Experiments Reports of Solid State Physics

Ahmed Haider -B.Sc. student – Faculty of Science – Dept.
of Physics – Minia
Univ.
In The Name of Allah Most Gracious, Most Merciful
Solid State Physics lab
Experiments Reports
Prepared by
Ahmed Haider Ahmed Ibrahim

B.Sc. student – Faculty of Science – Dept. of
physics – Minia University
ahmedscience2020@yahoo.com
Under supervision
Prof. Dr. Adel Ashour

Assistant Prof. Hamida Ragab
Ahmed Haider -B.Sc. student – Faculty of Science – Dept. of Physics – Minia
Univ.
1- Solar Thermal Collector
Objectives;
- Study the effect of concave mirror to collect heat
- Compare between heat in air and in concave mirror
Equipment:-
Experimental solar source (have sun’s wavelengths) –
thermometer – concave surface - stop watch
Work:-
Put light source at determined distance
Every minute measure the temperature
Put concave surface at the same distance and repeat the
second step
Theory
A solar thermal collector is a solar collector designed to collect
heat by absorbing sunlight.
The term is applied to solar hot water panels, but may also be used
to denote more complex installations such as solar parabolic, solar
trough and solar towers or simpler installations such as solar air heat.
The more complex collectors are generally used in solar power

plants where solar heat is used to generate electricity by heating
water to produce steam which drives a turbine connected to an
electrical generator.
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The simpler collectors are typically used for supplemental space

heating in residential and commercial buildings.
A collector is a device for converting the energy in solar radiation

into a more usable or storable form. The energy in sunlight is in the
form of electromagnetic radiation from the infrared (long) to the
ultraviolet (short) wavelengths.
The solar energy striking the Earth's surface depends on weather

conditions, as well as location and orientation of the surface, but
overall, it averages about 1,000 watts per square meter under clear
skies with the surface directly perpendicular to the sun's rays.
Solar thermal collectors are divided into the categories of

low, medium and high temperature collectors:
Low temperature collectors

provide low-grade heat (less than 110 degrees Fahrenheit or
40 C),
through either metallic or nonmetallic absorbers and are used

in such applications as swimming pool heating and low-grade
water and space heating.
Medium-temperature collectors
provide medium-grade heat (greater than 40 C, usually 60 to 80
C)
either through glazed flat-plate collectors using air or liquid as the

heat transfer instrument or concentrator collectors that
concentrate the heat of incident insolation to greater than one sun
i.e. Natural solar insolation falling on an object without concentration or
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diffusion of the solar rays and are mainly used for domestic hot
water heating. Evacuated tube collectors are also included in this
category.
High-temperature collectors
They are parabolic dish or trough collectors designed to operate at
a temperature of 80 C or higher and are primarily used by utilities
and independent power producers to generate electricity for the
grid.
In the lab we study two cases :-
I-Air
Solar Air Heat collectors heat air directly, almost always for space
heating. They are also used for pre-heating make-up air in
commercial and industrial systems. They fall into two categories:
Glazed and Unglazed.
Glazed systems have a transparent top sheet as well as insulated

side and back panels to minimize heat loss to ambient air. The
absorber plates in modern panels can have an absorptivity of more
than 93%. Air typically passes along the front or back of the
absorber plate while scrubbing heat directly from it. Heated air can
then be distributed directly for applications such as space heating
and drying or may be stored for later use.
Unglazed systems, or transpired air systems, consist of an absorber

plate which air passes across or through as it scrubs heat from the
absorber. These systems are typically used for pre-heating make-up
air in commercial buildings.
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These technologies are among the most efficient, dependable, and

economical solar technologies available. Payback for glazed solar air
heating panels can be less than 9-15 years depending on the fuel
being replaced
II-Parabolic (concave) dish
Solar Parabolic (concave) dish
Definitions
- Concave mirror is spherical reflected surface
- The radius of curvature (r) is the distance between center of its
curvature and vertex
- Focus is the collected point of incident rays after reflecting from
surface of mirror
- Focal length (f) is the distance between vertex and focus
This is the most powerful type of collector which concentrates sunlight

at a single, focal point, via one or more parabolic dishes arranged in a
similar fashion to a reflecting telescope focuses starlight, or a dish
antenna focuses radio waves. This geometry may be used in solar
furnaces and solar power plants.
There are two key phenomena to understand in order to

comprehend the design of a parabolic dish :-
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One is that the shape of a parabola is defined such that incoming rays
which are parallel to the dish's axis will be reflected toward the focus, no
matter where on the dish they arrive.
The second key is that the light rays from the sun arriving at the
Earth's surface are almost completely parallel. So if dish can be aligned
with its axis pointing at the sun, almost all of the incoming radiation will
be reflected towards the focal point of the dish most losses are due to
imperfections in the parabolic shape and imperfect reflection.
Losses due to atmosphere between the dish and its focal point are
minimal, as the dish is generally designed specifically to be small enough
that this factor is insignificant on a clear, sunny day. Compare this
though with some other designs, and you will see that this could be an
important factor, and if the local weather is hazy, or foggy, it may reduce
the efficiency of a parabolic dish significantly.
In some power plant designs, a sterling engine coupled to a dynamo, is

placed at the focus of the dish, which absorbs the heat of the incident
solar radiation, and converts it into electricity.
Advantages
 Very high temperatures reached. High temperatures are suitable

for electricity generation using conventional methods like steam
turbine or some direct high temperature chemical reaction.
 Good efficiency. By concentrating sunlight current systems can get
better efficiency than simple solar cells.
 A larger area can be covered by using relatively inexpensive
mirrors rather than using expensive solar cells.
 Concentrated light can be redirected to a suitable location via
optical fiber cable. For example illuminating buildings.
Disadvantages
 Concentrating systems require sun tracking to maintain Sunlight

focus at the collector.
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 Inability to provide power in diffused light conditions. Solar Cells

are able to provide some output even if the sky becomes a little
bit cloudy, but power output from concentrating systems drop
drastically in cloudy conditions as diffused light cannot be
concentrated passively.
Observations
1- Air
-Room temperature is 34 C
-After 19 minutes the temperature is raise to 38
2- Parabolic surface
-Room temperature is 35 C
- After 18 minutes reached to 40
Conclusions
Concave mirror is high collected heat.
Results
Temp. Temp. Time
(C) (C) (min)
Mirror Air
35 34 0
37 34.3 1
38 34.9 2
39 35 3
39.1 35.3 4
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40 35.8 5
40.05 35.9 6
40.5 36.2 7
40.6 36.35 8
40.7 36.5 9
41 36.6 10
40.5 36.7 11
41.1 36.8 12
41.1 37 13
40.1 37.3 16
40 37.5 17
40 37.8 18
40 38 19
40 38 20
40 38 21
Graphing
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tem perature
42 D
O rig in P ro 8 E v a lu a tio n O rig inP ro 8 E v a lu a tio n
39 O rig in P ro 8 E v a lu a tio n O rig inP ro 8 E v a lu a tio n

temperature (C)
36
0 8 16
tim e (m in)
2- Solar cell
Objectives
Determine maximum Power.
Determine short circuit current.
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Determine open circuit voltage.
Determine Fill factor.
Determine effeciency.
Tools and Equipment

Solar cell – wires – resistors- ammeter - voltmeter
Used Circuits
V
Rs
Rsh
V
A
Fig (2)
mA
Fig (1)
Work
i - in Dark
solar cell act as Daiode.
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we connect circuit in fig (1)
change voltage from bettery and every time read the current and
volt.
Draw the relation between I on y-axis and V on x-axis .
Slope at the beginning of curve give Rs and slope of tangent of

curve give Rsh
ii - in lamination
connect circuit in fig (2)
Put light source at known distance (r).
Change resistor and every time read current and volt.
Draw relation between V on x-axis and I on y-axis.
From graph we get VOC , I sc and Pmax.
Change the distance and repeat the previous steps.
Introduction
A solar cell or photovoltaic cell is a device that converts
sunlight directly into electricity by the photovoltaic effect.
Sometimes the term solar cell is reserved for devices intended
specifically to capture energy from sunlight, while the term
photovoltaic cell is used when the light source is unspecified.
Assemblies of cells are used to make solar panels, solar
modules, or photovoltaic arrays. Photovoltaic is the field of
technology and research related to the application of solar cells
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in producing electricity for practical use. The energy generated

this way is an example of solar energy (also called solar power).
Generations of solar cells
Solar Cells are classified into three generations which

indicates the order of which each became important. At present
there is concurrent research into all three generations while the
first generation technologies are most highly represented in
commercial production, accounting for 89.6% of 2007
production.
i. First Generation
First generation cells consist of large-area, high quality and

single junction devices. First Generation technologies involve
high energy and labor inputs which prevent any significant
progress in reducing production costs.
ii. Second Generation
Second generation materials have been developed to address

energy requirements and production costs of solar cells.
Alternative manufacturing techniques such as vapour
deposition, electroplating, and use of Ultrasonic Nozzles are
advantageous as they reduce high temperature processing
significantly. The most successful second generation materials
have been cadmium telluride (CdTe), copper indium gallium
selenide, amorphous silicon and micro amorphous silicon.
iii. Third Generation
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Third generation technologies aim to enhance poor electrical

performance of second generation (thin-film technologies) while
maintaining very low production costs.
High efficiency cells
High efficiency solar cells are a class of solar cell that can
generate electricity at higher efficiencies than conventional solar
cells. While high efficiency solar cells are more efficient in
terms of electrical output per incident energy (watt/watt), much
of the industry is focused on the most cost efficient
technologies, i.e. cost-per-watt
Many businesses and academics are focused on increasing the

electrical efficiency of cells, and much development is focused
.on high efficiency solar cells
Applications and implementations
Polycrystalline PV cells
Solar cells are often electrically connected and encapsulated as a

module. PV modules often have a sheet of glass on the front
(sun up) side, allowing light to pass while protecting the
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semiconductor wafers from the elements (rain, hail, etc.). Solar

cells are also usually connected in series in modules, creating an
additive voltage. Connecting cells in parallel will yield a higher
current. Modules are then interconnected, in series or parallel, or
both, to create an array with the desired peak DC voltage and
current.
The power output of a solar array is measured in watts or

kilowatts. In order to calculate the typical energy needs of the
application, a measurement in watt-hours, kilowatt-hours or
kilowatt-hours per day is often used. A common rule of thumb is
that average power is equal to 20% of peak power, so that each
peak kilowatt of solar array output power corresponds to energy
production of 4.8 kWh per day (24 hours x 1kW x 20% = 4.8
kWh)
To make practical use of the solar-generated energy, the

electricity is most often fed into the electricity grid using
inverters (grid-connected PV systems); in stand alone systems,
batteries are used to store the energy that is not needed
immediately.
Solar cells can also be applied to other electronics devices to

make it self power sustainable in the sun. There are solar cell
phone chargers, solar bike light and solar camping lanterns that
people can adopt for daily use.
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Types of solar cells
1- Crystalline silicon
The most prevalent bulk material for solar cells is crystalline

silicon (abbreviated as a group as c-Si), also known as "solar
grade silicon". Bulk silicon is separated into multiple categories
according to crystallinity and crystal size in the resulting ingot,
ribbon, or wafer.
:i- monocrystalline silicon (c-Si)
often made using the Czochralski process. Single-crystal

wafer cells tend to be expensive, and because they are cut
from cylindrical ingots, do not completely cover a square
solar cell module without a substantial waste of refined
silicon. Hence most c-Si panels have uncovered gaps at the
.four corners of the cells
Ribbon silicon is a type of monocrystalline silicon: it is

formed by drawing flat thin films from molten silicon and
having a multicrystalline structure. These cells have lower
efficiencies than poly-Si, but save on production costs due
to a great reduction in silicon waste, as this approach
.does not require sawing from ingots
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:ii- Poly- or multicrystalline silicon (poly-Si or mc-Si)
made from cast square ingots large blocks of molten silicon

carefully cooled and solidified. Poly-Si cells are less
expensive to produce than single crystal silicon cells, but are
.less efficient
2- Silicon Thin Films
Silicon thin-film cells are mainly deposited by chemical

vapor deposition (typically plasma-enhanced (PE-CVD)) from
silane gas and hydrogen gas. Depending on the deposition
parameters, this can yield:
i. Amorphous silicon (a-Si or a-Si:H)

ii. Protocrystalline silicon
iii. Nanocrystalline silicon (nc-Si or nc-Si:H),also called
microcrystalline
These types of silicon present dangling and twisted bonds,

which results in deep defects (energy levels in the bandgap) as
well as deformation of the valence and conduction bands (band
tails). The solar cells made from these materials tend to have
lower energy conversion efficiency than bulk silicon, but are also
less expensive to produce. The quantum efficiency of thin film
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solar cells is also lower due to reduced number of collected

charge carriers per incident photon.
i- Amorphous silicon has a higher bandgap (1.7 eV) than

crystalline silicon (c-Si) (1.1 eV), which means it absorbs the
visible part of the solar spectrum more strongly than the infrared
portion of the spectrum. As nc-Si has about the same bandgap as
c-Si, the nc-Si and a-Si can advantageously be combined in thin
layers, creating a layered cell called a tandem cell. The top cell
in a-Si absorbs the visible light and leaves the infrared part of
the spectrum for the bottom cell in nanocrystalline Si.
A silicon thin film technology is being developed for building

integrated photovoltaics (BIPV) in the form of semi-transparent
solar cells which can be applied as window glazing. These cells
function as window tinting while generating electricity.
ii- Nanocrystalline solar cells
These structures make use of some of the same thin-film light

absorbing materials but are overlain as an extremely thin
absorber on a supporting matrix of conductive polymer or
mesoporous metal oxide having a very high surface area to
increase internal reflections (and hence increase the probability
of light absorption).
Low Cost Solar Cell
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Dye-sensitized solar cell, and Luminescent solar concentrators

are considered low-cost solar cells.This cell is extremely
promising because it is made of low-cost materials and does not
need elaborate apparatus to manufacture.
Theory
i. in sunlight hit the solar panel and are absorbed by
semiconducting materials, such as silicon.
ii. Electrons (negatively charged) are knocked loose from their
atoms, allowing them to flow through the material to
produce electricity.
iii. An array of solar cells converts solar energy into a usable
amount of direct current (DC) electricity.
Photogeneration of charge carriers
When a photon hits a piece of silicon, one of three things can

happen:
i. the photon can pass straight through the silicon this

(generally) happens for lower energy photons,
ii. the photon can reflect off the surface,
iii. the photon can be absorbed by the silicon, if the photon
energy is higher than the silicon band gap value. This
generates an electron-hole pair and sometimes heat,
depending on the band structure.
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When a photon is absorbed, its energy is given to an electron in

the crystal lattice. Usually this electron is in the valence band,
and is tightly bound in covalent bonds between neighboring
atoms, and hence unable to move far. The energy given to it by
the photon "excites" it into the conduction band, where it is free
to move around within the semiconductor. The covalent bond
that the electron was previously a part of now has one fewer
electron this is known as a hole. The presence of a missing
covalent bond allows the bonded electrons of neighboring atoms
to move into the "hole," leaving another hole behind, and in this
way a hole can move through the lattice. Thus, it can be said
that photons absorbed in the semiconductor create mobile
electron-hole pairs.
A photon need only have greater energy than that of the band
gap in order to excite an electron from the valence band into the
conduction band. However, the solar frequency spectrum
approximates a black body spectrum at ~6000 K, and as such,
much of the solar radiation reaching the Earth is composed of
photons with energies greater than the band gap of silicon.
These higher energy photons will be absorbed by the solar cell,
but the difference in energy between these photons and the
silicon band gap is converted into heat (via lattice vibrations
called phonons) rather than into usable electrical energy.
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The p-n junction
The most commonly known solar cell is configured as a

large-area p-n junction made from silicon. As a simplification,
one can imagine bringing a layer of n-type silicon into direct
contact with a layer of p-type silicon. In practice, p-n junctions
of silicon solar cells are not made in this way, but rather, by
diffusing an n-type dopant into one side of a p-type wafer (or
vice versa).
Connection to an external load
Ohmic metal-semiconductor contacts are made to both the

n-type and p-type sides of the solar cell, and the electrodes
connected to an external load. Electrons that are created on the
n-type side, or have been "collected" by the junction and swept
onto the n-type side, may travel through the wire, power the
load, and continue through the wire until they reach the p-type
semiconductor-metal contact. Here, they recombine with a hole
that was either created as an electron-hole pair on the p-type side
of the solar cell, or are swept across the junction from the n-type
side after being created there.
The voltage measured is equal to the difference in the quasi

Fermi levels of the minority carriers i.e. electrons in the p-type
portion, and holes in the n-type portion.
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To understand the electronic behavior of a solar cell, it is useful

to create a model which is electrically equivalent, and is based
on discrete electrical components whose behavior is well
known. An ideal solar cell may be modelled by a current source
in parallel with a diode; in practice no solar cell is ideal, so a
shunt resistance and a series resistance component are added to
the model. The resulting equivalent circuit of a solar cell as
shown in fig (1) .
Characteristic equation
From the equivalent circuit it is evident that the current

produced by the solar cell is equal to that produced by the
current source, minus that which flows through the diode, minus
that which flows through the shunt resistor
I = IL − ID − ISH
where I = output current (amperes) ,IL = photogenerated current

(amperes)
ID = diode current (amperes) ,ISH = shunt current (amperes) ,
The current flowing through these elements is governed by the

voltage across them:
Vj = V + IRS
where Vj = voltage across both diode and resistor RSH (volts)
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By the Shockley diode equation, the current diverted through the

diode is:
where I0 = reverse saturation current (amperes) , n = diode

ideality factor (1 for an ideal diode) , q = elementary charge , k =
Boltzmann's constant , T = absolute temperature .
By Ohm's law, the current diverted through the shunt resistor is:
where RSH = shunt resistance (Ω)
Substituting these into the first equation produces the

characteristic equation of a solar cell, which relates solar cell
parameters to the output current and voltage:
An alternative derivation produces an equation similar in

appearance, but with V on the left-hand side. The two
alternatives are identities; that is, they yield precisely the same
results.
In principle, given a particular operating voltage V the equation

may be solved to determine the operating current I at that
voltage. However, because the equation involves I on both sides
in a transcendental function the equation has no general
analytical solution. However, even without a solution it is
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physically instructive. Furthermore, it is easily solved using

numerical methods. (A general analytical solution to the
equation is possible using Lambert's W function, but since
Lambert's W generally itself must be solved numerically this is a
technicality.)Since the parameters I0, n, RS, and RSH cannot be
measured directly, the most common application of the
characteristic equation is nonlinear regression to extract the
values of these parameters on the basis of their combined effect
on solar cell behavior.
Shunt resistance
Effect of shunt resistance on the current-voltage characteristics

of a solar cell
As shunt resistance decreases, the flow of current diverted

through the shunt resistor increases for a given level of junction
voltage. The result is that the voltage-controlled portion of the I-
V curve begins to sag toward the origin, producing a significant
decrease in the terminal current I and a slight reduction in VOC.
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Very low values of RSH will produce a significant reduction in

VOC. Much as in the case of a high series resistance, a badly
shunted solar cell will take on operating characteristics similar
to those of a resistor. These effects are shown for crystalline
silicon solar cells in the I-V curves displayed in the figure to the
right.
Maximum-power point
A solar cell may operate over a wide range of voltages (V)

and currents (I). By increasing the resistive load on an irradiated
cell continuously from zero (a short circuit) to a very high value
(an open circuit) one can determine the maximum-power point,
the point that maximizes V×I; that is, the load for which the cell
can deliver maximum electrical power at that level of
irradiation. (The output power is zero in both the short circuit
and open circuit extremes).
Pmax = Vmax . Imax
Fill factor
Another defining term in the overall behavior of a solar

cell is the fill factor (FF). This is the ratio of the maximum
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power point divided by the open circuit voltage (Voc) and the
short circuit current (Isc):
Increasing the shunt resistance (Rsh) and decreasing the series

resistance (Rs) will lead to higher fill factor, thus resulting in
greater efficiency, and pushing the cells output power closer
towards its theoretical maximum.
Solar cell efficiency factors
A solar cell's energy conversion efficiency (η) is the

percentage of power converted (from absorbed light to electrical
energy) and collected, when a solar cell is connected to an
electrical circuit. This term is calculated using the ratio of the
maximum power point, Pm
 = 4 r2 Pmax /100
STC specifies a temperature of 25°C and an irradiance of 1000

W/m2 with an air mass 1.5 (AM1.5) spectrum.
Conclusion
The fill factor is directly affected by the values of the cells series
and shunt resistance.
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Experimental data V volt I mA

0.1 0.3
0.2 0.6
1- Dark 0.3 1
0.4 1.4
0.5 1.8
0.6 2.3
0.7 2.8
0.8 3.4
0.9 4.1
1 4.8
1.2 6.9
1.4 10
1.5 12
1.6 14.9
1.7 20
1.8 25
1.9 30.7
2 44
2.15 63
70
O rig in P ro 8 E valu a tio n O rig in P ro 8 E va lu atio n
60 -5
Rsh=7.58×10 ohm
50
40
I (mA) O rig in P ro 8 E valu a tio n O rig in P ro 8 E va lu atio n
30
20
10
0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
V (volt)
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2- lamination
V
1.65 1.55
1.54 2
1.5 3
1.46 4
1.41 5
1.36 6
1.31 7
1.26 8
1.19 9
1.12 10
1.05 11
0.99 12
0.9 13
0.78 14
0.63 15
0.46 16
0.26 17
0.02 17.9
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V (V) Voc
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0
0

2
4 O rig in P ro 8 E valu a tio n O rig in P ro 8 E va lu atio n
6

I (A)
12
14
16
Isc 18 O rig in P ro 8 E valu a tio n O rig in P ro 8 E va lu atio n
20
V oc =1 .6 v , I sc=18×10−3 A
V max =0 . 9 v , I max =13×10−3 A
∴ P max =117×10−4 watt
117 ×10−4
F . F= =0. 406
18×1 .6
4 π ( 25×10−2 )2×117×10−4
η= =92×10−6
100
3- The Greenhouse Effect
Objectives
Study green house effect on black body.
Study green house effect on white body.
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Equipments and Tools
Green house- light source – thermometer- white surface – stop

watch
Work
Put white body at distance about 15cm.
Every minute measure temperature.
Repeat the last steps with black body.
Repeat the above steps at different distance let 20cm.
Theory of Experiment
The reason that glass is such a valuable material is that it exhibits a
very low absorption of electromagnetic radiation in the visible part
of the spectrum, which is a wordy way of saying that it is
transparent. It is not, however, transparent either side of the visible
range (ultra violet and infra red).
When matter in general interacts with radiation it can absorb,

reflect or transmit it. One of the basic principles in the
understanding of energy is that it always degrades. The high grade
(i.e. most usable) energy the comes into your home via the
electricity mains always ends up as low grade energy or heat, via
intermediate forms such as light, sound or mechanical motion.
Likewise the light impinging on the earth that is not reflected back
into space also ends up as heat. All matter re-radiates heat, mainly
in the infrared part of the spectrum. Glass, however, is relatively
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opaque to infrared. Thus the greenhouse glass acts as a one-way

energy valve.
In the atmosphere water vapor is a major component (1%-4%) and

it has similar optical properties to glass. The water molecule is in
the form of a shallow V with two hydrogen atoms attached to the
heavier central oxygen atom. It absorbs radiation by the various
modes of vibration of this system and by rotation (think of it as two
light balls attached to a heavy one by springs). Pure liquid water is
actually blue, as it absorbs slightly in the red, though heavy water is
colorless because the heavier atoms do not vibrate so readily at
optical frequencies. Like the greenhouse glass, the water vapor acts
as a one-way energy valve. Thus not only does water keep the
planet warm, but it also maintains a fairly constant temperature. It
is this greenhouse effect that makes life on earth possible.
The other and major mechanism in the greenhouse is the inhibition

of convection. This is not ideal, as there is heat loss from the roof by
convection. The Earth, in contrast, loses no heat by convection, but
only by radiation. Convection in the oceans and atmosphere merely
serves to redistribute the heat.
In order to understand fully the warming effect of the atmosphere

it is necessary to appreciate the nature of radiation. The ideal
radiator is known as a black body, which is one that absorbs all
frequencies completely. It also radiates all frequencies equally, so
the distribution of energy in the radiation is a function of the
distribution of energy across the spectrum. This is determined by
Wien's laws (later modified by Planck) and is a function of
temperature only. Real bodies are not black.
The so-called greenhouse effect is simply explained as a three body

problem. The three bodies are one that is very small but very hot,
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the Sun, one that is very large and very cold, outer space, and the
earth. The first two may be considered approximately to act as
black bodies, so they emit according to Wien's laws. The energy
transfer is governed by the area under the black body spectrum,
which depends only on the temperature. The blue planet, however,
is not a black body. Its absorption/emission spectrum contains gaps,
due mainly to the presence of water vapor in the atmosphere. As it
is in thermal equilibrium with the other two bodies, it has to radiate
as much as it absorbs. In order for the area under the spectrum to
be sufficient, the equilibrium temperature must therefore be higher
than if it were a black body.
There are other potential greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide

and methane, but their atmospheric concentrations are so low that
they may be ignored (CO2 at 0.033% and CH4 at 0.0002%).
Applications
Essential use of greenhouse glass:
In terms of active plant growth in the greenhouse, one can find
winter to be the calm season. But there still a plenty of work to be
done in between the sun rise and sun set of each upcoming day. The
growing plants should be protected from the cold frosts. All the
shading works should be perfectly cleaned when one is preparing for
winter. To let in more of light in the greenhouse glass, the
greenhouse glass should be kept clean. The growth of the plant
slows down as the winter begins and lot of patience is expected until
the day begins to lengthen again.
Greenhouse heaters:
The greenhouse heaters are checked then and then to make sure that
the heaters work effectively. For one to keep things warm the
greenhouse can be insulated with bubble-wrap and this is termed to
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be one of the most inexpensive ways. It will greatly help in reducing

heating bills too. To provide floral display all throughout the year,
perpetual carnation is required and this can be enabled all with a
temperature of about 7 degree during night time.
Shut down of ventilation:

Ventilation is a very important factor for greenhouse fertilizer
applications during winter season. Free ventilation is allowed but
one should check carefully and prevent the cold breeze from
entering into the greenhouse glass because it can chill down many
things. Therefore one should shut down their vents quickly before
the temperature falls in and becomes very cold. During windy or
foggy days when the climatic condition is extremely cold outside,
the greenhouse could be kept closed. And if this condition persists
the green house should be insulated so that the growing plants could
be kept safe from the heavy freezing cold.
Winter watering:
There are lot many chances for the soil to dry out, during this time
winter watering could be done. Winter watering is not to be done
often, because if too much of water is supplied it can sometimes
damage the roots and cause lot of problems especially in the tender
growing plants. So it is always better for us to keep the soil slightly
dry and in good light to avoid damaged circumstances.
Care for plants:

A special care for plants should be always given. At the very
beginning of winter the plants should undergo outstanding potting
and cuttings of fuchsias and pelargoniums could also be potted. If
these hardy plants are potted up in winter then we could expect
flower blossoms very much earlier. A wide range of bulb varieties
could also be potted out this way and one could definitely wait for an
early blossom. Many green house plants namely begonias, gloxinias,
could be sown by the month of January or February. An early rise in
temperature could result in the sowing of early cropping vegetables.
Care against fungal attacks:
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When the frost is too high the winter green house provides refuge for
a great number of flowering plants. Although the flowering plants
are highly dormant, we should check those plants occasionally so
that the compost does not get dried off. These flowering tubers or
bulbs should be examined periodically to check whether it has got
any sign of attack of fungus. It is also checked occasionally to see
whether it is rotten. If it is rotten or if there is any sign of fungus
then immediately these flowering tubers or bulbs are discarded and
destroyed. Generally pests don’t seem active this season, anyways it
is better to check out for whitefly or vine weevil throughout this
season. The fertilizers used in the garden frame plays a very
important role in acclimatizing plants raised under the glass to a least
controlled external environment.
Observation
Black body curve is greater than white body at the same distance
Conclusions
Black body is perfect absorber this property can be used in more
applications as above.
Results ( at distance 20 , 15 cm )
At distance 15 cm At distance 20 cm
Temp. Temp. Time Temp. Temp. Time
black white (min) black white (min)
30 30 0 30 30 0
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36 33 1 38 35 1
41 35 2 41 37.5 2
44.5 37 3 44 39.5 3
47 40 4 46 41.5 4
49 41.5 5 48 43 5
51 43 6 49 44 6
53.8 44.5 7 50 45 7
55 46 8 51 46 8
56 47 9 52 46.5 9
57 47.5 10 53 47 10
57.5 48 11 54 44.5 11
58 49 12 54 48 12
58.5 49 13 54 48.5 13
59 49 14 54 49 14
59 49 15 54 49 15
59 49 16 54 49 16
At 20 cm
black body
54 O rig in P ro 8 E va lu a tio n O rig in P ro 8 E va lu a tio n
O rig in P ro 8 E va lu a tio n O rig in P ro 8 E va lu a tio n
white body
45
T (C)
36
0 7 14
time (min)
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60
black body

white body
T (C)
0 7 14
time (min)
at 15 cm
4- Tensile Test
Objectives :
- Determine Young modulus
- Determine elastic limit
- Determine yield stress
- Determine ultimate tensile strength
Equipment and tools :-
1- Extension device
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2- Sample of material ( Cu , Al,…etc) its length is

30mm and area is 0.4cm
Work :-
1- We fix the sample and begin to turn.
2- Read force every time .
3- Draw the relation between extension divided
by length on x-axis and force divided by area on y-axis.
4- Calculate the slope of curve we get Young Modulus.
5- From curve we can get elastic limit and limit.
Introduction
The tensile experiment is the most common
mechanical test that reveals several important
mechanical properties, such as: modulus of elasticity,
yield strength, ultimate tensile strength, ductility, and
toughness. The material to be tested is formed into a
shape suitable for gripping in the testing machine, and
then pulled at constant rate until it fractures. The
tensile instrument elongates the specimen at a
constant rate and has devices to continuously measure
and record the applied load and elongation of the
specimen. During the stretching of the specimen,
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changes occur in its physical dimensions and its

mechanical properties. The ability to predict the loads
that will cause a part to fail depends upon both
material properties and the part geometry. This
experiment involves testing to determine the relative
properties.
Theory.
A tensile test, is probably mechanical test you can perform on material.
Tensile tests are simple, relatively the most fundamental type of
inexpensive, and fully standardized. By pulling on something, you will
very quickly determine how the material will react to forces being
applied in tension. As the material is being pulled, you will find its
strength along with how much it will elongate.
This Exp. depend on Hooke law that states that force is

directly proportional to extension For most tensile testing of
materials, you will notice that in the initial portion of the test,
the relationship between the applied force, and load, and the
elongation the specimen exhibits is linear. In this linear region,
the line obeys the relationship defined as "Hooke's Law" where
the ratio of stress to strain is a constant, or Y is the slope of the
line in this region where stress (σ) is proportional to strain (ε)
and is called the Modulus of Elasticity" Young's Modulus".
F = k L
K is force constant
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is a measure of the intensity of an

Stress
internal force. Stress is defined as the
force per unit area
F
σ=
A
Types of Stress
1-Tensil stress
if force effect normal to determined area cause
extension to this area
2-compress stress
if force cause decreasing for length
3-shear stress
the force is parallel to surface
Strain is a
measure of the deformation
that has occurred in a material. In the
case where the magnitude of
deformation is the same over the entire
length of a body, strain may be defined
as:
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L f −Lο
ε=
Lο
Where:
Lο Is the initial
length
Lf Is the final
length
Types of strain
1- Length strain
If matter its length L and stress effect on it and increase its
length by L
strain =L/L
2- Volume strain
if stress change the volume of matter by V
strain= V/V
3- Shear strain
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If we affected by shear stress

strain = 
Young Modulus is equal stress divided by strain.
Stress =F/A , strain = L/L
σ F/A
Y= =
ε ΔL /L
Elastic limit
Strain is proportional to stress
This satisfies Hooke law.
This is true under elastic limit.
The sample reach to maximum stress by increase force doesn't
cause extension and then the sample breakdown.
The relation between stress and strain is linear in elastic range
=Y
this relation change out of elastic range and it will be exponential
n
σ =kε
Importance of tensile test
we perform this experiment for several reasons. The results of
tensile tests are used in selecting materials for engineering
applications.
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When materials for engineering projects are procured, the engineer

often must specify material property requirements to the
manufacturer. After the material is received it is generally good
practice, if not mandatory, to perform acceptance tests to verify the
material properties before the materials are used. Therefore, it is
important to understand which material properties are relevant
and how those properties are obtained.
Tensile properties frequently are included in material specifications

to ensure quality. Tensile properties often are measured during
development of new materials and processes, so that different
materials and processes can be compared.
Finally, tensile properties often are used to predict the behaviour of

a material under forms of loading other than uniaxial tension.
Data
L L/L F/ 0.4

0.03 1 20
0.06 2 39
0.09 3 55
0.12 4 70
0.15 5 85
0.18 6 97
0.21 7 111
0.24 8 112
0.3 9 113
0.33 10 114
0.36 11 115
0.39 12 117
0.42 13 118
0.45 14 119
0.48 15 120
0.51 16 119
0.54 17 110
Graphing Data
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150

F /0.4
50
0 8 16
(97−55) 6 2
slope=Y = =35×10 N /m
(6−3 )×10−2 ×0 . 4×10−4
4 2
yield strength = 2. 775×10 N /m
max. stress = 3×10 6 N /m2

6 2
breakdown stress = 2. 75×10 N /m
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5- Internal frication
Objectives :-
Determine damping capacity
Determine young modulus
Tools and Equipment
Generator- magnetic field – oscilloscope – wires
Work
Put sample in magnetic field with certain length
Change the frequency from generator
Read the amplitude on oscilloscope
Draw relation between frequency on x-axis and amplitude on y-

axis
Change the length of sample and repeat last steps
At every length increase frequency and determine the

maximum vibrate and then we find young modulus.
Theory
Definition:
Internal fraction is the ability of materials of absorbing vibrations
We can determine internalk friction by three methods
1- resonance curve
When appling magnetic field on metal slid that produce pulse on

the slid so, the slid will vibrate.
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When the frequency that applied on slid equal to the vibration of

material itself the resonance occur and the amplitude will be
maximum.
If applied frequency is less or great than resonance the frequency

decrease and reached to zero.

O
The damping capacity is
Δυ
Q−1 =
υo
logarithmic decrement is max amplitude of consequence cycles
for freely decaying vibration i.e.
An
δ =ln
( )
A n+1
we can determine young modulus from relation
4 π2 ρ 2 2
Y = 2 4 ( L υo )
k m
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Data
A 
At length =10cm 1.1 0.1
2.3 0.5
2.4 1
2.5 7
6 2.7 8
O rig in P ro 8 E valu a tio n O rig in P ro 8 E va lu atio n 2.9 9
5 3.3 10
O rig in P ro 8 E valu a tio n O rig in P ro 8 E va lu atio n 4 12.5
4.5 15
4
4.9 17.2
4.4 20
3 3.6 22.5
A (V)
3 25
2.7 27.5
2
2.4 30
2.2 32.5
1
2 35
fo 1.9 37.5
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
1.8 40
f (HZ)
υ O=17 Hz
22. 9−10. 8
Q−1 = =0 . 711
17
0.1 1.1
At length = 15 cm 0.5 2.4
1 2.5
7 2.6
9 2.8
10 3.3
12.5 3.7
15 4.1
17.5 4
20 3.4
22.5 2.8
25 2.2
27.5 2
30 1.7
32.5 1.5
35 1.4
37.5 1.3
40 1.2
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3
A (V)
1
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
FO f (Hz)
υ o =14 . 87 Hz
21. 88−8 .5
Q−1 = =0 . 899
14 . 87
Logarithmic decrement is
4.9
δ=ln ( ) 4.1
=0. 178
Young Modulus
L4 1/2 2 L 
20736 4.4 225 12 15
50625 10 100 15 10
160000 14 72.25 20 8.5
290625 28 36 25 6
614656 111 9 28 3
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600000
4 4
slope = 1.2207×10
L
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
2
1/f
4 π2 ρ 4 2
Y = 2 4 ( L υo)
k m
L4 k 2 m4
slope= 2 =Y 2
1/υ o 4π ρ
t
k=
√12
2 4
(0 . 072) (1. 8 )
1. 2207×104 =Y
12×4 π 2 ×7 .89
Y =8 . 3×10 8 dyne /cm
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6- Spectrophotometer
Objectives
Determine refraction index
Determine thickness of sample
Determine absorption coefficient.
Determine gap energy.
Tools and Equipment

Spectrophotometer Device –sample slides –glass slide
Work
Turn on spectrophotometer and wait 15 min.
Input wavelength
Put glass slide its transmission 100%
Put sample slide and read transmission
Change wavelength and repeat last steps
Description of system
A spectrophotometer consists of two instruments :-
1- spectrometer for producing light of any selected color (wavelength),
2- photometer for measuring the intensity of light.
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The instruments are arranged so that liquid in a cuvette can be placed

between the spectrometer beam and the photometer. The amount of light
passing through the tube is measured by the photometer.
The photometer delivers a voltage signal to a display device, normally a

galvanometer. The signal changes as the amount of light absorbed by the
liquid changes.
If development of color is linked to the concentration of a substance in

solution then that concentration can be measured by determining the
extent of absorption of light at the appropriate wavelength. For example
hemoglobin appears red because the hemoglobin absorbs blue and green
light rays much more effectively than red. The degree of absorbance of
blue or green light is proportional to the concentration of hemoglobin.
When monochromatic light (light of a specific wavelength) passes

through a solution there is usually a quantitative relationship (Beer's law)
between the solute concentration and the intensity of the transmitted light,
that is,
where I sub 0 is the intensity of transmitted light using the pure solvent, I
is the intensity of the transmitted light when the colored compound is
added, c is concentration of the colored compound, l is the distance the
light passes through the solution, and k is a constant. If the light path l is
a constant, as is the case with a spectrophotometer, Beer's law may be
written,
where k is a new constant and T is the transmittance of the solution.

There is a logarithmic relationship between transmittance and the
concentration of the colored compound. Thus,
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Design
Single beam spectrophotometer
There are two major classes of devices: single beam and double beam. A
double beam spectrophotometer compares the light intensity between
two light paths, one path containing a reference sample and the other
the test sample. A single beam spectrophotometer measures the relative
light intensity of the beam before and after a test sample is inserted.
Although comparison measurements from double beam instruments are
easier and more stable, single beam instruments can have a larger
dynamic range and are optically simpler and more compact.
.In short, the sequence of events in a spectrophotometer is as follows:
1- The light source shines through a monochromatic.
2-An output wavelength is selected and beamed at the sample.
3-A fraction of the monochromatic light is transmitted through the

sample and to the photo detector.
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Many spectrophotometers must be calibrated by a procedure known as

"zeroing." The absorbency of a reference substance is set as a baseline
value, so the absorbencies of all other substances are recorded relative
to the initial "zeroed" substance. The spectrophotometer then
displays % absorbency (the amount of light absorbed relative to the
initial substance).
Theory
In solid state physics, a band gap, also called an energy gap or band gap,
It is an energy range in a solid where no electron states can exist.
In graphs of the electronic band structure of solids, the band gap

generally refers to the energy difference (in electron volts) between the
top of the valence band and the bottom of the conduction band in
insulators and semiconductors.
This is equivalent to the energy required to free an outer shell electron

from its orbit about the nucleus to become a mobile charge carrier, able
to move freely within the solid material.
In conductors, the two bands often overlap, so they may not have a
band gap.
In semiconductors and insulators, electrons are confined to a number of

bands of energy, and forbidden from other regions.
The term "band gap" refers to the energy difference between the top of
the valence band and the bottom of the conduction band. Electrons are
able to jump from one band to another. However, in order for an electron
to jump from a valence band to a conduction band, it requires a specific
minimum amount of energy for the transition. The required energy differs
with different materials. Electrons can gain enough energy to jump to the
conduction band by absorbing either a phonon (heat) or a photon (light).
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A semiconductor is a material with a small but nonzero band gap which

behaves as an insulator at absolute zero but allows thermal excitation of
electrons into its conduction band at temperatures which are below its
melting point. In contrast, a material with a large band gap is an insulator.
In conductors, the valence and conduction bands may overlap, so they
may not have a band gap.
The conductivity of intrinsic semiconductors is strongly dependent on the

band gap. The only available carriers for conduction are the electrons
which have enough thermal energy to be excited across the band gap.
The distinction between semiconductors and insulators is a matter of

convention. One approach is to think of semiconductors as a type of
insulator with a narrow band gap. Insulators with a larger band gap,
usually greater than 3 e.V are not considered semiconductors and
generally do not exhibit semi-conductive behavior under practical
conditions.
Electron mobility also plays a role in determining a material's informal

classification.
The band gap energy of semiconductors tends to decrease with increasing

temperature. When temperature increases, the amplitude of atomic
vibrations increase, leading to larger inter atomic spacing. The interaction
between the lattice phonons and the free electrons and holes will also
affect the band gap to a smaller extent.
Mathematical review
refraction index is given by
2 2
√
n1 = m1 + √ m1 +n g
n =√ m + √ m +n
2 2
2
2
2
g
where m1 and m2 is constant and given by
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n2g +1 2 n g
m1= − 2
2 T1 min
n2g +1 2n g
m2= − 2
2 T2
min
where ng is refractive index of glass = 1.5
T1 , T2 are minimum transmission
One can get the thickness of sample from :
λ1 λ 2
t=
2 ( n1 λ2 −n2 λ1 )
Transmission is given by
−αt
T =T o e
take logarithm for both sides
ln T =ln To−αt  T
320 19
340 20
So, the transmission coefficient is 360 24
380 23
400 27
1 T
α = ln
t T ( ) o 420
440
460
480
500
28
30
35
35
22
520 27
540 28
560 25
580 24
600 27
620 30
Data 640 27
660 24
680 28
700 30
720 28
ahmedscience2020@yahoo.com740 26
760 20
780 21
800 19
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35
28
T
T2 O rig in P ro 8 E valu a tio n O rig in P ro 8 E va lu atio n
T1
21
300 400  500  600 700 800 900
T1 = 22 , T2 = 24
1 = 440 nm , 2 = 540 nm
n2g +1 2 n g
m1= − 2 =1. 6188
2 t1 min
n2g +1 2n g
m2= − 2
=1. 6198
2 t2
min
n1 = m1 + √ m12−n 2g =1.49248
√
n =√ m + √ m −n =1.49369
2 2
2
2
2
g
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λ1 λ 2
t= =798 . 84 nm
2(n1 λ 2−n2 λ1 )
1 To
α= ln , T o =100
t T
1 100
α 1= ln =2 .01×10−3
798 . 84 20
1 100
α 2= ln =1 .5935×10−3
798 . 84 28
1 100
α 3= ln =1 .51×10−3
798 . 84 30
1 100
α 4= ln =1. 89×10−3
798 .84 22
1 100
α 5= ln =1 .64×10−3
798 . 84 27
1 100
α 6= ln =1 .78×10−3
798. 84 24
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hC 6 . 62×10−34 ×3×10 8 −19

E1 = = =5 .83×10 J
λ1 340×10 −9
hC 6 . 62×10−34×3×108 −19
E2 = = =4 .72×10 J
λ2 420×10 −9
hC 6 . 62×10−34×3×108
E3 = = =4 .51×10−19 J
λ3 440×10 −9
hC 6 . 62×10−34 ×3×108
E4 = = =3. 97×10−19 J
λ4 500×10 −9
hC 6 . 62×10−34×3×108 −19
E5 = = =3 . 82×10 J
λ5 520×10−9
hC 6. 62×10−34×3×108
E6 = = =3 . 42×10−19 J
λ 6 580×10 −9
α 1 E 1=2. 01×10−3 ×5 . 83×10−19=1. 18×10−22

α 2 E2 =1. 5935×10−3×4 . 72×10−19=7 . 53×10−22
α 2 E3 =1. 51×10−3 ×4 . 51×10−19=6 . 82×10−22
α 4 E 4 =1. 89×10−3 ×3 .97×10−19 =7 .51×10−22
α 5 E5 =1. 64×10−3 ×3 . 82×10−19=6. 26×10−22
α 6 E6 =1 .78×10−3 ×3 . 42×10−19 =6 .1×10−22
( αE )2×10−43 E×10−19
1.38 5.83
5.67 4.72
4.65 4.51
5.64 3.97
3.92 3.82
3.71 3.42
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7- Characteristic of thermistor
Objectives
study Characteristic of thermistor
determine temperature coefficient of resistance
Tools and equipment

heater – thermometer - oil – thermistor – multi-meter
thermistor
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used circuit
Work
Connect the last circuit.
Put thermistor in oil and put inside heater
Put thermometer inside oil.
Turn on the heater and raise temperature of it step by step.
Every five degree read the value of resistance.
Draw relation between T on x-axis and R on y-axis.
Theory
A thermistor is a type of resistor whose resistance varies significantly
with temperature. The word is a portmanteau of thermal and resistor.
Thermistors are widely used as inrush current limiters, temperature
sensors, self-resetting over current protectors, and self-regulating
heating elements.
Thermistors differ from resistance temperature detectors (RTD) in that

the material used in a thermistor is generally a ceramic or polymer,
while RTD use pure metals. The temperature response is also different;
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RTD are useful over larger temperature ranges, while Thermistors

typically achieve a higher precision within a limited temperature range
[usually −90 °C to 130 °C].
Assuming, as a first-order approximation, that the relationship between

resistance and temperature is linear, then:
where
ΔR = change in resistance
ΔT = change in temperature
k = first-order temperature coefficient of resistance
Thermistors can be classified into two types, depending on the sign of k.
If k is positive, the resistance increases with increasing temperature,

and the device is called a positive temperature coefficient (PTC)
thermistor.
If k is negative, the resistance decreases with increasing temperature,

and the device is called a negative temperature coefficient (NTC)
thermistor.
Resistors that are not thermistors are designed to have a k as close to

zero as possible(smallest possible k), so that their resistance remains
nearly constant over a wide temperature range.
Instead of the temperature coefficient k, sometimes the temperature

coefficient of resistance α (alpha) or αT is used. It is defined as
For example, for the common PT100 sensor, α = 0.00385 or 0.385 %/°C.

This αT coefficient should not be confused with the α parameter below.
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In practice, the linear approximation (above) works only over a small

temperature range. For accurate temperature measurements, the
resistance/temperature curve of the device must be described in more
detail. The Steinhart-Hart equation is a widely used third-order
approximation:
where a, b and c are called the Steinhart-Hart parameters, and must be

specified for each device. T is the temperature in Kelvin and R is the
resistance in ohms. To give resistance as a function of temperature, the
above can be rearranged into:
where
and
NTC thermistors can also be characterized with the B parameter

equation,
where the temperatures are in Kelvin and R0 is the resistance at

temperature T0 (usually 25 °C = 298.15 K). Solving for R yields:
or, alternatively,
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where .
This can be solved for the temperature:
The B-parameter equation can also be written as
This can be used to convert the function of resistance vs. temperature of

a thermistor into a linear function of lnR vs. 1 / T. The average slope of
this function will then yield an estimate of the value of the B parameter.
Applications
 PTC thermistors can be used as current-limiting devices for circuit
protection, as replacements for fuses. Current through the device
causes a small amount of resistive heating. If the current is large
enough to generate more heat than the device can lose to its
surroundings, the device heats up, causing its resistance to
increase, and therefore causing even more heating. This creates a
self-reinforcing effect that drives the resistance upwards, reducing
the current and voltage available to the device.
 PTC thermistors are used as timers in the degaussing coil circuit of
CRT displays and televisions. When the unit is initially switched on,
current flows through the thermistor and degauss coil. The coil
and thermistor are intentionally sized so that the current flow will
heat the thermistor to the point that the degauss coil shuts off in
under a second.
 NTC thermistors are used as resistance thermometers in low-
temperature measurements of the order of 10 K.
 NTC thermistors can be used as inrush-current limiting devices in
power supply circuits. They present a higher resistance initially
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which prevents large currents from flowing at turn-on, and then

heat up and become much lower resistance to allow higher
current flow during normal operation. These thermistors are
usually much larger than measuring type thermistors, and are
purposely designed for this application.
 NTC thermistors are regularly used in automotive applications. For
example, they monitor things like coolant temperature and/or oil
temperature inside the engine and provide data to the ECU and,
indirectly, to the dashboard. They can be also used to monitor
temperature of an incubator.
 Thermistors are also commonly used in modern digital
thermostats and to monitor the temperature of battery packs
while charging.
Data
1/T lnR R T
4.695925 0.037037 109.5 27
4.596129 0.033333 99.1 30
4.388257 0.028571 80.5 35
4.189655 0.025 66 40
4.055257 0.022222 57.7 45
3.8795 0.02 48.4 50
3.69883 0.018182 40.4 55
3.496508 0.016667 33 60
3.306887 0.015385 27.3 65
3.122365 0.014286 22.7 70
2.933857 0.013333 18.8 75
2.76001 0.0125 15.8 80
2.587764 0.011765 13.3 85
Graph
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120
O rig in P ro 8 E va lu a tio n O rig in P ro 8 slope= 1.978
E va lu a tio n
O rig in P ro 8 E va lu a tio n O rig in P ro 8

R=57
E va lu a tio n

o
C
R (ohm )
40
0
20 40 60 80
T (C)
ln R
5.0 Linear Fit of ln R
4.5
4.0
ln R (ohm)
3.5 O rig in P ro 8 E va lu a tio n O rig in P ro 8 E va lu a tio n
o -1
O rig in P ro 8 E va lu a tio n
slope = = 45.16 C
O rig in P ro 8 E va lu a tio n
3.0
2.5
2.0
0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04
1/T (C)
Univ.
8- Temperature Coefficient of Resistance of metals

TCR
Objectives
Study relation between resistance and temperature
Determine Thermal Coefficient of Resistance
Tools and equipment
Heater – thermometer – oil – ohmmeter
Work
Connect sample with ohmmeter.
Univ.
Put sample in oil and pu t them inside Heater.

Put thermometer inside oil .
Turn on heater slowly.
Read resistance every 5 degree.
Used circuit
Heater

Theory
Resistance of metals increase with increasing temperature due
to lattice vibrations in metals
Such that
Rt =R o ( 1+αT + βT 2 + γT 3 )
where
Rt is metal resistance at temperature t
R0 is metal resistance at temperature 0
Univ.
In medium temperature range we note that :-
 and  is very small compared with 
So the equation will be
Rt =R o ( 1+ αT )
such that
 is temperature coefficient of resistance
that defined as the increasing of resistance when raising
temperature by 1 C
observation
when we increase temperature the resistance increase
at room temperature (22 C) resistance is 125.5 
when temperature reached to 90 C the resistance was
159 
Data
T R
22 125.5
25 126
30 126.5
35 128
Univ.
40 130
45 132
50 135
55 137.8
60 140
65 143
70 146
75 149.5
80 152.5
85 156
90 159
Graph
160 O r ig in P r o 8 E va lu a tio n O rig in P ro 8 E v a lu a t io n
O r ig in P r o 8 E va lu a tio n O rig in P ro 8 E v a lu a t io n
140
120
slope = 0.6001
R ()
100 O r ig in P r o 8 E va lu a tio n O rig in P ro 8 E v a lu a t io n
Ro= 114.609803 
80
60
30 60 90
o
T (C )
slope 0 .6001
α= = =5×10−3 C o −1
R o 114 .609803
Univ.
9- Magnetic susceptibility
Objectives
Determine magnetic susceptibility for ferromagnetic
material.
Tools and equipment
Electric magnet – glass tube – sensitive scale.
Work
Put tube at half distance between the two magnetic poles.
Input direct current for electric magnet produce magnetic
field that applied on sample.
Change current and every time read magnetic force.
Theory
Univ.
Magnetic susceptibility is the ability of material for

magnetization when external magnetic field applied.
Magnetic susceptibility is depend on the magnetic
properties of material
μ
χ=
H
such that :-
 is magnetic dipole moment. , H is intensity of external

magnetic field.
The materials divided due to magnetic properties as
following :
1- Diamagnetic materials
The resultant magnetic dipole moment equal to zero
Magnetic susceptibility is (–ve ).
Magnetic susceptibility and temperature are independent
each other.
2- Paramagnetic
The resultant magnetic dipole moment is greater than zero
Magnetic susceptibility is (+ve) greater than zero
Magnetic susceptibility is inversely proportional to
temperature obey Curie law
Univ.
C
χ m=
T
C is Curie constant
3- ferromagnetic material
magnetic susceptibility is large and depend on spin that
spin is parallel .
the atoms reoriented with the direction of external
magnetic field.
when magnetic field is removed these material keep
magnetization due to these materials have permanent
dipole moment.
The magnetic field just reoriented atoms in the same
direction.
So these materials have hysteresis loop.
4- Anti-ferromagnetic materials
magnetic susceptibility is (+ ve) and depend on spin that is
anti-parallel.
Obey Curie law.
these materials have hysteresis loop.
The magnetic force that acting on material is given by
Univ.
χ 2 − χ 1 ∂ H 2x ∂ H 2y ∂ H 2z
F z=
2 ∂z (+ +
∂z ∂ z
dv )
χ 2 − χ 1 ∂ H 2x ∂ H 2y ∂ H 2z
F y=
2 (+
∂ y ∂y ∂y
+ dv )
χ 2− χ 1 ∂ H 2x ∂ H 2y ∂ H 2z
Fx=
2 ∂x
+( +
∂x ∂ x
dv →(1) )
where 1,2 are magnetic susceptibility for material and
surrounding medium respectively.
But Hz and Hx are very small

So, we can neglect Fz and Fy .
Then equation (1) will be
Univ.
χ 2 − χ 1 ∂ H 2y
Fx=
2 ∂x ( ) dv
but dv= Adx (A is area )
χ 2 − χ 1 ∂ H 2y
Fx=
2 ∂x ( )
Adx .
total force is
H H
χ2− χ1 2
F=∫ F x =∫ AdH y
H H 2 o
o
χ 2− χ 1 2 2
= A ( H −H o )
2
but χ 2 >> χ 1 , H >>H o
Univ.
χ2
∴ F= AH 2
2
χ2
F=Δm . g= AH 2
2
M
but =ρ
Al
2 Δm . gl ρ
∴ χ=
MH 2
2 gl Δm
χ=
M H2 ( )
we can calculate H from
2 πn
H= I
10 r
n is no. Of cycles =1500 , r is distance between two
magnets = 3.7 cm.
Univ.
Data
m mo H*2 ×106 I I
0 21.5 0 0 0
0.5 21 0.5551652 0.04 0.2
1 20.5 0.22206608 0.16 0.4
1.5 20 0.49964868 0.36 0.6
2 19.5 0.88826432 0.64 0.8
4.5 17 1.38791 1 1
10 11.5 3.06708 1.44 1.2
10.5 11 3.18792 1.96 1.4
11.5 10 3.55306 2.56 1.6
12.5 9 4.49684 3.24 1.8
13 8.5 5.55165 4 2
14 7.5 6.7175 4.84 2.2
O rigin P ro 8 E va lua tio n O rig in P ro 8 E va lu a tio n
14 O rigin P ro 8 E va lua tio n O rig in P ro 8 E va lu a tio n

m (gm)
-6
7 slope = 3.27×10
0
0 2000000 4000000 6000000 8000000
2
H (tesla)
Univ.
−6 4 2 2
χ=3 .27×10 cm / s A
10- Hysteresis Loop
Objectives
Study hysteresis loop
Determine reverse saturation current
Tools and Equipments
Oscilloscope – capacitors – resistors – some wires – inductance – DC

battery – voltmeter
Used circuit
L1 L2
500 1000
OSC I 1kHz
C1 100n V1 6V
R1
37k
R1
2-3
Work
Connect the pervious circuit.
Change voltage from DC battery and every time read volt.
Draw the curve from oscilloscope.
Univ.
Calculate the area of curve and draw the relation between A on x-axis
and I on y-axis.
Put different materials inside coil and observe its hystersis loop.
Theory
A great deal of information can be learned about the magnetic
properties of a material by studying its hysteresis loop. A Hysteresis loop
shows the relationship between the induced magnetic flux density (B)
and the magnetizing force (H). It is often referred to as the B-H loop.
An example hysteresis loop is shown below.
The loop is generated by measuring the magnetic flux of a ferromagnetic

material while the magnetizing force is changed.
A ferromagnetic material that has never been previously magnetized or

has been thoroughly demagnetized will follow the dashed line as H is
Univ.
increased. As the line demonstrates, the greater the amount of current

applied (H+), the stronger the magnetic field in the component (B+). At
point "a" almost all of the magnetic domains are aligned and an
additional increase in the magnetizing force will produce very little
increase in magnetic flux.
The material has reached the point of magnetic saturation. When H is

reduced to zero, the curve will move from point "a" to point "b." At this
point, it can be seen that some magnetic flux remains in the material
even though the magnetizing force is zero. This is referred to as the
point of retentively on the graph and indicates the level of residual
magnetism in the material. (Some of the magnetic domains remain
aligned but some have lost their alignment.)
As the magnetizing force is reversed, the curve moves to point "c",

where the flux has been reduced to zero. This is called the point of
coercivity on the curve. (The reversed magnetizing force has flipped
enough of the domains so that the net flux within the material is zero.)
The force required to remove the residual magnetism from the material
is called the coercive force or coercively of the material.
As the magnetizing force is increased in the negative direction, the

material will again become magnetically saturated but in the opposite
direction (point "d"). Reducing H to zero brings the curve to point "e." It
will have a level of residual magnetism equal to that achieved in the
other direction. Increasing H back in the positive direction will return B
to zero.
Notice that the curve did not return to the origin of the graph because
some force is required to remove the residual magnetism.
The curve will take a different path from point "f" back to the saturation
point where it with complete the loop.
Univ.
From the hysteresis loop, a number of primary magnetic properties of a

material can be determined.
Retentively - A measure of the residual flux density corresponding to

the saturation induction of a magnetic material. In other words, it is a
material's ability to retain a certain amount of residual magnetic field
when the magnetizing force is removed after achieving saturation.
(The value of B at point b on the hysteresis curve.)
Residual Magnetism or Residual Flux - the magnetic flux density that

remains in a material when the magnetizing force is zero. Note that
residual magnetism and retentivity are the same when the material
has been magnetized to the saturation point. However, the level of
residual magnetism may be lower than the retentivity value when the
magnetizing force did not reach the saturation level.
Coercive Force - The amount of reverse magnetic field which must be

applied to a magnetic material to make the magnetic flux return to
zero. (The value of H at point c on the hysteresis curve.)
Permeability, - A property of a material that describes the ease

with which a magnetic flux is established in the component.
Reluctance - Is the opposition that a ferromagnetic material shows to

the establishment of a magnetic field. Reluctance is analogous to the
resistance in an electrical circuit.
We summarize speaking in the following :
Univ.
The area of hystersis loop divided to three regions :-
Univ.
- rectangle (its A = length x width)
- tow triangle (its A = 1/2 base length x height )
Observation
The area of hysteresis loop increase with increasing voltage.
When putting stales inside coil there is no change.
When putting steel inside coil the area increase something .
When putting iron inside coil the area increase sharply.
Data
A I
1.3 2
2.2 4
2.72 6
3.7 10
5.15 12
5.6 14
Graph
Univ.
13 -4
I × 10 (A)
11
10
9
8
7
-4
I0 = 2.953×10 A
2
1
0
1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5
2
A (cm )

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Ahmed Haider -B.Sc. student – Faculty of Science – Dept.

In The Name of Allah Most Gracious, Most Merciful

Solid State Physics lab

Ahmed Haider Ahmed Ibrahim

Prof. Dr. Adel Ashour

1- Solar Thermal Collector

- Compare between heat in air and in concave mirror

The more complex collectors are generally used in solar power

The simpler collectors are typically used for supplemental space

A collector is a device for converting the energy in solar radiation

The solar energy striking the Earth's surface depends on weather

Solar thermal collectors are divided into the categories of

Low temperature collectors

through either metallic or nonmetallic absorbers and are used

either through glazed flat-plate collectors using air or liquid as the

In the lab we study two cases :-

Glazed systems have a transparent top sheet as well as insulated

Unglazed systems, or transpired air systems, consist of an absorber

These technologies are among the most efficient, dependable, and

II-Parabolic (concave) dish

Solar Parabolic (concave) dish

This is the most powerful type of collector which concentrates sunlight

There are two key phenomena to understand in order to

In some power plant designs, a sterling engine coupled to a dynamo, is

 Very high temperatures reached. High temperatures are suitable

 Concentrating systems require sun tracking to maintain Sunlight

 Inability to provide power in diffused light conditions. Solar Cells

-After 19 minutes the temperature is raise to 38

- After 18 minutes reached to 40

Concave mirror is high collected heat.

O rig in P ro 8 E v a lu a tio n O rig inP ro 8 E v a lu a tio n

O rig in P ro 8 E v a lu a tio n O rig inP ro 8 E v a lu a tio n

39 O rig in P ro 8 E v a lu a tio n O rig inP ro 8 E v a lu a tio n

O rig in P ro 8 E v a lu a tio n O rig inP ro 8 E v a lu a tio n

O rig in P ro 8 E v a lu a tio n O rig inP ro 8 E v a lu a tio n

O rig in P ro 8 E v a lu a tio n O rig inP ro 8 E v a lu a tio n

Determine short circuit current.

Determine open circuit voltage.

Determine Fill factor.

Tools and Equipment

solar cell act as Daiode.

we connect circuit in fig (1)

Draw the relation between I on y-axis and V on x-axis .

Slope at the beginning of curve give Rs and slope of tangent of

connect circuit in fig (2)

Put light source at known distance (r).

Change resistor and every time read current and volt.

Draw relation between V on x-axis and I on y-axis.

From graph we get VOC , I sc and Pmax.

Change the distance and repeat the previous steps.

in producing electricity for practical use. The energy generated

Generations of solar cells

Solar Cells are classified into three generations which

First generation cells consist of large-area, high quality and

ii. Second Generation

Second generation materials have been developed to address

iii. Third Generation

Third generation technologies aim to enhance poor electrical

High efficiency cells

Many businesses and academics are focused on increasing the

Applications and implementations

Solar cells are often electrically connected and encapsulated as a

semiconductor wafers from the elements (rain, hail, etc.). Solar

The power output of a solar array is measured in watts or