6668 = −1.3636 ; −𝑚32 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 → 𝑅3
0 −5 1 70 66
1.3636 (3.6668) + (-5) =0
1.3636 (-1.9999) + (1) = -1.7271 3 4 3 16 26
0 3.6668 −1.9999 −17.3328 −15.6658 = [U|d]
1.3636 (-17.3328) + (70) = 46.3650
0 0 −1.7271 46.3650 44.6381
1.3636 (-15.6658) + (66) = 44.6381

or
3.0000𝑥1 + 4.0000𝑥2 + 3.0000𝑥3 = 16
0.0000𝑥1 + 3.6668𝑥2 − 1.9999𝑥3 = −17.3328
0.0000𝑥1 + 0.0000𝑥2 − 1.7271𝑥3 = 46.3650
𝑥1 = 58.0039
𝑥2 = -19.3687 Solution: x = 𝑥̂ = (58.0039 , -19.3687 , -26.8456)
𝑥3 = -26.8456
A17KA0105
3 4 3 𝑥1 16 3 4 3 16 26
3. b) 1 5 −1 𝑥2 = −12 [A|b] = 1 5 −1 −12 −7
6 3 7 𝑥3 102 6 3 7 102 118
6 3 7 102 118
1 5 −1 −12 −7
3 4 3 16 26
𝑚21 = 1/6 = 0.1667 ; −𝑚21 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 → 𝑅2

𝑚31 = 3/6 = 0.5000 ; −𝑚31 𝑅1 + 𝑅3 → 𝑅3

-0.1667 (6) + (1) = -0,0002 = 0 -0.5 (6) + (3) = 0
-0.1667 (3) + (5) = 4.4999 -0.5 (3) + (4) = 2.5
-0.1667 (7) + (-1) = -2.1669 -0.5 (7) + (3) = -0.5
-0.1667 (102) + (-12) = -29.0034 -0.5 (102) + (16) = -35
-0.1667 (118) + (-7) = -26.6706 -0.5 (118) + (26) = -33
6 3 7 102 118 2.5

0 4.4999 −2.1669 −29.0034 −26.6706 𝑚32 = = 0.5556 ; −𝑚32 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 → 𝑅3
4.4999
0 2.5 −0.5 −35 −33
-0.5556 (4.4999) + (2.5) = -0.0001 = 0
-0.5556 (-2.1669) + (-0.5) = 0.7039 6 3 7 102 118
0 4.4999 −2.1669 −29.0034 −26.6706 = [U|d]
-0.5556 (-29.0034) + (-35) = -18.8857
0 0 0.7039 −18.8857 −18.1818
-0.5556 (-26.6706) + (-33) = -18.1818

or
6.0000𝑥1 + 3.0000𝑥2 + 7.0000𝑥3 = 102
0.0000𝑥1 + 4.4999𝑥2 − 2.1669𝑥3 = −29.0034
0.0000𝑥1 + 0.0000𝑥2 + 0.7039𝑥3 = −18.8857
𝑥1 = 57.9844
𝑥2 = -19.3652 Solution: x = 𝑥̂ = (57.9844 , -19.3652 , -26.8301)
𝑥3 = -26.8301
A17KA0105
2 8 4 𝑥1 9 2 8 4 9 23
4. a) 4 −5 −16 𝑥2 = 7 [A|b] = 4 −5 −16 7 −10
10 −5 1 𝑥3 4 10 −5 1 4 10
𝑚21 = 4/2 = 2 ; −𝑚21 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 → 𝑅2
𝑚31 = 10/2 = 5 ; −𝑚31 𝑅1 + 𝑅3 → 𝑅3

-2 (2) + (4) = 0 -5 (2) + (10) =0
-2 (8) + (-5) = -21 -5 (8) + (-5) = -45
-2 (4) + (-16) = -24 -5 (4) + (1) = -19
-2 (9) + (7) = -11 -5 (9) + (4) = -41
-2 (23) + (-10) = -56 -5 (23) + (10) = -105
2 8 4 9 23
0 −21 −24 −11 −56 𝑚32 = −45/−21 = 2.1429 ; −𝑚32 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 → 𝑅3
0 −45 −19 −41 −105
-2.1429 (-21) + (-45) = 0.0009 = 0
2 8 4 9 23
-2.1429 (-24) + (-19) = 32.4296
0 −21 −24 −11 −56 = [U|d]
-2.1429 (-11) + (-41) = -17.4281
0 0 32.4296 −17.4281 15.0024
-2.1249 (-56) + (-105) = 15.0024

or
2.0000𝑥1 + 8.0000𝑥2 + 4.0000𝑥3 = 9
0.0000𝑥1 − 21.0000𝑥2 − 24.0000𝑥3 = −11
0.0000𝑥1 + 0.0000𝑥2 + 32.4296𝑥3 = −17.4281
𝑥1 = 1.0228
𝑥2 = 1.1380 Solution: x = 𝑥̂ = (1.0228 , 1.1380 , -0.5374)
𝑥3 = -0.5374
A17KA0105
2 8 4 𝑥1 9 2 8 4 9 23
4. b) 4 −5 −16 𝑥2 = 7 [A|b] = 4 −5 −16 7 −10
10 −5 1 𝑥3 4 10 −5 1 4 10
10 −5 1 4 10
4 −5 −16 7 −10
2 8 4 9 23
𝑚21 = 4/10 = 0.4 ; −𝑚21 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 → 𝑅2

𝑚31 = 2/10 = 0.2 ; −𝑚31 𝑅1 + 𝑅3 → 𝑅3

-0.4 (10) + (4) = 0 -0.2 (10) + (2) = 0
-0.4 (-5) + (-5) = -3 -0.2 (-5) + (8) = 9
-0.4 (1) + (-16) = -16.4 -0.2 (1) + (4) = 3.8
-0.4 (4) + (7) = 5.4 -0.2 (4) + (9) = 8.2
-0.4 (10) + (-10) = -14 -0.2 (10) + (23) = 21
10 −5 1 4 10 10 −5 1 4 10
0 −3 −16.4 5.4 −14 𝑅2 ↔ 𝑅3 (𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑖𝑣𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔) 0 9 3.8 8.2 21
0 9 3.8 8.2 21 0 −3 −16.4 5.4 −14
𝑚32 = −3/9 = −0.3333 ;

−𝑚32 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 → 𝑅3
0.3333 (9.0) + (-3) = -0.0003 = 0
0.3333 (3.8) + (-16.4) = -15.1335 10 −5 1 4 10
0.3333 (8.2) + (5.4) = 8.1331 0 9 3.8 8.2 21 = [U|d]
0.3333 (21) + (-14) = -7.0007 0 0 −15.1335 8.1331 −7.007

or
10.0000𝑥1 − 5.0000𝑥2 + 1.0000𝑥3 = 4
0.0000𝑥1 + 9.0000𝑥2 + 3.8000𝑥3 = 8.2
0.0000𝑥1 + 0.0000𝑥2 − 15.1335𝑥3 = 8.1331
𝑥1 = 1.0228
𝑥2 = 1.1380 Solution: x = 𝑥̂ = (1.0228 , 1.1380 , -0.5374)
𝑥3 = -0.5374
A17KA0105
12 7.8 4.6 𝑥1 21.38 12 7.8 4.6 21.38 45.78

5. a) 2 −3.5 1 𝑥2 = 22.35 [A|b] = 2 −3.5 1 22.35 21.85
−5 3 3.3 𝑥3 −9.08 −5 3 3.3 −9.08 −7.78
𝑚21 = 2/12 = 0.1667 ; −𝑚21 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 → 𝑅2
𝑚31 = −5/12 = −0.4167 ; −𝑚31 𝑅1 + 𝑅3 → 𝑅3

-0.1667 (12) + (2) = -0.0004 = 0 0.4167 (12) + (-5) = 0.0004 = 0
-0.1667 (7.8) + (-3.5) = -4.8003 0.4167 (7.8) + (3) = 6.2503
-0.1667 (4.6) + (1) = 0.2332 0.4167 (4.6) + (3.3) = 5.2168
-0.1667 (21.38) + (22.35) = 18.786 0.4167 (21.38) + (-9.08) = -0.1710
-0.1667 (45.78) + (21.85) = 14.2185 0.4167 (45.78) + (-7.78) = 11.2965
12 7.8 4.6 21.38 45.78 6.2503

0 −4.8003 0.2332 18.786 14.2185 𝑚32 = = −1.3021 ; −𝑚32 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 → 𝑅3
−4.8003
0 6.2503 5.2168 −0.1710 11.2965
1.3021 (-4.8003) + (6.2503) = -0.0002 = 0
1.3021 (0.2332) + (5.2168) = 5.5204 12 7.8 4.6 21.38 45.78
0 −4.8003 0.2332 18.786 14.2185 = [U|d]
1.3021 (18.786) + (-0.1710) = 24.2903
0 0 5.5204 24.2903 29.8104
1.3021 (14.2185) + (11.2965) = 29.8104

or
12.0000𝑥1 + 7.8000𝑥2 + 4.6000𝑥3 = 21.38
0.0000𝑥1 − 4.8003𝑥2 + 0.2332𝑥3 = 18.786
0.0000𝑥1 + 0.0000𝑥2 + 5.5204𝑥3 = 24.2903
𝑥1 = 2.4998
𝑥2 = -3.6997 Solution: x = 𝑥̂ = (2.4998 , -3.6997 , 4.4001)
𝑥3 = 4.4001
A17KA0105
12 7.8 4.6 𝑥1 21.38 12 7.8 4.6 21.38 45.78

5. b) 2 −3.5 1 𝑥2 = 22.35 [A|b] = 2 −3.5 1 22.35 21.85
−5 3 3.3 𝑥3 −9.08 −5 3 3.3 −9.08 −7.78
𝑚21 = 2/12 = 0.1667 ; −𝑚21 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 → 𝑅2

𝑚31 = −5/12 = −0.4167 ; −𝑚31 𝑅1 + 𝑅3 → 𝑅3

-0.1667 (12) + (2) = -0.0004 = 0 0.4167 (12) + (-5) = 0.0004 = 0
-0.1667 (7.8) + (-3.5) = -4.8003 0.4167 (7.8) + (3) = 6.2503
-0.1667 (4.6) + (1) = 0.2332 0.4167 (4.6) + (3.3) = 5.2168
-0.1667 (21.38) + (22.35) = 18.786 0.4167 (21.38) + (-9.08) = -0.1710
-0.1667 (45.78) + (21.85) = 14.2185 0.4167 (45.78) + (-7.78) = 11.2965
12 7.8 4.6 21.38 45.78 12 7.8 4.6 21.38 45.78

0 −4.8003 0.2332 18.786 14.2185 𝑅2 ↔ 𝑅3 0 6.2503 5.2168 −0.1710 11.2965
0 6.2503 5.2168 −0.1710 11.2965 0 −4.8003 0.2332 18.786 14.2185
𝑚32 = −4.8003/6.2503 = −0.7680 ;
−𝑚32 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 → 𝑅3
0.768 (6.2503) + (-4.8003) = -0.0001 = 0
12 7.8 4.6 21.38 45.78
0.768 (5.2168) + (0.2332) = 4.2397
0 6.2503 5.2168 −0.1710 11.2965 = [U|d]
0.768 (-0.1710) + (18.786) = 18.6547
0 0 4.2397 18.6547 22.8942
0.768 (11.2965) + (14.2185) = 22.8942

or
12.0000𝑥1 + 7.8000𝑥2 + 4.6000𝑥3 = 21.38
0.0000𝑥1 + 6.2503𝑥2 + 5.2168𝑥3 = −0.1710
0.0000𝑥1 + 0.0000𝑥2 + 4.2397𝑥3 = 18.6547
𝑥1 = 2.4999
𝑥2 = -3.6998 Solution: x = 𝑥̂ = (2.4999 , -3.6998 , 4.4000)
𝑥3 = 4.4000
A17KA0105
0.5 −8.7 15.3 𝑥1 0.6 0.5 −8.7 15.3 0.6 7.7

6. a) 0.9 2.5 6.4 𝑥2 = 11 [A|b] = 0.9 2.5 6.4 11 20.8
3.7 4.8 −2.5 𝑥3 7.8 3.7 4.8 −2.5 7.8 13.8
𝑚21 = 0.9/0.5 = 1.8 ; −𝑚21 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 → 𝑅2
𝑚31 = 3.7/0.5 = 7.4 ; −𝑚31 𝑅1 + 𝑅3 → 𝑅3

-1.8 (0.5) + (0.9) = 0 -7.4 (0.5) + (3.7) =0
-1.8 (-8.7) + (2.5) = 18.16 -7.4 (-8.7) + (4.8) = 69.18
-1.8 (15.3) + (6.4) = -21.14 -7.4 (15.3) + (-2.5) = -115.72
-1.8 (0.6) + (11) = 9.92 -7.4 (0.6) + (7.8) = 3.36
-1.8 (7.7) + (20.8) = 6.94 -7.4 (7.7) + (13.8) = -43.18
0.5 −8.7 15.3 0.6 7.7 69.18

0 18.16 −21.14 9.92 6.94 𝑚32 = = 3.8095 ; −𝑚32 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 → 𝑅3
18.16
0 69.18 −115.72 3.36 −43.18
-3.8095 (18.16) + (69.18) = -0.0005 = 0
0.5 −8.7 15.3 0.6 7.7
-3.8095 (-21.14) + (-115.72) = -35.1872
0 18.16 −21.14 9.92 6.94 = [U|d]
-3.8095 (9.92) + (3.36) = -34.4302
0 0 −35.1872 −34.4302 −69.6179
-3.8095 (6.94) + (-43.18) = -69.6179

or
0.5000𝑥1 − 8.7000𝑥2 + 15.3000𝑥3 = 0.6
0.0000𝑥1 + 18.1600𝑥2 − 21.1400𝑥3 = 9.92
0.0000𝑥1 + 0.0000𝑥2 − 35.1872𝑥3 = −34.4302
𝑥1 = 0.5827
𝑥2 = 1.6853 Solution: x = 𝑥̂ = (0.5827 , 1.6853 , 0.9785)
𝑥3 = 0.9785
A17KA0105
0.5 −8.7 15.3 𝑥1 0.6 0.5 −8.7 15.3 0.6 7.7

6. b) 0.9 2.5 6.4 𝑥2 = 11 [A|b] = 0.9 2.5 6.4 11 20.8
3.7 4.8 −2.5 𝑥3 7.8 3.7 4.8 −2.5 7.8 13.8
3.7 4.8 −2.5 7.8 13.8

0.9 2.5 6.4 11 20.8
0.5 −8.7 15.3 0.6 7.7
𝑚21 = 0.9/3.7 = 0.2432 ; −𝑚21 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 → 𝑅2

𝑚31 = 0.5/3.7 = 0.1351 ; −𝑚31 𝑅1 + 𝑅3 → 𝑅3

-0.2432 (3.7) + (0.9) = 0.0002 = 0 -0.1351 (3.7) + (0.5) = 0.0001 = 0
-0.2432 (4.8) + (2.5) = 1.3326 -0.1351 (4.8) + (-8.7) = -9.3485
-0.2432 (-2.5) + (6.4) = 7.008 -0.1351 (-2.5) + (15.3) = 15.6378
-0.2432 (7.8) + (11) = 9.103 -0.1351 (7.8) + (0.6) = -0.4538
-0.2432 (13.8) + (20.8) = 17.4438 -0.1351 (13.8) + (7.7) = 5.8356
3.7 4.8 −2.5 7.8 13.8 3.7 4.8 −2.5 7.8 13.8
0 1.3326 7.008 9.103 17.4438 𝑅2 ↔ 𝑅3 0 −9.3485 15.6378 −0.4538 5.8356
0 −9.3485 15.6378 −0.4538 5.8356 0 1.3326 7.008 9.103 17.4438
𝑚32 = 1.3326/−9.3485 = −0.1425 ;

−𝑚32 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 → 𝑅3
0.1425 (-9.3485) + (1.3326) = 0.0004 = 0
3.7 4.8 −2.5 7.8 13.8
0.1425 (15.6378) + (7.008) = 9.2364
0 −9.3485 15.6378 −0.4538 5.8356 = [U|d]
0.1425 (-0.4538) + (9.103) = 9.0383
0 0 9.2364 9.0383 18.2754
0.1425 (5.8356) + (17.4438) = 18.2754

or
3.7000𝑥1 + 4.8000𝑥2 − 2.5000𝑥3 = 7.8
0.0000𝑥1 − 9.3485𝑥2 + 15.6378𝑥3 = −0.4538
0.0000𝑥1 + 0.0000𝑥2 + 9.2364𝑥3 = 9.0383
𝑥1 = 0.5828
𝑥2 = 1.6854 Solution: x = 𝑥̂ = (0.5828 , 1.6854 , 0.9786)
𝑥3 = 0.9786
A17KA0105
3.21 4.28 6.35 𝑥1 14.18 3.21 4.28 6.35 14.18 28.02

7. a) 9.16 8.64 3.72 𝑥2 = 25.16 [A|b] = 9.16 8.64 3.72 25.16 46.68
−6.24 9.15 −2.85 𝑥3 1.75 −6.24 9.15 −2.85 1.75 1.81
𝑚21 = 9.16/3.21 = 2.8536 ; −𝑚21 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 → 𝑅2
𝑚31 = −6.24/3.21 = −1.9439 ; −𝑚31 𝑅1 + 𝑅3 → 𝑅3

-2.8536 (3.21) + (9.16) = -0.0001 = 0 1.9439 (3.21) + (-6.24) = -0.0001 = 0
-2.8536 (4.28) + (8.64) = -3.5734 1.9439 (4.28) + (9.15) = 17.4699
-2.8536 (6.35) + (3.72) = -14.4004 1.9439 (6.35) + (-2.85) = 9.4938
-2.8536 (14.18) + (25.16) = -15.3040 1.9439 (14.18) + (1.75) = 29.3145
-2.8536 (28.02) + (46.68) = -33.2779 1.9439 (28.02) + (1.81) = 56.2781
3.21 4.28 6.35 14.18 28.02 17.4699

0 −3.5734 −14.4004 −15.3040 −33.2779 𝑚32 = = −4.8889 ;
−3.5734
0 17.4699 9.4938 29.3145 56.2781
−𝑚32 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 → 𝑅3
4.8889 (-3.5734) + (17.4699) = -0.0001 = 0
3.21 4.28 6.35 14.18 28.02
4.8889 (-14.4004) + (9.4938) = -60.9083
0 −3.5734 −14.4004 −15.3040 −33.2779
4.8889 (-15.3040) + (29.3145) = -45.5052 0 0 −60.9083 −45.5052 −106.4142
4.8889 (-33.2779) + (56.2781) = -106.4142
= [U|d]

or
3.2100𝑥1 + 4.2800𝑥2 + 6.3500𝑥3 = 14.18
0.0000𝑥1 − 3.5734𝑥2 − 14.4004𝑥3 = −15.3040
0.0000𝑥1 + 0.0000𝑥2 − 60.9083𝑥3 = −45.5052
𝑥1 = 1.2435
𝑥2 = 1.2720 Solution: x = 𝑥̂ = (1.2435 , 1.2720 , 0.7471)
𝑥3 = 0.7471
A17KA0105
3.21 4.28 6.35 𝑥1 14.18 3.21 4.28 6.35 14.18 28.02

7. b) 9.16 8.64 3.72 𝑥2 = 25.16 [A|b] = 9.16 8.64 3.72 25.16 46.68
−6.24 9.15 −2.85 𝑥3 1.75 −6.24 9.15 −2.85 1.75 1.81
9.16 8.64 3.72 25.16 46.68

3.21 4.28 6.35 14.18 28.02
−6.24 9.15 −2.85 1.75 1.81
𝑚21 = 3.21/9.16 = 0.3504 ; −𝑚21 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 → 𝑅2

𝑚31 = −6.24/9.16 = −0.6812 ; −𝑚31 𝑅1 + 𝑅3 → 𝑅3

-0.3504 (9.16) + (3.21) = 0.0003 = 0 0.6812 (9.16) + (-6.24) = -0.0002 = 0
-0.3504 (8.64) + (4.28) = 1.2525 0.6812 (8.64) + (9.15) = 15.0356
-0.3504 (3.72) + (6.35) = 5.0465 0.6812 (3.72) + (-2.85) = -0.3159
-0.3504 (25.16) + (14.18) = 5.3639 0.6812 (25.16) + (1.75) = 18.8890
-0.3504 (46.68) + (28.02) = 11.6633 0.6812 (46.68) + (1.81) = 33.6084
9.16 8.64 3.72 25.16 46.68 9.16 8.64 3.72 25.16 46.68
0 1.2525 5.0465 5.3639 11.6633 𝑅2 ↔ 𝑅3 0 15.0356 −0.3159 18.889 33.6084
0 15.0356 −0.3159 18.889 33.6084 0 1.2525 5.0465 5.3639 11.6633
𝑚32 = 1.2525/15.0356 = 0.0833 ;

−𝑚32 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 → 𝑅3
-0.0833 (15.0356) + (1.2525) = 0
9.16 8.64 3.72 25.16 46.68
-0.0833 (-0.3159) + (5.0465) = 5.0728
0 15.0356 −0.3159 18.889 33.6084 = [U|d]
-0.0833 (18.889) + (5.3639) = 3.7904
0 0 5.0728 3.7904 8.8637
-0.0833 (33.6084) + (11.6633) = 8.8637

or
9.1600𝑥1 + 8.6400𝑥2 + 3.7200𝑥3 = 25.16
0.0000𝑥1 + 15.0356𝑥2 − 0.3159𝑥3 = 18.889
0.0000𝑥1 + 0.0000𝑥2 + 5.0728𝑥3 = 3.7904
𝑥1 = 1.2435
𝑥2 = 1.2720 Solution: x = 𝑥̂ = (1.2435 , 1.2720 , 0.7472)
𝑥3 = 0.7472
A17KA0105
LU FACTORIZATION METHOD
***Exercise 2.2
Solve the following system of linear equations using LU factorization
(a) Doolittle method
(b) Crout method
Show your calculation in 4DP.
−2 4 3 𝑥1 −3
1. a) Ax = b → 3 2 −4 𝑥2 = 19
4 3 5 𝑥3 −5
Using Doolittle factorization, A = LU
−2 4 3 1 0 0 𝑝 𝑞 𝑟 𝑝 𝑞 𝑟
3 2 −4 = 𝑎 1 0 0 𝑠 𝑡 = 𝑎𝑝 𝑎𝑞 + 𝑠 𝑎𝑟 + 𝑡
4 3 5 𝑏 𝑐 1 0 0 𝑢 𝑏𝑝 𝑏𝑞 + 𝑐𝑠 𝑏𝑟 + 𝑐𝑡 + 𝑢
We obtain,
𝑝 = −2.0000
𝑞 = 4.0000
𝑟 = 3.0000
3
𝑎𝑝 = 3 → 𝑎= = −1.5000
𝑝
4
𝑏𝑝 = 4 → 𝑏= = −2.0000
𝑝
𝑎𝑞 + 𝑠 = 2 → 𝑠 = 2 − 𝑎𝑞 = 8.0000
𝑎𝑟 + 𝑡 = −4 → 𝑡 = −4 − 𝑎𝑟 = 0.5000
3 − 𝑏𝑞
𝑏𝑞 + 𝑐𝑠 = 3 → 𝑐= = 1.3750
𝑠
𝑏𝑟 + 𝑐𝑡 + 𝑢 = 5 → 𝑢 = 5 − 𝑏𝑟 − 𝑐𝑡 = 10.3125
−2 4 3 1 0 0 −2 4 3
To find solution of Ax = b or
A = LU : −1.5 8 0.5 = −1.5 1 0 0 8 0.5 LUx = b, let Ux = y
−2 1.25 10.3125 −2 1.375 1 0 0 10.3125
1 0 0 𝑦1 −3 By using calculator, solve for y :

1) Solve Ly = b, → −1.5 1 0 𝑦2 = 19 → 𝑦1 = −3.0000
−2 1.375 1 𝑦3 −5 𝑦2 = 14.5.0000
Forward substitution
𝑦3 = −30.9375
−2 4 3 𝑥1 −3 By using calculator, solve for x :

2) Solve Ux = y, → 0 8 0.5 𝑥2 = 14.5 → 𝑥1 = 1.0000
0 0 10.3125 𝑥3 −30.9375 𝑥2 = 2.0000
Backward substitution
𝑥3 = −3.0000
Solution: 𝑥1 = 1.0000 𝑥2 = 2.0000 𝑥3 = −3.0000

A17KA0105
−2 4 3 𝑥1 −3
1. b) Ax = b → 3 2 −4 𝑥2 = 19
4 3 5 𝑥3 −5
Using Crout factorization, A = LU
−2 4 3 𝑝 0 0 1 𝑎 𝑏 𝑝 𝑝𝑎 𝑝𝑏
3 2 −4 = 𝑞 𝑠 0 0 1 𝑐 = 𝑞 𝑞𝑎 + 𝑠 𝑞𝑏 + 𝑠𝑐
4 3 5 𝑟 𝑡 𝑢 0 0 1 𝑟 𝑟𝑎 + 𝑡 𝑟𝑏 + 𝑡𝑐 + 𝑢
We obtain,
𝑝 = −2.0000
𝑞 = 3.0000
𝑟 = 4.0000
4
𝑝𝑎 = 4 → 𝑎= = −2.0000
𝑝
3
𝑝𝑏 = 3 → 𝑏= = −1.50000
𝑝
𝑞𝑎 + 𝑠 = 2 → 𝑠 = 2 − 𝑞𝑎 = 8.0000
𝑟𝑎 + 𝑡 = 3 → 𝑡 = 3 − 𝑟𝑎 = 11.0000
−4 − 𝑞𝑏
𝑞𝑏 + 𝑠𝑐 = −4 → 𝑐= = 0.0625
𝑠
𝑟𝑏 + 𝑡𝑐 + 𝑢 = 5 → 𝑢 = 5 − 𝑟𝑏 − 𝑡𝑐 = 10.3125
−2 4 3 −2 0 0 1 −2 −1.5 To find solution of Ax = b or

A = LU : 3 2 −4 = 3 8 0 0 1 0.0625 LUx = b, let Ux = y
4 3 5 4 11 10.3125 0 0 1
−2 0 0 𝑦1 −3 By using calculator, solve for y :

1) Solve Ly = b, → 3 8 0 𝑦2 = 19 → 𝑦1 = 1.5000
4 11 10.3125 𝑦3 −5
Forward substitution 𝑦2 = 1.8125
𝑦3 = −3.0000
1 −2 −1.5 𝑥1 1.5 By using calculator, solve for x :

2) Solve Ux = y, → 0 1 0.0625 𝑥2 = 1.8125 → 𝑥1 = 1.0000
0 0 1 𝑥3 −3 𝑥2 = 2.0000
𝑥3 = −3.0000
Solution: 𝑥1 = 1.0000 𝑥2 = 2.0000 𝑥3 = −3.0000

A17KA0105
6 1 −6 𝑥1 −1
2. a) Ax = b → 4 −3 0 𝑥2 = 7
2 2 3 𝑥3 3
6 1 −6 1 0 0 𝑝 𝑞 𝑟 𝑝 𝑞 𝑟
4 −3 0 = 𝑎 1 0 0 𝑠 𝑡 = 𝑎𝑝 𝑎𝑞 + 𝑠 𝑎𝑟 + 𝑡
2 2 3 𝑏 𝑐 1 0 0 𝑢 𝑏𝑝 𝑏𝑞 + 𝑐𝑠 𝑏𝑟 + 𝑐𝑡 + 𝑢
We obtain,
𝑝 = 6.0000
𝑞 = 1.0000
𝑟 = −6.0000
4
𝑎𝑝 =4 → 𝑎= = 0.6667
𝑝
2
𝑏𝑝 =2 → 𝑏= = 0.3333
𝑝
𝑎𝑞 + 𝑠 = −3 → 𝑠 = −3 − 𝑎𝑞 = −3.6667
𝑎𝑟 + 𝑡 =0 → 𝑡 = 0 − 𝑎𝑟 = 4.0002
2 − 𝑏𝑞
𝑏𝑞 + 𝑐𝑠 =2 → 𝑐= = −0.4546
𝑠
𝑏𝑟 + 𝑐𝑡 + 𝑢 = 3 → 𝑢 = 3 − 𝑏𝑟 − 𝑐𝑡 = 6.8183
6 1 −6 1 0 0 6 1 −6
A = LU : 4 −3 0 = 0.6667 1 0 0 −3.6667 4.0002
LUx = b, let Ux = y
2 2 3 0.3333 −0.4546 1 0 0 3.1813

1) Solve Ly = b, → 0.6667 1 0 𝑦2 = 7 → 𝑦1 = −1.0000
0.3333 −0.4546 1 𝑦3 3 𝑦2 = 7.6667
𝑦3 = 6.8186
6 1 −6 𝑥1 −1 By using calculator, solve for x :

2) Solve Ux = y, → 0 −3.6667 4.0002 𝑥2 = 7.6667 → 𝑥1 = 1.0000
0 0 6.8183 𝑥3 6.8186 𝑥2 = −0.9999
𝑥3 = 1.0000
Solution: 𝑥1 = 1.0000 𝑥2 = −0.9999 𝑥3 = 1.0000

A17KA0105
6 1 −6 𝑥1 −1
2. b) Ax = b → 4 −3 0 𝑥2 = 7
2 2 3 𝑥3 3
6 1 −6 𝑝 0 0 1 𝑎 𝑏 𝑝 𝑝𝑎 𝑝𝑏
4 −3 0 = 𝑞 𝑠 0 0 1 𝑐 = 𝑞 𝑞𝑎 + 𝑠 𝑞𝑏 + 𝑠𝑐
2 2 3 𝑟 𝑡 𝑢 0 0 1 𝑟 𝑟𝑎 + 𝑡 𝑟𝑏 + 𝑡𝑐 + 𝑢
We obtain,
𝑝 = 6.0000
𝑞 = 4.0000
𝑟 = 2.0000
1
𝑝𝑎 =1 → 𝑎= = 0.1667
𝑝
−6
𝑝𝑏 = −6 → 𝑏= = −1.0000
𝑝
𝑞𝑎 + 𝑠 = −3 → 𝑠 = −3 − 𝑞𝑎 = −3.6668
𝑟𝑎 + 𝑡 =2 → 𝑡 = 2 − 𝑟𝑎 = 1.6666
0 − 𝑞𝑏
𝑞𝑏 + 𝑠𝑐 =0 → 𝑐= = −1.0909
𝑠
𝑟𝑏 + 𝑡𝑐 + 𝑢 = 3 → 𝑢 = 3 − 𝑟𝑏 − 𝑡𝑐 = 6.8181
6 1 −6 6 0 0 1 0.1667 −1.0000 To find solution of Ax = b or

A = LU : 4 −3 0 = 4 −3.6668 0 0 1 −1.0909 LUx = b, let Ux = y
2 2 3 2 1.6666 6.8181 0 0 1

1) Solve Ly = b, → 4 −3.6668 0 𝑦2 = 7 →𝑦 1 = −0.1667
2 1.6666 6.8181 𝑦3 3 𝑦2 = −2.0908
𝑦3 = 1.0000
1 0.1667 −1 𝑥1 −0.1667 By using calculator, solve for x :

2) Solve Ux = y, → 0 1 −1.0909 𝑥2 = −2.0908 → 𝑥1 = 1.0000
0 0 1 𝑥3 1 𝑥2 = −0.9999
𝑥3 = 1.0000
Solution: 𝑥1 = 1.0000 𝑥2 = −0.9999 𝑥3 = 1.0000

A17KA0105
2 −1 1 𝑥1 −1
3. a) Ax = b → 3 3 9 𝑥2 = 0
3 3 5 𝑥3 4
2 −1 1 1 0 0 𝑝 𝑞 𝑟 𝑝 𝑞 𝑟
3 3 9 = 𝑎 1 0 0 𝑠 𝑡 = 𝑎𝑝 𝑎𝑞 + 𝑠 𝑎𝑟 + 𝑡
3 3 5 𝑏 𝑐 1 0 0 𝑢 𝑏𝑝 𝑏𝑞 + 𝑐𝑠 𝑏𝑟 + 𝑐𝑡 + 𝑢
We obtain,
𝑝 = 2.0000
𝑞 = −1.0000
𝑟 = 1.0000
3
𝑎𝑝 =3 → 𝑎= = 1.5000
𝑝
3
𝑏𝑝 =3 → 𝑏 = = 1.5000
𝑝
𝑎𝑞 + 𝑠 =3 → 𝑠 = 3 − 𝑎𝑞 = 4.5000
𝑎𝑟 + 𝑡 =9 → 𝑡 = 9 − 𝑎𝑟 = 7.5000
3 − 𝑏𝑞
𝑏𝑞 + 𝑐𝑠 =3 → 𝑐= = 1.0000
𝑠
𝑏𝑟 + 𝑐𝑡 + 𝑢 = 5 → 𝑢 = 5 − 𝑏𝑟 − 𝑐𝑡 = −4.0000
2 −1 1 1 0 0 2 −1 1
A = LU : 3 3 9 = 1.5 1 0 0 4.5 7.5 LUx = b, let Ux = y
3 3 5 1.5 1 1 0 0 −4

1) Solve Ly = b, → 1.5 1 0 𝑦2 = 0 → 𝑦1 = −1.0000
1.5 1 1 𝑦3 4 𝑦2 = 1.5000
𝑦3 = 4.0000
2 −1 1 𝑥1 −1 By using calculator, solve for x :

2) Solve Ux = y, → 0 4.5 7.5 𝑥2 = 1.5 →𝑥 1 = 1.0000
0 0 −4 𝑥3 4 𝑥2 = 2.0000
𝑥3 = −1.0000
Solution: 𝑥1 = 1.0000 𝑥2 = 2.0000 𝑥3 = −1.0000

A17KA0105
2 −1 1 𝑥1 −1
3. b) Ax = b → 3 3 9 𝑥2 = 0
3 3 5 𝑥3 4
2 −1 1 𝑝 0 0 1 𝑎 𝑏 𝑝 𝑝𝑎 𝑝𝑏
3 3 9 = 𝑞 𝑠 0 0 1 𝑐 = 𝑞 𝑞𝑎 + 𝑠 𝑞𝑏 + 𝑠𝑐
3 3 5 𝑟 𝑡 𝑢 0 0 1 𝑟 𝑟𝑎 + 𝑡 𝑟𝑏 + 𝑡𝑐 + 𝑢
We obtain,
𝑝 = 2.0000
𝑞 = 3.0000
𝑟 = 3.0000
−1
𝑝𝑎 = −1 → 𝑎 = = −0.5000
𝑝
1
𝑝𝑏 =1 → 𝑏= = 0.5000
𝑝
𝑞𝑎 + 𝑠 =3 → 𝑠 = 3 − 𝑞𝑎 = 4.5000
𝑟𝑎 + 𝑡 =3 → 𝑡 = 3 − 𝑟𝑎 = 4.5000
9 − 𝑞𝑏
𝑞𝑏 + 𝑠𝑐 =9 → 𝑐= = 1.6667
𝑠
𝑟𝑏 + 𝑡𝑐 + 𝑢 = 5 → 𝑢 = 5 − 𝑟𝑏 − 𝑡𝑐 = −4.0002
2 −1 1 2 0 0 1 −0.5 0.5
A = LU : 3 3 9 = 3 4.5 0 0 1 1.6667 LUx = b, let Ux = y
3 3 5 3 4.5 −4.0002 0 0 1

1) Solve Ly = b, → 3 4.5 0 𝑦2 = 0 → 𝑦1 = −0.5000
Forward substitution 3 4.5 −4.0002 𝑦3 4 𝑦2 = 0.3333
𝑦3 = −1.0000
1 −0.5 0.5 𝑥1 −0.5 By using calculator, solve for x :

2) Solve Ux = y, → 0 1 1.6667 𝑥2 = 0.3333 → 𝑥1 = 1.0000
0 0 1 𝑥3 −1 𝑥2 = 2.0000
𝑥3 = −1.0000
Solution: 𝑥1 = 1.0000 𝑥2 = 2.0000 𝑥3 = −1.0000

A17KA0105
2 0 1 𝑥1 25
4. a) Ax = b → 4 1 13 𝑥2 = 108
6 4 42 𝑥3 292
2 0 1 1 0 0 𝑝 𝑞 𝑟 𝑝 𝑞 𝑟
4 1 13 = 𝑎 1 0 0 𝑠 𝑡 = 𝑎𝑝 𝑎𝑞 + 𝑠 𝑎𝑟 + 𝑡
6 4 42 𝑏 𝑐 1 0 0 𝑢 𝑏𝑝 𝑏𝑞 + 𝑐𝑠 𝑏𝑟 + 𝑐𝑡 + 𝑢
We obtain,
𝑝 = 2.0000
𝑞 = 0.0000
𝑟 = 1.0000
4
𝑎𝑝 =4 → 𝑎= = 2.0000
𝑝
6
𝑏𝑝 =6 → 𝑏= = 3.0000
𝑝
𝑎𝑞 + 𝑠 =1 → 𝑠 = 1 − 𝑎𝑞 = 1.0000
𝑎𝑟 + 𝑡 = 13 → 𝑡 = 13 − 𝑎𝑟 = 11.0000
4 − 𝑏𝑞
𝑏𝑞 + 𝑐𝑠 =4 → 𝑐= = 4.0000
𝑠
𝑏𝑟 + 𝑐𝑡 + 𝑢 = 42 → 𝑢 = 42 − 𝑏𝑟 − 𝑐𝑡 = −5.0000
2 0 1 1 0 0 2 0 1
A = LU : 4 1 13 = 2 1 0 0 1 11 LUx = b, let Ux = y
6 4 42 3 4 1 0 0 −5
1 0 0 𝑦1 25 By using calculator, solve for y :

1) Solve Ly = b, → 2 1 0 𝑦2 = 108 → 𝑦1 = 25.0000
3 4 1 𝑦3 292 𝑦2 = 58.0000
𝑦3 = −15.0000
2 0 1 𝑥1 25 By using calculator, solve for x :

2) Solve Ux = y, → 0 1 11 𝑥2 = 58 → 𝑥1 = 11.0000
0 0 −5 𝑥3 −15 𝑥2 = 25.0000
𝑥3 = 3.0000
Solution: 𝑥1 = 11.0000 𝑥2 = 25.0000 𝑥3 = 3.0000

A17KA0105
2 0 1 𝑥1 25
4. b) Ax = b → 4 1 13 𝑥2 = 108
6 4 42 𝑥3 292
2 0 1 𝑝 0 0 1 𝑎 𝑏 𝑝 𝑝𝑎 𝑝𝑏
4 1 13 = 𝑞 𝑠 0 0 1 𝑐 = 𝑞 𝑞𝑎 + 𝑠 𝑞𝑏 + 𝑠𝑐
6 4 42 𝑟 𝑡 𝑢 0 0 1 𝑟 𝑟𝑎 + 𝑡 𝑟𝑏 + 𝑡𝑐 + 𝑢
We obtain,
𝑝 = 2.0000
𝑞 = 4.0000
𝑟 = 6.0000
0
𝑝𝑎 =0 → 𝑎= = 0.0000
𝑝
1
𝑝𝑏 =1 → 𝑏= = 0.5000
𝑝
𝑞𝑎 + 𝑠 =1 → 𝑠 = 1 − 𝑞𝑎 = 1.0000
𝑟𝑎 + 𝑡 =4 → 𝑡 = 4 − 𝑟𝑎 = 4.0000
13 − 𝑞𝑏
𝑞𝑏 + 𝑠𝑐 = 13 → 𝑐= = 11.0000
𝑠
𝑟𝑏 + 𝑡𝑐 + 𝑢 = 42 → 𝑢 = 42 − 𝑟𝑏 − 𝑡𝑐 = −5.0000
2 0 1 2 0 0 1 0 0.5
A = LU : 4 1 13 = 4 1 0 0 1 11 LUx = b, let Ux = y
6 4 42 6 4 −5 0 0 1
2 0 0 𝑦1 25 By using calculator, solve for y :

1) Solve Ly = b, → 4 1 0 𝑦2 = 108 →𝑦 1 = 12.5000
6 4 −5 𝑦3 292
𝑦3 = 3.0000
1 0 0.5 𝑥1 12.5 By using calculator, solve for x :

2) Solve Ux = y, → 0 1 11 𝑥2 = 58 →𝑥 1 = 11.0000
0 0 1 𝑥3 3 𝑥2 = 25.0000
𝑥3 = 3.0000
Solution: 𝑥1 = 11.0000 𝑥2 = 25.0000 𝑥3 = 3.0000

A17KA0105
Doolittle factorization TEMPLATE
𝑥1
a) Ax = b → 𝑥2 =
𝑥3
1 0 0 𝑝 𝑞 𝑟 𝑝 𝑞 𝑟
= 𝑎 1 0 0 𝑠 𝑡 = 𝑎𝑝 𝑎𝑞 + 𝑠 𝑎𝑟 + 𝑡
𝑏 𝑐 1 0 0 𝑢 𝑏𝑝 𝑏𝑞 + 𝑐𝑠 𝑏𝑟 + 𝑐𝑡 + 𝑢
We obtain,
𝑝 =
𝑞 =
𝑟 =
𝑎𝑝 = → 𝑎=
𝑝
𝑏𝑝 = → 𝑏=
𝑝
𝑎𝑞 + 𝑠 = → 𝑠 = −𝑎𝑞
𝑎𝑟 + 𝑡 = → 𝑡 = −𝑎𝑟
−𝑏𝑞
𝑏𝑞 + 𝑐𝑠 = → 𝑐=
𝑠
𝑏𝑟 + 𝑐𝑡 + 𝑢 = → 𝑢 = −𝑏𝑟 − 𝑐𝑡
1 0 0 𝑝 𝑞 𝑟
A = LU : = 𝑎 1 0 0 𝑠 𝑡 LUx = b, let Ux = y
𝑏 𝑐 1 0 0 𝑢
1 0 0 𝑦1 By using calculator, solve for y :

1) Solve Ly = b, → 1 0 𝑦2 = → 𝑦1 =
Forward substitution 1 𝑦3 𝑦2 =
𝑦3 =
𝑥1 By using calculator, solve for x :

2) Solve Ux = y, → 0 𝑥2 = → 𝑥1 =
Backward substitution 0 0 𝑥3 𝑥2 =
𝑥3 =
Solution: 𝑥1 = 𝑥2 = 𝑥3 =
A17KA0105
Crout factorization TEMPLATE
𝑥1
b) Ax = b → 𝑥2 =
𝑥3
𝑝 0 0 1 𝑎 𝑏 𝑝 𝑝𝑎 𝑝𝑏
= 𝑞 𝑠 0 0 1 𝑐 = 𝑞 𝑞𝑎 + 𝑠 𝑞𝑏 + 𝑠𝑐
𝑟 𝑡 𝑢 0 0 1 𝑟 𝑟𝑎 + 𝑡 𝑟𝑏 + 𝑡𝑐 + 𝑢
We obtain,
𝑝 =
𝑞 =
𝑟 =
𝑝𝑎 = → 𝑎=
𝑝
𝑝𝑏 = → 𝑏=
𝑝
𝑞𝑎 + 𝑠 = → 𝑠 = −𝑞𝑎
𝑟𝑎 + 𝑡 = → 𝑡 = −𝑟𝑎
−𝑞𝑏
𝑞𝑏 + 𝑠𝑐 = → 𝑐=
𝑠
𝑟𝑏 + 𝑡𝑐 + 𝑢 = → 𝑢 = −𝑟𝑏 − 𝑡𝑐
𝑝 0 0 1 𝑎 𝑏 To find solution of Ax = b or
A = LU : = 𝑞 𝑠 0 0 1 𝑐 LUx = b, let Ux = y
𝑟 𝑡 𝑢 0 0 1
0 0 𝑦1 By using calculator, solve for y :

1) Solve Ly = b, → 0 𝑦2 = → 𝑦1 =
Forward substitution 𝑦3 𝑦2 =
𝑦3 =
1 𝑥1 By using calculator, solve for x :

2) Solve Ux = y, → 0 1 𝑥2 = → 𝑥1 =
Backward substitution 0 0 1 𝑥3 𝑥2 =
𝑥3 =
A17KA0105
Solve the following system of linear equation using Cholesky factorization method. Show the
calculation in 4DP.
2 3 4 𝑥1 20
8. Ax = b → 3 6 7 𝑥2 = 36
4 7 10 𝑥3 48
Where A is symmetric positive definite matrix. Using Cholesky factorization,
2 3 4 𝑎 0 0 𝑎 𝑏 𝑑
𝐴 = 𝐿𝐿 𝑇
→ 3 6 7 = 𝑏 𝑐 0 0 𝑐 𝑒
4 7 10 𝑑 𝑒 𝑓 0 0 𝑓
𝑎2 𝑎𝑏 𝑎𝑑
2 2
= 𝑎𝑏 𝑏 + 𝑐 𝑏𝑑 + 𝑐𝑒
𝑎𝑑 𝑏𝑑 + 𝑐𝑒 𝑑 2 + 𝑒 2 + 𝑓 2
we obtain 
𝑎2 =2 → 𝑎 = 1.4142
3
𝑎𝑏 =3 → 𝑏= = 2.1213
𝑎
4
𝑎𝑑 =4 → 𝑑= = 2.8285
𝑎
𝑏2 + 𝑐 2 → 𝑐 = √6 − 𝑏 2
=6 = 1.2248
7 − 𝑏𝑑
𝑏𝑑 + 𝑐𝑒 =7 → 𝑒= = 0.8164
𝑐
2 2 2
𝑑 + 𝑒 + 𝑓 = 10 → 𝑓 = √10 − 𝑒 2 − 𝑑 2 = 1.1546
then  𝐴 = 𝐿𝐿𝑇 , 𝑈 = 𝐿𝑇
2 3 4 1.4142 0 0 1.4142 2.1213 2.8285
𝐴 = 𝐿𝐿𝑇 → 3 6 7 = 2.1213 1.2248 0 0 1.2248 0.8164
4 7 10 2.8285 0.8164 1.1546 0 0 1.1546
1.4142 0 0 𝑦1 20 By using calculator:

1) Solve Ly = b, → 2.1213 1.2248 0 𝑦2 = 36 →𝑦 1 = 14.1423
2.8285 0.8164 1.1546 𝑦3 48
𝑦3 = 3.4637
1.4142 2.1213 2.8285 𝑥1 14.1423 By using calculator:

𝑇
2) Solve 𝐿 x = y, → 0 1.2248 0.8164 𝑥2 = 4.8988 →𝑥 1 = 1.0001
0 0 1.1546 𝑥3 3.4637 𝑥2 = 2.0001
𝑥3 = 2.9999
Solution: 𝑥1 = 1.0001 𝑥2 = 2.0001 𝑥3 = 2.9999
EXACT SOLUTION: x = (1 , 2 , 3)
A17KA0105
2 3 4 𝑥1 9
9. Ax = b → 3 6 7 𝑥2 = 16
4 7 10 𝑥3 21
2 3 4 𝑎 0 0 𝑎 𝑏 𝑑
→ 3 6 7 = 𝑏 𝑐 0 0 𝑐 𝑒
4 7 10 𝑑 𝑒 𝑓 0 0 𝑓
2 2
𝑎𝑑 𝑏𝑑 + 𝑐𝑒 𝑑 2 + 𝑒 2 + 𝑓 2
we obtain 
𝑎2 =2 → 𝑎 = 1.4142
3
𝑎𝑏 =3 → 𝑏= = 2.1213
𝑎
4
𝑎𝑑 =4 → 𝑑= = 2.8285
𝑎
𝑏2 + 𝑐 2 = 6 → 𝑐 = √6 − 𝑏 2 = 1.2248
7 − 𝑏𝑑
𝑏𝑑 + 𝑐𝑒 =7 → 𝑒= = 0.8164
𝑐
𝑑2 + 𝑒 2 + 𝑓 2 = 10 → 𝑓 = √10 − 𝑒 2 − 𝑑 2 = 1.1546
2 3 4 1.4142 0 0 1.4142 2.1213 2.8285
𝐴 = 𝐿𝐿𝑇 → 3 6 7 = 2.1213 1.2248 0 0 1.2248 0.8164
4 7 10 2.8285 0.8164 1.1546 0 0 1.1546

1) Solve Ly = b, → 2.1213 1.2248 0 𝑦2 = 16 →𝑦 1 = 6.3640
2.8285 0.8164 1.1546 𝑦3 21
𝑦3 = 1.1545
1.4142 2.1213 2.8285 𝑥1 6.364 By using calculator:

𝑇
2) Solve 𝐿 x = y, → 0 1.2248 0.8164 𝑥2 = 2.0411 → 𝑥1 = 1.0002
0 0 1.1546 𝑥3 1.1545 𝑥2 = 1.0000
𝑥3 = 0.9999
Solution: 𝑥1 = 1.0002 𝑥2 = 1.0000 𝑥3 = 0.9999
A17KA0105
3 −12 10 𝑥1 1
10. Ax = b → −12 64 −60 𝑥2 = −8
10 −60 60 𝑥3 10
3 −12 10 𝑎 0 0 𝑎 𝑏 𝑑
→ −12 64 −60 = 𝑏 𝑐 0 0 𝑐 𝑒
10 −60 60 𝑑 𝑒 𝑓 0 0 𝑓
2
𝑎 𝑎𝑏 𝑎𝑑
2 2
𝑎𝑑 𝑏𝑑 + 𝑐𝑒 𝑑 2 + 𝑒 2 + 𝑓 2
we obtain 
𝑎2 =3 → 𝑎 = 1.7321
−12
𝑎𝑏 = −12 → 𝑏 = = −6.9280
𝑎
10
𝑎𝑑 = 10 → 𝑑= = 5.7733
𝑎
𝑏2 + 𝑐 2 = 64 → 𝑐 = √64 − 𝑏 2 = 4.0004
−60 − 𝑏𝑑
𝑏𝑑 + 𝑐𝑒 = −60 → 𝑒 = = −5.0001
𝑐
𝑑2 + 𝑒 2 + 𝑓 2 = 60 → 𝑓 = √60 − 𝑒 2 − 𝑑 2 = 1.2915
3 −12 10 1.7321 0 0 1.7321 −6.928 5.7733
𝐴 = 𝐿𝐿𝑇 → −12 64 −60 = −6.928 4.0004 0 0 4.0004 −5.0001
10 −60 60 5.7733 −5.0001 1.2915 0 0 1.2915

1) Solve Ly = b, → −6.928 4.0004 0 𝑦2 = −8 → 𝑦1 = 0.5773
5.7733 −5.0001 1.2915 𝑦3 10 𝑦2 = −1.0000
𝑦3 = 1.2907
1.7321 −6.928 5.7733 𝑥1 0.5773 By using calculator:

𝑇
2) Solve 𝐿 x = y, → 0 4.0004 −5.0001 𝑥2 = −1.0000 → 𝑥1 = 0.9986
0 0 1.2915 𝑥3 1.2907 𝑥2 = 0.9992
𝑥3 = 0.9994
Solution: 𝑥1 = 0.9986 𝑥2 = 0.9992 𝑥3 = 0.9994
A17KA0105
3 −12 10 𝑥1 −5
11. Ax = b → −12 64 −60 𝑥2 = 32
10 −60 60 𝑥3 −30
3 −12 10 𝑎 0 0 𝑎 𝑏 𝑑
→ −12 64 −60 = 𝑏 𝑐 0 0 𝑐 𝑒
10 −60 60 𝑑 𝑒 𝑓 0 0 𝑓
2
𝑎 𝑎𝑏 𝑎𝑑
2 2
𝑎𝑑 𝑏𝑑 + 𝑐𝑒 𝑑 2 + 𝑒 2 + 𝑓 2
we obtain 
𝑎2 =3 → 𝑎 = 1.7321
−12
𝑎𝑏 = −12 → 𝑏 = = −6.9280
𝑎
10
𝑎𝑑 = 10 → 𝑑= = 5.7733
𝑎
𝑏2 + 𝑐 2 = 64 → 𝑐 = √64 − 𝑏 2 = 4.0004
−60 − 𝑏𝑑
𝑏𝑑 + 𝑐𝑒 = −60 → 𝑒 = = −5.0001
𝑐
𝑑2 + 𝑒 2 + 𝑓 2 = 60 → 𝑓 = √60 − 𝑒 2 − 𝑑 2 = 1.2915
3 −12 10 1.7321 0 0 1.7321 −6.928 5.7733
𝐴 = 𝐿𝐿𝑇 → −12 64 −60 = −6.928 4.0004 0 0 4.0004 −5.0001
10 −60 60 5.7733 −5.0001 1.2915 0 0 1.2915
1.7321 0 0 𝑦1 −5 By using calculator:

1) Solve Ly = b, → −6.928 4.0004 0 𝑦2 = 32 →𝑦 1 = −2.8867
5.7733 −5.0001 1.2915 𝑦3 −30 𝑦2 = 3.0000
𝑦3 = 1.2899
1.7321 −6.928 5.7733 𝑥1 −2.8867 By using calculator:

𝑇
2) Solve 𝐿 x = y, → 0 4.0004 −5.0001 𝑥2 = 3 → 𝑥1 = 2.9971
0 0 1.2915 𝑥3 1.2899 𝑥2 = 1.9983
𝑥3 = 0.9988
Solution: 𝑥1 = 2.9971 𝑥2 = 1.9983 𝑥3 = 0.9988
A17KA0105
Cholesky factorization TEMPLATE
𝑥1
Ax = b → 𝑥2 =
𝑥3
𝑎 0 0 𝑎 𝑏 𝑑
→ = 𝑏 𝑐 0 0 𝑐 𝑒
𝑑 𝑒 𝑓 0 0 𝑓
2 2
𝑎𝑑 𝑏𝑑 + 𝑐𝑒 𝑑 2 + 𝑒 2 + 𝑓 2
we obtain 
𝑎2 = → 𝑎=
𝑎𝑏 = → 𝑏=
𝑎
𝑎𝑑 = → 𝑑=
𝑎
2 2
𝑏 +𝑐 = → 𝑐 = √−𝑏 2
−𝑏𝑑
𝑏𝑑 + 𝑐𝑒 = → 𝑒=
𝑐
2 2 2
𝑑 + 𝑒 + 𝑓 = → 𝑓 = √−𝑒 2 − 𝑑 2
𝑎 0 0 𝑎 𝑏 𝑑
→ = 𝑏 𝑐 0 0 𝑐 𝑒
𝑑 𝑒 𝑓 0 0 𝑓
0 0 𝑦1 By using calculator:
1) Solve Ly = b, → 0 𝑦2 = → 𝑦1 =
𝑦3 𝑦2 =
𝑦3 =
𝑥1 By using calculator:
2) Solve 𝐿𝑇 x = y, → 0 𝑥2 = → 𝑥1 =
0 0 𝑥3 𝑥2 =
𝑥3 =
A17KA0105
Solve the following tridiagonal system using

a) Thomas factorization method
b) Thomas algorithm
2 −1 0 𝑥1 1
14. a) Ax = b → −1 2 −1 𝑥2 = 2
0 −1 2 𝑥3 3
Using Thomas factorization,
𝑑1 𝑒1 0 2 −1 0 𝛼1 0 0 1 𝛽1 0
𝐴 = 𝐿𝑈 → 𝑐2 𝑑2 𝑒2 = −1 2 −1 = 𝑐2 𝛼2 0 0 1 𝛽2
0 𝑐3 𝑑3 0 −1 2 0 𝑐3 𝛼3 0 0 1
𝛼1 𝛼1 𝛽1 0
= 𝑐2 𝑐2 𝛽1 + 𝛼2 𝛼2 𝛽2
0 𝑐3 𝑐3 𝛽2 + 𝛼3
we obtain 
𝛼1 = 2.0000
−1
𝛼1 𝛽1 = −1 → 𝛽1 = = −0.5000
𝛼1
𝑐2 𝛽1 + 𝛼2 =2 → 𝛼2 = 2 − 𝑐2 𝛽1 = 1.5000
−1
𝛼2 𝛽2 = −1 → 𝛽2 = = −0.6667
𝛼2
𝑐3 𝛽2 + 𝛼3 =2 → 𝛼3 = 2 − 𝑐3 𝛽2 = 1.3333
2 −1 0 2 0 0 1 −0.5 0
then  𝐴 = 𝐿𝑈 → −1 2 −1 = −1 1.5 0 0 1 −0.6667
0 −1 2 0 −1 1.3333 0 0 1
2 0 0 𝑤1 1 By using calculator:
1) Solve Lw = b, → −1 1.5 0 𝑤2 = 2 → 𝑤1 = 0.5
0 −1 1.3333 𝑤3 3
Forward substitution 𝑤2 = 1.6667
𝑤3 = 3.5001
1 −0.5 0 𝑥1 0.5 By using calculator:

2) Solve Ux = w, → 0 1 −0.6667 𝑥2 = 1.6667 → 𝑥1 = 2.5001
0 0 1 𝑥3 3.5001 𝑥2 = 4.0002
𝑥3 = 3.5001
Solution: 𝑥1 = 2.5001 𝑥2 = 4.0002 𝑥3 = 3.5001
EXACT SOLUTION: x = (2.5 , 4.0 , 3.5)

A17KA0105
2 −1 0 𝑥1 1
14. b) Ax = b → −1 2 −1 𝑥2 = 2
0 −1 2 𝑥3 3
Using Thomas algorithm,
𝛼1 = 𝑑1
𝛼𝑖 = 𝑑𝑖 − 𝑐𝑖 𝛽𝑖−1 , 𝑖 = 2 ,3 ,…,𝑛
𝑒𝑖
𝛽𝑖 = , 𝑖 = 1 ,2 ,3 ,…,𝑛 − 1
𝛼𝑖
𝑏1
𝑤1 =
𝛼1
𝑤𝑖 = (𝑏𝑖 − 𝑐𝑖 𝑤𝑖−1 )/𝛼𝑖 , 𝑖 = 2 ,3 ,…,𝑛
𝑥𝑛 = 𝑤𝑛
𝑥𝑖 = 𝑤𝑖 − 𝛽𝑖 𝑥𝑖+1 , 𝑖 = 𝑛 − 1 ,𝑛 − 2 ,…,1
𝑖 1 2 3 4
𝑑𝑖 2 2 2 Type equation here.
𝑒𝑖 −1 −1 0 Type equation here.
𝑐𝑖 0 −1 −1 Type equation here.
Type equation here.

𝑏𝑖 1 2 3
(𝛼1 = 𝑑1 )
2 1.5 1.3333 Type equation here.
𝛼𝑖 = 𝑑𝑖 − 𝑐𝑖 𝛽𝑖−1
𝛽𝑖 = 𝑒𝑖 /𝛼𝑖 −0.5 −0.6667 0 Type equation here.
(𝑤1 = 𝑏1 /𝛼1 )
0.5 1.6667 3.5001 Type equation here.
𝑤𝑖 = (𝑏𝑖 − 𝑐𝑖 𝑤𝑖−1 )/𝛼𝑖
𝑥3 = 𝑤3
2.5001 4.0002 3.5001 Type equation here.
𝑥𝑖 = 𝑤𝑖 − 𝛽𝑖 𝑥𝑖+1
Solution: 𝑥1 = 2.5001 𝑥2 = 4.0002 𝑥3 = 3.5001
EXACT SOLUTION: x = (2.5 , 4.0 , 3.5)

A17KA0105
1 2 0 0 𝑥1 7
15. a) Ax = b → 2 3 −1 0 𝑥2 = 9
0 4 2 3 𝑥3 10
0 0 2 −4 𝑥4 12
𝑑1 𝑒1 0 0 𝛼1 0 0 0 1 𝛽1 0 0
𝐴 = 𝐿𝑈 → 𝑐2 𝑑2 𝑒2 0 = 𝑐2 𝛼2 0 0 0 1 𝛽2 0
0 𝑐3 𝑑3 𝑒3 0 𝑐3 𝛼3 0 0 0 1 𝛽3
0 0 𝑐4 𝑑4 0 0 𝑐4 𝛼4 0 0 0 1
𝛼1 𝛼1 𝛽1 0 0
= 𝑐2 𝑐2 𝛽1 + 𝛼2 𝛼2 𝛽2 0
0 𝑐3 𝑐3 𝛽2 + 𝛼3 𝛼3 𝛽3
0 0 𝑐4 𝑐4 𝛽3 + 𝛼4
we obtain 
𝛼1 = 1.0000
2
𝛼1 𝛽1 =2 → 𝛽1 = = 2.0000
𝛼1
𝑐2 𝛽1 + 𝛼2 = 3 → 𝛼2 = 3 − 𝑐2 𝛽1 = −1.0000
−1
𝛼2 𝛽2 = −1 → 𝛽2 = = 1.0000
𝛼2
𝑐3 𝛽2 + 𝛼3 = 2 → 𝛼3 = 2 − 𝑐3 𝛽2 = −2.0000
3
𝛼3 𝛽3 =3 → 𝛽3 = = −1.5000
𝛼3
𝑐4 𝛽3 + 𝛼4 = −4 → 𝛼4 = −4 − 𝑐4 𝛽3 = −1.0000
1 2 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 2 0 0
then  𝐴 = 𝐿𝑈 → 2 3 −1 0 = 2 −1 0 0 0 1 1 0
0 4 2 3 0 4 −2 0 0 0 1 −1.5
0 0 2 −4 0 0 2 −1 0 0 0 1
By using calculator:
1 0 0 0 𝑤1 7
1) Solve Lw = b, → 2 −1 0 0 𝑤2 = 9 → 𝑤1 = 7.0000
𝑤2 = 5.0000
0 4 −2 0 𝑤3 10
0 0 2 −1 𝑤4 12
𝑤4 = −2.0000
1 2 0 0 𝑥1 7 𝑥1 = 1.0000
2) Solve Ux = w, → 0 1 1 0 𝑥2 = 5 → 𝑥2 = 3.0000
0 0 1 −1.5 𝑥3 5 𝑥3 = 2.0000
0 0 0 1 𝑥4 −2 𝑥4 = −2.0000
Solution: 𝑥1 = 1.0000 𝑥2 = 3.0000 𝑥3 = 2.0000 𝑥4 = −2.0000
EXACT SOLUTION: x = (1 , 3 , 2 , -2)

A17KA0105
1 2 0 0 𝑥1 7
15. b) Ax = b → 2 3 −1 0 𝑥2 = 9
0 4 2 3 𝑥3 10
0 0 2 −4 𝑥4 12
𝛼1 = 𝑑1
𝛼𝑖 = 𝑑𝑖 − 𝑐𝑖 𝛽𝑖−1 , 𝑖 = 2 ,3 ,…,𝑛
𝑒𝑖
𝛽𝑖 = , 𝑖 = 1 ,2 ,3 ,…,𝑛 − 1
𝛼𝑖
𝑏1
𝑤1 =
𝛼1
𝑤𝑖 = (𝑏𝑖 − 𝑐𝑖 𝑤𝑖−1 )/𝛼𝑖 , 𝑖 = 2 ,3 ,…,𝑛
𝑥𝑛 = 𝑤𝑛
𝑥𝑖 = 𝑤𝑖 − 𝛽𝑖 𝑥𝑖+1 , 𝑖 = 𝑛 − 1 ,𝑛 − 2 ,…,1
𝑖 1 2 3 4
𝑑𝑖 1 3 2 −4
𝑒𝑖 2 −1 3 0
𝑐𝑖 0 2 4 2
𝑏𝑖 7 9 10 12
(𝛼1 = 𝑑1 )
1 −1 −2 −1
𝛽𝑖 = 𝑒𝑖 /𝛼𝑖 2 1 −1.5 0
(𝑤1 = 𝑏1 /𝛼1 )
7 5 5 −2
𝑥4 = 𝑤4
1.0000 3.0000 2.0000 −2.0000
Solution: 𝑥1 = 1.0000 𝑥2 = 3.0000 𝑥3 = 2.0000 𝑥4 = −2.0000
EXACT SOLUTION: x = (1 , 3 , 2 , -2)

A17KA0105
1 1 0 0 𝑥1 5
16. a) Ax = b → 2 −1 5 0 𝑥2 = −9
0 3 −4 2 𝑥3 19
0 0 2 6 𝑥4 2
𝑑1 𝑒1 0 0 𝛼1 0 0 0 1 𝛽1 0 0
𝐴 = 𝐿𝑈 → 𝑐2 𝑑2 𝑒2 0 = 𝑐2 𝛼2 0 0 0 1 𝛽2 0
0 𝑐3 𝑑3 𝑒3 0 𝑐3 𝛼3 0 0 0 1 𝛽3
0 0 𝑐4 𝑑4 0 0 𝑐4 𝛼4 0 0 0 1
𝛼1 𝛼1 𝛽1 0 0
= 𝑐2 𝑐2 𝛽1 + 𝛼2 𝛼2 𝛽2 0
0 𝑐3 𝑐3 𝛽2 + 𝛼3 𝛼3 𝛽3
0 0 𝑐4 𝑐4 𝛽3 + 𝛼4
we obtain 
𝛼1 = 1.0000
1
𝛼1 𝛽1 =1 → 𝛽1 = = 1.0000
𝛼1
𝑐2 𝛽1 + 𝛼2 = −1 → 𝛼2 = −1 − 𝑐2 𝛽1 = −3.0000
5
𝛼2 𝛽2 =5 → 𝛽2 = = −1.6667
𝛼2
𝑐3 𝛽2 + 𝛼3 = −4 → 𝛼3 = −4 − 𝑐3 𝛽2 = 1.0001
2
𝛼3 𝛽3 =2 → 𝛽3 = = 1.9998
𝛼3
𝑐4 𝛽3 + 𝛼4 = 6 → 𝛼4 = 6 − 𝑐4 𝛽3 = 2.0004
1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0
then  𝐴 = 𝐿𝑈 → 2 −1 5 0 = 2 −3 0 0 0 1 −1.6667 0
0 3 −4 2 0 3 1.0001 0 0 0 1 1.9998
0 0 2 −4 0 0 2 2.0004 0 0 0 1
1 0 0 0 𝑤1 5
1) Solve Lw = b, → 2 −3 0 0 𝑤2 = −9 → 𝑤1 = 5.0000
𝑤2 = 6.3333
0 3 1.0001 0 𝑤3 19
0 0 2 2.0004 𝑤4 2
𝑤4 = 0.9998
1 1 0 0 𝑥1 5 𝑥1 = 1.9991
2) Solve Ux = w, → 0 1 −1.6667 0 𝑥2 = 6.3333 → 𝑥2 = 3.0009
0 0 1 1.9998 𝑥3 0 𝑥3 = −1.9994
0 0 0 1 𝑥4 0.9998 𝑥4 = 0.9998
Solution: 𝑥1 = 1.9991 𝑥2 = 3.0009 𝑥3 = −1.9994 𝑥4 = 0.9998
EXACT SOLUTION: x = (2 , 3 , -2 , 1)
A17KA0105
1 1 0 0 𝑥1 5
16. b) Ax = b → 2 −1 5 0 𝑥2 = −9
0 3 −4 2 𝑥3 19
0 0 2 6 𝑥4 2
𝛼1 = 𝑑1
𝛼𝑖 = 𝑑𝑖 − 𝑐𝑖 𝛽𝑖−1 , 𝑖 = 2 ,3 ,…,𝑛
𝑒𝑖
𝛽𝑖 = , 𝑖 = 1 ,2 ,3 ,…,𝑛 − 1
𝛼𝑖
𝑏1
𝑤1 =
𝛼1
𝑤𝑖 = (𝑏𝑖 − 𝑐𝑖 𝑤𝑖−1 )/𝛼𝑖 , 𝑖 = 2 ,3 ,…,𝑛
𝑥𝑛 = 𝑤𝑛
𝑥𝑖 = 𝑤𝑖 − 𝛽𝑖 𝑥𝑖+1 , 𝑖 = 𝑛 − 1 ,𝑛 − 2 ,…,1
𝑖 1 2 3 4
𝑑𝑖 1 −1 −4 6
𝑒𝑖 1 5 2 0
𝑐𝑖 0 2 3 2
𝑏𝑖 5 −9 19 2
(𝛼1 = 𝑑1 )
1 −3 1.0001 2.0004
𝛽𝑖 = 𝑒𝑖 /𝛼𝑖 1 −1.6667 1.9998 0
(𝑤1 = 𝑏1 /𝛼1 )
5 6.3333 0.0001 0.9998
𝑥4 = 𝑤4
1.9989 3.0011 −1.9993 0.9998
Solution: 𝑥1 = 1.9989 𝑥2 = 3.0011 𝑥3 = −1.9993 𝑥4 = 0.9998
EXACT SOLUTION: x = (2 , 3 , -2 , 1)
A17KA0105
5 2 0 0 𝑥1 16
17. a) Ax = b → 2 3 1 0 𝑥2 = 15
0 1 2 −1 𝑥3 4
0 0 −1 2 𝑥4 4
𝑑1 𝑒1 0 0 𝛼1 0 0 0 1 𝛽1 0 0
𝐴 = 𝐿𝑈 → 𝑐2 𝑑2 𝑒2 0 = 𝑐2 𝛼2 0 0 0 1 𝛽2 0
0 𝑐3 𝑑3 𝑒3 0 𝑐3 𝛼3 0 0 0 1 𝛽3
0 0 𝑐4 𝑑4 0 0 𝑐4 𝛼4 0 0 0 1
𝛼1 𝛼1 𝛽1 0 0
= 𝑐2 𝑐2 𝛽1 + 𝛼2 𝛼2 𝛽2 0
0 𝑐3 𝑐3 𝛽2 + 𝛼3 𝛼3 𝛽3
0 0 𝑐4 𝑐4 𝛽3 + 𝛼4
we obtain 
𝛼1 = 5.0000
2
𝛼1 𝛽1 =2 → 𝛽1 = = 0.4000
𝛼1
𝑐2 𝛽1 + 𝛼2 = 3 → 𝛼2 = 3 − 𝑐2 𝛽1 = 2.2000
1
𝛼2 𝛽2 =1 → 𝛽2 = = 0.4545
𝛼2
𝑐3 𝛽2 + 𝛼3 = 2 → 𝛼3 = 2 − 𝑐3 𝛽2 = 1.5455
−1
𝛼3 𝛽3 = −1 → 𝛽3 = = −0.6470
𝛼3
𝑐4 𝛽3 + 𝛼4 = 2 → 𝛼4 = 2 − 𝑐4 𝛽3 = 1.3530
1 1 0 0 5 0 0 0 1 0.4 0 0
then  𝐴 = 𝐿𝑈 → 2 −1 5 0 = 2 2.2 0 0 0 1 0.4545 0
0 3 −4 2 0 1 1.5455 0 0 0 1 −0.647
0 0 2 −4 0 0 −1 1.353 0 0 0 1
5 0 0 0 𝑤1 16
1) Solve Lw = b, → 2 2.2 0 0 𝑤2 = 15 → 𝑤1 = 3.2000
𝑤2 = 3.9091
0 1 1.5455 0 𝑤3 4
0 0 −1 1.353 𝑤4 4
𝑤4 = 2.9999
1 0.4 0 0 𝑥1 3.2 𝑥1 = 1.9999
2) Solve Ux = w, → 0 1 0.4545 0 𝑥2 = 3.9091 → 𝑥2 = 3.0002
0 0 1 −0.647 𝑥3 0.0588 𝑥3 = 1.9997
0 0 0 1 𝑥4 2.9999 𝑥4 = 2.9999
Solution: 𝑥1 = 1.9999 𝑥2 = 3.0002 𝑥3 = 1.9997 𝑥4 = 2.9999
EXACT SOLUTION: x = (2 , 3 , 2 , 3)
A17KA0105
5 2 0 0 𝑥1 16
17. b) Ax = b → 2 3 1 0 𝑥2 = 15
0 1 2 −1 𝑥3 4
0 0 −1 2 𝑥4 4
𝛼1 = 𝑑1
𝛼𝑖 = 𝑑𝑖 − 𝑐𝑖 𝛽𝑖−1 , 𝑖 = 2 ,3 ,…,𝑛
𝑒𝑖
𝛽𝑖 = , 𝑖 = 1 ,2 ,3 ,…,𝑛 − 1
𝛼𝑖
𝑏1
𝑤1 =
𝛼1
𝑤𝑖 = (𝑏𝑖 − 𝑐𝑖 𝑤𝑖−1 )/𝛼𝑖 , 𝑖 = 2 ,3 ,…,𝑛
𝑥𝑛 = 𝑤𝑛
𝑥𝑖 = 𝑤𝑖 − 𝛽𝑖 𝑥𝑖+1 , 𝑖 = 𝑛 − 1 ,𝑛 − 2 ,…,1
𝑖 1 2 3 4
𝑑𝑖 5 3 2 2
𝑒𝑖 2 1 −1 0
𝑐𝑖 0 2 1 −1
𝑏𝑖 16 15 4 4
(𝛼1 = 𝑑1 )
5 2.2 1.5455 1.353
𝛽𝑖 = 𝑒𝑖 /𝛼𝑖 0.4 0.4545 −0.647 0
(𝑤1 = 𝑏1 /𝛼1 )
3.2 3.9091 0.0588 2.9999
𝑥4 = 𝑤4
1.9999 3.0002 1.9997 2.9999
Solution: 𝑥1 = 1.9999 𝑥2 = 3.0002 𝑥3 = 1.9997 𝑥4 = 2.9999
EXACT SOLUTION: x = (2 , 3 , 2 , 3)
A17KA0105
Thomas factorization TEMPLATE
𝑥1
Ax = b → 𝑥2 =
𝑥3
𝑑1 𝑒1 0 𝛼1 0 0 1 𝛽1 0
𝐴 = 𝐿𝑈 → 𝑐2 𝑑2 𝑒2 = 𝑐2 𝛼2 0 0 1 𝛽2
0 𝑐3 𝑑3 0 𝑐3 𝛼3 0 0 1
𝛼1 𝛼1 𝛽1 0
= 𝑐2 𝑐2 𝛽1 + 𝛼2 𝛼2 𝛽2
0 𝑐3 𝑐3 𝛽2 + 𝛼3
we obtain 
𝛼1 = 𝑑1
𝑒1
𝛼1 𝛽1 = 𝑒1 → 𝛽1 = =
𝛼1
𝑐2 𝛽1 + 𝛼2 = 𝑑2 → 𝛼2 = 𝑑2 − 𝑐2 𝛽1 =
𝑒2
𝛼2 𝛽2 = 𝑒2 → 𝛽2 = =
𝛼2
𝑐3 𝛽2 + 𝛼3 = 𝑑3 → 𝛼3 = 𝑑3 − 𝑐3 𝛽2 =
𝑑1 𝑒1 0 𝛼1 0 0 1 𝛽1 0
then  𝐴 = 𝐿𝑈 → 𝑐2 𝑑2 𝑒2 = 𝑐2 𝛼2 0 0 1 𝛽2
0 𝑐3 𝑑3 0 𝑐3 𝛼3 0 0 1
𝑤1 By using calculator:
1) Solve Lw = b, → 𝑤2 = → 𝑤1 =
𝑤3 𝑤2 =
𝑤3 =
𝑥1 By using calculator:
2) Solve Ux = w, → 𝑥2 = → 𝑥1 =
𝑥3 𝑥2 =
𝑥3 =
A17KA0105
Thomas algorithm TEMPLATE
𝑥1
Ax = b → 𝑥2 =
𝑥3
𝛼1 = 𝑑1
𝛼𝑖 = 𝑑𝑖 − 𝑐𝑖 𝛽𝑖−1 , 𝑖 = 2 ,3 ,…,𝑛
𝑒𝑖
𝛽𝑖 = , 𝑖 = 1 ,2 ,3 ,…,𝑛 − 1
𝛼𝑖
𝑏1
𝑤1 =
𝛼1
𝑤𝑖 = (𝑏𝑖 − 𝑐𝑖 𝑤𝑖−1 )/𝛼𝑖 , 𝑖 = 2 ,3 ,…,𝑛
𝑥𝑛 = 𝑤𝑛
𝑥𝑖 = 𝑤𝑖 − 𝛽𝑖 𝑥𝑖+1 , 𝑖 = 𝑛 − 1 ,𝑛 − 2 ,…,1
𝑖 1 2 3 4
𝑑𝑖 Type equation here. Type equation here. Type equation here. Type equation here.
𝑒𝑖 Type equation here. Type equation here. Type equation here. Type equation here.
𝑐𝑖 Type equation here. Type equation here. Type equation here. Type equation here.
Type equation here. Type equation here. Type equation here. Type equation here.
𝑏𝑖
(𝛼1 = 𝑑1 )
𝛽𝑖 = 𝑒𝑖 /𝛼𝑖 Type equation here. Type equation here. Type equation here. Type equation here.
(𝑤1 = 𝑏1 /𝛼1 )
𝑥𝑛 = 𝑤𝑛
A17KA0105
ITERATIVE METHOD
***Exercise 2.3
Solve the following linear system using :
(a) Jacobi iterative method
(b) Gauss-Seidel iterative method
With initial guess 𝐱 (0) = 𝟎. Shown the calculation in 3DP and let ε = 0.005. if possible,
rearrange the given system of linear equations into strictly diagonally dominant system to
ensure the method is convergence.
(Note: Stop after 10 iteration if the method still not converge)
10 3 1 𝑥1 38 |10| > |3| + |1|

1. a) Ax = b → 2 −10 3 𝑥2 = −37 |−10| > |2| + |3| *no need to rearrange
1 2 10 𝑥3 42 |10| > |1| + |2|
Coefficient matrix A is diagonally dominant, thus Jacobi iteration converges.

Using Jacobi iteration,
(𝑘) (𝑘) (𝑘) (𝑘)
(𝑘+1) 𝑏1 − 𝑎12 𝑥2 − 𝑎13 𝑥3 38 − 3𝑥2 − 1𝑥3
𝑥1 = =
𝑎11 10
(𝑘) (𝑘) (𝑘) (𝑘)
(𝑘+1) 𝑏2 − 𝑎21 𝑥1 − 𝑎23 𝑥3 −37 − 2𝑥1 − 3𝑥3 Starting with 𝐱 (0) = 𝟎 = (0 , 0 , 0)
𝑥2 = =
𝑎22 −10 3DP  Let ε = 0.005
(𝑘) (𝑘) (𝑘) (𝑘)
(𝑘+1) 𝑏3 − 𝑎31 𝑥1 − 𝑎32 𝑥2 42 − 1𝑥1 − 2𝑥2
𝑥3 = =
𝑎33 10
(𝑘) (𝑘) (𝑘)

𝑘 A  𝑥1 B  𝑥2 C  𝑥3
0 0.000 0.000 0.000
1 3.800 3.700 4.200
2 2.270 5.720 2.980
3 1.486 5.048 2.829
4 2.003 4.846 3.042
5 2.042 5.013 3.031
6 1.993 5.018 2.993
7 1.995 4.997 2.997
8 2.001 4.998 3.001
9 2.001 5.001 3.000
(9)
‖𝐱 (9) − 𝐱 (8) ‖∞ = max {|𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥𝑖(8) |}
1≤𝑖≤3
= max {|𝑥19 − 𝑥18 | , |𝑥29 − 𝑥28 | , |𝑥39 − 𝑥38 |}
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
= max{0.000 , 0.003 , 00001}

= 0.003 < ε = 0.005
𝐱 ≈ 𝐱 (9) = (𝟐. 𝟎𝟎𝟏 , 𝟓. 𝟎𝟎𝟏 , 𝟑. 𝟎𝟎𝟎)
SOLUTION → 𝑥1 = 2.001 𝑥2 = 5.001 𝑥3 = 3.000
A17KA0105
10 3 1 𝑥1 38 |10| > |3| + |1|

1. b) Ax = b → 2 −10 3 𝑥2 = −37 |−10| > |2| + |3| *no need to rearrange
1 2 10 𝑥3 42 |10| > |1| + |2|
Coefficient matrix A is diagonally dominant, thus Gauss-Seidel iteration converges.

Using Gauss-Seidel iteration,
(𝑘) (𝑘) (𝑘) (𝑘)

(𝑘+1) 𝑏1 − 𝑎12 𝑥2 − 𝑎13 𝑥3 38 − 3𝑥2 − 1𝑥3
𝑥1 = =
𝑎11 10
(𝑘+1) (𝑘) (𝑘+1) (𝑘)
𝑥2 = = 3DP  Let ε = 0.005
𝑎22 −10
(𝑘+1) (𝑘+1) (𝑘+1) (𝑘+1)
(𝑘+1) 𝑏3 − 𝑎31 𝑥1 − 𝑎32 𝑥2 42 − 1𝑥1 − 2𝑥2
𝑥3 = =
𝑎33 10
(𝑘) (𝑘) (𝑘)

𝑘 A  𝑥1 B  𝑥2 C  𝑥3
0 0.000 0.000 0.000
1 3.800 4.460 2.928
2 2.169 5.012 2.981
3 1.998 4.994 3.001
4 2.002 5.001 3.000
5 2.000 5.000 3.000
5
( ) 4 ( )
‖𝐱 (5) − 𝐱 (4) ‖∞ = max {|𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥𝑖 |}
1≤𝑖≤3
= max {|𝑥15 − 𝑥14 | , |𝑥25 − 𝑥24 | , |𝑥35 − 𝑥34 |}
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
= max{0.002 , 0.001 , 0.000}

= 0.002 < ε = 0.005
𝐱 ≈ 𝐱 (5) = (𝟐. 𝟎𝟎𝟎 , 𝟓. 𝟎𝟎𝟎 , 𝟑. 𝟎𝟎𝟎)
SOLUTION → 𝑥1 = 2.000 𝑥2 = 5.000 𝑥3 = 3.000
A17KA0105
10 −1 0 𝑥1 25 |10| > |−1| + |0|

2. a) Ax = b → −1 10 −2 𝑥2 = 41 |10| > |−1| + |−2| *no need to rearrange
0 −1 5 𝑥3 10 |5| > |0| + |−1|

(𝑘) (𝑘) (𝑘) (𝑘)

(𝑘+1) 𝑏1 − 𝑎12 𝑥2 − 𝑎13 𝑥3 25 + 1𝑥2 − 0𝑥3
𝑥1 = =
𝑎11 10
(𝑘) (𝑘) (𝑘) (𝑘)
(𝑘+1) 𝑏2 − 𝑎21 𝑥1 − 𝑎23 𝑥3 41 + 1𝑥1 + 2𝑥3 Starting with 𝐱 (0) = 𝟎 = (0 , 0 , 0)
𝑥2 = = 3DP  Let ε = 0.005
𝑎22 10
(𝑘) (𝑘) (𝑘) (𝑘)
(𝑘+1) 𝑏3 − 𝑎31 𝑥1 − 𝑎32 𝑥2 10 − 0𝑥1 + 1𝑥2
𝑥3 = =
𝑎33 5
(𝑘) (𝑘) (𝑘)

𝑘 A  𝑥1 B  𝑥2 C  𝑥3
0 0.000 0.000 0.000
1 2.500 4.100 2.000
2 2.910 4.750 2.820
3 2.975 4.955 2.950
4 2.996 4.988 2.991
5 2.999 4.988 2.998
6 2.999 5.000 2.998
6( ) 5 ( )
‖𝐱 (6) − 𝐱 (5) ‖∞ = max {|𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥𝑖 |}
1≤𝑖≤3
(6) (5) (6) (5) (6) (5)
= max {|𝑥1 − 𝑥1 | , |𝑥2 − 𝑥2 | , |𝑥3 − 𝑥3 |}
= max{0.000 , 0.002 , 0.000}
= 0.002 < ε = 0.005
(6)
𝐱≈𝐱 = (𝟐. 𝟗𝟗𝟗 , 𝟓. 𝟎𝟎𝟎 , 𝟐. 𝟗𝟗𝟖)
SOLUTION → 𝑥1 = 2.999 𝑥2 = 5.000 𝑥3 = 2998
A17KA0105
10 −1 0 𝑥1 25 |10| > |−1| + |0|

2. b) Ax = b → −1 10 −2 𝑥2 = 41 |10| > |−1| + |−2| *no need to rearrange
0 −1 5 𝑥3 10 |5| > |0| + |−1|

(𝑘) (𝑘) (𝑘)

(𝑘+1) 𝑏1 − 𝑎12 𝑥2 − 𝑎13 𝑥3 25 ∓ 1 − 0𝑥3
𝑥1 = =
𝑎11 10
(𝑘+1) (𝑘) (𝑘+1) (𝑘)
(𝑘+1) 𝑏2 − 𝑎21 𝑥1 − 𝑎23 𝑥3 41 + 1𝑥1 + 2𝑥3 Starting with 𝐱 (0) = 𝟎 = (0 , 0 , 0)
𝑥2 = = 3DP  Let ε = 0.005
𝑎22 10
(𝑘+1) (𝑘+1) (𝑘+1) (𝑘+1)
(𝑘+1) 𝑏3 − 𝑎31 𝑥1 − 𝑎32 𝑥2 10 − 0𝑥1 + 1𝑥2
𝑥3 = =
𝑎33 5
(𝑘) (𝑘) (𝑘)

𝑘 A  𝑥1 B  𝑥2 C  𝑥3
0 0.000 0.000 0.000
1 2.500 4.350 2.870
2 2.935 4.968 2.994
3 2.997 4.998 3.000
4 3.000 5.000 3.000
4
( ) 3 ( )
‖𝐱 (4) − 𝐱 (3) ‖∞ = max {|𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥𝑖 |}
1≤𝑖≤3
(4) (3) (4) (3) (4) (3)
= max {|𝑥1 − 𝑥1 | , |𝑥2 − 𝑥2 | , |𝑥3 − 𝑥3 |}
= max{0.003 , 0.002 , 0.000}
= 0.003 < ε = 0.005
𝐱 ≈ 𝐱 (4) = (𝟑. 𝟎𝟎𝟎 , 𝟓. 𝟎𝟎𝟎 , 𝟑. 𝟎𝟎𝟎)
SOLUTION → 𝑥1 = 3.000 𝑥2 = 5.000 𝑥3 = 3.000
A17KA0105
10 −5 1 𝑥1 2 |10| > |−5| + |1|

3. a) Ax = b → 4 11 4 𝑥2 = 25 |11| > |4| + |4| *cannot be rearranged
4 −5 −6 𝑥3 41 |−6| < |4| + |−5|

(𝑘) (𝑘) (𝑘) (𝑘)

(𝑘+1) 𝑏1 − 𝑎12 𝑥2 − 𝑎13 𝑥3 2 + 5𝑥2 − 1𝑥3
𝑥1 = =
𝑎11 10
(𝑘) (𝑘) (𝑘) (𝑘)
(𝑘+1) 𝑏2 − 𝑎21 𝑥1 − 𝑎23 𝑥3 25 − 4𝑥1 − 4𝑥3 Starting with 𝐱 (0) = 𝟎 = (0 , 0 , 0)
𝑥2 = = 3DP  Let ε = 0.005
𝑎22 11
(𝑘) (𝑘) (𝑘) (𝑘)
(𝑘+1) 𝑏3 − 𝑎31 𝑥1 − 𝑎32 𝑥2 41 − 4𝑥1 + 5𝑥2
𝑥3 = =
𝑎33 −6
(𝑘) (𝑘) (𝑘)

𝑘 A  𝑥1 B  𝑥2 C  𝑥3
0 0.000 0.000 0.000
1 0.200 2.273 - 6.833
2 2.020 4.685 - 8.594
3 3.402 4.663 - 9.391
4 3.471 4.451 - 8.451
5 3.271 4.084 - 8.229
6 3.065 4.076 - 8.056
7 3.044 4.088 - 8.187
8 3.063 4.143 - 8.211
9 3.093 4.145 - 8.244
10 3.097 4.146 - 8.226
𝑺𝒕𝒐𝒑 𝒂𝒇𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝟏𝟎 𝒊𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏. 𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒉𝒐𝒅 𝒔𝒕𝒊𝒍𝒍 𝒏𝒐𝒕 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒆.

A17KA0105
10 −5 1 𝑥1 2 |10| > |−5| + |1|

3. b) Ax = b → 4 11 4 𝑥2 = 25 |11| > |4| + |4| *cannot be rearranged
4 −5 −6 𝑥3 41 |−6| < |4| + |−5|

(𝑘) (𝑘) (𝑘) (𝑘)

(𝑘+1) 𝑏1 − 𝑎12 𝑥2 − 𝑎13 𝑥3 2 + 5𝑥2 − 1𝑥3
𝑥1 = =
𝑎11 10
(𝑘+1) (𝑘) (𝑘+1) (𝑘)
𝑥2 = = 3DP  Let ε = 0.005
𝑎22 11
(𝑘+1) (𝑘+1) (𝑘+1) (𝑘+1)
(𝑘+1) 𝑏3 − 𝑎31 𝑥1 − 𝑎32 𝑥2 41 − 4𝑥1 + 5𝑥2
𝑥3 = =
𝑎33 −6
(𝑘) (𝑘) (𝑘)

𝑘 A  𝑥1 B  𝑥2 C  𝑥3
0 0.000 0.000 0.000
1 0.200 2.200 - 8.533
2 2.153 4.593 - 9.225
3 3.419 4.384 - 8.207
4 3.213 4.089 - 8.099
5 3.054 4.107 - 8.220
6 3.076 4.143 - 8.236
7 3.095 4.142 - 8.222
8 3.093 4.138 - 8.219
9 3.091 4.138 - 8.221
9( ) 8 ( )
‖𝐱 (9) − 𝐱 (8) ‖∞ = max {|𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥𝑖 |}
1≤𝑖≤3
= max {|𝑥19 − 𝑥18 | , |𝑥29 − 𝑥28 | , |𝑥39 − 𝑥38 |}
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
= max{0.002 , 0.000 , 0.003}

= 0.003 < ε = 0.005
(9)
𝐱≈𝐱 = (𝟑. 𝟎𝟗𝟏 , 𝟒. 𝟏𝟑𝟖 , −𝟖. 𝟐𝟐𝟏)
SOLUTION → 𝑥1 = 3.091 𝑥2 = 4.138 𝑥3 = −8.221
A17KA0105
4 −1 1 𝑥1 7 |4| > |−1| + |1|

4. a) Ax = b → 4 −8 1 𝑥2 = −21 |−8| > |4| + |1| *no need to rearrange
−2 1 5 𝑥3 15 |5| > |−2| + |1|

(𝑘) (𝑘) (𝑘) (𝑘)

(𝑘+1) 𝑏1 − 𝑎12 𝑥2 − 𝑎13 𝑥3 7 + 1𝑥2 − 1𝑥3
𝑥1 = =
𝑎11 4
(𝑘) (𝑘) (𝑘) (𝑘)
𝑥2 = = 3DP  Let ε = 0.005
𝑎22 −8
(𝑘) (𝑘) (𝑘) (𝑘)
(𝑘+1) 𝑏3 − 𝑎31 𝑥1 − 𝑎32 𝑥2 15 + 2𝑥1 − 1𝑥2
𝑥3 = =
𝑎33 5
(𝑘) (𝑘) (𝑘)

𝑘 A  𝑥1 B  𝑥2 C  𝑥3
0 0.000 0.000 0.000
1 1.750 2.625 3.000
2 1.656 3.875 3.175
3 1.925 3.850 2.887
4 1.991 3.948 3.000
5 1.987 3.996 3.007
6 1.997 3.994 2.996
7 2.000 3.998 3.000
7( ) 6 ( )
‖𝐱 (7) − 𝐱 (6) ‖∞ = max {|𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥𝑖 |}
1≤𝑖≤3
= max {|𝑥17 − 𝑥16 | , |𝑥27 − 𝑥26 | , |𝑥37 − 𝑥36 |}
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
= max{0.003 , 0.004 , 0.004}

= 0.004 < ε = 0.005
(7)
𝐱≈𝐱 = (𝟐. 𝟎𝟎𝟎 , 𝟑. 𝟗𝟗𝟖 , 𝟑. 𝟎𝟎𝟎)
SOLUTION → 𝑥1 = 2.000 𝑥2 = 3.998 𝑥3 = 3.000
A17KA0105
4 −1 1 𝑥1 7 |4| > |−1| + |1|

4. b) Ax = b → 4 −8 1 𝑥2 = −21 |−8| > |4| + |1| *no need to rearrange
−2 1 5 𝑥3 15 |5| > |−2| + |1|

(𝑘) (𝑘) (𝑘) (𝑘)

(𝑘+1) 𝑏1 − 𝑎12 𝑥2 − 𝑎13 𝑥3 7 + 1𝑥2 − 𝑥3
𝑥1 = =
𝑎11 4
(𝑘+1) (𝑘) (𝑘+1) (𝑘)
𝑥2 = = 3DP  Let ε = 0.005
𝑎22 −8
(𝑘+1) (𝑘+1) (𝑘+1) (𝑘+1)
(𝑘+1) 𝑏3 − 𝑎31 𝑥1 − 𝑎32 𝑥2 15 + 2𝑥1 − 1𝑥2
𝑥3 = =
𝑎33 5
(𝑘) (𝑘) (𝑘)

𝑘 A  𝑥1 B  𝑥2 C  𝑥3
0 0.000 0.000 0.000
1 1.750 3.500 3.000
2 1.875 3.938 2.963
3 1.994 3.992 2.999
4 1.998 3.999 3.000
5 2.000 4.000 3.000
5
( ) 4 ( )
‖𝐱 (5) − 𝐱 (4) ‖∞ = max {|𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥𝑖 |}
1≤𝑖≤3
= max {|𝑥15 − 𝑥14 | , |𝑥25 − 𝑥24 | , |𝑥35 − 𝑥34 |}
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
= max{0.002 , 0.001 , 0.000}

= 0.002 < ε = 0.005
𝐱 ≈ 𝐱 (5) = (𝟐. 𝟎𝟎𝟎 , 𝟒. 𝟎𝟎𝟎 , 𝟑. 𝟎𝟎𝟎)
SOLUTION → 𝑥1 = 2.000 𝑥2 = 4.000 𝑥3 = 3.000
A17KA0105
5 −1 1 𝑥1 11 |5| > |−1| + |1|

5. a) Ax = b → 2 8 −1 𝑥2 = 17 |8| > |2| + |−1| *no need to rearrange
−1 1 7 𝑥3 21 |7| > |−1| + |1|

(𝑘) (𝑘) (𝑘) (𝑘)

(𝑘+1) 𝑏1 − 𝑎12 𝑥2 − 𝑎13 𝑥3 11 + 1𝑥2 − 1𝑥3
𝑥1 = =
𝑎11 5
(𝑘) (𝑘) (𝑘) (𝑘)
(𝑘+1) 𝑏2 − 𝑎21 𝑥1 − 𝑎23 𝑥3 17 − 2𝑥1 + 1𝑥3 Starting with 𝐱 (0) = 𝟎 = (0 , 0 , 0)
𝑥2 = = 3DP  Let ε = 0.005
𝑎22 8
(𝑘) (𝑘) (𝑘) (𝑘)
(𝑘+1) 𝑏3 − 𝑎31 𝑥1 − 𝑎32 𝑥2 21 + 1𝑥1 − 1𝑥2
𝑥3 = =
𝑎33 7
(𝑘) (𝑘) (𝑘)

𝑘 A  𝑥1 B  𝑥2 C  𝑥3
0 0.000 0.000 0.000
1 2.200 2.125 3.000
2 2.025 1.950 3.011
3 1.988 1.995 3.011
4 1.997 2.002 2.998
5 2.001 2.001 2.999
5( ) 4 ( )
‖𝐱 (5) − 𝐱 (4) ‖∞ = max {|𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥𝑖 |}
1≤𝑖≤3
(5) (4) (5) (4) (5) (4)
= max {|𝑥1 − 𝑥1 | , |𝑥2 − 𝑥2 | , |𝑥3 − 𝑥3 |}
= max{0.004 , 0.001 , 0.001}
= 0.004 < ε = 0.005
(5)
𝐱≈𝐱 = (𝟐. 𝟎𝟎𝟏 , 𝟐. 𝟎𝟎𝟏 , 𝟐. 𝟗𝟗𝟗)
SOLUTION → 𝑥1 = 2.001 𝑥2 = 2.001 𝑥3 = 2.999
A17KA0105
5 −1 1 𝑥1 11 |5| > |−1| + |1|

5. b) Ax = b → 2 8 −1 𝑥2 = 17 |8| > |2| + |−1| *no need to rearrange
−1 1 7 𝑥3 21 |7| > |−1| + |1|

(𝑘) (𝑘) (𝑘) (𝑘)

(𝑘+1) 𝑏1 − 𝑎12 𝑥2 − 𝑎13 𝑥3 11 + 1𝑥2 − 3𝑥3
𝑥1 = =
𝑎11 5
(𝑘+1) (𝑘) (𝑘+1) (𝑘)
(𝑘+1) 𝑏2 − 𝑎21 𝑥1 − 𝑎23 𝑥3 17 − 2𝑥1 + 1𝑥3 Starting with 𝐱 (0) = 𝟎 = (0 , 0 , 0)
𝑥2 = = 3DP  Let ε = 0.005
𝑎22 8
(𝑘+1) (𝑘+1) (𝑘+1) (𝑘+1)
(𝑘+1) 𝑏3 − 𝑎31 𝑥1 − 𝑎32 𝑥2 21 + 1𝑥1 − 1𝑥2
𝑥3 = =
𝑎33 7
(𝑘) (𝑘) (𝑘)

𝑘 A  𝑥1 B  𝑥2 C  𝑥3
0 0.000 0.000 0.000
1 2.200 1.575 3.089
2 1.897 2.037 2.980
3 2.011 1.995 3.002
4 1.998 2.001 3.000
5 2.000 2.000 3.000
5( ) 4 ( )
‖𝐱 (5) − 𝐱 (4) ‖∞ = max {|𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥𝑖 |}
1≤𝑖≤3
= max {|𝑥15 − 𝑥14 | , |𝑥25 − 𝑥24 | , |𝑥35 − 𝑥34 |}
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
= max{0.002 , 0.001 , 0.000}

= 0.002 < ε = 0.005
(5)
𝐱≈𝐱 = (𝟐. 𝟎𝟎𝟎 , 𝟐. 𝟎𝟎𝟎 , 𝟑. 𝟎𝟎𝟎)
SOLUTION → 𝑥1 = 2.000 𝑥2 = 2.000 𝑥3 = 3.000
A17KA0105
7. Solve the following linear system using Gauss-Seidel method starting 𝐱 (0) = 𝟎.
𝑅 3 4 𝑥1 21 | | > | |+| |
Ax = b → 1 2𝑅 −1 𝑥2 = 9 | | > | |+| | *no need to rearrange
2 −1 𝑅 𝑥3 18 | | > | |+| |
Compare the number of iteration to obtain the solution if
a) R = 10
b) R = 100
Show the calculation in 4DP and let ε = 0.0005
10 3 4 𝑥1 21 |10| > |3| + |4|

a) Ax = b → 1 20 −1 𝑥2 = 9 |20| > |1| + |−1| *no need to rearrange
2 −1 10 𝑥3 18 |10| > |2| + |−1|

(𝑘) (𝑘) (𝑘) (𝑘)
𝑥1 = =
𝑎11 10 4DP  Let ε = 0.0005
(𝑘+1) (𝑘) (𝑘+1) (𝑘)
(𝑘+1) 𝑏2 − 𝑎21 𝑥1 − 𝑎23 𝑥3 9 − 1𝑥1 + 1𝑥3
𝑥2 = =
𝑎22 20
(𝑘+1) (𝑘+1) (𝑘+1) (𝑘+1)
(𝑘+1) 𝑏3 − 𝑎31 𝑥1 − 𝑎32 𝑥2 18 − 2𝑥1 + 1𝑥2
𝑥3 = =
𝑎33 10
(𝑘) (𝑘) (𝑘)

𝑘 A  𝑥1 B  𝑥2 C  𝑥3
0 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
1 2.1000 0.3450 1.4145
2 1.4307 0.4492 1.5588
3 1.3417 0.4609 1.5777
4 1.3306 0.4624 1.5801
5 1.3293 0.4625 1.5804
6 1.3291 0.4626 1.5804
6( ) 5 ( )
‖𝐱 (6) − 𝐱 (5) ‖∞ = max {|𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥𝑖 |}
1≤𝑖≤3
= max {|𝑥16 − 𝑥15 | , |𝑥26 − 𝑥25 | , |𝑥36 − 𝑥35 |}
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
= max{0.0002 , 0.0001 , 0.0000}

= 0.0002 < ε = 0.0005
(𝑘)
𝐱≈𝐱 = (𝟏. 𝟑𝟐𝟗𝟏 , 𝟎. 𝟒𝟔𝟐𝟔 , 𝟏. 𝟓𝟖𝟎𝟒)
SOLUTION → 𝑥1 = 1.3291 𝑥2 = 0.4626 𝑥3 = 1.5804
𝐍𝐔𝐌𝐁𝐄𝐑 𝐎𝐅 𝐈𝐓𝐄𝐑𝐀𝐓𝐈𝐎𝐍 = 𝟔
A17KA0105
100 3 4 𝑥1 21 |100| > |3| + |4|

b) Ax = b → 1 200 −1 𝑥2 = 9 |200| > |1| + |−1| *no need to rearrange
2 −1 100 𝑥3 18 |100| > |2| + |−1|

(𝑘) (𝑘) (𝑘) (𝑘)
𝑥1 = =
𝑎11 100 4DP  Let ε = 0.0005
(𝑘+1) (𝑘) (𝑘+1) (𝑘)
(𝑘+1) 𝑏2 − 𝑎21 𝑥1 − 𝑎23 𝑥3 9 − 1𝑥1 + 1𝑥3
𝑥2 = =
𝑎22 200
(𝑘+1) (𝑘+1) (𝑘+1) (𝑘+1)
(𝑘+1) 𝑏3 − 𝑎31 𝑥1 − 𝑎32 𝑥2 18 − 2𝑥1 + 1𝑥2
𝑥3 = =
𝑎33 100
(𝑘) (𝑘) (𝑘)

𝑘 A  𝑥1 B  𝑥2 C  𝑥3
0 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
1 0.2100 0.0440 0.1762
2 0.2016 0.0449 0.1764
3 0.2016 0.0449 0.1764
3 2
( ) ( )
‖𝐱 (3) − 𝐱 (2) ‖∞ = max {|𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥𝑖 |}
1≤𝑖≤3
= max {|𝑥13 − 𝑥12 | , |𝑥23 − 𝑥22 | , |𝑥33 − 𝑥32 |}
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
= max{0.0000 , 0.0000 , 0.0000}

= 0.0000 < ε = 0.0005
(𝑘)
𝐱≈𝐱 = (𝟎. 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟔 , 𝟎. 𝟎𝟒𝟒𝟗 , 𝟎. 𝟏𝟕𝟔𝟒)
SOLUTION → 𝑥1 = 0.2016 𝑥2 = 0.0449 𝑥3 = 0.1764
𝐍𝐔𝐌𝐁𝐄𝐑 𝐎𝐅 𝐈𝐓𝐄𝐑𝐀𝐓𝐈𝐎𝐍 = 𝟑
A17KA0105
Jacobi Iteration TEMPLATE
𝑥1 | | > | |+| |
Ax = b → 𝑥2 = | | > | |+| | *no need to rearrange
𝑥3 | | > | |+| |

(𝑘) (𝑘) (𝑘) (𝑘)

(𝑘+1) 𝑏1 − 𝑎12 𝑥2 − 𝑎13 𝑥3 −𝑥2 − 𝑥3
𝑥1 = =
𝑎11
(𝑘) (𝑘) (𝑘) (𝑘)
(𝑘+1) 𝑏2 − 𝑎21 𝑥1 − 𝑎23 𝑥3 −𝑥1 − 𝑥3 Starting with 𝐱 (0) = 𝟎 = (0 , 0 , 0)
𝑥2 = = 3DP  Let ε = 0.005
𝑎22
(𝑘) (𝑘) (𝑘) (𝑘)
(𝑘+1) 𝑏3 − 𝑎31 𝑥1 − 𝑎32 𝑥2 −𝑥1 − 𝑥2
𝑥3 = =
𝑎33
(𝑘) (𝑘) (𝑘)

𝑘 A  𝑥1 B  𝑥2 C  𝑥3
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
𝑘 ( ) 𝑘−1 ( )
‖𝐱 (𝑘) − 𝐱 (𝑘−1) ‖∞ = max {|𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥𝑖 |}
1≤𝑖≤3
(𝑘) (𝑘−1) (𝑘) (𝑘−1) (𝑘) (𝑘−1)
= max {|𝑥1 − 𝑥1 | , |𝑥2 − 𝑥2 | , |𝑥3 − 𝑥3 |}
= max{ }
=< ε = 0.005
(𝑘)
𝐱≈𝐱 =( )
SOLUTION → 𝑥1 = 𝑥2 = 𝑥3 =
A17KA0105
Gauss-Seidel Iteration TEMPLATE
𝑥1 | | > | |+| |
Ax = b → 𝑥2 = | | > | |+| | *no need to rearrange
𝑥3 | | > | |+| |

(𝑘) (𝑘) (𝑘) (𝑘)

(𝑘+1) 𝑏1 − 𝑎12 𝑥2 − 𝑎13 𝑥3 −𝑥2 − 𝑥3
𝑥1 = =
𝑎11
(𝑘+1) (𝑘) (𝑘+1) (𝑘)
(𝑘+1) 𝑏2 − 𝑎21 𝑥1 − 𝑎23 𝑥3 −𝑥1 − 𝑥3 Starting with 𝐱 (0) = 𝟎 = (0 , 0 , 0)
𝑥2 = = 3DP  Let ε = 0.005
𝑎22
(𝑘+1) (𝑘+1) (𝑘+1) (𝑘+1)
(𝑘+1) 𝑏3 − 𝑎31 𝑥1 − 𝑎32 𝑥2 −𝑥1 − 𝑥2
𝑥3 = =
𝑎33
(𝑘) (𝑘) (𝑘)

𝑘 A  𝑥1 B  𝑥2 C  𝑥3
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
𝑘 ( ) 𝑘−1 ( )
‖𝐱 (𝑘) − 𝐱 (𝑘−1) ‖∞ = max {|𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥𝑖 |}
1≤𝑖≤3
= max {|𝑥1𝑘 − 𝑥1𝑘−1 | , |𝑥2𝑘 − 𝑥2𝑘−1 | , |𝑥3𝑘 − 𝑥3𝑘−1 |}
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
= max{ }
=< ε = 0.005
(𝑘)
𝐱≈𝐱 =( )
SOLUTION → 𝑥1 = 𝑥2 = 𝑥3 =
A17KA0105
LAGRANGE INTERPOLATION
***Exercise 3.1
For the question 1 – 10, using Lagrange Interpolation approximate the value of:
1. 𝑓(2) if 𝑖 0 1 2
𝑥𝑖 0 1 3
𝑦𝑖 = 𝑓(𝑥𝑖 ) 0 1 0
Lagrange Interpolation polynomial,

𝑃2 (𝑥) = 𝐿0 (𝑥)𝑦0 + 𝐿1 (𝑥)𝑦1 + 𝐿2 (𝑥)𝑦2 where :
(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )(𝑥 − 𝑥2 ) (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 3) 1
𝐿0 (𝑥) = = = (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 3)
(𝑥0 − 𝑥1 )(𝑥0 − 𝑥2 ) (0 − 1)(0 − 3) 3
(𝑥 − 𝑥0 )(𝑥 − 𝑥2 ) (𝑥 − 0)(𝑥 − 3) 1
𝐿1 (𝑥) = = = − (𝑥)(𝑥 − 3)
(𝑥1 − 𝑥0 )(𝑥1 − 𝑥2 ) (1 − 0)(1 − 3) 2
(𝑥 − 𝑥0 )(𝑥 − 𝑥1 ) (𝑥 − 0)(𝑥 − 1) 1
𝐿2 (𝑥) = = = (𝑥)(𝑥 − 1)
(𝑥2 − 𝑥0 )(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 ) (3 − 0)(3 − 1) 6
1 1 1
Then : 𝑃2 (𝑥) = 3 (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 3)(0) + (− 2) (𝑥)(𝑥 − 3)(1) + 6 (𝑥)(𝑥 − 1)(0)
1
= − 2 (𝑥)(𝑥 − 3)
Verifying Interpolation condition,

𝑃2 (0) = 0
Interpolation condition are satisfied.
𝑃2 (1) = 1
Verification is not compulsory if question does not ask for it.
𝑃2 (3) = 0
When 𝒙 = 𝟐,
𝑃2 (2) = 1
Then : 𝑓(2) = 𝑃2 (2) = 1
Degree of Lagrange interpolation polynomial,

Expanding 𝑃2 (𝑥) we have,
1 3
𝑃2 (𝑥) = − 2 𝑥 2 + 2 𝑥 Or directly substitute the value x = 2 into
𝐿0 (𝑥) , 𝐿1 (𝑥) , 𝐿2 (𝑥) to get 𝑃2 (2)
Then : Degree of 𝑃2 (𝑥) is 2
A17KA0105
2. 𝑓(3) if 𝑖 0 1 2
𝑥𝑖 0 1 4
𝑦𝑖 = 𝑓(𝑥𝑖 ) 2 1 4

(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )(𝑥 − 𝑥2 ) (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 4) 1
𝐿0 (𝑥) = = = (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 4)
(𝑥0 − 𝑥1 )(𝑥0 − 𝑥2 ) (0 − 1)(0 − 4) 4
(𝑥 − 𝑥0 )(𝑥 − 𝑥2 ) (𝑥 − 0)(𝑥 − 4) 1
𝐿1 (𝑥) = = = − (𝑥)(𝑥 − 4)
(𝑥1 − 𝑥0 )(𝑥1 − 𝑥2 ) (1 − 0)(1 − 4) 3
(𝑥 − 𝑥0 )(𝑥 − 𝑥1 ) (𝑥 − 0)(𝑥 − 1) 1
𝐿2 (𝑥) = = = (𝑥)(𝑥 − 1)
(𝑥2 − 𝑥0 )(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 ) (4 − 0)(4 − 1) 12
1 1 1
Then : 𝑃2 (𝑥) = 4 (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 4)(2) + (− 3) (𝑥)(𝑥 − 4)(1) + 12 (𝑥)(𝑥 − 1)(4)
1 1 1
= 2 (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 4) + (− 3) (𝑥)(𝑥 − 4) + 3 (𝑥)(𝑥 − 1)

𝑃2 (0) = 2
𝑃2 (1) = 1
𝑃2 (4) = 4
When 𝒙 = 𝟑,
𝑃2 (3) = 2
Then : 𝑓(3) = 𝑃2 (3) = 2
Or directly substitute the value x = 3 into

𝐿0 (𝑥) , 𝐿1 (𝑥) , 𝐿2 (𝑥) to get 𝑃2 (3)
A17KA0105
3. 𝑓(0.2) if 𝑖 0 1 2
𝑥𝑖 0.1 0.3 0.4
𝑦𝑖 = 𝑓(𝑥𝑖 ) 1.2314 1.9121 2.3855

(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )(𝑥 − 𝑥2 ) (𝑥 − 0.3)(𝑥 − 0.4) 1
𝐿0 (𝑥) = = = (𝑥 − 0.3)(𝑥 − 0.4)
(𝑥0 − 𝑥1 )(𝑥0 − 𝑥2 ) (0.1 − 0.3)(0.1 − 0.4) 0.06
(𝑥 − 𝑥0 )(𝑥 − 𝑥2 ) (𝑥 − 0.1)(𝑥 − 0.4) 1
𝐿1 (𝑥) = = =− (𝑥 − 0.1)(𝑥 − 0.4)
(𝑥1 − 𝑥0 )(𝑥1 − 𝑥2 ) (0.3 − 0.1)(0.3 − 0.4) 0.02
(𝑥 − 𝑥0 )(𝑥 − 𝑥1 ) (𝑥 − 0.1)(𝑥 − 0.3) 1
𝐿2 (𝑥) = = = (𝑥 − 0.1)(𝑥 − 0.3)
(𝑥2 − 𝑥0 )(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 ) (0.4 − 0.1)(0.4 − 0.3) 0.03
1 1
Then : 𝑃2 (𝑥) = 0.06 (𝑥 − 0.3)(𝑥 − 0.4)(1.2314) + (− 0.02) (𝑥 − 0.1)(𝑥 − 0.4)(1.9121) +
1
(𝑥 − 0.1)(𝑥 − 0.3)(2.3855)
0.03

𝑃2 (0.1) = 1.2314
𝑃2 (0.3) = 1.9121
𝑃2 (0.4) = 2.3855
When 𝒙 = 𝟎. 𝟐,
𝑃2 (0.2) = 1.5274
Then : 𝑓(0.2) = 𝑃2 (0.2) = 1.5274
Or directly substitute the value x = 0.2 into

𝐿0 (𝑥) , 𝐿1 (𝑥) , 𝐿2 (𝑥) to get 𝑃2 (0.2)
A17KA0105
4. 𝑓(2.5) if 𝑖 0 1 2
𝑥𝑖 2.1 2.4 2.6
𝑦𝑖 = 𝑓(𝑥𝑖 ) 0.5208 0.5104 0.3813

(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )(𝑥 − 𝑥2 ) (𝑥 − 2.4)(𝑥 − 2.6) 1
𝐿0 (𝑥) = = = (𝑥 − 2.4)(𝑥 − 2.6)
(𝑥0 − 𝑥1 )(𝑥0 − 𝑥2 ) (2.1 − 2.4)(2.1 − 2.6) 0.15
(𝑥 − 𝑥0 )(𝑥 − 𝑥2 ) (𝑥 − 2.1)(𝑥 − 2.6) 1
𝐿1 (𝑥) = = =− (𝑥 − 2.1)(𝑥 − 2.6)
(𝑥1 − 𝑥0 )(𝑥1 − 𝑥2 ) (2.4 − 2.1)(2.4 − 2.6) 0.06
(𝑥 − 𝑥0 )(𝑥 − 𝑥1 ) (𝑥 − 2.1)(𝑥 − 2.4) 1
𝐿2 (𝑥) = = = (𝑥 − 2.1)(𝑥 − 2.4)
(𝑥2 − 𝑥0 )(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 ) (2.6 − 2.1)(2.6 − 2.4) 0.1
1 1
Then : 𝑃2 (𝑥) = 0.15 (𝑥 − 2.4)(𝑥 − 2.6)(0.5208) + (− 0.06) (𝑥 − 2.1)(𝑥 − 2.6)(0.5104) +
1
(𝑥 − 2.1)(𝑥 − 2.4)(0.3813)
0.1

𝑃2 (2.1) = 0.5208
𝑃2 (2.4) = 0.5104
𝑃2 (2.6) = 0.3813
When 𝒙 = 𝟐. 𝟓,
𝑃2 (2.5) = 0.4581
Then : 𝑓(2.5) = 𝑃2 (2.5) = 0.4581

𝐿0 (𝑥) , 𝐿1 (𝑥) , 𝐿2 (𝑥) to get 𝑃2 (2.5)
A17KA0105
5. 𝑓(3) if 𝑖 0 1 2 3
𝑥𝑖 0 1 2 4
𝑦𝑖 = 𝑓(𝑥𝑖 ) 1 1 2 5

𝑃3 (𝑥) = 𝐿0 (𝑥)𝑦0 + 𝐿1 (𝑥)𝑦1 + 𝐿2 (𝑥)𝑦2 + 𝐿3 (𝑥)𝑦3 where :
(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )(𝑥 − 𝑥2 )(𝑥 − 𝑥3 ) (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 − 4) 1
𝐿0 (𝑥) = = = − (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 − 4)
(𝑥0 − 𝑥1 )(𝑥0 − 𝑥2 )(𝑥0 − 𝑥3 ) (0 − 1)(0 − 2)(0 − 4) 8
(𝑥 − 𝑥0 )(𝑥 − 𝑥2 )(𝑥 − 𝑥3 ) (𝑥 − 0)(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 − 4) 1
𝐿1 (𝑥) = = = (𝑥)(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 − 4)
(𝑥1 − 𝑥0 )(𝑥1 − 𝑥2 )(𝑥1 − 𝑥3 ) (1 − 0)(1 − 2)(1 − 4) 3
(𝑥 − 𝑥0 )(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )(𝑥 − 𝑥3 ) (𝑥 − 0)(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 4) 1
𝐿2 (𝑥) = = = − (𝑥)(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 4)
(𝑥2 − 𝑥0 )(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )(𝑥2 − 𝑥3 ) (2 − 0)(2 − 1)(2 − 4) 4
(𝑥 − 𝑥0 )(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )(𝑥 − 𝑥2 ) (𝑥 − 0)(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 2) 1
𝐿3 (𝑥) = = = − (𝑥)(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 2)
(𝑥3 − 𝑥0 )(𝑥3 − 𝑥1 )(𝑥3 − 𝑥2 ) (4 − 0)(4 − 1)(1 − 2) 12
1 1
Then : 𝑃3 (𝑥) = − 8 (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 − 4)(1) + 3 (𝑥)(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 − 4)(1) +
1 1
(− ) (𝑥)(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 4)(2) + (− ) (𝑥)(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 2)(5)
4 12

𝑃3 (0) = 1
𝑃3 (1) = 1 Interpolation condition are satisfied.
𝑃3 (2) = 2 Verification is not compulsory if question does not ask for it.
𝑃3 (4) = 5
When 𝒙 = 𝟑,
𝑃3 (3) = −1/4
Then : 𝑓(3) = 𝑃3 (3) = −1/4

𝐿0 (𝑥) , 𝐿1 (𝑥) , 𝐿2 (𝑥), 𝐿3 (𝑥) to get 𝑃3 (3)
A17KA0105
6. 𝑓(3) if 𝑖 0 1 2 3
𝑓(5)
𝑥𝑖 0 2 4 6
𝑦𝑖 = 𝑓(𝑥𝑖 ) 1 -1 -1 -1

𝑃3 (𝑥) = 𝐿0 (𝑥)𝑦0 + 𝐿1 (𝑥)𝑦1 + 𝐿2 (𝑥)𝑦2 + 𝐿3 (𝑥)𝑦3 where :
(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )(𝑥 − 𝑥2 )(𝑥 − 𝑥3 ) (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 − 4)(𝑥 − 6) 1
𝐿0 (𝑥) = = = − (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 − 4)(𝑥 − 6)
(𝑥0 − 𝑥1 )(𝑥0 − 𝑥2 )(𝑥0 − 𝑥3 ) (0 − 2)(0 − 4)(0 − 6) 48
(𝑥 − 𝑥0 )(𝑥 − 𝑥2 )(𝑥 − 𝑥3 ) (𝑥 − 0)(𝑥 − 4)(𝑥 − 6) 1
𝐿1 (𝑥) = = = (𝑥)(𝑥 − 4)(𝑥 − 6)
(𝑥1 − 𝑥0 )(𝑥1 − 𝑥2 )(𝑥1 − 𝑥3 ) (2 − 0)(2 − 4)(2 − 6) 16
(𝑥 − 𝑥0 )(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )(𝑥 − 𝑥3 ) (𝑥 − 0)(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 − 6) 1
𝐿2 (𝑥) = = = − (𝑥)(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 − 6)
(𝑥2 − 𝑥0 )(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )(𝑥2 − 𝑥3 ) (4 − 0)(4 − 2)(4 − 6) 16
(𝑥 − 𝑥0 )(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )(𝑥 − 𝑥2 ) (𝑥 − 0)(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 − 4) 1
𝐿3 (𝑥) = = = (𝑥)(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 − 4)
(𝑥3 − 𝑥0 )(𝑥3 − 𝑥1 )(𝑥3 − 𝑥2 ) (6 − 0)(6 − 2)(6 − 4) 48
1 1
Then : 𝑃3 (𝑥) = − 48 (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 − 4)(𝑥 − 6)(1) + 16 (𝑥)(𝑥 − 4)(𝑥 − 6)(−1) +
1 1
(− ) (𝑥)(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 − 6)(−1) + (𝑥)(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 − 4)(−1)
16 48

𝑃3 (0) = 1
𝑃3 (2) = −1 Interpolation condition are satisfied.
𝑃3 (4) = −1 Verification is not compulsory if question does not ask for it.
𝑃3 (6) = −1
When 𝒙 = 𝟑,
𝑃3 (3) = −9/8
Then : 𝑓(3) = 𝑃3 (3) = −9/8
Or directly substitute the value x = 3 & x = 5 into
𝐿0 (𝑥) , 𝐿1 (𝑥) , 𝐿2 (𝑥), 𝐿3 (𝑥) to get 𝑃3 (3) & 𝑃3 (5)
When 𝒙 = 𝟓,
𝑃3 (5) = −7/8
Then : 𝑓(5) = 𝑃3 (5) = −7/8
A17KA0105
NEWTON DIVIDED DIFFERENCE INTERPOLATION

***Exercise 3.2
For the question 1 – 10, using Newton divided difference interpolation find the polynomial
interpolation and approximate the value of:
1. 𝑓(2) if 𝑖 0 1 2
𝑥𝑖 0 1 3
𝑦𝑖 = 𝑓(𝑥𝑖 ) 0 1 0
Divided Difference Table,

[0] [1] [2]
𝑖 𝑥𝑖 𝑦𝑖 = 𝑦𝑖 𝑦𝑖 𝑦𝑖
1−0 −0.5 − 1
0 0 0 =1 = −0.5
1−0 3−0
0−1
1 1 1 = −0.5
3−1
2 3 0
Newton Divided Difference Interpolation,

[1] [2] [𝑛]
𝑃𝑛 (𝑥) = 𝑦0 + 𝑦0 (𝑥 − 𝑥0 ) + 𝑦0 (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )(𝑥 − 𝑥1 ) + ⋯ + 𝑦0 (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )(𝑥 − 𝑥1 ) … (𝑥 − 𝑥𝑛−1 )
[1] [2]
𝑃2 (𝑥) = 𝑦0 + 𝑦0 (𝑥 − 𝑥0 ) + 𝑦0 (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )
= 0 + 1(𝑥 − 0) + (−0.5)(𝑥 − 0)(𝑥 − 1)
= 𝑥 − 0.5𝑥(𝑥 − 1)

𝑃2 (0) = 0
𝑃2 (3) = 0
Degree of interpolation polynomial,

From Divided Difference Table, clearly that the degree of 𝑃2 (𝑥) is 2
When 𝒙 = 𝟐,
𝑃2 (2) = 1
Then : 𝑓(2) = 𝑃2 (2) = 1
𝑃2 (𝑥) to get 𝑃2 (2)
A17KA0105
2. 𝑓(3) if 𝑖 0 1 2
𝑥𝑖 0 1 4
𝑦𝑖 = 𝑓(𝑥𝑖 ) 2 1 4

[0] [1] [2]
1−2 1 − (−1)
0 0 2 = −1 = 0.5
1−0 4−0
4−1
1 1 1 =1
4−1
2 4 4

[1] [2] [𝑛]
[1] [2]
𝑃2 (𝑥) = 𝑦0 + 𝑦0 (𝑥 − 𝑥0 ) + 𝑦0 (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )
= 2 + (−1)(𝑥 − 0) + 0.5(𝑥 − 0)(𝑥 − 1)
= 2 − 𝑥 + 0.5𝑥(𝑥 − 1)

𝑃2 (0) = 2
𝑃2 (4) = 4

When 𝒙 = 𝟑,
𝑃2 (3) = 2
Then : 𝑓(3) = 𝑃2 (3) = 2
A17KA0105
3. 𝑓(0.2) if 𝑖 0 1 2
𝑥𝑖 0.1 0.3 0.4
𝑦𝑖 = 𝑓(𝑥𝑖 ) 1.2314 1.9121 2.3855

[0] [1] [2]
1.9121 − 1.2314 4.734 − 3.4035
0 0.1 1.2314 0.3 − 0.1 0.4 − 0.1
= 3.4035 = 4.435
2.3855 − 1.9121
1 0.3 1.9121 0.4 − 0.3
= 4.734
2 0.4 2.3855

[1] [2] [𝑛]
[1] [2]
𝑃2 (𝑥) = 𝑦0 + 𝑦0 (𝑥 − 𝑥0 ) + 𝑦0 (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )
= 1.2314 + (3.4035)(𝑥 − 0.1) + 4.435(𝑥 − 0.1)(𝑥 − 0.3)

𝑃2 (0.1) = 1.2314
𝑃2 (0.3) = 1.9121 Interpolation condition are satisfied.
𝑃2 (0.4) = 2.3855

When 𝒙 = 𝟎. 𝟐,
𝑃2 (0.2) = 1.5274
Then : 𝑓(0.2) = 𝑃2 (0.2) = 1.5274
𝑃2 (𝑥) to get 𝑃2 (0.2)
A17KA0105
4. 𝑓(2.5) if 𝑖 0 1 2
𝑥𝑖 2.1 2.4 2.6
𝑦𝑖 = 𝑓(𝑥𝑖 ) 0.5208 0.5104 0.3813

[0] [1] [2]
0.5104 − 0.5208 −0.6455 + 0.0347
0 2.1 0.5208 2.4 − 2.1 2.6 − 2.1
= −0.0347 = −1.2216
0.3813 − 0.5104
1 2.4 0.5104 2.6 − 2.4
= −0.6455
2 2.6 0.3813

[1] [2] [𝑛]
[1] [2]
𝑃2 (𝑥) = 𝑦0 + 𝑦0 (𝑥 − 𝑥0 ) + 𝑦0 (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )
= 0.5208 + (−0.0347)(𝑥 − 2.1) + (−1.2216)(𝑥 − 2.1)(𝑥 − 2.4)

𝑃2 (2.1) = 0.5208
𝑃2 (2.4) = 0.5104 Interpolation condition are satisfied.
𝑃2 (2.6) = 0.3813

When 𝒙 = 𝟐. 𝟓,
𝑃2 (2.5) = 0.4581
Then : 𝑓(2.5) = 𝑃2 (2.5) = 0.4581
𝑃2 (𝑥) to get 𝑃2 (2.5)
A17KA0105
5. 𝑓(3) if 𝑖 0 1 2 3
𝑥𝑖 0 1 2 4
𝑦𝑖 = 𝑓(𝑥𝑖 ) 1 1 2 5

[0] [1] [2] [3]
𝑖 𝑥𝑖 𝑦𝑖 = 𝑦𝑖 𝑦𝑖 𝑦𝑖 𝑦𝑖
1−1 1−0 1/6 − 0.5 1
0 0 1 =0 = 0.5 =−
1−0 2−0 4−0 12
2−1 1.5 − 1 1
1 1 1 =1 =
2−1 4−1 6
5−2
2 2 2 = 1.5
4−2
3 4 5

[1] [2] [𝑛]
[1] [2] [3]
𝑃3 (𝑥) = 𝑦0 + 𝑦0 (𝑥 − 𝑥0 ) + 𝑦0 (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )(𝑥 − 𝑥1 ) + 𝑦0 (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )(𝑥 − 𝑥2 )
= 1 + (0)(𝑥 − 0) + 0.5(𝑥 − 0)(𝑥 − 1) + (−1/12)(𝑥 − 0)(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 2)
1
= 1 + 0.5𝑥(𝑥 − 1) − 𝑥(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 2)
12

𝑃3 (0) = 1
𝑃3 (1) = 1
𝑃3 (2) = 2
𝑃3 (4) = 5

When 𝒙 = 𝟑,
𝑃3 (3) = 7/2
Then : 𝑓(3) = 𝑃3 (3) = 7/2
A17KA0105
6. 𝑓(3) 𝑖 0 1 2 3
𝑓(5) if
𝑥𝑖 0 2 4 6
𝑦𝑖 = 𝑓(𝑥𝑖 ) 1 -1 -1 -1

[0] [1] [2] [3]
−1 − 1 0+1 1 0 − 1/4 1
0 0 1 = −1 = =−
2−0 4−0 4 6−0 24
−1 + 1 0−0
1 2 -1 =0 =0
4−2 6−2
−1 + 1
2 4 -1 =0
6−4
3 6 -1

[1] [2] [𝑛]
[1] [2] [3]
𝑃3 (𝑥) = 𝑦0 + 𝑦0 (𝑥 − 𝑥0 ) + 𝑦0 (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )(𝑥 − 𝑥1 ) + 𝑦0 (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )(𝑥 − 𝑥2 )
1 1
= 1 + (−1)(𝑥 − 0) + (𝑥 − 0)(𝑥 − 2) + (− )(𝑥 − 0)(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 − 4)
4 24
1 1
= 1 − 𝑥 + 𝑥(𝑥 − 2) + (− )𝑥(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 − 4)
4 24

𝑃3 (0) = 1
𝑃3 (2) = −1
𝑃3 (4) = −1
𝑃3 (6) = −1

When 𝒙 = 𝟑, When 𝒙 = 𝟓,
𝑃3 (3) = −9/8 𝑃3 (5) = −7/8
Then : 𝑓(3) = 𝑃3 (3) = −9/8 Then : 𝑓(5) = 𝑃3 (5) = −7/8
Or directly substitute the value x = 3 & x = 5

into 𝑃3 (𝑥) to get 𝑃3 (3) & 𝑃3 (5)
A17KA0105
Newton Divided Difference Interpolation TEMPLATE
𝑓(𝑔) if 𝑖 0 1 2 3
𝑥𝑖 a b c d
𝑦𝑖 = 𝑓(𝑥𝑖 ) P Q R S

[0] [1] [2] [3]
𝑄−𝑃 𝑡−𝑠 𝑤−𝑣
0 a P =𝑠 =𝑣 =𝑧
𝑏−𝑎 𝑐−𝑎 𝑑−𝑎
𝑅−𝑄 𝑢−𝑡
1 b Q =𝑡 =𝑤
𝑐−𝑏 𝑑−𝑏
𝑆−𝑅
2 c R =𝑢
𝑑−𝑐
3 d S

[1] [2] [𝑛]
[1] [2] [3]
𝑃𝑛 (𝑥) = 𝑦0 + 𝑦0 (𝑥 − 𝑥0 ) + 𝑦0 (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )(𝑥 − 𝑥1 ) + 𝑦0 (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )(𝑥 − 𝑥2 )
= 𝑃 + 𝑠(𝑥 − 𝑎) + 𝑣(𝑥 − 𝑎)(𝑥 − 𝑏) + 𝑧(𝑥 − 𝑎)(𝑥 − 𝑏)(𝑥 − 𝑐)

𝑃𝑛 (𝑎) = 𝑃
𝑃𝑛 (𝑏) = 𝑄 Interpolation condition are satisfied.
𝑃𝑛 (𝑐) = 𝑅
𝑃𝑛 (𝑑) = 𝑆
When 𝒙 = 𝒈,
𝑃𝑛 (𝑔) = _____
Then : 𝑓(𝑔) = 𝑃𝑛 (𝑔) = _____
Or directly substitute the value x = g into

𝑃𝑛 (𝑥) to get 𝑃𝑛 (𝑔)
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INTERPOLATION WITH UNIFORMLY SPACED DATA

***Exercise 3.3
1. The following data obtain from polynomial function 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 + 1,
𝑖 0 1 2 3 4
𝑥𝑖 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
𝑦𝑖 = 𝑓(𝑥𝑖 ) 1.3020 1.6160 1.9540 2.3280 2.7500
a) Construct the forward difference table and show that the forward difference of
order four is zero
𝑖 𝑥𝑖 𝑦𝑖 ∆𝑦𝑖 ∆2 𝑦𝑖 ∆3 𝑦𝑖 ∆4 𝑦𝑖
1.6160 − 1.3020 0.3380 − 0.3140 0.0360 − 0.0240 0.0120 − 0.0120

0 0.1 1.3020
= 0.3140 = 0.0240 = 0.0120 = 0.0000
1.9540 − 1.6160 0.3740 − 0.3380 0.0480 − 0.0360

1 0.2 1.6160
= 0.3380 = 0.0360 = 0.0120
2.3280 − 1.9540 0.4220 − 0.3740

2 0.3 1.9540
= 0.3740 = 0.0480
2.7500 − 2.3280
3 0.4 2.3280
= 0.4220
4 0.5 2.7500
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2. Use the data below to approximate the value of :

𝑖 0 1 2 3
𝑥𝑖 -0.3 -0.1 0.1 0.3
𝑦𝑖 = 𝑓(𝑥𝑖 ) -0.2043 -0.0899 0.1101 0.3957
a) 𝑓(−0.2) using Newton FORWARD Difference Polynomial Interpolation

Forward Difference Table,
𝑖 𝑥𝑖 𝑦𝑖 ∆𝑦𝑖 ∆2 𝑦𝑖 ∆3 𝑦𝑖
−0.0899 + 0.2043 0.2000 − 0.1144 0.0856 − 0.0856

0 -0.3 -0.2043
= 0.1144 = 0.0856 = 0.0000
0.1101 + 0.0899 0.2856 − 0.20000

1 -0.1 -0.0899
= 0.2000 = 0.0856
0.3957 − 0.1101
2 0.1 0.1101
= 0.2856
3 0.3 0.3957
Newton Forward Difference Polynomial Interpolation,

𝑟(𝑟 − 1) 2 𝑟(𝑟 − 1) … (𝑟 − (𝑛 − 1)) 𝑛
𝑃𝑛 (𝑥) = 𝑃𝑛 (𝑥0 + 𝑟ℎ) = 𝑦0 + 𝑟∆𝑦0 + ∆ 𝑦0 + ⋯ + ∆ 𝑦0
2! 𝑛!
𝑟(𝑟 − 1) 2 𝑟(𝑟 − 1)(𝑟 − 2) 3
𝑃3 (𝑥) = 𝑃3 (𝑥0 + 𝑟ℎ) = 𝑦0 + 𝑟∆𝑦0 + ∆ 𝑦0 + ∆ 𝑦0
2! 3!
When 𝒙 = −𝟎. 𝟐,
𝑥 − 𝑥0 𝑥 − 𝑥0 −0.2 − (−0.3)
𝑟= = = = 0.5
ℎ 𝑥1 − 𝑥0 −0.1 − (−0.3)
Therefore,
0.5(0.5 − 1) 0.5(0.5 − 1)(0.5 − 2)
𝑃3 (−0.2) = −0.2043 + 0.5(0.1144) + (0.0856) + (0)
2! 3!
= −0.2043 + 0.0572 + (−0.0107) + 0
= −0.1578
∴ 𝒇(−𝟎. 𝟐) = 𝑷𝟑 (−𝟎. 𝟐) = −𝟎. 𝟏𝟓𝟕𝟖

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b) 𝑓(0.2) using Newton BACKWARD Difference Polynomial Interpolation

Backward Difference Table,
𝑖 𝑥𝑖 𝑦𝑖 ∇𝑦𝑖 ∇2 𝑦𝑖 ∇3 𝑦𝑖
0 -0.3 -0.2043
−0.0899 + 0.2043
1 -0.1 -0.0899
= 0.1144
0.1101 + 0.0899 0.2000 − 0.1144

2 0.1 0.1101
= 0.2000 = 0.0856
0.3957 − 0.1101 0.2856 − 0.20000 0.0856 − 0.0856

3 0.3 0.3957
= 0.2856 = 0.0856 = 0.0000
Newton Backward Difference Polynomial Interpolation,

𝑟(𝑟 + 1) 2 𝑟(𝑟 + 1) … (𝑟 + (𝑛 − 1)) 𝑛
𝑃𝑛 (𝑥) = 𝑃𝑛 (𝑥𝑛 + 𝑟ℎ) = 𝑦𝑛 + 𝑟∇𝑦𝑛 + ∇ 𝑦𝑛 + ⋯ + ∇ 𝑦𝑛
2! 𝑛!
𝑟(𝑟 + 1) 2 𝑟(𝑟 + 1)(𝑟 + 2) 3
𝑃3 (𝑥) = 𝑃3 (𝑥3 + 𝑟ℎ) = 𝑦3 + 𝑟∇𝑦3 + ∇ 𝑦3 + ∇ 𝑦3
2! 3!
When 𝒙 = 𝟎. 𝟐,
𝑥 − 𝑥𝑛 𝑥 − 𝑥3 0.2 − 0.3
𝑟= = = = −0.5
ℎ 𝑥3 − 𝑥2 0.3 − 0.1
Therefore,
(−0.5)(−0.5 + 1) (−0.5)(−0.5 + 1)(−0.5 + 2)
𝑃3 (0.2) = 0.3957 + (−0.5)(0.2856) + (0.0856) + (0)
2! 3!
= 0.3957 + (−0.1428) + (−0.0107) + 0
= 0.2422
∴ 𝒇(𝟎. 𝟐) = 𝑷𝟑 (𝟎. 𝟐) = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟒𝟐𝟐

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𝑖 0 1 2 3
𝑥𝑖 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
𝑦𝑖 = 𝑓(𝑥𝑖 ) 0.9799 0.9178 0.8080 0.6386
a) 𝑓(0.25) using Newton FORWARD Difference Polynomial Interpolation

𝑖 𝑥𝑖 𝑦𝑖 ∆𝑦𝑖 ∆2 𝑦𝑖 ∆3 𝑦𝑖
0.9178 − 0.9799 −0.1098 + 0.0621 −0.0596 + 0.0477

0 0.2 0.9799
= −0.0621 = −0.0477 = −0.0119
0.8080 − 0.9178 −0.1694 + 0.1098

1 0.4 0.9178
= −0.1098 = −0.0596
0.6386 − 0.8080
2 0.6 0.8080
= −0.1694
3 0.8 0.6386

𝑟(𝑟 − 1) 2 𝑟(𝑟 − 1) … (𝑟 − (𝑛 − 1)) 𝑛
𝑃𝑛 (𝑥) = 𝑃𝑛 (𝑥0 + 𝑟ℎ) = 𝑦0 + 𝑟∆𝑦0 + ∆ 𝑦0 + ⋯ + ∆ 𝑦0
2! 𝑛!
𝑟(𝑟 − 1) 2 𝑟(𝑟 − 1)(𝑟 − 2) 3
𝑃3 (𝑥) = 𝑃3 (𝑥0 + 𝑟ℎ) = 𝑦0 + 𝑟∆𝑦0 + ∆ 𝑦0 + ∆ 𝑦0
2! 3!
When 𝒙 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟓,
𝑥 − 𝑥0 𝑥 − 𝑥0 0.25 − 0.2
𝑟= = = = 0.25
ℎ 𝑥1 − 𝑥0 0.4 − 0.2
Therefore,
0.25(0.25 − 1) 0.25(0.25 − 1)(0.25 − 2)
𝑃3 (0.25) = 0.9799 + 0.25(−0.0621) + (−0.0477) + (−0.0119)
2! 3!
= 0.9799 + (−0.0155) + 0.0045 + (−0.0007)
= 0.9682
∴ 𝒇(𝟎. 𝟐𝟓) = 𝑷𝟑 (𝟎. 𝟐𝟓) = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟔𝟖𝟐

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𝑖 𝑥𝑖 𝑦𝑖 ∇𝑦𝑖 ∇2 𝑦𝑖 ∇3 𝑦𝑖
0 0.2 0.9799
0.9178 − 0.9799
1 0.4 0.9178
= −0.0621
0.8080 − 0.9178 −0.1098 + 0.0621

2 0.6 0.8080
= −0.1098 = −0.0477
0.6386 − 0.8080 −0.1694 + 0.1098 −0.0596 + 0.0477

3 0.8 0.6386
= −0.1694 = −0.0596 = −0.0119

𝑟(𝑟 + 1) 2 𝑟(𝑟 + 1) … (𝑟 + (𝑛 − 1)) 𝑛
2! 𝑛!
𝑟(𝑟 + 1) 2 𝑟(𝑟 + 1)(𝑟 + 2) 3
𝑃3 (𝑥) = 𝑃3 (𝑥3 + 𝑟ℎ) = 𝑦3 + 𝑟∇𝑦3 + ∇ 𝑦3 + ∇ 𝑦3
2! 3!
When 𝒙 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟓,
𝑥 − 𝑥𝑛 𝑥 − 𝑥3 0.75 − 0.8
𝑟= = = = −0.25
ℎ 𝑥3 − 𝑥2 0.8 − 0.6
Therefore,
(−0.25)(−0.25 + 1)
𝑃3 (0.75) = 0.6386 + (−0.25)(−0.1694) + (−0.0596)
2!
(−0.25)(−0.25 + 1)(−0.25 + 2)
+ (−0.0119)
3!
= 0.6386 + 0.0424 + 0.0056 + 0.0007
= 0.6873
∴ 𝒇(𝟎. 𝟕𝟓) = 𝑷𝟑 (𝟎. 𝟕𝟓) = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟖𝟕𝟑

A17KA0105

𝑖 0 1 2 3 4
𝑥𝑖 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
𝑦𝑖 = 𝑓(𝑥𝑖 ) 1.0000 1.2214 1.4918 1.8221 2.2255
a) 𝑓(0.05) using Newton FORWARD Difference Polynomial Interpolation

1.2214 − 1.0000 0.2704 − 0.2214 0.0599 − 0.0490 0.0132 − 0.0109

0 0.0 1.0000
= 0.2214 = 0.0490 = 0.0109 = 0.0023
1.4918 − 1.2214 0.3303 − 0.2704 0.0731 − 0.0599

1 0.2 1.2214
= 0.2704 = 0.0599 = 0.0132
1.8221 − 1.4918 0.4034 − 0.3303

2 0.4 1.4918
= 0.3303 = 0.0731
2.2255 − 1.8221
3 0.6 1.8221
= 0.4034
4 0.8 2.2255

𝑟(𝑟 − 1) 2 𝑟(𝑟 − 1) … (𝑟 − (𝑛 − 1)) 𝑛
𝑃𝑛 (𝑥) = 𝑃𝑛 (𝑥0 + 𝑟ℎ) = 𝑦0 + 𝑟∆𝑦0 + ∆ 𝑦0 + ⋯ + ∆ 𝑦0
2! 𝑛!
𝑃4 (𝑥) = 𝑃4 (𝑥0 + 𝑟ℎ)
𝑟(𝑟 − 1) 2 𝑟(𝑟 − 1)(𝑟 − 2) 3 𝑟(𝑟 − 1)(𝑟 − 2)(𝑟 − 3) 4
= 𝑦0 + 𝑟∆𝑦0 + ∆ 𝑦0 + ∆ 𝑦0 + ∆ 𝑦0
2! 3! 4!
When 𝒙 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓,
𝑥 − 𝑥0 𝑥 − 𝑥0 0.05 − 0.0
𝑟= = = = 0.25
ℎ 𝑥1 − 𝑥0 0.2 − 0.0
Therefore,
0.25(0.25 − 1) 0.25(0.25 − 1)(0.25 − 2)
𝑃4 (0.05) = 1 + 0.25(0.2214) + (0.049) + (0.0109)
2! 3!
0.25(0.25 − 1)(0.25 − 2)(0.25 − 3)
+ (0.0023)
4!
= 1 + 0.0554 + (−0.0046) + 0.0006 + (−0.0001)
= 1.0513
∴ 𝒇(𝟎. 𝟎𝟓) = 𝑷𝟒 (𝟎. 𝟎𝟓) = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟓𝟏𝟑
A17KA0105

𝑖 𝑥𝑖 𝑦𝑖 ∇𝑦𝑖 ∇2 𝑦𝑖 ∇3 𝑦𝑖 ∇4 𝑦𝑖
0 0.0 1.0000
1.2214 − 1.0000
1 0.2 1.2214
= 0.2214
1.4918 − 1.2214 0.2704 − 0.2214

2 0.4 1.4918
= 0.2704 = 0.0490
1.8221 − 1.4918 0.3303 − 0.2704 0.0599 − 0.0490

3 0.6 1.8221
= 0.3303 = 0.0599 = 0.0109
2.2255 − 1.8221 0.4034 − 0.3303 0.0731 − 0.0599 0.0132 − 0.0109

4 0.8 2.2255
= 0.4034 = 0.0731 = 0.0132 = 0.0023

𝑟(𝑟 + 1) 2 𝑟(𝑟 + 1) … (𝑟 + (𝑛 − 1)) 𝑛
2! 𝑛!
𝑃4 (𝑥) = 𝑃4 (𝑥4 + 𝑟ℎ)
𝑟(𝑟 + 1) 2 𝑟(𝑟 + 1)(𝑟 + 2) 3 𝑟(𝑟 + 1)(𝑟 + 2)(𝑟 + 3) 4
= 𝑦4 + 𝑟∇𝑦4 + ∇ 𝑦4 + ∇ 𝑦4 + ∇ 𝑦4
2! 3! 4!
When 𝒙 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟓,
𝑥 − 𝑥𝑛 𝑥 − 𝑥4 0.65 − 0.8
𝑟= = = = −0.75
ℎ 𝑥4 − 𝑥3 0.8 − 0.6
Therefore,
(−0.75)(−0.75 + 1)
𝑃4 (0.65) = 2.2255 + (−0.75)(0.4034) + (0.0731)
2!
(−0.75)(−0.75 + 1)(−0.75 + 2)
+ (0.0132)
3!
(−0.75)(−0.75 + 1)(−0.75 + 2)(−0.75 + 3)
+ (0.0023)
4!
= 2.2255 + (−0.3026) + (−0.0069) + (−0.0005) + (−0.0001)
= 1.9154
∴ 𝒇(𝟎. 𝟔𝟓) = 𝑷𝟒 (𝟎. 𝟔𝟓) = 𝟏. 𝟗𝟏𝟓𝟒

A17KA0105
Newton Forward Difference Polynomial Interpolation TEMPLATE
𝑖 0 1 2 3 4
𝑥𝑖 a b c d e
𝑦𝑖 = 𝑓(𝑥𝑖 ) P Q R S T
𝑓(𝑧) using Newton FORWARD Difference Polynomial Interpolation

0 a P Q–P=G H–G=K L–K=N O–N=V
1 b Q R–Q=H I–H=L M–L=O
2 c R S–R=I J–I=M
3 d S T–S=J
4 e T

𝑟(𝑟 − 1) 2 𝑟(𝑟 − 1) … (𝑟 − (𝑛 − 1)) 𝑛
𝑃𝑛 (𝑥) = 𝑃𝑛 (𝑥0 + 𝑟ℎ) = 𝑦0 + 𝑟∆𝑦0 + ∆ 𝑦0 + ⋯ + ∆ 𝑦0
2! 𝑛!
𝑃𝑛 (𝑥) = 𝑃𝑛 (𝑥0 + 𝑟ℎ)
𝑟(𝑟 − 1) 2 𝑟(𝑟 − 1)(𝑟 − 2) 3 𝑟(𝑟 − 1)(𝑟 − 2)(𝑟 − 3) 4
= 𝑦0 + 𝑟∆𝑦0 + ∆ 𝑦0 + ∆ 𝑦0 + ∆ 𝑦0
2! 3! 4!
When 𝒙 = 𝒛,
𝑥 − 𝑥0 𝑥 − 𝑥0 z−a
𝑟= = = =W
ℎ 𝑥1 − 𝑥0 b − a
Therefore,
W(W − 1) W(W − 1)(W − 2) W(W − 1)(W − 2)(W − 3)
𝑃𝑛 (z) = P + W(G) + (K) + (N) + (V)
2! 3! 4!
= _____________
∴ 𝒇(𝒛) = 𝑷𝒏 (𝒛) = ________________
A17KA0105
Newton Backward Difference Polynomial Interpolation TEMPLATE
𝑖 0 1 2 3 4
𝑥𝑖 a b c d e
𝑦𝑖 = 𝑓(𝑥𝑖 ) P Q R S T
𝑓(𝑧) using Newton BACKWARD Difference Polynomial Interpolation

𝑖 𝑥𝑖 𝑦𝑖 ∇𝑦𝑖 ∇2 𝑦𝑖 ∇3 𝑦𝑖 ∇4 𝑦𝑖
0 a P
1 b Q Q–P=G
2 c R R–Q=H H–G=K
3 d S S–R=I I–H=L L–K=N
4 e T T–S=J J–I=M M–L=O O–N=V

𝑟(𝑟 + 1) 2 𝑟(𝑟 + 1) … (𝑟 + (𝑛 − 1)) 𝑛
2! 𝑛!
𝑃𝑛 (𝑥) = 𝑃𝑛 (𝑥𝑛 + 𝑟ℎ)
𝑟(𝑟 + 1) 2 𝑟(𝑟 + 1)(𝑟 + 2) 3 𝑟(𝑟 + 1)(𝑟 + 2)(𝑟 + 3) 4
= 𝑦𝑛 + 𝑟∇𝑦𝑛 + ∇ 𝑦𝑛 + ∇ 𝑦𝑛 + ∇ 𝑦𝑛
2! 3! 4!
When 𝒙 = 𝒛,
𝑥 − 𝑥𝑛 𝑥 − 𝑥4 z−e
𝑟= = = =W
ℎ 𝑥4 − 𝑥3 e − d
Therefore,
W(W + 1) W(W + 1)(W + 2) W(W + 1)(W + 2)(W + 3)
𝑃𝑛 (z) = T + W(J) + (M) + (O) + (V)
2! 3! 4!
= _____________
∴ 𝒇(𝒛) = 𝑷𝒏 (𝒛) = ________________

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LINEAR LEAST-SQUARES
***Exercise 4.1
For question 1 – 4, fit the given data using the least square line 𝑦 = 𝐴 + 𝐵𝑥. Calculate the sum
of the squares of errors, S. Shown calculation in four decimal places (4DP).
𝑥 1.0 2.1 3.2 4.3 5.2 6.0

1.
𝑦 1.5 3.2 3.5 3.0 3.5 4.2
Let linear least square as 𝑦 = 𝐴 + 𝐵𝑥 to the data {(𝑥𝑖 , 𝑦𝑖 )}5𝑖=0. The unknown A and B can
determine by solving the following linear system
5 5 5
∑1 ∑ 𝑥𝑖 ∑ 𝑦𝑖
𝑖=0 𝑖=0 𝐴 𝑖=0
5 5 ( )= 5
𝐵
∑ 𝑥𝑖 ∑ 𝑥𝑖2 ∑ 𝑥𝑖 𝑦𝑖
( 𝑖=0 𝑖=0 ) ( 𝑖=0 )
The various summations are evaluated in a tabular form as follow:
𝑖 𝑥𝑖 𝑦𝑖 𝑥𝑖2 𝑥𝑖 𝑦𝑖
0 1.0 1.5 1.0 1.5
1 2.1 3.2 4.41 6.72
2 3.2 3.5 10.24 11.2
3 4.3 3.0 18.49 12.9
4 5.2 3.5 27.04 18.2
5 6.0 4.2 36 25.2
5
∑ 21.8 18.9 97.18 75.72

𝑖=0
Gives
6 21.8 𝐴 18.9
( )( ) = ( )
21.8 97.18 𝐵 75.72
Solve this linear system to get A = 1.7248 and B = 0.3922  𝒚(𝒙) = 𝟏. 𝟕𝟐𝟒𝟖 + 𝟎. 𝟑𝟗𝟐𝟐𝒙
The sum of square errors, S, is evaluated in a tabular form as follows.
𝑖 𝑥𝑖 𝑦𝑖 𝑦(𝑥𝑖 ) 𝑒𝑖 = 𝑦𝑖 − 𝑦(𝑥𝑖 ) 𝑒𝑖2 = (𝑦𝑖 − 𝑦(𝑥𝑖 ))2

0 1.0 1.5 2.1170 -0.6170 0.3807
1 2.1 3.2 2.5484 0.6516 0.4246
2 3.2 3.5 2.9798 0.5202 0.2706
3 4.3 3.0 3.4113 -0.4113 0.1692
4 5.2 3.5 3.7642 -0.2642 0.0698
5 6.0 4.2 4.0780 0.1220 0.0149
5
𝑆 = ∑ 𝑒𝑖2 1.3298
𝑖=0
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2. 𝑥 0 0.15 0.31 0.5 0.6 0.75

𝑦 1.0 1.006 1.035 1.175 1.234 1.254
5 5 5
∑1 ∑ 𝑥𝑖 ∑ 𝑦𝑖
𝑖=0 𝑖=0 𝐴 𝑖=0
5 5 ( )= 5
𝐵
( 𝑖=0 𝑖=0 ) ( 𝑖=0 )
Using Calculator [Mode = Statistics] :-
5 5
∑1 = 6 ∑ 𝑥𝑖2 = 1.2911
5
𝑖=0 𝑖=0
∑ 𝑥𝑖 𝑦𝑖 = 2.7402
5 5
𝑖=0
∑ 𝑥𝑖 = 2.31 ∑ 𝑦𝑖 = 6.704
𝑖=0 𝑖=0
6 2.31 𝐴 6.704
( )( ) = ( )
2.31 1.2911 𝐵 2.7402
Solve this linear system to get A = 0.9649 and B = 0.3960  𝒚(𝒙) = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟔𝟒𝟗 + 𝟎. 𝟑𝟗𝟔𝟎𝒙

0 0 1.0 0.9649 0.0351 0.0012
1 0.15 1.006 1.0243 -0.0183 0.0003
2 0.31 1.035 1.0877 -0.0527 0.0028
3 0.5 1.175 1.1629 0.0121 0.0001
4 0.6 1.234 1.2025 0.0315 0.0010
5 0.75 1.254 1.2619 -0.0079 0.0001
5
𝑆 = ∑ 𝑒𝑖2 0.0055
𝑖=0
𝐒𝐔𝐌 𝐎𝐅 𝐒𝐐𝐔𝐀𝐑𝐄 𝐄𝐑𝐑𝐎𝐑𝐒 , 𝑺 ∶ 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟓𝟓

A17KA0105
3. 𝑥 4.0 4.2 4.5 4.8 5.2 5.6 6.0

𝑦 10.36 9.48 13.02 12.21 16.83 14.54 22.58
6 6 6
∑1 ∑ 𝑥𝑖 ∑ 𝑦𝑖
𝑖=0 𝑖=0 𝐴 𝑖=0
6 6 ( )= 6
𝐵
( 𝑖=0 𝑖=0 ) ( 𝑖=0 )
6 6
∑1 = 7 ∑ 𝑥𝑖2 = 171.33
6
𝑖=0 𝑖=0
∑ 𝑥𝑖 𝑦𝑖 = 502.874
6 6
𝑖=0
∑ 𝑥𝑖 = 34.3 ∑ 𝑦𝑖 = 99.02
𝑖=0 𝑖=0
7 34.3 𝐴 99.02
( )( ) = ( )
34.3 171.33 𝐵 502.874
Solve this linear system to get A = - 12.4225 and B = 5.4221  𝒚(𝒙) = −𝟏𝟐. 𝟒𝟐𝟐𝟓 + 𝟓. 𝟒𝟐𝟐𝟏𝒙

0 4.0 10.36 9.2659 1.0941 1.1971
1 4.2 9.48 10.3503 -0.8703 0.7574
2 4.5 13.02 11.9770 1.0430 1.0878
3 4.8 12.21 13.6036 -1.3936 1.9421
4 5.2 16.83 15.7724 1.0576 1.1185
5 5.6 14.54 17.9413 -3.4013 11.5688
6 6.0 22.58 20.1101 2.4699 6.1004
6
𝑆 = ∑ 𝑒𝑖2 23.7721
𝑖=0
𝐒𝐔𝐌 𝐎𝐅 𝐒𝐐𝐔𝐀𝐑𝐄 𝐄𝐑𝐑𝐎𝐑𝐒 , 𝑺 ∶ 𝟐𝟑. 𝟕𝟕𝟐𝟏

A17KA0105
4. 𝑥 0.2 0.3 0.6 0.9 1.1 1.3 1.4 1.5

𝑦 5.04 6.83 4.34 10.25 13.96 15.76 18.47 19.15
7 7 7
∑1 ∑ 𝑥𝑖 ∑ 𝑦𝑖
𝑖=0 𝑖=0 𝐴 𝑖=0
7 7 ( )= 7
𝐵
( 𝑖=0 𝑖=0 ) ( 𝑖=0 )

7 7
∑1 = 8 ∑ 𝑥𝑖2 = 8.41
7
𝑖=0 𝑖=0
∑ 𝑥𝑖 𝑦𝑖 = 105.313
7 7
𝑖=0
∑ 𝑥𝑖 = 7.3 ∑ 𝑦𝑖 = 93.8
𝑖=0 𝑖=0
8 7.3 𝐴 93.8
( )( ) = ( )
7.3 8.41 𝐵 105.313
Solve this linear system to get A = 1.4348 and B = 11.2769  𝒚(𝒙) = 𝟏. 𝟒𝟑𝟒𝟖 + 𝟏𝟏. 𝟐𝟕𝟔𝟗𝒙
0 0.2 5.04 3.6902 1.3498 1.8220
1 0.3 6.83 4.8179 2.0121 4.0485
2 0.6 4.34 8.2009 -3.8609 14.9065
3 0.9 10.25 11.5840 -1.3340 1.7796
4 1.1 13.96 13.8394 0.1206 0.0145
5 1.3 15.76 16.0948 -0.3348 0.1121
6 1.4 18.47 17.2225 1.2475 1.5563
7 1.5 19.15 18.3502 0.7998 0.6397
7
𝑆 = ∑ 𝑒𝑖2 24.8792
𝑖=0
𝐒𝐔𝐌 𝐎𝐅 𝐒𝐐𝐔𝐀𝐑𝐄 𝐄𝐑𝐑𝐎𝐑𝐒 , 𝑺 ∶ 𝟐𝟒. 𝟖𝟕𝟗𝟐

A17KA0105
Linear Least-Squares TEMPLATE
𝑥
𝑦
Let linear least square as 𝑦 = 𝐴 + 𝐵𝑥 to the data {(𝑥𝑖 , 𝑦𝑖 )}𝑛𝑖=0. The unknown A and B can
n n n
∑1 ∑ 𝑥𝑖 ∑ 𝑦𝑖
𝑖=0 𝑖=0 𝐴 𝑖=0
n n ( )= n
𝐵
( 𝑖=0 𝑖=0 ) ( 𝑖=0 )
n n
∑1 = ∑ 𝑥𝑖2 =
n
𝑖=0 𝑖=0
∑ 𝑥𝑖 𝑦𝑖 =
n n
𝑖=0
∑ 𝑥𝑖 = ∑ 𝑦𝑖 =
𝑖=0 𝑖=0
𝐴
( )( ) = ( )
𝐵
Solve this linear system to get A = ______ and B = ______  𝒚(𝒙) = 𝑨 + 𝑩𝒙
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
𝑛
𝑆 = ∑ 𝑒𝑖2
𝑖=0
𝐒𝐔𝐌 𝐎𝐅 𝐒𝐐𝐔𝐀𝐑𝐄 𝐄𝐑𝐑𝐎𝐑𝐒 , 𝑺 ∶

A17KA0105
QUADRATIC LEAST-SQUARES
***Exercise 4.2
For question 1 – 4, fit the given data using the parabolic least square, 𝑦 = 𝐴 + 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶𝑥 2 .
Calculate the sum of the squares of errors. Shown calculation in four decimal places (4DP).
1. 𝑥 1.0 2.1 3.2 4.3 5.2 6.0

𝑦 1.5 3.2 3.5 3.0 3.5 4.2
Let quadratic least square as 𝑦 = 𝐴 + 𝐵𝑥 to the data {(𝑥𝑖 , 𝑦𝑖 )}5𝑖=0. The unknown A, B and C
can determine by solving
5 5 5 5
∑1 ∑ 𝑥𝑖 ∑ 𝑥𝑖2 ∑ 𝑦𝑖
𝑖=0 𝑖=0 𝑖=0 𝑖=0
5 5 5 𝐴 5
∑ 𝑥𝑖 ∑ 𝑥𝑖2 ∑ 𝑥𝑖3 (𝐵 ) = ∑ 𝑥𝑖 𝑦𝑖
𝑖=0 𝑖=0 𝑖=0 𝐶 𝑖=0
5 5 5 5
∑ 𝑥𝑖2 ∑ 𝑥𝑖3 ∑ 𝑥𝑖4 ∑ 𝑥𝑖2 𝑦𝑖

( 𝑖=0 𝑖=0 𝑖=0 ) ( 𝑖=0 )
5 5 5 5
∑1 = 6 ∑ 𝑥𝑖2 = 97.18 ∑ 𝑥𝑖4 = 2494.3474 ∑ 𝑥𝑖 𝑦𝑖 = 75.72

𝑖=0 𝑖=0 𝑖=0 𝑖=0
5 5 5 5
∑ 𝑥𝑖 = 21.8 ∑ 𝑥𝑖3 = 479.144 ∑ 𝑦𝑖 = 18.9 ∑ 𝑥𝑖2 𝑦𝑖 = 352.762

𝑖=0 𝑖=0 𝑖=0 𝑖=0
6 21.8 97.18 𝐴 18.9

( 21.8 97.18 479.144 ) (𝐵 ) = ( 75.72 )
97.18 479.144 2494.3474 𝐶 352.762
Solve this linear system to get A = 1.0075 and B = 0.9340 and C = -0.0772
 𝒚(𝒙) = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟎𝟕𝟓 + 𝟎. 𝟗𝟑𝟒𝟎𝒙 − 𝟎. 𝟎𝟕𝟕𝟐𝒙𝟐
0 1.0 1.5 1.8643 -0.3643 0.1327
1 2.1 3.2 2.6284 0.5716 0.3267
2 3.2 3.5 3.2058 0.2942 0.0866
3 4.3 3.0 3.5963 -0.5963 0.3556
4 5.2 3.5 3.7768 -0.2768 0.0766
5 6.0 4.2 3.8323 0.3677 0.1352
5
𝑆 = ∑ 𝑒𝑖2 1.1134
𝑖=0
A17KA0105
2. 𝑥 0 0.15 0.31 0.5 0.6 0.75

𝑦 1.0 1.006 1.035 1.175 1.234 1.254
5 5 5 5
∑1 ∑ 𝑥𝑖 ∑ 𝑥𝑖2 ∑ 𝑦𝑖
𝑖=0 𝑖=0 𝑖=0 𝑖=0
5 5 5 𝐴 5
∑ 𝑥𝑖 ∑ 𝑥𝑖2 ∑ 𝑥𝑖3 (𝐵 ) = ∑ 𝑥𝑖 𝑦𝑖
𝑖=0 𝑖=0 𝑖=0 𝐶 𝑖=0
5 5 5 5
∑ 𝑥𝑖2 ∑ 𝑥𝑖3 ∑ 𝑥𝑖4 ∑ 𝑥𝑖2 𝑦𝑖

( 𝑖=0 𝑖=0 𝑖=0 ) ( 𝑖=0 )
5 5 5 5
∑1 = 6 ∑ 𝑥𝑖2 = 1.2911 ∑ 𝑥𝑖4 = 0.5182 ∑ 𝑥𝑖 𝑦𝑖 = 2.7402

𝑖=0 𝑖=0 𝑖=0 𝑖=0
5 5 5 5
∑ 𝑥𝑖 = 2.31 ∑ 𝑥𝑖3 = 0.7960 ∑ 𝑦𝑖 = 6.704 ∑ 𝑥𝑖2 𝑦𝑖 = 1.5655

𝑖=0 𝑖=0 𝑖=0 𝑖=0
6 2.31 1.2911 𝐴 6.704

( 2.31 1.2911 0.7960) (𝐵 ) = (2.7402)
1.2911 0.7960 0.5182 𝐶 1.5655
Solve this linear system to get A = 0.9826 and B = 0.2106 and C = 0.2492
 𝒚(𝒙) = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟖𝟐𝟔 + 𝟎. 𝟐𝟏𝟎𝟔𝒙 + 𝟎. 𝟐𝟒𝟗𝟐𝒙𝟐

0 0 1.0 0.9826 0.0174 0.0003
1 0.15 1.006 1.0198 -0.0138 0.0002
2 0.31 1.035 1.0718 -0.0368 0.0014
3 0.5 1.175 1.1502 0.0248 0.0006
4 0.6 1.234 1.1987 0.0353 0.0012
5 0.75 1.254 1.2807 -0.0267 0.0007
5
𝑆 = ∑ 𝑒𝑖2 0.0044
𝑖=0
𝐒𝐔𝐌 𝐎𝐅 𝐒𝐐𝐔𝐀𝐑𝐄 𝐄𝐑𝐑𝐎𝐑𝐒 , 𝑺 ∶ 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟒𝟒

A17KA0105
3. 𝑥 4.0 4.2 4.5 4.8 5.2 5.6 6.0

𝑦 10.36 9.48 13.02 12.21 16.83 14.54 22.58
6 6 6 6
∑1 ∑ 𝑥𝑖 ∑ 𝑥𝑖2 ∑ 𝑦𝑖
𝑖=0 𝑖=0 𝑖=0 𝑖=0
6 6 6 𝐴 6
∑ 𝑥𝑖 ∑ 𝑥𝑖2 ∑ 𝑥𝑖3 (𝐵 ) = ∑ 𝑥𝑖 𝑦𝑖
𝑖=0 𝑖=0 𝑖=0 𝐶 𝑖=0
6 6 6 6
∑ 𝑥𝑖2 ∑ 𝑥𝑖3 ∑ 𝑥𝑖4 ∑ 𝑥𝑖2 𝑦𝑖

( 𝑖=0 𝑖=0 𝑖=0 ) ( 𝑖=0 )
6 6 6 6
∑1 = 7 ∑ 𝑥𝑖2 = 171.33 ∑ 𝑥𝑖4 = 4518.6849 ∑ 𝑥𝑖 𝑦𝑖 = 502.874

𝑖=0 𝑖=0 𝑖=0 𝑖=0
6 6 6 6
∑ 𝑥𝑖 = 34.3 ∑ 𝑥𝑖3 = 872.029 ∑ 𝑦𝑖 = 99.02 ∑ 𝑥𝑖2 𝑦𝑖 = 2601.8982

𝑖=0 𝑖=0 𝑖=0 𝑖=0
7 34.3 171.33 𝐴 99.02

( 34.3 171.33 872.029 ) (𝐵 ) = ( 502.874 )
171.33 872.029 4518.6849 𝐶 2601.8982
Solve this linear system to get A = 36.2016 and B = -14.4585 and C = 1.9934
 𝒚(𝒙) = 𝟑𝟔. 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟔 − 𝟏𝟒. 𝟒𝟓𝟖𝟓𝒙 + 𝟏. 𝟗𝟗𝟑𝟒𝒙𝟐
0 4.0 10.36 10.2620 0.0980 0.0096
1 4.2 9.48 10.6395 -1.1595 1.3444
2 4.5 13.02 11.5047 1.5153 2.2961
3 4.8 12.21 12.7287 -0.5187 0.2690
4 5.2 16.83 14.9189 1.9111 3.6523
5 5.6 14.54 17.7470 -3.2070 10.2848
6 6.0 22.58 21.2130 1.3670 1.8687
6
𝑆 = ∑ 𝑒𝑖2 19.7249
𝑖=0
𝐒𝐔𝐌 𝐎𝐅 𝐒𝐐𝐔𝐀𝐑𝐄 𝐄𝐑𝐑𝐎𝐑𝐒 , 𝑺 ∶ 𝟏𝟗. 𝟕𝟐𝟒𝟗

A17KA0105
4. 𝑥 0.2 0.3 0.6 0.9 1.1 1.3 1.4 1.5

𝑦 5.04 6.83 4.34 10.25 13.96 15.76 18.47 19.15
7 7 7 7
∑1 ∑ 𝑥𝑖 ∑ 𝑥𝑖2 ∑ 𝑦𝑖
𝑖=0 𝑖=0 𝑖=0 𝑖=0
7 7 7 𝐴 7
∑ 𝑥𝑖 ∑ 𝑥𝑖2 ∑ 𝑥𝑖3 (𝐵 ) = ∑ 𝑥𝑖 𝑦𝑖
𝑖=0 𝑖=0 𝑖=0 𝐶 𝑖=0
7 7 7 7
∑ 𝑥𝑖2 ∑ 𝑥𝑖3 ∑ 𝑥𝑖4 ∑ 𝑥𝑖2 𝑦𝑖

( 𝑖=0 𝑖=0 𝑖=0 ) ( 𝑖=0 )
7 7 7 7
∑1 = 8 ∑ 𝑥𝑖2 = 8.41 ∑ 𝑥𝑖4 = 14.0197 ∑ 𝑥𝑖 𝑦𝑖 = 105.313

𝑖=0 𝑖=0 𝑖=0 𝑖=0
7 7 7 7
∑ 𝑥𝑖 = 7.3 ∑ 𝑥𝑖3 = 10.627 ∑ 𝑦𝑖 = 93.8 ∑ 𝑥𝑖2 𝑦𝑖 = 133.4959

𝑖=0 𝑖=0 𝑖=0 𝑖=0
8 7.3 8.41 𝐴 93.8

( 7.3 8.41 10.627 ) ( 𝐵 ) = ( 105.313 )
8.41 10.627 14.0197 𝐶 133.4959
Solve this linear system to get A = 5.4753 and B = -2.6592 and C = 8.2532
 𝒚(𝒙) = 𝟓. 𝟒𝟕𝟓𝟑 − 𝟐. 𝟔𝟓𝟗𝟐𝒙 + 𝟖. 𝟐𝟓𝟑𝟐𝒙𝟐
0 0.2 5.04 5.2736 -0.2336 0.0546
1 0.3 6.83 5.4203 1.4097 1.9873
2 0.6 4.34 6.8509 -2.5109 6.3046
3 0.9 10.25 9.7671 0.4829 0.2332
4 1.1 13.96 12.5366 1.4234 2.0261
5 1.3 15.76 15.9662 -0.2062 0.0425
6 1.4 18.47 17.9287 0.5413 0.2930
7 1.5 19.15 20.0562 -0.9062 0.8212
7
𝑆 = ∑ 𝑒𝑖2 11.7625
𝑖=0
𝐒𝐔𝐌 𝐎𝐅 𝐒𝐐𝐔𝐀𝐑𝐄 𝐄𝐑𝐑𝐎𝐑𝐒 , 𝑺 ∶ 𝟏𝟏. 𝟕𝟔𝟐𝟓

A17KA0105
Quadratic Least-Squares TEMPLATE
𝑥
𝑦
Let linear least square as 𝑦 = 𝐴 + 𝐵𝑥 to the data {(𝑥𝑖 , 𝑦𝑖 )}𝑛𝑖=0. The unknown A and B can
n n n n
∑1 ∑ 𝑥𝑖 ∑ 𝑥𝑖2 ∑ 𝑦𝑖
𝑖=0 𝑖=0 𝑖=0 𝑖=0
n n n n
𝐴
∑ 𝑥𝑖 ∑ 𝑥𝑖2 ∑ 𝑥𝑖3 (𝐵 ) = ∑ 𝑥𝑖 𝑦𝑖
𝑖=0 𝑖=0 𝑖=0 𝐶 𝑖=0
n n n n
∑ 𝑥𝑖2 ∑ 𝑥𝑖3 ∑ 𝑥𝑖4 ∑ 𝑥𝑖2 𝑦𝑖

( 𝑖=0 𝑖=0 𝑖=0 ) ( 𝑖=0 )
n n n n
∑1 = ∑ 𝑥𝑖2 = ∑ 𝑥𝑖4 = ∑ 𝑥𝑖 𝑦𝑖 =
𝑖=0 𝑖=0 𝑖=0 𝑖=0
n n n n
∑ 𝑥𝑖 = ∑ 𝑥𝑖3 = ∑ 𝑦𝑖 = ∑ 𝑥𝑖2 𝑦𝑖 =
𝑖=0 𝑖=0 𝑖=0 𝑖=0
𝐴
( ) (𝐵 ) = ( )
𝐶
Solve this linear system to get A = _________ and B = _________ and C = __________
 𝒚(𝒙) = 𝑨 + 𝑩𝒙 + 𝑪𝒙𝟐

0
1
2
3
4
5
𝑛
𝑆 = ∑ 𝑒𝑖2
𝑖=0
𝐒𝐔𝐌 𝐎𝐅 𝐒𝐐𝐔𝐀𝐑𝐄 𝐄𝐑𝐑𝐎𝐑𝐒 , 𝑺 ∶

A17KA0105
FIRST DERIVATIVE
Two Point Forward Difference Formula
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) =
ℎ
Two Point Backward Difference Formula

𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥 − ℎ)
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) =
ℎ
Two Point Central Difference Formula / Three Point Central Difference Formula
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥 − ℎ)
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) =
2ℎ
Three Point Forward Difference Formula

1
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = [−𝑓(𝑥 + 2ℎ) + 4𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 3𝑓(𝑥)]
2ℎ
Three Point Backward Difference Formula

1
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = [3𝑓(𝑥) − 4𝑓(𝑥 − ℎ) + 𝑓(𝑥 − 2ℎ)]
2ℎ
Five Point Central Difference Formula

1
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = [−𝑓(𝑥 + 2ℎ) + 8𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 8𝑓(𝑥 − ℎ) + 𝑓(𝑥 − 2ℎ)]
12ℎ
SECOND DERIVATIVE
Three Point Central Difference Formula
1
𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) = [𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 2𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑓(𝑥 − ℎ)]
ℎ2
Five Point Central Difference Formula

1
𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) = [−𝑓(𝑥 + 2ℎ) + 16𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 30𝑓(𝑥) + 16𝑓(𝑥 − ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥 − 2ℎ)]
12ℎ2
A17KA0105
***Exercise 5
1. If 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 , approximate 𝑓 ′ (2.3) using the following formula with ℎ = 0.1 and ℎ = 0.01.
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) =
ℎ
′ (2.3)
𝑓(2.3 + 0.1) − 𝑓(2.3) 𝑒 2.4 − 𝑒 2.3
ℎ = 0.1 → 𝑓 = = = 10.4899
0.1 0.1
′ (2.3)
𝑓(2.3 + 0.01) − 𝑓(2.3) 𝑒 2.31 − 𝑒 2.3
ℎ = 0.01 → 𝑓 = = = 10.0242
0.01 0.01
Exact value of 𝑓 ′ (2.3) = 𝑒 2.3 = 9.9742

ℎ = 0.1 → Absolute error = |9.9742 − 10.4899| = 0.5157
ℎ = 0.01 → Absolute error = |9.9742 − 10.0242| = 0.0500
𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥 − ℎ)
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) =
ℎ
′ (2.3)
𝑓(2.3) − 𝑓(2.3 − 0.1) 𝑒 2.3 − 𝑒 2.2
ℎ = 0.1 → 𝑓 = = = 9.4917
0.1 0.1
′ (2.3)
𝑓(2.3) − 𝑓(2.3 − 0.01) 𝑒 2.3 − 𝑒 2.29
ℎ = 0.01 → 𝑓 = = = 9.9245
0.01 0.01
Exact value of 𝑓 ′ (2.3) = 𝑒 2.3 = 9.9742

ℎ = 0.1 → Absolute error = |9.9742 − 9.4917| = 0.4825
ℎ = 0.01 → Absolute error = |9.9742 − 9.9245| = 0.0497
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥 − ℎ)
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) =
2ℎ
′ (2.3)
𝑓(2.3 + 0.1) − 𝑓(2.3 − 0.1) 𝑒 2.4 − 𝑒 2.2
ℎ = 0.1 → 𝑓 = = = 9.9908
2(0.1) 0.2
𝑓(2.3 + 0.01) − 𝑓(2.3 − 0.01) 𝑒 2.31 − 𝑒 2.29
ℎ = 0.01 → 𝑓 ′ (2.3) = = = 9.9743
2(0.01) 0.02
Exact value of 𝑓 ′ (2.3) = 𝑒 2.3 = 9.9742

ℎ = 0.1 → Absolute error = |9.9742 − 9.9908| = 0.0166
ℎ = 0.01 → Absolute error = |9.9742 − 9.9743| = 0.0001
A17KA0105
2. Use the following formula

𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥 − ℎ)
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) =
2ℎ
Or formula
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) =
ℎ
𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥 − ℎ)
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) =
ℎ
To complete the given table.
(a)
𝑥 −0.3 −0.1 0.1 0.3
𝑓(𝑥) −0.2043 −0.0899 0.1101 0.3957
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) 0.5720 0.7860 1.2140 1.4280
ℎ = −0.1 − (−0.3) = 0.2
(b)
𝑥 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4
𝑓(𝑥) 0.4860 0.8616 1.5975 3.7616
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) 3.7560 5.5575 14.5000 21.6410
ℎ = 1.2 − 1.1 = 0.1

A17KA0105
3. Given the tabulated values of 𝑓(𝑥) as follows :
𝑥 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

𝑓(𝑥) 0.9799 0.9178 0.8080 0.6386 0.3844
Using the suitable following formula with ℎ = 0.2

𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = →1
ℎ
𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥 − ℎ)
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = →2
ℎ
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥 − ℎ)
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = →3
2ℎ
1
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = [−𝑓(𝑥 + 2ℎ) + 4𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 3𝑓(𝑥)] →4
2ℎ
1
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = [3𝑓(𝑥) − 4𝑓(𝑥 − ℎ) + 𝑓(𝑥 − 2ℎ)] →5
2ℎ
1
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = [−𝑓(𝑥 + 2ℎ) + 8𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 8𝑓(𝑥 − ℎ) + 𝑓(𝑥 − 2ℎ)] →6
12ℎ
1
𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) = 2 [𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 2𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑓(𝑥 − ℎ)] →7
ℎ
A17KA0105
Approximate :
(a) 𝑓 ′ (0.6) → using equation 1 to 6
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) =
ℎ
𝑓(0.8) − 𝑓(0.6)
=
0.2
= −0.8470
𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥 − ℎ)
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) =
ℎ
𝑓(0.6) − 𝑓(0.4)
=
0.2
= −0.5490
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥 − ℎ)
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) =
2ℎ
𝑓(0.8) − 𝑓(0.4)
=
0.4
= −0.6980
1
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = [−𝑓(𝑥 + 2ℎ) + 4𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 3𝑓(𝑥)]
2ℎ
1
= [−𝑓(1) + 4𝑓(0.8) − 3𝑓(0.6)]
0.4
= −0.6350
1
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = [3𝑓(𝑥) − 4𝑓(𝑥 − ℎ) + 𝑓(𝑥 − 2ℎ)]
2ℎ
1
= [3𝑓(0.6) − 4𝑓(0.4) + 𝑓(0.2)]
0.4
= −0.6683
1
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = [−𝑓(𝑥 + 2ℎ) + 8𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 8𝑓(𝑥 − ℎ) + 𝑓(𝑥 − 2ℎ)]
12ℎ
1
= [−𝑓(1) + 8𝑓(0.8) − 8𝑓(0.4) + 𝑓(0.2)]
12ℎ
= −0.6825
(b) 𝑓 ′′ (0.6) → using equation 7
1
𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) = [𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 2𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑓(𝑥 − ℎ)]
ℎ2
1
= [𝑓(0.8) − 2𝑓(0.6) + 𝑓(0.4)]
0.04
= −1.4900
A17KA0105
4. Given
𝑒 −𝑥
𝑓(𝑥) =
√1 + sin(x)
Using the suitable following formula with ℎ = 0.1

𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = →1
ℎ
𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥 − ℎ)
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = →2
ℎ
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥 − ℎ)
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = →3
2ℎ
1
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = [−𝑓(𝑥 + 2ℎ) + 4𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 3𝑓(𝑥)] →4
2ℎ
1
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = [3𝑓(𝑥) − 4𝑓(𝑥 − ℎ) + 𝑓(𝑥 − 2ℎ)] →5
2ℎ
1
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = [−𝑓(𝑥 + 2ℎ) + 8𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 8𝑓(𝑥 − ℎ) + 𝑓(𝑥 − 2ℎ)] →6
12ℎ
1
𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) = 2 [𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 2𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑓(𝑥 − ℎ)] →7
ℎ
𝑓(0.4) = 0.5687
𝑓(0.5) = 0.4987
𝑓(0.6) = 0.4387
𝑓(0.7) = 0.3873
𝑓(0.8) = 0.3429
A17KA0105
Approximate :
(a) 𝑓 ′ (0.6) → using equation 1 to 6
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓(0.7) − 𝑓(0.6)

𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = =
ℎ 0.1
0.3873 − 0.4387
= = −0.5140
0.1
𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥 − ℎ) 𝑓(0.6) − 𝑓(0.5)
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = =
ℎ 0.1
0.4387 − 0.4987
= = −0.6000
0.1
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥 − ℎ) 𝑓(0.7) − 𝑓(0.5)
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = =
2ℎ 0.2
0.3873 − 0.4987
= = −0.5570
0.2
1 1
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = [−𝑓(𝑥 + 2ℎ) + 4𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 3𝑓(𝑥)] = [−𝑓(0.8) + 4𝑓(0.7) − 3𝑓(0.6)]
2ℎ 0.2
1
= [−0.3429 + 4(0.3873) − 3(0.4387)] = −0.5490
0.2
1 1
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = [3𝑓(𝑥) − 4𝑓(𝑥 − ℎ) + 𝑓(𝑥 − 2ℎ)] = [3𝑓(0.6) − 4𝑓(0.5) + 𝑓(0.4)]
2ℎ 0.2
1
= [3(0.4387) − 4(0.4987) + 0.5687] = −0.5500
0.2
1
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = [−𝑓(𝑥 + 2ℎ) + 8𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 8𝑓(𝑥 − ℎ) + 𝑓(𝑥 − 2ℎ)]
12ℎ
1
= [−𝑓(0.8) + 8𝑓(0.7) − 8𝑓(0.5) + 𝑓(0.4)]
12ℎ
1
= [−0.3429 + 8(0.3873) − 8(0.4987) + 0.5687] = −0.5545
1.2
(b) 𝑓 ′′ (0.6) → using equation 7

1
𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) = [𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 2𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑓(𝑥 − ℎ)]
ℎ2
1
= [𝑓(0.7) − 2𝑓(0.6) + 𝑓(0.5)]
0.01
1
= [0.3873 − 2(0.4387) + 0.4987]
0.01
= 0.86
A17KA0105
TRAPEZOIDAL AND SIMPSON’S RULE
COMPOSITE TRAPEZOIDAL RULE
𝑏
ℎ
∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = [(𝑓 + 𝑓𝑛 ) + 2(𝑓1 + 𝑓2 + ⋯ + 𝑓𝑛−1 )]
𝑎 2 0
𝑏−𝑎
Where , ℎ=
𝑛
COMPOSITE SIMPSON’S RULE OR 1/3 SIMPSON’S RULE
𝑏
ℎ
∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = [(𝑓 + 𝑓𝑛 ) + 4(𝑓1 + 𝑓3 + ⋯ + 𝑓𝑛−1 ) + 2(𝑓2 + 𝑓4 + ⋯ + 𝑓𝑛−2 )]
𝑎 3 0
𝑏−𝑎
Where , ℎ=
𝑛
A17KA0105
***Exercise 6.1
1.
3
Approximate the following integral ∫ √𝑥 3 + 1 𝑑𝑥 using the rules below
0
𝑏−𝑎 3−0
𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 3 + 1 ℎ= = = 0.3750
𝑛 8
(a) Trapezium rule with n = 8

F = √X 3 + 1
𝑖 𝑥𝑖 𝑓𝑖 = 𝑓(𝑥𝑖 ) = √𝑥𝑖3 + 1
0 0.000 1.0000
1 0.375 1.0260
2 0.750 1.1924
3 1.125 1.5569
4 1.500 2.0917
5 1.875 2.7553
6 2.250 3.5200
7 2.625 4.3690
8 3.000 5.2915
Total 6.2915 16.5113
3
𝐼 = ∫ √𝑥 3 + 1 𝑑𝑥
0
3
= ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
0
ℎ
≈ [(𝑓 + 𝑓8 ) + 2(𝑓1 + 𝑓2 + 𝑓3 + 𝑓4 + 𝑓5 + 𝑓6 + 𝑓7 )]
2 0
0.375
= [6.2915 + 2(16.5113)]
2
= 7.3714
A17KA0105
(b) Simpson’s rule with n = 8
F = √X 3 + 1
𝑖 𝑥𝑖 𝑓𝑖 = 𝑓(𝑥𝑖 ) = √𝑥𝑖3 + 1
0 0.000 1.0000
1 0.375 1.0260
2 0.750 1.1924
3 1.125 1.5569
4 1.500 2.0917
5 1.875 2.7553
6 2.250 3.5200
7 2.625 4.3690
8 3.000 5.2915
Total 6.2915 9.7072 6.8041
3
𝐼 = ∫ √𝑥 3 + 1 𝑑𝑥
0
3
= ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
0
ℎ
≈ [(𝑓 + 𝑓8 ) + 4(𝑓1 + 𝑓3 + 𝑓5 + 𝑓7 ) + 2(𝑓2 + 𝑓4 + 𝑓6 )]
3 0
0.375
= [9.4765 + 4(9.7072) + 2(6.8041)]
3
= 7.3411
A17KA0105
2.
3
1
Approximate the following integral ∫ 𝑑𝑥 using the rules below
0 √𝑥 3 + 1
1 𝑏−𝑎 3−0
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑛= = = 10
√𝑥 3 + 1 ℎ 0.3
(a) Trapezium rule with h = 0.3

1
F=
√X 3 + 1
1
𝑓𝑖 = 𝑓(𝑥𝑖 ) =
𝑖 𝑥𝑖
√𝑥𝑖3 + 1
0 0.0 1.0000
1 0.3 0.9868
2 0.6 0.9068
3 0.9 0.7605
4 1.2 0.6054
5 1.5 0.4781
6 1.8 0.3826
7 2.1 0.3122
8 2.4 0.2597
9 2.7 0.2199
10 3.0 0.1890
Total 1.1890 4.9120
3
1
𝐼=∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 √𝑥 3 + 1
3
= ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
0
ℎ
≈ [(𝑓 + 𝑓10 ) + 2(𝑓1 + 𝑓2 + 𝑓3 + 𝑓4 + 𝑓5 + 𝑓6 + 𝑓7 + 𝑓8 + 𝑓9 )]
2 0
0.3
= [1.1890 + 2(4.9120)]
2
= 1.6520
A17KA0105
1
F=
√X 3 + 1
1
𝑓𝑖 = 𝑓(𝑥𝑖 ) =
𝑖 𝑥𝑖
√𝑥𝑖3 + 1
0 0.0 1.0000
1 0.3 0.9868
2 0.6 0.9068
3 0.9 0.7605
4 1.2 0.6054
5 1.5 0.4781
6 1.8 0.3826
7 2.1 0.3122
8 2.4 0.2597
9 2.7 0.2199
10 3.0 0.1890
Total 1.1890 2.7575 2.1545
3
1
𝐼=∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 √𝑥 3 + 1
3
= ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
0
ℎ
≈ [(𝑓 + 𝑓10 ) + 4(𝑓1 + 𝑓3 + 𝑓5 + 𝑓7 + 𝑓9 ) + 2(𝑓2 + 𝑓4 + 𝑓6 + 𝑓8 )]
3 0
0.3
= [1.1890 + 4(2.7575) + 2(2.1545)]
3
= 1.6528
A17KA0105
3. The error function is defined as

𝑥
1 2
𝐸𝑟 𝑓(𝑥) = ∫ 𝑒 −𝑡 𝑑𝑡
√𝜋 0
Approximate 𝐸𝑟 𝑓(2) using the formula below.
2
𝑒 −𝑡 𝑏−𝑎 2−0
𝑓(𝑡) = ℎ= = = 0.25
√𝜋 𝑛 8

2
𝑒 −T
F=
√𝜋
2
𝑒 −𝑡𝑖
𝑖 𝑡𝑖 𝑓𝑖 = 𝑓(𝑡𝑖 ) =
√𝜋
0 0.00 0.5642
1 0.25 0.5300
2 0.50 0.4394
3 0.75 0.3215
4 1.00 0.2076
5 1.25 0.1183
6 1.50 0.0595
7 1.75 0.0264
8 2.00 0.0103
Total 0.5745 1.7027
2
1 2
𝐼= ∫ 𝑒 −𝑡 𝑑𝑡
√𝜋 0
2
= ∫ 𝑓(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
0
ℎ
≈ [(𝑓 + 𝑓8 ) + 2(𝑓1 + 𝑓2 + 𝑓3 + 𝑓4 + 𝑓5 + 𝑓6 + 𝑓7 )]
2 0
0.25
= [0.5745 + 2(1.7027)]
2
= 0.4975
A17KA0105
2
𝑒 −T
F=
√𝜋
2
𝑒 −𝑡𝑖
√𝜋
0 0.00 0.5642
1 0.25 0.5300
2 0.50 0.4394
3 0.75 0.3215
4 1.00 0.2076
5 1.25 0.1183
6 1.50 0.0595
7 1.75 0.0264
8 2.00 0.0103
Total 0.5745 0.9962 0.7065
2
1 2
𝐼= ∫ 𝑒 −𝑡 𝑑𝑡
√𝜋 0
2
= ∫ 𝑓(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
0
ℎ
≈ [(𝑓 + 𝑓8 ) + 4(𝑓1 + 𝑓3 + 𝑓5 + 𝑓7 ) + 2(𝑓2 + 𝑓4 + 𝑓6 )]
3 0
0.25
= [0.5745 + 4(0.9962) + 2(0.7065)]
3
= 0.4977
A17KA0105
4. The elliptic integral of the first kind is

𝑥
1
𝐾(𝑘, 𝑥) = ∫ 𝑑𝑡
√1 − 𝑘 2 sin2 (𝑡)
0
Approximate 𝐾(1 , 1) using the formula below.
1 𝑏−𝑎 1−0
𝑓(𝑡) = ℎ= = = 0.1
√1 − sin2 (𝑡) 𝑛 10

1
F=
√1 − sin2 (𝑇)
1
√1 − sin2 (𝑡𝑖 )
0 0.0 1.0000
1 0.1 1.0050
2 0.2 1.0203
3 0.3 1.0468
4 0.4 1.0857
5 0.5 1.1395
6 0.6 1.2116
7 0.7 1.3075
8 0.8 1.4353
9 0.9 1.6087
10 1.0 1.8508
Total 2.8508 10.8604
1
1
𝐼=∫ 𝑑𝑡
0 √1 − sin2 (𝑡)
1
= ∫ 𝑓(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
0
ℎ
≈ [(𝑓 + 𝑓10 ) + 2(𝑓1 + 𝑓2 + 𝑓3 + 𝑓4 + 𝑓5 + 𝑓6 + 𝑓7 + 𝑓8 + 𝑓9 )]
2 0
0.1
= [2.8508 + 2(10.8604)]
2
= 1.2286
A17KA0105
1
F=
√1 − sin2 (𝑇)
1
√1 − sin2 (𝑡𝑖 )
0 0.0 1.0000
1 0.1 1.0050
2 0.2 1.0203
3 0.3 1.0468
4 0.4 1.0857
5 0.5 1.1395
6 0.6 1.2116
7 0.7 1.3075
8 0.8 1.4353
9 0.9 1.6087
10 1.0 1.8508
Total 2.8508 6.1075 4.7529
1
1
𝐼=∫ 𝑑𝑡
0 √1 − sin2 (𝑡)
1
= ∫ 𝑓(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
0
ℎ
≈ [(𝑓 + 𝑓10 ) + 4(𝑓1 + 𝑓3 + 𝑓5 + 𝑓7 + 𝑓9 ) + 2(𝑓2 + 𝑓4 + 𝑓6 + 𝑓8 )]
3 0
0.1
= [2.8508 + 4(6.1075) + 2(4.7529)]
3
= 1.2262
A17KA0105
5. The elliptic integral of the second kind is

𝑥
𝐾(𝑘, 𝑥) = ∫ √1 − 𝑘 2 sin2 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
0
Approximate 𝐾(1 , 1) using the formula below.
𝑏−𝑎 1−0
𝑓(𝑡) = √1 − sin2 (𝑡) 𝑛= = = 10
ℎ 0.1

F = √1 − sin2 (𝑇)
𝑖 𝑡𝑖 𝑓𝑖 = 𝑓(𝑡𝑖 ) = √1 − sin2 (𝑡𝑖 )
0 0.0 1.0000
1 0.1 0.9950
2 0.2 0.9801
3 0.3 0.9553
4 0.4 0.9211
5 0.5 0.8776
6 0.6 0.8253
7 0.7 0.7648
8 0.8 0.6967
9 0.9 0.6216
10 1.0 0.5403
Total 1.5403 7.6375
1
𝐼 = ∫ √1 − sin2 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
0
1
= ∫ 𝑓(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
0
ℎ
≈ [(𝑓 + 𝑓10 ) + 2(𝑓1 + 𝑓2 + 𝑓3 + 𝑓4 + 𝑓5 + 𝑓6 + 𝑓7 + 𝑓8 + 𝑓9 )]
2 0
0.1
= [1.5403 + 2(7.6375)]
2
= 0.8408
A17KA0105
(b) Simpson’s rule with h = 0.125
𝑏−𝑎 1−0
𝑓(𝑡) = √1 − sin2 (𝑡) 𝑛= = =8
ℎ 0.125
F = √1 − sin2 (𝑇)
𝑖 𝑡𝑖 𝑓𝑖 = 𝑓(𝑡𝑖 ) = √1 − sin2 (𝑡𝑖 )
0 0.000 1.0000
1 0.125 0.9922
2 0.250 0.9689
3 0.375 0.9305
4 0.500 0.8776
5 0.625 0.8110
6 0.750 0.7317
7 0.875 0.6410
8 1.000 0.5403
Total 1.5403 3.3747 2.5782
1
𝐼 = ∫ √1 − sin2 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
0
1
= ∫ 𝑓(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
0
ℎ
≈ [(𝑓 + 𝑓8 ) + 4(𝑓1 + 𝑓3 + 𝑓5 + 𝑓7 ) + 2(𝑓2 + 𝑓4 + 𝑓6 )]
3 0
0.125
= [1.5403 + 4(3.3747) + 2(2.5782)]
3
= 0.8415
A17KA0105
6. Approximate the arc length of the curve described by the function 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 , 0 < 𝑥 < 2 , the
length is given by
2
∫ √1 + 9𝑥 4 𝑑𝑥
0
𝑏−𝑎 2−0
𝑓(𝑥) = √1 + 9𝑥 4 ℎ= = = 0.25
𝑛 8

F = √1 + 9X 4
𝑖 𝑥𝑖 𝑓𝑖 = 𝑓(𝑥𝑖 ) = √1 + 9𝑥𝑖4
0 0.00 1.0000
1 0.25 1.0174
2 0.50 1.2500
3 0.75 1.9615
4 1.00 3.1623
5 1.25 4.7930
6 1.50 6.8237
7 1.75 9.2418
8 2.00 12.0416
Total 13.0416 28.2497
2
𝐼 = ∫ √1 + 9𝑥 4 𝑑𝑥
0
2
= ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
0
ℎ
≈ [(𝑓 + 𝑓8 ) + 2(𝑓1 + 𝑓2 + 𝑓3 + 𝑓4 + 𝑓5 + 𝑓6 + 𝑓7 )]
2 0
0.25
= [13.0416 + 2(28.2497)]
2
= 8.6926
A17KA0105
(b) Simpson’s rule with n = 0.8
F = √1 + 9X 4
𝑖 𝑥𝑖 𝑓𝑖 = 𝑓(𝑥𝑖 ) = √1 + 9𝑥𝑖4
0 0.00 1.0000
1 0.25 1.0174
2 0.50 1.2500
3 0.75 1.9615
4 1.00 3.1623
5 1.25 4.7930
6 1.50 6.8237
7 1.75 9.2418
8 2.00 12.0416
Total 13.0416 17.0137 11.2360
2
𝐼 = ∫ √1 + 9𝑥 4 𝑑𝑥
0
2
= ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
0
ℎ
≈ [(𝑓 + 𝑓8 ) + 4(𝑓1 + 𝑓3 + 𝑓5 + 𝑓7 ) + 2(𝑓2 + 𝑓4 + 𝑓6 )]
3 0
0.25
= [13.0416 + 4(17.0137) + 2(11.2360)]
3
= 8.6285
A17KA0105
7. Approximate the arc length of the curve described by the function 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 , 0 < 𝑥 < 2 , the
length is given by
2
∫ √1 + 𝑒 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
𝑏−𝑎 2−0
𝑓(𝑥) = √1 + 𝑒 2𝑥 𝑛= = = 10
ℎ 0.2

F = √1 + 𝑒 2X
𝑖 𝑥𝑖 𝑓𝑖 = 𝑓(𝑥𝑖 ) = √1 + 𝑒 2𝑥𝑖
0 0.0 1.4142
1 0.2 1.5786
2 0.4 1.7960
3 0.6 2.0785
4 0.8 2.4399
5 1.0 2.8964
6 1.2 3.4674
7 1.4 4.1767
8 1.6 5.0530
9 1.8 6.1317
10 2.00 7.4564
Total 8.8706 29.6182
2
𝐼 = ∫ √1 + 𝑒 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
2
= ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
0
ℎ
≈ [(𝑓 + 𝑓10 ) + 2(𝑓1 + 𝑓2 + 𝑓3 + 𝑓4 + 𝑓5 + 𝑓6 + 𝑓7 + 𝑓8 + 𝑓9 )]
2 0
0.2
= [8.8706 + 2(29.6182)]
2
= 6.8107
A17KA0105
(b) Simpson’s rule with h = 0.25
𝑏−𝑎 2−0
𝑓(𝑥) = √1 + 𝑒 2𝑥 𝑛= = =8
ℎ 0.25
F = √1 + 𝑒 2X
𝑖 𝑥𝑖 𝑓𝑖 = 𝑓(𝑥𝑖 ) = √1 + 𝑒 2𝑥𝑖
0 0.00 1.4142
1 0.25 1.6275
2 0.50 1.9283
3 0.75 2.3413
4 1.00 2.8964
5 1.25 3.6308
6 1.50 4.5919
7 1.75 5.8408
8 2.00 7.4564
Total 8.8706 13.4404 9.4166
2
𝐼 = ∫ √1 + 𝑒 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
2
= ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
0
ℎ
≈ [(𝑓 + 𝑓8 ) + 4(𝑓1 + 𝑓3 + 𝑓5 + 𝑓7 ) + 2(𝑓2 + 𝑓4 + 𝑓6 )]
3 0
0.25
= [8.8706 + 4(13.4404) + 2(9.4166)]
3
= 6.7888
A17KA0105
8. The solid of revolution obtained by rotating the region under the curve
𝑥 2
𝑦 = 1+( ) , 1≤ 𝑥 ≤2
2
about the x-axis has volume are given by
2
𝑥 2 2
𝐼 = ∫ 𝜋 [1 + ( ) ] 𝑑𝑥
1 2
Approximate the value of 𝐼 using
𝑥 2 2 𝑏−𝑎 2−1
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝜋 [1 + ( ) ] ℎ= = = 0.125
2 𝑛 8

2
X 2
F = 𝜋 [1 + ( ) ]
2
𝑥𝑖 2 2
𝑖 𝑥𝑖 𝑓𝑖 = 𝑓(𝑥𝑖 ) = 𝜋 [1 + ( ) ]
2
0 1.000 4.9087
1 1.125 5.4441
2 1.250 6.0753
3 1.375 6.8132
4 1.500 7.6699
5 1.625 8.6586
6 1.750 9.7937
7 1.875 11.0907
8 2.000 12.5664
Total 17.4751 55.5455
2
𝑥 2 2
𝐼 = ∫ 𝜋 [1 + ( ) ] 𝑑𝑥
1 2
2
= ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
1
ℎ
≈ [(𝑓 + 𝑓8 ) + 2(𝑓1 + 𝑓2 + 𝑓3 + 𝑓4 + 𝑓5 + 𝑓6 + 𝑓7 )]
2 0
0.125
= [17.4751 + 2(55.5455)]
2
= 8.0354
A17KA0105
2
X 2
F = 𝜋 [1 + ( ) ]
2
𝑥𝑖 2 2
𝑖 𝑥𝑖 𝑓𝑖 = 𝑓(𝑥𝑖 ) = 𝜋 [1 + ( ) ]
2
0 1.000 4.9087
1 1.125 5.4441
2 1.250 6.0753
3 1.375 6.8132
4 1.500 7.6699
5 1.625 8.6586
6 1.750 9.7937
7 1.875 11.0907
8 2.000 12.5664
Total 17.4751 32.0066 23.5389
2
𝑥 2 2
𝐼 = ∫ 𝜋 [1 + ( ) ] 𝑑𝑥
1 2
2
= ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
1
ℎ
≈ [(𝑓 + 𝑓8 ) + 4(𝑓1 + 𝑓3 + 𝑓5 + 𝑓7 ) + 2(𝑓2 + 𝑓4 + 𝑓6 )]
3 0
0.125
= [17.4751 + 4(32.0066) + 2(23.5389)]
3
= 8.0241
A17KA0105
9. You are an Architect and plan to build parabolic exist where their equation is given by
𝑦 = 0.1𝑥(30 − 𝑥) meter
Where 𝑦 is the height and 𝑥 in meter. Approximate the length of curve, L, given by
30
𝑑𝑦 2
𝐿 = ∫ √1 + ( ) 𝑑𝑥
0 𝑑𝑥
Using
𝑏 − 𝑎 30 − 0
𝑓(𝑥) = √1 + (3 − 0.2𝑥)2 ℎ= = =3
𝑛 10
(a) Simpson’s rule with n = 10
F = √1 + (3 − 0.2X)2
𝑖 𝑥𝑖 𝑓𝑖 = 𝑓(𝑥𝑖 ) = √1 + (3 − 0.2𝑥𝑖 )2
0 0 3.1623
1 3 2.6000
2 6 2.0591
3 9 1.5620
4 12 1.1662
5 15 1.0000
6 18 1.1662
7 21 1.5620
8 24 2.0591
9 27 2.6000
10 30 3.1623
Total 6.3246 9.3240 6.4506
30
𝐼 = ∫ √1 + (3 − 0.2𝑥)2 𝑑𝑥
0
30
= ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
0
ℎ
≈ [(𝑓 + 𝑓10 ) + 4(𝑓1 + 𝑓3 + 𝑓5 + 𝑓7 + 𝑓9 ) + 2(𝑓2 + 𝑓4 + 𝑓6 + 𝑓8 )]
3 0
3
= [6.3246 + 4(9.3240) + 2(6.4506)]
3
= 56.5218
A17KA0105
10. Values of function 𝑓(𝑥) is given by the following table
𝑥 𝑓(𝑥)
0 0.0000
0.1 2.1220
0.2 3.0244
0.3 3.2568
0.4 3.1399
0.5 2.8579
0.6 2.5140
0.7 2.1639
0.8 1.8358
0.8
Evaluate ∫0 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 using
(a) Trapezoidal rule ; n=8 ; h = 0.1

0.8
𝐼 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
0
ℎ
≈ [(𝑓 + 𝑓8 ) + 2(𝑓1 + 𝑓2 + 𝑓3 + 𝑓4 + 𝑓5 + 𝑓6 + 𝑓7 )]
2 0
0.1
= [1.8358 + 2(19.0789)]
2
= 1.9997
(b) Simpson’s rule ; n=8 ; h = 0.1

0.8
= ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
0
ℎ
≈ [(𝑓 + 𝑓8 ) + 4(𝑓1 + 𝑓3 + 𝑓5 + 𝑓7 ) + 2(𝑓2 + 𝑓4 + 𝑓6 )]
3 0
0.1
= [1.8358 + 4(10.4006) + 2(8.6783)]
3
= 2.0265
A17KA0105
GAUSSIAN QUADRATURE
The interval [a , b] can be transferred to interval [1 , -1] using transformation
(𝑏 − 𝑎)𝑡 + (𝑏 + 𝑎)
𝑥=
2
𝑥 = 𝑎 → 𝑡 = −1 dx 𝑏 − 𝑎
and then { and =
𝑥=𝑏 → 𝑡=1 dt 2
2-POINT GAUSS QUADRATURE
1
1 1
∫ 𝑔(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑔 (− )+𝑔( )
−1 √3 √3
3-POINT GAUSS QUADRATURE
1
5 3 8 5 3
∫ 𝑔(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑔 (−√ ) + 𝑔(0) + 𝑔 (√ )
−1 9 5 9 9 5
A17KA0105
***Exercise 6.2
Evaluate the given integration using the method proposed. Show all calculation in 4 DP.
1
2
1. ∫ 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
(𝑏 − 𝑎)𝑡 + (𝑏 + 𝑎) (1 − 0)𝑡 + (1 + 0) 𝑡 + 1
𝑥= = =
2 2 2
𝑥 = 𝑎 = 0 → 𝑡 = −1 dx 𝑏 − 𝑎 1 − 0 1
and then { and = = =
𝑥=𝑏=1 → 𝑡=1 dt 2 2 2
1
2
then 𝐼 = ∫ 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
1 𝑡+1 2
−( ) 1
=∫ 𝑒 2 ( ) 𝑑𝑡
−1 2
1 1 −(
𝑡+1 2
)
= ∫ 𝑔(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 , where 𝑔(𝑡) = 𝑒 2
2 −1
(a) Gaussian 2-points

1 1 1
𝐼 = [𝑔 (− ) + 𝑔 ( )]
2 √3 √3
1
= [0.9563 + 0.5369]
2
= 0.7466
(b) Gaussian 3-points
1 5 3 8 5 3
𝐼 = [ 𝑔 (−√ ) + 𝑔(0) + 𝑔 (√ )]
2 9 5 9 9 5
1 5 8 5
= [ (0.9874) + (0.7788) + (0.4551)]
2 9 9 9
= 0.7468
A17KA0105
2
2𝑥
2. ∫ 𝑒 −cos 𝑑𝑥
0
(𝑏 − 𝑎)𝑡 + (𝑏 + 𝑎) (2 − 0)𝑡 + (2 + 0) 2𝑡 + 2
𝑥= = = =𝑡+1
2 2 2
𝑥 = 𝑎 = 0 → 𝑡 = −1 dx 𝑏 − 𝑎 2 − 0
and then { and = = =1
𝑥=𝑏=2 → 𝑡=1 dt 2 2
2
2𝑥
then 𝐼 = ∫ 𝑒 −cos 𝑑𝑥
0
1
2 (𝑡+1)
= ∫ 𝑒 −cos 𝑑𝑡
−1
1
2 (𝑡+1)
= ∫ 𝑔(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 , where 𝑔(𝑡) = 𝑒 −cos
−1

1 1
𝐼 = 𝑔 (− )+𝑔( )
√3 √3
= 0.4353 + 1.0000
= 1.4353
5 3 8 5 3
𝐼 = 𝑔 (−√ ) + 𝑔(0) + 𝑔 (√ )
9 5 9 9 5
5 8 5
= (0.3867) + (0.7468) + (0.9599)
9 9 9
= 1.4119
A17KA0105
2
2
3. ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑒 −x 𝑑𝑥
0
(𝑏 − 𝑎)𝑡 + (𝑏 + 𝑎) (2 − 0)𝑡 + (2 + 0) 2𝑡 + 2
𝑥= = = =𝑡+1
2 2 2
𝑥 = 𝑎 = 0 → 𝑡 = −1 dx 𝑏 − 𝑎 2 − 0
𝑥=𝑏=2 → 𝑡=1 dt 2 2
2
2
then 𝐼 = ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑒 −x 𝑑𝑥
0
1
2
= ∫ (𝑡 + 1)2 𝑒 −(t+1) 𝑑𝑡
−1
1
2
= ∫ 𝑔(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 , where 𝑔(𝑡) = (𝑡 + 1)2 𝑒 −(t+1)
−1

1 1
𝐼 = 𝑔 (− )+𝑔( )
√3 √3
= 0.1494 + 0.2067
= 0.3561
5 3 8 5 3
𝐼 = 𝑔 (−√ ) + 𝑔(0) + 𝑔 (√ )
9 5 9 9 5
5 8 5
= (0.0483) + (0.3679) + (0.1351)
9 9 9
= 0.4289
A17KA0105
3
4. ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 sin(x) 𝑑𝑥
1
(𝑏 − 𝑎)𝑡 + (𝑏 + 𝑎) (3 − 1)𝑡 + (3 + 1) 2𝑡 + 4
𝑥= = = =𝑡+2
2 2 2
𝑥 = 𝑎 = 1 → 𝑡 = −1 dx 𝑏 − 𝑎 3 − 1
𝑥=𝑏=3 → 𝑡=1 dt 2 2
3
then 𝐼 = ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 sin(x) 𝑑𝑥
1
1
= ∫ 𝑒 (𝑡+2) sin(𝑡 + 2) 𝑑𝑡
−1
1
= ∫ 𝑔(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 , where 𝑔(𝑡) = 𝑒 (𝑡+2) sin(𝑡 + 2)
−1

1 1
𝐼 = 𝑔 (− )+𝑔( )
√3 √3
= 4.1027 + 7.0388
= 11.1415
5 3 8 5 3
𝐼 = 𝑔 (−√ ) + 𝑔(0) + 𝑔 (√ )
9 5 9 9 5
5 8 5
= (3.2044) + (6.7188) + (5.7525)
9 9 9
= 10.9483
A17KA0105
2
5. ∫ √𝑥 3 − 1 𝑑𝑥
1
(𝑏 − 𝑎)𝑡 + (𝑏 + 𝑎) (2 − 1)𝑡 + (2 + 1) 𝑡 + 3
𝑥= = =
2 2 2
𝑥 = 𝑎 = 1 → 𝑡 = −1 dx 𝑏 − 𝑎 2 − 1 1
and then { and = = =
𝑥=𝑏=2 → 𝑡=1 dt 2 2 2
2
then 𝐼 = ∫ √𝑥 3 − 1 𝑑𝑥
1
1
𝑡+3 3 1
= ∫ √( ) − 1 ( ) 𝑑𝑡
−1 2 2
1 1 𝑡+3 3
= ∫ 𝑔(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 , where 𝑔(𝑡) = √( ) −1
2 −1 2
1 1 1
𝐼= [𝑔 (− ) + 𝑔 ( )]
2 √3 √3
1
= [0.8817 + 2.1732]
2
= 1.5275
1 5 3 8 5 3
𝐼 = [ 𝑔 (−√ ) + 𝑔(0) + 𝑔 (√ )]
2 9 5 9 9 5
1 5 8 5
= [ (0.6145) + (1.5411) + (2.3921)]
2 9 9 9
= 1.5201
A17KA0105
4
6. ∫ √𝑥 2 − 4 𝑑𝑥
2
(𝑏 − 𝑎)𝑡 + (𝑏 + 𝑎) (4 − 2)𝑡 + (4 + 2) 2𝑡 + 6
𝑥= = = =𝑡+3
2 2 2
𝑥 = 𝑎 = 2 → 𝑡 = −1 dx 𝑏 − 𝑎 4 − 2
𝑥=𝑏=4 → 𝑡=1 dt 2 2
4
then 𝐼 = ∫ √𝑥 2 − 4 𝑑𝑥
2
1
= ∫ √(𝑡 + 3)2 − 4 𝑑𝑡
−1
1
= ∫ 𝑔(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 , where 𝑔(𝑡) = √(𝑡 + 3)2 − 4
−1

1 1
𝐼 = 𝑔 (− )+𝑔( )
√3 √3
= 1.3672 + 2.9660
= 4.3332
5 3 8 5 3
𝐼 = 𝑔 (−√ ) + 𝑔(0) + 𝑔 (√ )
9 5 9 9 5
5 8 5
= (0.9759) + (2.2361) + (3.2012)
9 9 9
= 4.3083
A17KA0105
2
sin 𝑡
7. ∫ 𝑑𝑡
0 𝑡
(𝑏 − 𝑎)𝑥 + (𝑏 + 𝑎) (2 − 0)𝑥 + (2 + 0) 2𝑥 + 2
𝑡= = = =𝑥+1
2 2 2
𝑡 = 𝑎 = 0 → 𝑥 = −1 dt 𝑏 − 𝑎 2 − 0
𝑡=𝑏=2 → 𝑥=1 dx 2 2
2
sin 𝑡
then 𝐼=∫ 𝑑𝑡
0 𝑡
1
sin(𝑥 + 1)
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
−1 𝑥+1
1
sin(𝑥 + 1)
= ∫ 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 , where 𝑔(𝑥) =
−1 𝑥+1

1 1
𝐼 = 𝑔 (− )+𝑔( )
√3 √3
= 0.9705 + 0.6340
= 1.6045
5 3 8 5 3
𝐼 = 𝑔 (−√ ) + 𝑔(0) + 𝑔 (√ )
9 5 9 9 5
5 8 5
= (0.9916) + (0.8415) + (0.5518)
9 9 9
= 1.6054
A17KA0105
POWER METHOD
***Exercise 7.1
Find the dominant eigenvalue 𝜆1 and corresponding eigenvector 𝐯1 of the following

matrix 𝐴 using power method. Show the calculation in two decimal places (2 DP) and use
𝜀 = 0.05.
4 1 2
1. 𝐴 = (1 0 1) , 𝐯 (0) = (1 , 1 , 1)𝑇
2 1 2
The power method formula,
1
𝐯 (𝑘+1) = 𝐴𝐯 (𝑘) , 𝑘 = 0, 1, 2, …
𝑚𝑘+1
Where 𝑚𝑘+1 is the largest absolute value component of 𝐴𝐯 (𝑘) .
𝑘 (𝐯 (𝑘) )𝑇 (𝐴𝐯 (𝑘) )𝑇 𝑚𝑘+1
0 1 1 1 7.00 2.00 4.00 7.00

1 1.00 0.29 0.57 5.43 1.57 2.86 5.43
2 1.00 0.29 0.53 5.34 1.53 2.82 5.34
3 1.00 0.29 0.53 5.34 1.53 2.81 5.34
4 1.00 0.29 0.53
Stop the iteration when |𝑚4 − 𝑚3 | = |5.34 − 5.34| = 0.00 < 𝜀 = 0.05
Therefore,
𝜆1 ≈ 𝑚4 = 5.34
𝐯1 ≈ 𝐯 (4) = (1.00 , 0.29 , 0.53)𝑇

A17KA0105
2 1 1
2. 𝐴 = (1 3 2) , 𝐯 (0) = (1 , 0 , 1)𝑇
1 2 5
1
𝐯 (𝑘+1) = 𝐴𝐯 (𝑘) , 𝑘 = 0, 1, 2, …
𝑚𝑘+1
𝑘 (𝐯 (𝑘) )𝑇 (𝐴𝐯 (𝑘) )𝑇 𝑚𝑘+1
0 1 0 1 3.00 3.00 6.00 6.00

1 0.50 0.50 1.00 2.50 4.00 6.50 6.50
2 0.38 0.62 1.00 2.38 4.23 6.62 6.62
3 0.36 0.64 1.00 2.36 4.28 6.63 6.63
4 0.36 0.64 1.00
Therefore,
𝜆1 ≈ 𝑚4 = 6.63
𝐯1 ≈ 𝐯 (4) = (0.36 , 0.64 , 1.00)𝑇

A17KA0105
3 1 1
3. 𝐴 = (1 1 4) , 𝐯 (0) = (1 , 1 , 1)𝑇
1 4 1
1
𝐯 (𝑘+1) = 𝐴𝐯 (𝑘) , 𝑘 = 0, 1, 2, …
𝑚𝑘+1
𝑘 (𝐯 (𝑘) )𝑇 (𝐴𝐯 (𝑘) )𝑇 𝑚𝑘+1
0 1 1 1 5.00 6.00 6.00 6.00

1 0.83 1.00 1.00 4.50 5.83 5.83 5.83
2 0.77 1.00 1.00 4.32 5.77 5.77 5.77
3 0.75 1.00 1.00 4.25 5.75 5.75 5.75
4 0.74 1.00 1.00
Therefore,
𝜆1 ≈ 𝑚4 = 5.75
𝐯1 ≈ 𝐯 (4) = (0.74 , 1.00 , 1.00)𝑇

A17KA0105
1 2 0
4. 𝐴 = (2 3 1) , 𝐯 (0) = (0 , 1 , 0)𝑇
0 1 1
1
𝐯 (𝑘+1) = 𝐴𝐯 (𝑘) , 𝑘 = 0, 1, 2, …
𝑚𝑘+1
𝑘 (𝐯 (𝑘) )𝑇 (𝐴𝐯 (𝑘) )𝑇 𝑚𝑘+1
0 0 1 0 2.00 3.00 1.00 3.00

1 0.67 1.00 0.33 2.67 4.67 1.33 4.67
2 0.57 1.00 0.29 2.57 4.43 1.28 4.43
3 0.58 1.00 0.29 2.58 4.45 1.29 4.45
4 0.58 1.00 0.29
Therefore,
𝜆1 ≈ 𝑚4 = 4.45
𝐯1 ≈ 𝐯 (4) = (0.58 , 1.00 , 0.29)𝑇

A17KA0105
1 2 3
5. 𝐴 = (2 1 3) , 𝐯 (0) = (1 , 1 , 0)𝑇
3 3 −1
1
𝐯 (𝑘+1) = 𝐴𝐯 (𝑘) , 𝑘 = 0, 1, 2, …
𝑚𝑘+1
𝑘 (𝐯 (𝑘) )𝑇 (𝐴𝐯 (𝑘) )𝑇 𝑚𝑘+1
0 1 1 0 3.00 3.00 6.00 6.00

1 0.50 0.50 1.00 4.50 4.50 2.00 4.50
2 1.00 1.00 0.44 4.33 4.33 5.56 5.56
3 0.78 0.78 1.00 5.34 5.34 3.68 5.34
4 1.00 1.00 0.69 5.06 5.06 5.31 5.31
5 0.95 0.95 1.00
Therefore,
𝜆1 ≈ 𝑚5 = 5.31
𝐯1 ≈ 𝐯 (5) = (0.95 , 0.95 , 1.00)𝑇

A17KA0105
SHIFTED POWER METHOD

***Exercise 7.2
1. Find the dominant eigenvalue 𝜆1 and corresponding eigenvector 𝐯1 of the following matrix
𝐴 using shift power method with shifting factor 𝑝. Show the calculation in two decimal
places (2 DP) and use 𝜀 = 0.05.
3 0 1
(a) 𝐴 = (0 3 2) , 𝐯 (0) = (0 , 0 , 1)𝑇 , 𝑝=1
1 2 3
𝐵 = 𝐴 − 𝑝𝐼 = 𝐴 − (1.00)𝐼
3 0 1 1 0 0
= (0 3 2) − 1.00 (0 1 0)
1 2 3 0 0 1
2 0 1
= (0 2 2)
1 2 2
Let the dominant of eigenvalue of B is 𝜆𝐵
1
𝐯 (𝑘+1) = 𝐵𝐯 (𝑘) , 𝑘 = 0, 1, 2, …
𝑚𝑘+1
Where 𝑚𝑘+1 is the largest absolute value component of 𝐵𝐯 (𝑘) .
𝑘 (𝐯 (𝑘) )𝑇 (𝐵𝐯 (𝑘) )𝑇 𝑚𝑘+1
0 0 0 1 1.00 2.00 2.00 2.00

1 0.50 1.00 1.00 2.00 4.00 4.50 4.50
2 0.44 0.89 1.00 1.89 3.78 4.22 4.22
3 0.45 0.90 1.00 1.90 3.79 4.24 4.24
4 0.45 0.89 1.00
Therefore,
𝜆1 = 𝜆𝐵 + 𝑝 = 4.24 + 1.00 = 5.24
𝐯1 ≈ 𝐯 (4) = (0.45 , 0.89 , 1.00)𝑇

A17KA0105
3 −1 0
(b) 𝐴 = (−2 6 −2) , 𝐯 (0) = (0 , 1 , 0)𝑇 , 𝑝=2
0 −1 3
𝐵 = 𝐴 − 𝑝𝐼 = 𝐴 − (2.00)𝐼
3 −1 0 1 0 0
= (−2 6 −2) − 2.00 (0 1 0)
0 −1 3 0 0 1
1 −1 0
= (−2 4 −2)
0 −1 1
Let the dominant of eigenvalue of B is 𝜆𝐵
1
𝐯 (𝑘+1) = 𝐵𝐯 (𝑘) , 𝑘 = 0, 1, 2, …
𝑚𝑘+1
Where 𝑚𝑘+1 is the largest absolute value component of 𝐵𝐯 (𝑘) .
𝑘 (𝐯 (𝑘) )𝑇 (𝐵𝐯 (𝑘) )𝑇 𝑚𝑘+1
0 0 1 0 -1.00 4.00 -1.00 4.00

1 -0.25 1.00 -0.25 -1.25 5.00 -1.25 5.00
2 -0.25 1.00 -0.25 -1.25 5.00 -1.25 5.00
3 -0.25 1.00 -0.25
Therefore,
𝜆1 = 𝜆𝐵 + 𝑝 = 5.00 + 2.00 = 7.00
𝐯1 ≈ 𝐯 (3) = (−0.25 , 1.00 , −0.25)𝑇

A17KA0105
2. All the eigenvalues of the following matrix 𝐴 are in same sign with |𝜆1 | > |𝜆2 | > |𝜆3 |. Find
the smallest eigenvalue in modulus 𝜆3 and corresponding eigenvector 𝐯3 of the following
matrix 𝐴 by shifted power method starting with 𝐯 (0) and using shifting factor 𝑝 = 𝜆1.
Hence, find eigenvalue 𝜆2 . Show the calculation in two decimal places (2 DP) and use
𝜀 = 0.05.
2 1 1
(a) 𝐴 = (1 3 2) , 𝐯 (0) = (1 , 0 , 1)𝑇 , 𝜆1 = 6.63 let 𝑝 = 𝜆1 = 6.63
1 2 5
𝐵 = 𝐴 − 𝑝𝐼 = 𝐴 − (6.63)𝐼
2 1 1 1 0 0
= (1 3 2) − 6.63 (0 1 0)
1 2 5 0 0 1
−4.63 1 1
=( 1 −3.63 2 )
1 2 −1.63
Let the dominant of eigenvalue of B is 𝜆1𝐵
𝑘 (𝐯 (𝑘) )𝑇 (𝐵𝐯 (𝑘) )𝑇 𝑚𝑘+1
0 1 0 1 -3.63 3.00 -0.63 -3.63

1 1.00 -0.83 0.17 -5.28 4.35 -0.94 -5.28
2 1.00 -0.82 0.18 -5.28 4.34 -0.93 -5.28
3 1.00 -0.82 0.18
Stop the iteration when |𝑚3 − 𝑚2 | = |−5.28 + 5.28| = 0.00 < 𝜀 = 0.05
Therefore,
𝜆1𝐵 = 𝑚3 = −5.28
But 𝜆1𝐵 = 𝜆3 − 𝜆1 → 𝜆3 = 𝜆1 + 𝜆1𝐵
= 6.63 + (−5.28)
= 1.35
𝐯1 ≈ 𝐯 (3) = (1.00 , −0.82 , 0.18)𝑇
𝜆1 + 𝜆2 + 𝜆3 = trace(𝐴)
6.63 + 𝜆2 + 1.35 = 2 + 3 + 5
𝜆2 = 2.02
A17KA0105
2 1 1
(b) 𝐴 = (1 6 4) , 𝐯 (0) = (0 , 1 , 1)𝑇 , 𝜆1 = 10.76 let 𝑝 = 𝜆1 = 10.76
1 4 7
𝐵 = 𝐴 − 𝑝𝐼 = 𝐴 − (10.76)𝐼
2 1 1 1 0 0
= (1 6 4) − 10.76 (0 1 0)
1 4 7 0 0 1
−8.76 1 1
=( 1 −4.76 4 )
1 4 −3.76
𝑘 (𝐯 (𝑘) )𝑇 (𝐵𝐯 (𝑘) )𝑇 𝑚𝑘+1
0 0 1 1 2.00 -0.76 0.24 2.00

1 1.00 -0.38 0.12 -9.02 3.29 -0.97 -9.02
2 1.00 -0.36 0.11 -9.02 3.17 -0.86 -9.02
3 1.00 -0.35 0.10
Therefore,
𝜆1𝐵 = 𝑚3 = −9.02
But 𝜆1𝐵 = 𝜆3 − 𝜆1 → 𝜆3 = 𝜆1 + 𝜆1𝐵
= 10.76 + (−9.02)
= 1.74
𝐯1 ≈ 𝐯 (3) = (1.00 , −0.35 , 0.10)𝑇
𝜆1 + 𝜆2 + 𝜆3 = trace(𝐴)
10.76 + 𝜆2 + 1.74 = 2 + 6 + 7
𝜆2 = 2.50
A17KA0105
4 2 −1
(c) 𝐴 = ( 2 3 1 ) , 𝐯 (0) = (0 , −1 , 1)𝑇 , 𝜆1 = 5.50 let 𝑝 = 𝜆1 = 5.50
−1 1 2
𝐵 = 𝐴 − 𝑝𝐼 = 𝐴 − (5.50)𝐼
4 2 −1 1 0 0
= ( 2 3 1 ) − 5.50 (0 1 0)
−1 1 2 0 0 1
−1.5 2 −1
=( 2 −2.5 1 )
−1 1 −3.5
𝑘 (𝐯 (𝑘) )𝑇 (𝐵𝐯 (𝑘) )𝑇 𝑚𝑘+1
0 0 -1 1 -3.00 3.50 -4.50 -4.50

1 0.67 -0.78 1.00 -3.56 4.28 -4.94 -4.94
2 0.72 -0.87 1.00 -3.81 4.61 -5.09 -5.09
3 0.75 -0.90 1.00 -3.93 4.76 -5.15 -5.15
4 0.76 -0.92 1.00 -3.99 4.84 -5.19 -5.19
5 0.77 -0.93 1.00
Therefore,
𝜆1𝐵 = 𝑚5 = −5.19
But 𝜆1𝐵 = 𝜆3 − 𝜆1 → 𝜆3 = 𝜆1 + 𝜆1𝐵
= 5.50 + (−5.19)
= 0.31
𝐯1 ≈ 𝐯 (4) = (0.77 , −0.93 , 1.00)𝑇
𝜆1 + 𝜆2 + 𝜆3 = trace(𝐴)
5.50 + 𝜆2 + 0.31 = 4 + 3 + 2
𝜆2 = 3.19

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MUHAMMAD MUSA BIN YUSOF

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