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Senior High School

Physical Science
Quarter 1 - Module 1

Week 1: Formation of Elements

Week 2: Polarity of Molecules
Department of Education ● Republic of the Philippines
 Senior
Senior High
High School
School

Physical Science
Quarter 1 - Module 1
Formation of Elements
Polarity of Molecules
 This instructional material was collaboratively developed and reviewed
by educators from public schools. We encourage teachers and other
education stakeholders to email their feedback, comments, and
recommendations to the Department of Education at
cagayandeoro.city@deped.gov.ph

We value your feedback and recommendations.

Department of Education ● Republic of the Philippines

What This Module is About

For the Students

This module will introduce you to the world in a deeper level. What you have learned
from your elementary years to your junior high years about science have prepared you to
enter and understand the new lessons you are about to get to know: from the theoretical
start of the universe to the behavior of molecules as observed through the microscope.

You might be intimidated by the depth of the lessons but don’t be disheartened. This
module is constructed to teach novices and inspire. If you ever find yourself lost or confused
amidst your learning, don’t hesitate to approach your teacher. Remember, unhealed
confusion will hinder effective learning.

Welcome to Module 1 of your Senior High School Physical Science. Happy learning!

For the Facilitators

This module aims to educate the students in the simplest way possible. Teachers
and parents must accommodate the learner to aid them in learning. Facilitators must avoid
giving direct answers but rather give help to the learners on how to acquire answers. Do not
hesitate to notify the teacher for concerns and ask further assistance.

The following are the lessons contained in this module:

Lesson 1 Formation of Heavier Elements

Lesson 2 Synthesis of Elements in Laboratories

Lesson 3 Polarities of Molecules

Lesson 4 Properties of Molecules Based on Their Polarities.

 What I Need to Know

At the end of this module, you should be able to:

1. Give evidence for and explain the formation of heavier elements during star
formation. (S11/12PS-IIIa-1);

2. Explain how the concept of the atomic number led to the synthesis of new elements in
the laboratory. (S11/12PS-IIIb-11);

3. Determine if a molecule is polar or non polar given its structure. (S11/12PS-IIIc-15);

4. Relate the polarity of a molecule to its properties. (S11/12PS-IIIc-16)

How to Learn from this Module

To achieve the objectives cited, you are to do the following:

• Take your time reading the lessons carefully.

• Follow the directions and/or instructions in the activities and exercises diligently.

• Answer all the given tests and exercises.

Icons of this Module

What I Need to This part contains learning objectives that

Know are set for you to learn as you go along the

module.

What I know This is an assessment as to your level of

knowledge to the subject matter at hand,

meant specifically to gauge prior related

knowledge

What’s In This part connects previous lesson with that

of the current one.

What’s New An introduction of the new lesson through

various activities, before it will be presented

to you

What is It These are discussions of the activities as a

way to deepen your discovery and under-

standing of the concept.

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 What’s More These are follow-up activities that are in-

tended for you to practice further in order to

master the competencies.

What I Have Activities designed to process what you

Learned have learned from the lesson

What I can do These are tasks that are designed to show-

case your skills and knowledge gained, and

applied into real-life concerns and situations.

Lesson Formation of Heavier Elements

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 1

What I Need to Know

At the end of this lesson, I should be able to:

1. Give evidence for and describe the formation of heavier elements during star
formation and evolution;
2. Understand the basic concept of star formation;
3. Know that the chemical elements from Hydrogen to Iron can be formed in the stars
through stellar fusion;
4. Counteract misconceptions about the formation of heavy elements;
5. Understand the importance and necessity to keep updated the progress of scientific
concepts.

ACTIVITY 1.1.1 The Galaxy’s Puzzle

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Instructions: A. Read the short story provided below and find the 5 words related to physics
and chemistry. Use items 1-5 as a guide to find the words.

Once, there was a spy named Hydrogen (nicknamed Hy) with massive issues on
trusting Angela, his agency partner. There was always the possibility that their opinions
crash against each other rather than end in a peaceful fusion like when Hy suggests the
suspect of the crime they were investigating could be in the East Coast but Angela argues
that the place should be in the West Coast. They were almost fired from the job for being too
unprofessional, almost becoming the ‘big bang’ to their careers. The gravity of the situation
made Hy and Angela rethink their attitude and agree to be more understandable of each
other’s differences on opinions.

B.Chemistry and Physics words found in the story:

______________________1. This is the lightest element in the periodic table.

______________________2. This is what happens when elements combine together,

usually resulting to new elements.

______________________3. This is the theory which proposes the universe is still in the
process of inflation.

______________________4. This is the term for stars bigger than our own Sun.

______________________5. This is what pulls atoms together and what causes the
Earth to orbit the Sun.

VOCABULARY

 Big Bang Theory: this is the currently accepted theory of the origin of the universe
which proposes that everything started from a singularity which in time inflated—and
continues to do so—until the world we know of today started existing approximately 14
billion years ago.
 Stellar Nucleosynthesis: this is the birth of elements through nuclear fusion that
takes place within stars.
 Supernova: this is the explosion in the event of a death of a star.
 Neutron-Star Mergers: this is when stars merge to form a more massive star,
generating more energy than normal stars.
 Light Elements: these are elements from Hydrogen to Iron which form in less massive
stars.

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 Heavy Elements: these are elements heavier than Iron which form from massive
stars, supernovae, or neutron-star mergers.

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 What Is It

Among the proposed explanations on how the universe began, the Big Bang Theory
is the one currently accepted, theoretically. It describes that the universe started with a
singularity defined simply as a point where all matter, time, space, laws of the universe and
reality itself are condensed—ultimately inflating (not exploding) since approximately 14
billion years ago until now, according to NASA (National Aeronautics and Space
Administration).

Before the planet we live in right now came to existence as all the other planets and
solar systems and galaxies, the earliest elements were formed first.

Let us explore why the elements needed to exist first: all matter that makes up most
of the universe—including us—are made up of elements. These elements are what we study
about in the Periodic Table such as Hydrogen (H), Oxygen (O), and Gold (Au). Now we
need to understand the foundations and formations of elements.

This lesson primarily focuses on the formation of the heavier elements but in order to
understand that, we must first understand how the lighter elements were formed.

The steps below summarize the formation of the earliest and lighter elements in the
heart of massive stars, stars that are nine (9) times the size of our Sun:

1. There is first a huge cloud of Hydrogen (H) atoms. As per the law of the universe,
gravity will pull these atoms together.
2. The core (center) of this cloud will get dense and hot, like when more things rub
together they get hotter and more compressed. This dense and hot core will start to
ignite.
3. This ignition is the start of fusion and since the atoms that are fusing (clumping
together) are Hydrogen atoms, this is called Hydrogen Fusion happening in the core
of the cloud.

*KEEP IN MIND: When the Hydrogen fusion takes place, this doesn’t mean that
ALL the Hydrogen atoms are already fusing. The rest of the Hydrogen atoms
that are farther from the core remains outside the core. This trend happens not

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 only with Hydrogen but also with other elements when they start to fuse at a
later stage of element formation.

4. The heated core eventually becomes plasma: a soup of electrons and nucleuses that
are not as well-formed, explaining why they aren’t atoms yet.
5. Hydrogen atoms will eventually fuse into Helium (He) and this (He) is now the new
core. The surroundings of this (He) core is the previous (H) now called H-shell or H
fusion shell.

Figure 1.1 Shows the fusion of the isotopes of Hydrogen atoms to form a Helium atom.

6. Since the remaining H-shell are also constantly fusing into the (He) core, more (He) is
formed building up. With this (He) build-up, where gravity pulls atoms inward, there is
also pressure which pushes the H-shell outward causing the size of the star to get
bigger.
7. Steps 1-6 are going to continue until other fusions starts to happen:

a. He fuses with H into a Carbon (C) core with a He-shell outside it;
b. C fuses with He into Oxygen (O) core with a C-shell outside of it; and so on until
Iron (Fe).

8. Why do we stop at Fe? It’s because in order to produce another element after Fe,
more energy is needed than what the existing fusion can supply. That does not mean
only the elements from H to Fe are real elements. Heavier elements continue to form
where there is enough energy: during supernovae (plural of supernova—when stars
explode and die) and neutron-star mergers (when stars merges).

Now that we have cleared the basics of how the lighter elements are formed, we go
in-depth on how the heavier elements get formed—one concept still unknown to science but
supported by theories.

Stellar Nucleosynthesis is one of the ways heavier elements are formed.

Nucleosynthesis explains how new atomic nucleus are formed from nucleons preceding
from the new ones. There is also Nuclear Fusion, a process where neutrons and protons

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combine to new atoms. Nuclear fusion is how elements Hydrogen, Helium and small
amounts of Lithium and Beryllium were formed.

*REMEMBER: The number of protons (+) is the identity of an element, not the number
of neutron (+) nor the number of electrons (-).

Lesson
Synthesis of New Elements in
2 the Laboratory

What’s In

We have discussed that the lighter elements from Hydrogen to Iron were formed
through stellar nucleosynthesis in the cosmos or simply, space after the events of the Big
Bang.

However, there are elements that need so much energy that it needs to be recreated
in the laboratory in a controlled environment in order to be recorded here on our planet. This
does not mean that these heaviest elements are not possible in space—they are but their life
span can only last for a such a little time before ceasing to exist which makes obtaining
evidence of them hard.

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 What I Need to Know

At the end of this lesson, I should be able to:

1. Explain how the concept of atomic number led to the synthesis of new elements in
the laboratory;

2. Understand the synthesis of an element in a laboratory;

3. Know the importance of the periodic table of elements

What’s New

VOCABULARY

 Synthetic Elements: refers to the chemical elements formed in a laboratory through

certain, man-controlled processes.
 Transuranium Elements: these are elements heavier than Uranium.
 Isotopes: these are the same atoms with different number of neutrons.
 Atomic Number: this is the number of protons in an atom, pertaining to its identity.
 Atomic Weight: this is the number of protons and neutrons together of an atom.
 Periodic Trends: the chemical properties exhibited by the elements, reflected in the
periodic table through groups or families.

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 What Is It

The heaviest elements in the universe can be recreated in a laboratory. This type of
element creation is called the synthesis of elements which is the focus for this lesson.

It is important to note that these heavy elements, although created in a laboratory, do

exist in space. The main reason why these heavy elements are needed to be created here in
our planet is because traces of them in space cannot be harvested. The reason for this is
becuase their life spans are too short to be captured for evidence—microseconds short to be
exact.

Let us take the following scenario for example: the element Gold (Au) is too heavy
that whenever it takes form in spcae, it dissipates almost as soon as it was formed.

Back on 1913, a scientist named Henry Moseley sought to fix Dmitri Mendeleev’s
arrangement of the periodic table of elements. There was a discovery that arranging the
elements based on their weight didn’t reflect the element’s chemical properties properly.
Henry Moseley experimented by shooting electrons at varying elements. The result was that
the elements released x-rays at a certain frequency that increases as the protons increases.

Based on Henry Moseley’s x-ray spectroscopy experiment, he opted to arrange the

elements in the periodic table according to the square root of their unique frequency
emission resulting in a more organized table which shows periodic trends more clearly.
Moseley’s x-ray spectroscopy is vital in the synthesis of the heaviest elements in a
laboratory because it serves as a foundation of discovering that manipulating an element’s
number of protons can be done.

SYNTHESIS OF ELEMENTS

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 An element is identified by its number of protons because no two elements can have
the same number of protons. So in order to make a new, heavier element, protons must be
added to an existing atomic nuclei of an element.

A cyclotron—a type of particle accelerator—is a device invented and used to form

and accelerate protons to hit a target nuclei, causing an addition of a proton to the target
element.

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 Figure 2.1 Shows the simple mechanism and model of a cyclotron.

Figure 2.2 Shows the simple mechanism and model of a particle accelerator.

What are the elements synthesized here on Earth? These elements are those termed
as transuranic elements and those written at the bottom of the periodic table of elements
which are the heaviest in terms of atomic number, considered when heavier than Uranium
(U) with an atomic number of 92.

TRANSURANIC ELEMENTS

There are 26 transuranic elements in total, as follows:

Atomic
Number:
93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101

Element
Symbol:
Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md

Element
Neptunium Plutonium Americium Curium Berkelium Californium Einsteinium Fermium Mendelevium
Name:

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Atomic
Number:
102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110

Element
Symbol:
No Lr Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds

Element
Nobelium Lawrencium Rutherfordium Dubnium Seaborgium Bohrium Hassium Meitnerium Darmstadtium
Name:

Atomic
Number:
111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118

Element
Symbol:
Rg Cn Nh Fl Mc Lv Ts Og

Element
Name: Roentgeniu
Copernicium Nihonium Flerovium Moscovium Livermorium
Tennessin
Oganesson
m e

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