Principles of Communication . • Channel/Medium is the pathway of signals.

Frequency ( f ) Metric Unit Guide

**Created and Prepared by John Mark Padilla • Demodulator converts the signal back to a form • The number of cycles of a repetitive wave
August 18, 2019 : 5:00PM understandable by human. • Measured in cycles per second (cps) or in Hertz (Hz) Note:
• Information Consumer is the recipient of information or 1𝑐𝑝𝑠 = 1𝐻𝑧
History of Communication intelligence. • Given as: 𝒇 = 𝟏 / 𝑻
• Communication - the process of exchanging information or
intelligence. Digital Communication Wavelength ( λ )
WHEN WHERE/WHO WHAT • The distance of a wave occupied by one cycle
1876 Alexander Bell Invention of telephone • Usually expressed in meters or miles (Speed of light is given Types of Noise
1887 Heinrich Hertz Discovery of radio waves as 3x108 m/s or 186,000mi/ External Noise
1948 BELL Laboratories Invention of transistor • Given as: 𝛌 = 𝒄 / 𝒇 • Comes from sources which we have little or no control.
1973 –1976 Metcalfe Ethernet and first LANs
1975 United States First personal computers • This noise can be classified as industrial noise, atmospheric
1977 United States First use of fiber-optic cable Electromagnetic Spectrum noise, and extraterrestrial noise.
1982 United States TCP/IP protocol adopted • the total span of frequencies and wavelengths used in • Industrial Noise is produced by manufactured equipment
1995 United States Global Positioning System communication systems. It is divided into different section • Atmospheric Noise is the electrical disturbances that occur
deployed • Information Source is the information or intelligence to be bands. in the earth’s atmosphere often referred to as static which
1997 United States First Wireless LANs sent.
2009 Worldwide First 100 Gb/s fiber optical
• The allocation of the communication services within the usually comes from lightning.
• Source Encoder converts the message signal into a
networks overall spectrum is made by general worldwide agreement • Extraterrestrial Noise is classified to as solar and cosmic
Table 1.1 Historical Milestone of Electronic Communication sequence of bits. under the control of the International Telecommunications which comes from the sources in space.
• Information Bit is a basic unit of data/message used in Union (ITU). Internal Noise
Block Diagram of Communication Systems digital communications. • Produced by electronic components in a receiver circuit
• Channel Encoder adds redundancy to facilitate error such as resistors, diodes, transistors, etc.
recovery after transmission.
• Unlike external noise, there are some design to control over
• Modulator maps the coded bits to be sent to the channel. this type of noise.
• Channel/Medium is the pathway of signals. • Noise that are caused by random motion of free electrons
• Demodulator performs signal processing; produces bit in a conductor through heat is known as Thermal Noise, or
estimates to be feed to the channel decoder. is also referred to as white noise.
• Channel decoder processes the imperfect bit estimates • The amount of open-circuit noise voltage appearing across
from the demodulator.
• Transmitter converts the electrical signal to a suitable signal a resistor or the input impedance to a receiver can be
for transmission over a medium. • Source Decoder processes the estimated information bits to calculated according to Johnson’s Formula:
obtain an estimate of the message. 𝑽𝒏 = √𝟒𝒌𝑻𝑩R
• Channel or Medium is the material in which electronic
signal is sent. • Information Consumer is the recipient of information or
intelligence.
• Receiver accepts the transmitted signal from the medium
and convert it back to a form understandable by human.
Modulation
• Undesired current or voltages that occur in a circuit are
Bandwidth (BW)
called Noise.
• Portion of electromagnetic spectrum occupied by a signal.
• Circuits that can transmit and receive signals are called
Transceivers. • Determines the maximum speed of data pulses the medium
can handle and is Expressed in Hertz (Hz)
Modulation and Communication Theories • Is given as: 𝑩𝑾 = 𝒇 𝑈 – 𝒇 𝐿
Types of Electronic Communication
• One-way communication is called Simplex; it can send Gain, Attenuation and Decibels
information in one direction only. • Modulation is an electronic method for transmitting • Gain (A) is the amplification of a signal. When calculating noise values, you will frequently need to
• Attenuation (A) refers to the loss of power of a signal. make conversions from one of these temperature scales to
• Full Duplex is a two-way communication system where both information from a place to another. It is the process by
• Gain or Attenuation are both the ratio of the output to the another. The most common conversion formulas are given as:
parties can talk and listen simultaneously. which an information or intelligence is modified by the
• Half Duplex is also a two-way communication system, but Carrier. input of a circuit or antenna.
applies alternating direction. • Carrier is a high-frequency signal, usually a sine-wave • Given as: 𝑨 = output / input
generated by an oscillator. • For cascaded circuits, the total gain or attenuation (AT) is
Analog Communication • Original information or intelligence are called Baseband the product of all gain and attenuation factors. AT = (A 1 )(A2
Formula (1) for Temperatures in Fahrenheit to Celsius, or Kelvin to Celsius, respectively.
Signals. )(A3 )…(A n ) Formula (2) for Temperatures in Celsius to Fahrenheit.
• Baseband Transmission is the process of putting the • Gain and Attenuation are unitless or in Decibels (dB) Formula (3) for Temperatures in Celsius to Kelvin.

• Information Source is the information or intelligence to be
sent.
• Message Signal is the information or intelligence in
electrical form.
• Modulator transforms the message signal into transmitted
signal.
• Signals that are suitable for transmission are called
Transmitted Signal.
baseband signal directly into a medium.
• Information or intelligence is sent upon the carrier.
• Carrier is fed to the modulator along with the baseband
signal.
• The intelligence signal will be converted as modulated
carrier through high-frequency carrier oscillator and
modulator.
• The modulated carrier is amplified and sent to the antenna
(or any other channel/medium) for transmission.
Decibels (dB) is a unit of measurement of the human hearing
• Shot Noise is also white noise in that is contains all
response.
frequencies and amplitudes over a very wide range. The
• Formulas to convert a unitless gain or attenuation to
amount of shot noise is directly proportional to the amount
decibels are:
of DC bias flowing in a device. The rms noise current in a
device (𝑰𝒏) is calculated with the formula: 𝑰𝒏 = √𝟐𝒒𝑰B
• Transmit-time Noise refers to how long it takes for a current
carrier such as a hole or electron to move from the input to
the output.
• Flicker Noise is the type of noise which is strongest at lower
frequencies generally below a few kHz. The spectral density
of this noise increases as the frequency decreases.
Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR or S/N)
• Indicates the relative strengths of the signal and the noise in
a communication system.
• Communication devices aims to produce the highest
feasible SNR
• SNR is computed by using either voltage or power values:
𝑺𝑵𝑹 = 𝑽𝒔 / 𝑽𝒏 or 𝑺𝑵𝑹 = 𝑷𝒔 / 𝑷𝒏
Noise Levels and Noise in Cascaded Stages
• Noise Factor or Noise Ratio (NR) is the ratio of the Input SNR
Power to the Output SNR Power.
• NR is computed with the expression:
𝑵𝑹 = 𝑺𝑵𝑹 𝒊𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕 / 𝑺𝑵𝑹 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕
• Noise Figure (NF) is the noise factor expressed in decibels
(dB), given as:
𝑵𝑭 = 𝟏𝟎𝒍𝒐𝒈(𝑵𝑹)
• For cascaded stages the Overall Noise Performance (𝑵𝑹𝑻)
can be obtained using Friis’ formula, given as:
Concepts of Amplitude Modulation
• Remember that modulation is an electronic method for
transmitting information efficiently from a place to another.
• The signal containing intelligence or information to be
transmitted are called modulating signal.
• The sine wave modulating signal can be expressed with the
expression:
• Carrier frequency is greater than the modulating
frequencies, and is expressed as:
• Amplitude Modulation (AM) is a modulation technique in
which the modulating signal varies the amplitude of a
sinusoidal carrier signal.
• The resulting signal from the process of amplitude
modulation is called AM wave.
• In AM, amplitude of the modulating signal should be less
than the amplitude of the carrier (V𝑚 < V𝑐).
• Distortion will occur otherwise. Through derivation, the
instantaneous value of an AM wave (𝑣𝐴𝑀) can be
computed by using the equation:
Amplitude modulator showing input and output signals
Sample of carrier signal, modulating signal and modulated
signal waveforms
• The dotted line in the modulated signal is called Envelope
• The circuit used for producing AM is called modulator. It
computes the product of the carrier and modulating
signals, as shown
• Modulator changes a lower frequency modulating signal to
a higher frequency signal.
Modulation Index and Percentage of Modulation
• Modulating signal voltage (V𝑚) must be less than the
carrier voltage (V𝑐)
• The relationship between modulating signal voltage, and
carrier voltage is known as modulation index (m) given as:
• The value of modulation Index (𝒎) should be a number
between zero (0) and one (1).
• Distortion will occur if 𝒎 exceeds one (1). Which results to
garbled or harsh unnatural sounds in the speaker for voice,
while scrambled and inaccurate picture on a TV screen for
video.
• The ideal condition for AM is 𝑚 = 1, that is when V𝑚 = V𝑐,
which gives 100 percent modulation. Amplitude Modulation Power
• This results in the greatest output power at the transmitter • In radio transmission, the AM signal is amplified by a
and greatest output voltage at the receiver, without power amplifier and is fed to the antenna.
distortion. • AM signal is really a composite of several signal, namely
• Modulation Index can be computed from Vmax and Vmin the carrier and the two sidebands, with each producing
when the AM signal is displayed on an oscilloscope shown power in the antenna.
• The total transmitted power (PT) is simply the sum of the
carrier power (Pc) and the two power in the two sidebands
PUSB and PLSB:
Sample of an AM Wave
• Total transmitter power (PT) can also be computed when
the carrier power (PC) and the percentage of modulation
are known, given as:
Sidebands and the Frequency Domain
• Sidebands are new signals at different frequencies
generated whenever a carrier is modulated by an
information signal.
• Sidebands occur in the frequency spectrum directly above
and directly below the carrier frequency.
• Through modulation, signals that are originally had the
same spectrum can be translated to new frequencies and
thus not interfere with each other.
• Sidebands occur at frequencies that are the sum and
difference of the carrier and modulating frequencies,
computed as:
• Sideband signals are usually illustrated in a frequency
domain, where the horizontal axis represents frequency,
and the vertical axis represents the magnitude of the
signals (may be in voltage, current, or power amplitude) as
shown