E233 – Thermofluids

P07

Steam Power Cycle

E233 Thermofluid, School of Engineering

 Understanding the Heating Process
When a kettle filled with water is placed on a burner, sensible heat
begins to heat the water. The energy added to the water raises its
internal energy and its temperature. When the water reaches 100°C,
the temperature of the water no longer rises as latent heat begins to
change it from a liquid to a vapour. The mass inside the kettle is slowly
changing from a (100% water-0% steam) mixture into a (0% water-
100% steam) mixture. If we add only 60% the necessary latent heat,
then only 60% the water will boil into steam. The result would be a
(40% water-60% steam) mixture at 100°C. If we add all the latent heat
necessary, s then the water at 100°C changes completely into steam at
100°C. Continuing to add heat to the 100°C steam results in a further
temperature increase and the steam becomes superheated.

E233 Thermofluid, School of Engineering

 The Heating Process
Now, consider an amount of water initially at p=1atm and 20oC
is contained inside a piston-cylinder device. It is then heated
progressively from state 1 to state 5.

E233 Thermofluid, School of Engineering

 Heating Process (cont’d)
When water is below the boiling point,
at state 1 at 20oC, the addition of heat
is seen as sensible heat. This water is
said to be a compressed liquid (or
subcooled liquid), from state 1 to state
2. When enough sensible heat is
added so that the temperature of the
water approaches saturation
temperature but no steam has yet
been formed, the water is said to be a
saturated liquid, state 2. The water
from state 1 to state 2 changes from
20oC to 100oC at constant pressure of
1 atm.
E233 Thermofluid, School of Engineering
 Heating Process (cont’d/1)
As the water is transformed
from a saturated liquid to
saturated steam, boiling is
occurring. As latent heat is
added, the temperature of the
water remains the same but
the saturated liquid is being
changed into a saturated
vapour. During this period the
water is referred to as a liquid-
vapour mixture. When
enough latent heat is added so
that all of the liquid is converted into vapour, the water becomes a saturated
vapour. Note that the saturated vapour is 100% vapour and exists at the
same temperature as the saturated liquid.
E233 Thermofluid, School of Engineering
 Heating Process (cont’d/2)
Above the saturated
vapour point at state 4,
vapour exists at a
temperature higher than
the saturation
temperature of 100oC.
This is the superheated
vapour region. At state 5,
the vapour is a
superheated vapour at 1
atm and 300oC.

E233 Thermofluid, School of Engineering

 Heating at Different Pressures

Repeat the heating process from state 1 to state 5 but at different pressures. A series of
lines 1-2-3-4-5 will be obtained. By plotting these lines on a T-v diagram, and by joining
the saturated liquid and saturated vapour points ( 2 & 4, respectively), a liquid-vapour
saturation curve is constructed.
E233 Thermofluid, School of Engineering
 Phase‐Change Processes

E233 Thermofluid, School of Engineering

 T‐v Diagram – Liquid‐Vapour Saturation Curve

E233 Thermofluid, School of Engineering

 T‐v Diagram & the Steam Tables

T=90oC P1=70.183 kPa

vf =0.001036 vg =2.3593 , m3/kg

E233 Thermofluid, School of Engineering

 Saturated Liquid and Vapour

E233 Thermofluid, School of Engineering

 Liquid‐Vapour Mixture

Assuming the fraction of

saturated vapour in the piston-
cylinder device is 40%. Then,
the dryness fraction x is 0.4, and
vavg is determined as follows:
v avg = v f + x ( v g - v f )
= 0.001036 + 0.4 ( 2.3593 - 0.001036 ) = 0.9443 m3 /kg
E233 Thermofluid, School of Engineering
 p‐V Diagram

The p-V diagram is similar to the T-v diagram

E233 Thermofluid, School of Engineering

 p‐V Diagram and its Properties
% of saturated vapour
x=
100% of liquid - vapour mixure
v avg - v f
=
v fg
v avg = v f + x ( v g - v f ) = v f + x ( v fg )
havg = hf + x ( h g - hf ) = hf + x ( hfg )
uavg = uf + x ( u g - uf ) = uf + x ( ufg )

E233 Thermofluid, School of Engineering

 Worked Examples 
A rigid tank contains 50 kg of saturated
liquid water at 90oC. Determine the pressure
in the tank
Ans: P=Psat@90=70.183 kPa

A piston-cylinder device contains 0.06 m3 of

saturated water vapor at 350 kPa pressure.
Determine the temperature
3 Ans: T=Tsat@350kPa=138.86K

E233 Thermofluid, School of Engineering

 More Worked Examples
A mass of 200 g of saturated water is
completely vaporised at a constant pressure
of 100 kPa. Determine the change in
volume
vf=0.001043, vg=1.6941v
vfg=vf – v9 =1.6931 m3/kg
Change in volume, ΔV=mvfg=0.3386 m3

A rigid tank contains 10 kg of water at 90oC.

If 8 kg of the water is in the liquid form and
the rest is in the vapor form, determine the
(a) the pressure in the tank, (b) dryness
fraction, and (c) the specific volumer of the
tank
(a) P=Psat=70.183 kPa, (b) x=(2/10)=0.2
(c) v=vf + xvfg =0.001036+0.2(2.3593-
0.001036)=0.473 m3/kg
E233 Thermofluid, School of Engineering
 Steam Power Plant

Steam
Generation & Electricity Cooling Water
Application Generation System & Heat
Transfer

Emission &
Heat Transfer

E233 Thermofluid, School of Engineering

 Steam Power Plant (cont’d)
Steam Generation & Application
n

Turbine
Steam
Generation & Boiler
Electricity Cooling Water
o b Cooling water
Application Generation System & Heat outlet
qTransfer Condenser
p a Cooling water
Feedwater inlet
Pump

Emission &
Heat Transfer

E233 Thermofluid, School of Engineering

 Prior Knowledge ‐ SFEE
Q Boundary
n
⎛ C12 ⎞ ⎛ C2 2 ⎞
⎜ h1 + + Z1g ⎟ + Q = ⎜ h2 + + Z2g ⎟ +W
Turbine
⎜
⎝ 2 X X ⎟
⎠
⎜
⎝
X X
2 ⎟
⎠
W
where h= (pv+u ) is the specific enthalpy
o
Since ΔKE and ΔPE can be neglected, (h1 ) + Q = (h2 ) +W
The expansion process is adiabatic and therefore Q = 0.
Hence, work output from the turbine is,
W12 = (h1-h2) ≠ cpg (T -T2)
for ideal gas
E233 Thermofluid, School of Engineering
 Temperature‐Entropy (T‐s) Diagram
The T-s diagram is more commonly used
to represent the Rankine cycle. Three
lines of constant pressure (isobars p1, p2
and p3) are shown, that is ABCD, EFGH
and JKLM. The pressure remain constant
with temperature when the latent heat is
added, hence the pressure lines are
horizontal in the wet region, that is
portions BC, FG and KL. The pressure
lines curve upwards in the superheat
region, that is portions CD GH and LM.

The entropy of the saturated liquid and the dry saturated vapour are
represented by sf and sg, respectively. The difference, sg – sf = sfg. For a wet
steam at 1 with dryness fraction χ, its entropy is:
s1 - sf distance F1
s1 = sf + χ sfg, then χ = =
sfg distance FG
E233 Thermofluid, School of Engineering
 T‐s Diagram – An Example
1 kg of steam at 7 bar, entropy 6.5 kJ/kgK, is heated reversibly at constant pressure until
the temperature is 250oC. Calculate (a) the heat supplied, (b) sketch the T-s diagram
and (C) on the T-s diagram shade the area which represents the heat flow. The following
values are provided:
sf=1.992 kJ/kgK, sfg=4.717 kJ/kgK, sg=6.709 kJ/kgK
hf=697 kJ/kgK, hfg=2067 kJ/kgK, h2=2955 kJ/kgK

s1 < sg , therefore steam is a wet vapour

s1 - sf 6.5 -1.992
χ= = = 0.956
sfg 4.717

h1 = hf + χ hfg = 697+ 0.956 ( 2067) = 2673 kJ.

At 7 bar & 250o C,steam is a superheated vapour.
Heat supplied, Q = m ( h2 - h1 ) = 1( 2955 - 2673) = 282 kJ
E233 Thermofluid, School of Engineering
 Ideal Cycle – the Rankine Cycle
T
n

Turbine
r n 5
Boiler
o b Cooling water
q outlet
q Condenser
o p
p a Cooling water
Feedwater inlet
s Pump

Path Process Analysis Remark

4-1 Heat is added at constant pressure to the boiler h4 + Q = h1 + W No work is done in the boiler,
to raise the feedwater at 4 to dry saturated steam Q41 =h1 – h4 W=0. p4=p5=p1
at 1
1-2 Dry saturated steam is expanded adiabatically & h1 + Q = h2 + W Adiabatic expansion, Q=0.
isentropically to wet steam at 2 in the turbine to W12 =h1 – h2 Isentropic expansion, s1=s2
produce work output

E233 Thermofluid, School of Engineering

 Rankine Cycle (cont’d)
T n

Turbine
n 5
r Boiler
o b Cooling water
outlet
q q Condenser
p a Cooling water
p o Feedwater inlet
s Pump

Path Process Analysis Remark

2-3 Exhaust wet steam is condensed at constant h2 + Q = h 3 + W No work is done in the
pressure to water in the condenser. Heat from Q23 =h3 – h2 condenser, W=0. p2=p3. Heat
the steam is removed by the circulating cooling gain by water is Q23=mwc(Tb –
water. Ta)
3-4 Condensed water at 3 is compressed h3 + Q = h4 + W Q=0 and s3=s4. W34<<W12
adiabatically & isentropically to boiler pressure at W34 =h3 – h4 and it is usually neglected.
4 by feedwater pump

E233 Thermofluid, School of Engineering

 Rankine Cycle Analysis
Net work output for the cycle is
Wnet = W12 - W34 = ( h1 - h2 ) - ( h4 - h3 )
= ( h1 - h2 ) if W34 is ignored
Heat supplied to the boiler is, Q 41 = ( h1 - h4 )
Rankine cycle efficiensy is,
Wnet ( h1 - h2 ) − ( h4 - h3 ) ( h1 - h2 ) − ( h4 - h3 )
ηR = = =
Q 41 ( h1 - h4 ) ( h1 - h3 ) − ( h4 - h3 )
=
( h1 - h2 )
if W34 is ignored
( h1 - h3 )
E233 Thermofluid, School of Engineering
 Rankine Cycle ‐ Superheating
T n n

Turbine

o b Cooling water
q outlet
q Condenser
o p
p a Cooling water
Feedwater inlet
s Pump

Path Process Analysis Remark

4-1 Heat is added at constant pressure to the boiler h4 + Q = h 1 + W No work is done in the boiler,
& superheater to raise the feedwater at 4 to Q41 =h1 – h4 W=0. p4=p1
superheated steam at 1
1-2 Superheated steam is expanded adiabatically & h1 + Q = h 2 + W Adiabatic expansion, Q=0.
isentropically in the turbine to dry saturated W12 =h1 – h2 Isentropic expansion, s1=s2
steam at 2 to produce work output

E233 Thermofluid, School of Engineering

 Rankine Cycle – Superheating (cont’d)
T
n n

Turbine

o b Cooling water
q outlet
q Condenser
o p
p a Cooling water
Feedwater inlet
s Pump
Path Process Analysis Remark

2-3 Exhaust dry saturated steam is condensed at h2 + Q = h3 + W No work is done in the

constant pressure to water in the condenser. Heat Q23 =h3 – h2 condenser, W=0. p2=p3. Heat
from the steam is removed by the circulating cooling gain by water is Q23=mwc(Tb –
water. Ta)
3-4 Condensed water at 3 is compressed adiabatically & h3 + Q = h4 + W Q=0 and s3=s4. W34<<W12 and it
isentropically to boiler pressure at 4 by the W34 =h3 – h4 is usually neglected.
feedwater pump.

E233 Thermofluid, School of Engineering

 Rankine Cycle ‐ Reheating
T
r n n
r s
HPT LPT
W56 W12
Boiler & o
Reheater b Cooling water
q outlet
s q Condenser
o p
p a Cooling water
Feedwater inlet
s Pump

Path Process Analysis Remark

4-5 Heat is added to the boiler at constant pressure to h4 + Q = h5 + W No work is done in the boiler,
raise the feedwater at 4 to superheated steam at Q45 =h5 – h4 W=0. p4=p5
5
5-6 Superheated steam is expanded adiabatically & h5 + Q = h6 + W Adiabatic expansion, Q=0.
isentropically in the high pressure turbine (HPT) to W56 =h5 – h6 Isentropic expansion, s5=s6
dry saturated steam at 6 to produce work output

E233 Thermofluid, School of Engineering

 Rankine Cycle – Reheating (cont’d)
Path Process Analysis Remark
6-1 Dry saturated steam at 6 is reheated at constant h6 + Q = h1 + W No work is done in the
pressure in the reheater to superheated steam at Q61 =h1 – h6 reheater, W=0. p6=p1
1
1-2 Superheated steam is expanded adiabatically & h1 + Q = h 2 + W Adiabatic expansion, Q=0.
isentropically in the low pressure turbine (LPT) to W12 =h1 – h2 Isentropic expansion, s1=s2
dry saturated steam at 2 to produce work output
2-3 Exhaust dry saturated steam at 2 is condensed h2 + Q = h3 + W No work is done in the
at constant pressure to water in the condenser.. Q23 =h3 – h2 condenser, W=0. p2=p3. Heat
Heat from the steam is removed by the gain by water is Q23=mwc(Tb
circulating cooling water. – Ta)
3-4 Condensed water at 3 is compressed h3 + Q = h4 + W Q=0 and s3=s4. W34<<(W56
adiabatically & isentropically to boiler pressure at W34 =h3 – h4 +W12) and it is usually
4 by the feedwater pump neglected.

E233 Thermofluid, School of Engineering

 Rankine Cycle Analysis
Net work output for the cycle is
Wnet = ( W56 + W12 ) - W34 = [( h5 - h6 ) + ( h1 - h2 )] - ( h 4 - h3 )
= [( h5 - h6 ) + ( h1 - h2 )] if W34 is ignored
Heat supplied to the boiler is, Q 41 = ( h5 - h 4 ) + ( h1 - h6 )
Rankine cycle efficiency is,
Wnet [( h - h6 ) + ( h1 - h2 )] - ( h 4 - h3 )
ηR = = 5

Q 41 (h 5
- h 4 ) + ( h1 - h6 )
[( h 5
- h6 ) + ( h1 - h2 )]
= if W34 is ignored
(h 5
- h3 ) + ( h1 - h6 )
E233 Thermofluid, School of Engineering
 Isentropic Efficiency ‐ Turbine
Irreversibility experienced by the working fluid is associated with the expansion
through the turbine and the compression in the feedwater pump.

Turbine: An actual adiabatic expansion through the turbine is accompanied by

an increase in entropy. The process path 1-2s becomes 1-2. The isentropic
turbine efficiency ηt,isen is used to account for the effect of irreversibility.

actual work output h1 - h2

ηt,isen = =
isentropic work output h1 - h 2s
E233 Thermofluid, School of Engineering
 Isentropic Efficiency ‐ Pump

Pump: An actual adiabatic compression in the feedwater pump is accompanied

by an increase in entropy. The process path 3-4s becomes 3-4. The isentropic
pump efficiency ηp,isen is used to account for the effect of irreversibility.

isentropic work intput h4s - h3

ηp,isen = =
actual work output h4 - h 3

E233 Thermofluid, School of Engineering

 Enthalpy‐Entropy (h‐s) Diagram
The h-s diagram is
also called the
Mollier diagram. It
is a very useful
chart for finding
steam properties.

Any pair of:

h, enthalpy
s, entropy
p, pressure
T, temperature
x, dryness fraction
will enable the other
properties to be read
off directly from the
h-s diagram..

E233 Thermofluid, School of Engineering

 Enthalpy‐Entropy (h‐s) Diagram
Calculate the cycle efficiency of a reheat plant. Steam conditions at inlet to HPT are 42 bar and
500oC. Steam is dry saturated on leaving the HPT and is reheated to 500oC. The condenser
pressure is 0.035 bar

T 500oCr n

42 bar

q s
0.035 bar

p o
s

E233 Thermofluid, School of Engineering

 h‐s Diagram –Worked Example (cont’d)
From h - s daigram, h5 =3440 kJ/kg, h6 =2710 kJ/kg
h1=3485 kJ/kg, h2 =2520 kJ/kg
h3 =112 kJ/kg (obtained from Steam Tables)
Wtotal = ( h5 -h6 ) + ( h1 -h2 ) = ( 3440-2710 ) - ( 3485-2520 )
=1695 kJ/kg
Q total = ( h5 -h3 ) + ( h1 -h6 ) = ( 3440-112 ) - ( 3485-2710 )
=4103 kJ/kg
Wtotal 1695
ηR = = =0.413 or 41.3%
Q total 4103

E233 Thermofluid, School of Engineering

 What Have You Learned?
1. Phase changes in heating process.
2. Representation of phase changes on
property diagrams; T-V, p-V and T-s
diagrams.
3. Evaluation of steam properties from
Steam Tables and h-s diagram.
4. Steam power plant and steam cycles
5. Ideal Rankine cycle; superheating and
reheating
6. Isentropic efficiency

E233 Thermofluid, School of Engineering