Ap - TS Vi Class CDF Chemistry-2020-21 PDF

INDEX
S.NO : NAME OF THE LESSON PAGE NO:
1. MATERIALS AND THINGS 02 – 14
2. SEPARATION OF MIXTURES 15 – 17
3. FIBRE TO FABRIC 18 – 21
4. WATER 22 – 30
5. FUNDAMENTALS OF ATOM 31 - 34
5. AIR 35 – 38
VI - CLASS 2 CHEMISTRY – C.D.F
1. materials and things 

Objects around us are made up of a large variety of materials.
Ex : Plate, Steel, glass, plastics.
 A given material could be used to make a large number of objects.
It is also possible that an object could be made of a single material (or) of many
different types of materials.
Ex : Wood  Material
Chair, table, bullock cart  objects made of these materials.
 Different types of materials have different properties.
Ex : 1) Wood looks very different from iron.
 Some materials are shiny in appearance while others are not.Some materials are
hard, where as some others are soft.
Ex : Materials which can be compressed easilly are called ‘Soft’.
 Materials which are difficult to compress are called ‘hard’.
Ex : Cotton is soft while iron is hard.
 Some materials are soluble in water whereas some materials are insoluble.
Ex : Salt  Dissappears completely in water..
Sand  does not disappear..
 Some materials such as glass are transparent and some others such as wood are
“opaque” .
Does torch light pass through your palm ?
Translucent :The materials through which objects can be seen but not clearly are
known as translucent materials.
 All materials around us are made up of matter.
 What is matter :
1. All material bodies have weight and hence have mass.
2. All material bodies occupy space. Thus the matter of which the material
bodies are made, can be defined as:
“Any material which has mass and occupies space is called matter”.
RAVINDRA BHARATHI GROUP OF SCHOOLS

 STATES OF MATTER :
Matter exists in three states:
i) Solids : Substances like wood, stone, iron etc are solids.
ii) Liquids : Substances like water, milk, fruit juice, alcohol etc are liquids.
iii) Gases : Substances like oxygen, nitrogen, carbondioxide, steam, etc. are gases.
 Let us study the properties of solids, liquids and gases.
 Properties of a solid :
1. Observe solids like cups, saucers, knives, spoons etc. Do they change their
shape at room temperture? No, they do not change their shape. Thus “solids
have a definite shape”.
2. Take an example of wooden stool. It occupies space i.e, it has some volume.
Now ask your friend to sit on the stool. Does the volume of the stool change?
No,it does not. Thus,“solids have a definite volume”.
3. Take a bowl filled with sugar and empty the bowl on a plate. What do you
observe? The sugar does not flow, but instead it gets heaped.
From the above examples. It can be concluded that :
a) Solids have a definite shape.
b) Solids have a definite volume.
c) Solids do not flow. They can be steeped.
d) Solids do not need a container to hold them like that of liquids.
From the above properties a solid can be defined as:
“ Any material which has a definite shape and definite volume, such that it can have
any number of free surfaces” is called a solid.
 Properties of a liquid:
1. The liquids have no definite shape, they take the shape of the containing vessel.
2. Liquids have a definite volume.
3. Liquids always need some container. Otherwise they start flowing.
4. Liquids have only one definite free surface at the top of vessel in which they
are contained. This surface is always flat.
5. Liquids cannot be compressed i.e. their volume does not change with the
force of compression.
From the above properties a liquid can be defined as:
‘Any material which has a definite volume but no definite shape having one
free surface is called a liquid’.

 Properties of a Gas :
1. Gases have no definite shape, they take the shape of containing vessel.
2. Gases have no definite volume. They have a property to fill the entire space
available to them.
3. Gases can be compressed.
4. Gases have no free surface.
From the above properties we can define a gas as:
‘Any material which has neither definite shape nor definite volume which is easily
compressible and has no free surface is called a gas”.
 Why matter exists in three different states :
Matter is made up of very small particles which can exist independently. These
particles are commonly called molecules.
 The molecules of any kind of matter always attract each other. The force of
attraction between molecules is called intermolecular force.
 The intermolecular force of attraction between two molecules increases, if

the space between them decreases and vice - versa.
 This space between the molecules is called intermolecular space.
 Solids :
 In case of solids, the molecules are very tightly packed.
 The intermolecular space between the molecules is very small.Thus they

have very strong intermolecular force of attraction.
It is on account of this reason that molecules cannot interchange their

positions. Hence solids have a definite shape and definite volume.
Furthermore, they cannot be compressed.
 Liquids :
In case of liquids the molecules are not very tightly packed. The intermoleular
spaces between the molecules are far more when compared to solids. These
moleules do not have a strong intermolecular force.
The molecules are in a position to interchange their places. It is on account of

this reason that liquids do not have a definite shape but take the shape of the
containing vessel.

 Gases :
 In case of gases the molecules are very far apart from each other. Intermolecular
spaces are too large, therefore intermolecular forces are almost negligible.
It is an account of this reason that gases do not have a definite shape or definite
volume. The gases can fill the entire space available to them.
Arrangement of Arrangement of Arrangement of
molecules in solids molecules in liquids molecules in gases
S.No. Solids Liquids Gases

They have no definite
They have a definite They have neither
shape but have a
1 shape definite shape nor
definite
and definite volume definite volume
volume
Solids cannot be Liquids can be Gases can be easily
2
compressed slightly compressed compressed
Liquids flow from
Gases can flow in all
3 Solids can not flow higher
directions
to lower level
Intermolecular space is Small intermolecular Large intermolecular
4
very small space space
Intermoleuclar force of Less intermolecular

5 attraction is very force of Negligible
strong attraction
Infinite no.of free
6 one surface no free surface
surfaces

CHEMICAL CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER

Apart from the physical classification into solids, liquids and gases, matter can also
be classified based on its composition into pure substances and mixtures.
MATTER
PURE SUBSTANCES MIXTURES
ELEMENTS COMPOUNDS HOMOGENEOUS HETEROGENEOUS
METALS NON-METALS METALLOIDS NOBLE GASES
CHEMICAL CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER
We have already discussed that matter basing on its physical properties is classified
into three categories namely solids, liquids & gases. We also learnt that each kind
of matter is made up of molecules, which are in turn made up of atoms of either
same kind of atoms or of different kinds. Basing on the constituents with which
molecules are made they can be classified into two categories i.e into elements
and compounds. Matter can also be classified into pure substances and mixtures
basing on the kind of particles constituting it.
 PURE SUBSTANCE :
A homogeneous material which contains particles of only one kind and has a definite
set of properties is called a pure substance.
Ex : Iron, silver, oxygen, sulphur, water, carbondioxide ........ etc are pure substances,
because each one has only one kind of particles.

 Characteristics of pure substance :
1. A pure substance is homogeneous in nature.
2. It should have the same properties through out its mass.
 Element :
A pure substance which cannot be broken into two or more simpler substances by
any known physical (or) chemical means is called an element.
An element is made up of only one kind of atoms.
 Characteristics of Elements :
1. An element is a pure substance, made up of only one kind of atoms.
2. Except during nuclear reactions, an element cannot be broken into two (or) more
smaller parts.
3. An atom is the smallest unit of an element. It shows all the properties of that
element.
4. Elements may occur in free state in nature (or) are found in the form of their
compounds.
5. Some elemetns can be prepared artificially by the nuclear reactions.
6. Elements can be classified into four classes.
a) Metals b) Non metals c) metalloids d) Noble Gases.
7. Element has its own fixed melting and boiling points.
8. An element may chemically react with another element or compound.

 CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS BASED ON PROPERTIES :
Basing on chemical and electrochemical behaviour, elements are classified into four
categories, as Metals, Non-metals, Metalloids and Noble gases.
 METALS :A metal is an element which forms cations i.e positive charged ions by
losing electrons during the chemical reaction.
(or)
A metal is a constituent element of a compound which forms cation during
electrolysis.
 Exception : Hydrogen. Hydrogen though a nonmetal forms cation during electrolysis

of its compound, water.
 Examples :
1. Metals generally exist as hard solids at room temperature.

E.g. Gold, Silver, Copper ....etc.
2. Some metals like cesium and gallium have low melting points and exist as liquids
at high temperatures.
3. Mercury is the metal existing in liquid state at room temperature.
 NONMETALS :
Nonmetal is an element which forms anions by gaining electrons during chemical

reaction.
(or)
A nonmetal is a constituent element of a compound which forms anion during
electrolysis.
 Examples :Sulphur,Oxygen etc.
1. Non-metals exist as liquids, gases or soft solids.

Solid state nonmetals : Sulphur, carbon, phosporous, iodine.
Liquid state nonmetals : Bromine
Gaseous state Nonmetals : Oxygen, hydrogen, chlorine, fluorine, nitrogen.
METALLOIDS : The elements that exhibit the properties of both metals and
nonmetals are called metalloids.
E.g. Boron, silicon, germanium, arsenic, antimony, tellurium, polonium.
 NOBLE GASES : These are the elements which are found in air in the form of
gases in very small amounts. Therefore these gases are called as rare gases. They
are also called as noble gases as they do not react chemically with any other
elements.

PHYSICAL PROPETIES OF METALS

STATE : All metals generally exist in solid state at room temperature.
Exception : Mercury and Gallium exist in liquid state at room temperature.
LUSTRE : The property by which a substance can reflect light and appears bright is
known as lustre.
Metals are lustrous and can be polished.
Exception : Zinc
HARDNESS : Metals are generally hard.
Exception : Sodium, potassium, lithium are soft metals and they can be cut with
knife.
DENSITY : Metals generally have high density.
Exception : Sodium, potassium, lithium are having low density.
 MELTING AND BOILING POINTS :
Generally metals have high boiling points and melting points.
Exception : Sodium, potassium, gallium are having low melting points. Mercury melting
point is too low such that it exists in liquid state at room temperature.
SONORITY : It is the property by which a substance produces sound on striking with

any other body.Metals are generally sonorous.
MALLEABILITY : The property by which metals can be beaten into thin sheets without
breaking is known as malleability.
Exception : Zinc.
DUCTILITY : The property by which metals can be drawn into thin wires without
breaking is known as ductility.
Exception : Zinc.
CONDUCTIVITY : Metals are good conductors of heat and electricity.
Exception : Tungsten.
SOLUBILITY : Usually metals are insoluble in many solvents. But if a metal dissolves
it does by reacting chemically with the solution.

 PROPERTIES OF NONMETALS :
STATE : Nonmetals generally exist as soft solids or liquids or gases due to the weak
Vander Waal’s forces of attraction.
Solid state nonmetals : Carbon, phosporous, sulphur, iodine
Liquid state nonmetal : Bromine.
Gaseous state nonmetal : Oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen, fluorine, chlorine.
LUSTRE : Non metals don’t possess any lustre.
Exception : Iodine,graphite
HARDNESS : Nonmetals are generally soft.
Exception : Diamond is the hardest substance.
DENSITY : Generally nonmetals have low density.
Exception : Diamond's density is 3.5gm/cm3.
Melting point & Boiling point : Generally nonmetals have low melting points and boiling
points.
Exception : Carbon
SONORITY : Non metals are non-sonorous
DUCTILITY : Generally nonmetals are neither ductile nor malleable.
Exception : Buckminster fullerene, an allotrope of carbon is highly ductile.
CONDUCTIVITY : Poor conductors of heat and electricity.
Exception : Graphite is an allotrope of carbon and a conductor of
heat & electricity.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF METALLOIDS AND NOBLE GASES
LUSTRE : Metalloids may or may not have lustre.
Arsenic has lustre and silicon is not having lustre.
STATE : They are hard solids
DENSITY : Density of these metalloids is intermediate to that of metals and nonmetals.
 CONDUCTION OF HEAT AND ELECTRICITY :
Arsenic and antimony are good conductors of electricity where as silicon is a bad
conductor of electricity. They conduct heat moderately.
E.g. :Boron, silicon, germanium, arsenic, antimony, tellurium and polonium.
NOBLE GASES : These elements are found in air in the form of gas in very small
amounts. So,they are called rare gases.They are called noble gases because they
do not react chemically with any other element.
Noble Gases Symbol
Helium He
Neon Ne
Argon Ar
Krypton Kr
Xenon Xe
Radon Rn
Note : Helium is the second lightest element after hydrogen.
Radon is given out by the radioactive emission from earth.

 CHARACTERISTICS OF A COMPOUND :
COMPOUND :
A pure substance which is composed of two or more elements, combined chemically
in a fixed proportion by weight and can be broken into elements by chemical
methods alone is known as a compound.
E.g. Water, Magnesium Oxide, Calcium Carbonate, Caustic Soda, Carbon dioxide ... etc.
 A compound is homogeneous i.e the property of a compound throughout the bulk
of the substance is the same.
 The physical and chemical properties of a compound are different from those of it’s
constituent elements.
E.g. While hydrogen gas is combustible and Oxygen is a supporter of combustion, their
compound water which is a liquid is neither combustible nor a supporter of
combustion.
 In the formation of a compound from its elements, generally energy in the form of
heat, light or electricity is absorbed or evolved.
E.g. Combination of carbon with oxygen to form carbondioxide is associated with
liberation of energy in the form of heat and light.
 The elements of a given compound are always present in a definite proportion by
mass irrespective of the method of preparation of that compound.
E.g. Water consists of hydrogen and oxygen in the ratio of 1: 8 by mass.
 A compound cannot be separated into its constituents by simple mechanical or
physical processes.It can be separated only by chemical or electrochemical
processes.
E.g. Sodium chloride can be decomposed into sodium and chlorine by passing electricity
through molten sodium chloride.

 DEFINITION OF MIXTURE AND CHARACTERISTICS OF MIXTURE :
Mixture : A substance formed by mixing of two or more elements or compounds,

whose particles are in intimate contact, but do not combine chemically and
each constituent retains its individual properties is known as a mixture.
E.g. 1. Air is a mixture of oxygen, nitrogen, carbondioxide, water vapour and inert
gases.
2. Stainless steel is a mixture of iron, nickel, chromium and carbon.
3. Milk is a mixture of water, fats and carbohydrates.
4. Sugar solution is a mixture of sugar and water.
Types of Mixtures : A mixture can be homogeneous or heterogeneous.
 Homogeneous Mixture :
Homogeneous mixture has uniform composition and properties like density.

E.g. 1. Sugar solution is a mixture of sugar in water. In this mixture there is no
visible boundary of separation between sugar and water particles.
2. All solutions are homogeneous mixtures.
3. All alloys are homogeneous mixtures.
 Heterogeneous mixture :
Heterogeneous mixture will not have uniform composition through out and it has
variable properties like density at various points of mixture.
E.g. 1. In gun powder the constituents become visible under microscope. The sulphur
particles are yellow, the coal particles are black while that of nitre are white.
CHARACTERISTICS OF MIXTURES:
I.The constituents of a mixture can be separated by simple physical or mechanical
processes.
E.g. 1. A mixture of iron fillings and sulphur can be separated by rolling a magnet over
the mixture.
2.A mixture of common salt and water can be separated by evaporation.
II.The composition of a mixture is not fixed.That is the constituents of mixture can
be present in any proportion by weight.
E.g. Proportion by weight of carbondioxide in air varies from place to place.
III.Formation of mixture is not associated with energy change.
E.g. On mixing salt and water no energy change occurs.
IV.The properties of mixture are intermediate to the properties of its constituents.
E.g. Air supports combustion like oxygen and turns lime water milky like carbondioxide.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A COMPOUND AND A MIXTURE
Compound Mixture
A compound is always homogeneous. Mixtures can be homogeneous or

heterogeneous. They are mostly
heterogeneous except in solutions
which are homogeneous.
The constituents of a compound are The constituents of a mixture may be

present in a definite proportion, by mass. present in varying proportions.
Properties of a compound are different Properties are an average of those

from those of its constituents. of its constituents.
The various constituents cannot be The various constituents can be

separated by simple physical means. separated by simple physical means.
Generally, energy in the form of heat, No energy change takes place in the
or electricity is either evolved or formation of a mixture.
absorbed in the formation of a compound.
A compound generally has a definite fixed A mixture has no definite melting point
melting point or boiling point. or boiling point.
The constituents of a compound are The constituents of a mixture are not

chemically bound to each other. bound to each other.
 Why air is regarded as a mixture & water as a compound :
You have already learnt that a substance which consists of more than one kind of
particles is known as a mixture. If you consider air, it consists of different particles
such as oxygen, nitrogen, carbondioxide, inert gases, water vapour, dust particles
etc.These contents of air don’t lose their properties but retain their properties.
They are mixed physically without any chemical forces. The constituents of air can
be separated by fractional distillation.So by considering the above facts we can say
that air is a mixture.
Water is a pure substance made up of atoms of hydrogen and oxygen combined in

a fixed proportion by weight. The properties of water are different to the properties
of constituents i.e., hydrogen and oxygen. Water can be separated into hydrogen
and oxygen by electrolysis only but not by any physical or mechanical processes.
By considering the above facts we can consider water as a compound.
 2. seParatiOn OF miXtUres 
Generally we separate components of mixtures for different purposes in our daily
life. For example we remove small stones from rice before cooking, remove worms and
dust from flour before preparing roti. Similarly we separate impurities from water, tea
leaves from tea etc.
There are many instances when we notice a substance being separated from a
mixture of materials. For different types of mixtures we will use different methods, like
tea leaves are separated from the liquid with a strainer while preparing tea.
 Methods of separation:
We will discuss some simple methods of separating substances that are mixed together.
 Hand picking: Bring a packet of grain purchased from a shop to the classroom.
Now spread the grain on a sheet of paper. Do you find only one kind of grain on the
sheet of paper or are there pieces of stone, husksor grains in it. We will remove
stone & grain by hand and this process is called Hand picking. “ Removal of unwanted
waste things with hands is called Hand Picking.”
E.g : Ripe fruits from rotten fruits, spoiled vegetables from fresh vegetables.
 Winnowing: “ The process of separating husk from grain by farmers is called

winnowing”
On a windy day, the farmer stands on a high platform and allows the mixture of
grain and husk to drop from a flat pan slowly. The wind carries the husk forward and
the grains fall vertically downward. Like this we can separate grain & husk.
 Sieving: Separation of the particles based on different sizes is called sieving.
Sieving is resorted by farmers to remove bigger grains from the smaller ones. Similarly,
wheat, rice, pulses and many other things are sieved through sieves with bigger
holes. Even jewellers use sieves of various sizes to grade pearls of different diameters
Eg: Fine sand from coarse sand.

 Sedimentation and decantation:
“ This method is employed to remove heavy insoluble impurities in a suspension

by allowing them to settle at the base.” Take one glass of water and to this add small
amount of mud. Then we will get mud water .Keep this glass for five minutes without
disturbing. Then all solid mud particles will settle down and we will get clear liquid
above. The solid we get in this process is called sediment, and the clear liquid which
is obtained is called supernatant liquid.
“The process of pouring off clear liquid as far as possible without disturbing the
sediment is called decantation.
 Other examples: Sand & water, cleaning of rice and pulses for cooking.
 Filtration: The process of separation of insoluble solid constituents of a mixture

from its liquid constituents by passing the solution through a suitable porous material
is called filtration.
The clear liquid obtained in this process is called filtrate, and the insoluble solid
which is left on the filter paper is called residue (or) precipitate.
Ex: Tea leaves from brewed tea, chalk & water, cheese is prepared from milk by using
muslin cloth, AgCl & water, BaSO4 & water
 Evaporation: When a liquid changes into gaseous state by absorbing sunlight it is

called evaporation.
This method is useful to separate non-volatile, soluble solids from their solutions.
Ex: Salt & water, sodium sulphate & water.
 Distillation:The process of separation of a liquid from a soluble salt solution by the

evaporation of liquid and recondensation of its vapours is called distillation. The pure
liquid so collected from its salt solution by this process is called distillate.
Ex: In Gulf countries drinking water is obtained by the distillation of sea water.

 Sublimation: This method is applicable for those solid - solid mixtures in which one
of the solid on heating is directly converted into gas.
“Direct conversion of solid to gas on heating is called sublimation”
Eg: Solid I2, naphthalene balls, camphor, incense sticks, mosquito coils, ammonium
chloride etc all are examples for sublimable solids.
The solid which changes to gas is called sublimate.
The gas which is formed is called sublime.
 Centrifugation :
The method of separating finely suspended particles in a liquid by whirling the

liquid at a very high speed is called centrifugation.
The centrifugation is carried out in a machine called the centrifuge. The mixture
is placed in a tube with a pivot. When the machine starts rotating the centrifugal pull
tries to push the heavier particles towards the bottom of the mixture.
Ex: Blood and other biological samples are often separated by this method.
Cream from milk
 Magnetic separation :
This method is useful to separate the mixture which contains at least one
magnetic substance like Fe, Co or Ni.
Take sand & iron fillings and keep one bar magnet on the mixture. Then all the
iron fillings are attracted by the magnet.Thus we can separate iron fillings from sand.
 Other examples : Iron & sulphur mixture
Nickel & lead mixture
Charcoal & iron

3. FiBre tO FaBriC

 The fibres of some fabrics such as cotton, jute, silk, and wool are obtained
from plants and animals. These are called natural fibres. Cotton and jute are examples
of fibres obtained from plants. Wool and silk fibres are obtained from animals. Wool
is obtained from fleece of sheep (or) goat. It is also obtained from the hair of
rabbits, yak, and camels. Silk fibre is drawn from the cocoon of silk worm.
For thousands of years natural fibres were the only ones available for making
fabrics. In the last hundred years (or) so, fibres are also made from chemical
substances, which are not obtained from plant (or) animal sources. These are called
synthetic fibres. Some example of synthetic fibres are polyster, nylon and acrylic.
 Fabrics for different purposes :

Different kinds of fabrics are used for different purposes. Cotton absorbs moisture
and allows it to evaporate. So most of us wear cotton clothes in summer. Synthetic
fibres like nylon are light and soft- textured. They do not absorb moisture. So they
are not ideal for use during summer. Silk and woolen clothes trap heat and are used
during winter.
 Identifying natural and synthetic fabrics :

Obtain small pieces of different types of cloth from a tailor and separate the pieces
on the basis of their texture. Cotton fabric is coarse compared to silk, polyester (or)
nylon. Silk is a smooth fabric. Nylon and silk are shiny fabrics.
 Fabrics from plant fibres :
 Cotton :
The cotton plant grows best in warm areas with moderate rainfall. Black soil is
suitable for growing cotton.
The cotton fibre grows around the seeds in a cotton ball. The fibres dry when
the cotton ball opens up.The dry cotton fibre is soft, strong and a good absorbent.
Each fibre is made up of many layers of a substance called cellulose.
The fibre is separated from the seed and spun into cotton yarn(thread). The
yarn is woven into cotton, fabric, denim and terry cloth. Cotton fabric is used to
make dresses, shirts and bed sheets. Denim is used to make jeans and terry cloth is
used to make bath towels.

 Jute :
The jute plants grow best in warm, humid climates of India, Bangladesh and China.
During the rainy season the plants are harvested after they flower, but before the
flowers form seeds.
The stem stalks are tied into bundles and soaked in water for about 20 days.
This softens the tissue from which fibres are separated. The fibres are then washed
in running water and hung up for drying. Jute is a strong and durable fibre. It is the
cheapest fibre. It is used for making sacks to store food grains. The yarn is also
woven into cloth, curtains, carpets, bags and ropes. Jute is biodegradable. Jute is
used to make bags for planting saplings. These saplings can be planted along with
the bags without disturbing the roots.
Coarse jute mats are used to cover vast areas of barren land to prevent soil
erosion from wind and flowing water. The mats allow enough time for natural
vegetation to grow. These mats are therefore called soil savers.
 Coir :
Coarse and strong, the coir fibre is obtained from the outer covering of the
coconut. The white coir fibre is used to make fishing nets due to its tolerance to salt
water. Brown coir is used in floor mats, doormats, brushes, ropes and pots to grow
plants. It is also used to fill mattresses.
Coir mats are also used as soil savers to check soil erosion on river banks and
hillsides.
 Flax :
Flax fibre is extracted from the skin of the stem of the flax plant. The fibre is
soft, flexible and strong . It is also a raw material for making high quality paper used
for printing currency. This is also used in the interiors of expensive cars.
 Fabrics from animal fibres :
 Wool :
Wool is obtained from the hair of animals like sheep, camel and goat. Removing
the wool from sheep is called shearing. After shearing the wool is cleaned and spun
into fibre. Wool retains air between the fibres. This enables it to retain body heat.
Woolen clothes are therefore good for wearing in winter.
 Silk :
Silk is obtained from the cocoon that silk worm weaves around it self. The rearing of
silk worms for the production of silk is known as sericulture. Silkworm feeds on
mulberry leaves. The cocoon is boiled in water to kill the silkworm and then the
cocoon is unwound to get silk fibre.

 Artificial fibres :
Fibres that are made by humans are called synthetic fibres. Natural fibres do
not possess a perfect combination of characteristics, performance, availability as
well as cost.
Man-made fibres are chemically produced. There are many different

manufactured fibres available today.
Most of the synthetic fibres are obtained from coal, petroleum and natural gas.
A synthetic fibre consists of multiple units which are joined together to form a single
unit called polymer.
 Rayon :
Rayon is the first synthetic fibre. It is a cellulose fibre and considered to be a

replica of the natural fibres from cotton and silk.
Rayon is made from wood. Wood is first converted to wood pulp and then
treated with chemicals to form a viscous solution called viscose.
The fibres are made by passing the viscose solution through the fine holes of a
shower head called spinneret. They are hardened by passing them into a sulphuric
acid bath. They are finally spun into rayon yarn. Rayon is called regenerated fibre as
the original raw material cellulose is broken down and then reformed.
 Uses :
 Rayon is soft, comfortable and absorbent like cotton.
 Rayon is called artificial silk, because of its shine.
 Due to its strength and shine it is also a good fabric for home furnishing such as bed
spreads curtains and carpets.
 Being a strong fibre it is used in automobile tyre cords.
 Nylon :
Nylon was first introduced in 1930. It is a polymer made from two monomers by a
process called condensation polymerisation. There are various nylons such as nylon-
6, nylon 6.6 and nylon 5.10. Nylon is considered as substitute for silk and became
popular as the material for women’s stockings.

 Uses :
 Nylon is a strong and elastic material and hence suitable for socks, track suits,
combat uniforms and parachutes.
 It is light, wrinkle-resistant and easy to wash. It is therefore used to make garments

like saris. It is also wear resistant and garments made from it last long.
 It dries quickly, hence it is suitable for making swim ware.
 Because of its high strength, it is used in making tyre cords. Nylon ropes are used in
mountaineering.
 It is also using in zip fasteners, tooth brushes and fishing nets.
 Polyester :
Polyester has properties similar to that of nylon. It is strong, crease resistant, light
elastic and absorbs very little water.
PET (polyethylene terephthalate), the commonly used polyester, is made from two
monomers by condensation polymerisation.
 Uses :
 Polyster can be mixed with cotton to make the blended fabric called polycot.
 It can be mixed with wool to make the blended fabric called terry wool.
 Due to its light weight, it is also used to make fire hoses.
 Due to its light weight, unaffected by water and resistant to sea salts, it is used to
make sails of ships.
 It is resistant to stretching and shrinking, and hence is good for making curtains &
draperies.
 Acrylic :
Acrylic is a light weight, soft and warm synthetic fabric which has a wool like feel. It
does not shrink, is wrinkle-resistant and cheaper than wool.
 Characteristics of synthetic fibres :
 They are stronger, more elastic, more durable and more tough.
 They are resistant to colour.
 They are easy to wash and dry.
 They retain the crease longer and do not wrinkle.
 They do not shrink when washed.
 They are resistant to moth attack.

 4. Water 
Introduction :
 Water is an essential requirement of all living beings. We need water for drinking,
bathing, washing, cooling and cooking our food. All domestic and wild animals,
need water. Water is used for watering plants and crops. Water is used in our
industries. Water is used for the generation of electricity which is an important
source of energy.
DO YOU KNOW ?
Nearly 70 percent of our body is water and the rest is solid matter. Water from
our body is being lost every moment through water vapour in our breath, sweat
and urination. This loss of water is replaced through drinks and food. The food we
eat is also full of water. Grapes, oranges and tomatoes have 90 percent water.
Milk and vegetable soups are mostly water.
Tomato, grapes, Green

Man Chicken
oranges vegetables
(70% water) (75% water) (90% water) (55 to 60% water)
 WATER AND THE EARTH :
Nearly three - fourth of the earth’s surface is covered with water. The rest is land.
Oceans are full of water. Sea water is nearly 98% of the water available on the
earth. Only 2% of the water on earth is available on land. Most of the water on
land is not suitable for human consumption. It is nearly 0.01% water which is
potable.
 WATER IN OUR DAILY LIFE :
Water is the most wonderful gift from nature. Water supports life. Life on earth is
not possible without water.
We can live without food for weeks but not without water. This shows the importance
of water for the living beings. Both plant and animals need water.
Water is an essential requirement of all the living beings.

 THREE STATES OF WATER :
When we think of water it is the liquid form of water which comes to our mind.
Most of the water of Earth is found in liquid form. Water on the earth exists in three
states–solid, liquid and gas. All the three states of water are of common occurrence,
though liquid water is better known to all of us.
 WATER AND ITS FORMS :

Ice is the solid state of water.
Water is the liquid state of water.
Vapour (or) steam is the gaseous state of water.
 CHANGES IN STATES :
In nature, water is ever changing its state. The change of state of water is brought
about by heating (or) cooling.
 ICE MELTS TO FORM LIQUID WATER :

Ice is the solid state of water. Ice changing to water is known as melting of ice. In
nature ice is found on high mountains. Snow is the natural form of ice. Snow on
hills melts and it flows down the hills in the spring and finally reaches rivers.
 WATER EVAPORATES TO FORM WATER VAPOUR:

On heating water evaporates to form water vapour. Water changing into water
vapour is known as “evaporation of water”.
Evaporation takes place at all places at all temperatures and at all times. Water
evaporates in shade and at room temperatures. Evaporation is faster in sunlight.
Heat and wind speed up the process of evaporation of water. In nature water
from seas, oceans, lakes, ponds, puddles, plants (crops and trees), animal bodies
and all wet places is evaporating all the time. On evaporation water goes into the
air. A great amount of water vapour is added to the air by the plants. Plants absorb
water from the soil with the help of their roots. A part of this water is used by the
plants in making food and adding to the growth of the plants. A major part of this
water is lost by the plants by the process of transpiration.
Thus water vapour is being continuously added to the air through the process of:
Evaporation from the surface of the oceans and water bodies on earth,
including the soil.
Transpiration from plants including crops and forests.

 ON COOLING WATER VAPOUR CHANGES TO WATER:
Take a glass with some ice cubes in it. Wipe the glass dry from out side. Keep it on
the table for some time. Soon you will observe water drops dripping on the out
side of the glass. From where these drops of water come ?
Water vapour in the air on coming in contact with the cool glass changes into
water drops. These water drops are seen by us. Vapour changing into liquid on
cooling is known as ‘Condensation”. Water vapour changing to water on cooling is
known as the condensation of water vapour.
Evaporation and condensation of water is taking place in nature at all places and at
all times. Freezing of water to form ice takes place under special conditions when
the temperature gets quite low.
Ice 
Melting
 Water 
Evaporation
 Water Vapour
Solid  
Freezing 
 Liquid  
Condensation 
 Steam(or)Gas 
 OCCURRENCE OF WATER :
Water occurs in free as well as in combined states. However most of it occurs in

free state. In free state it occurs in solid, liquid and gaseous states.
In solid state, large amount of fresh water is found in the form of ice (or) snow.
Vast regions of Antarctica and Arctic circle have frozen water. High peaks of
mountains where perpetual snow occurs, have frozen water. Frost, hail etc., are
other forms of frozen water.
In liquid state, most of the water is present in oceans. On land, water is found in
streams, lakes, springs, rivers, ponds, etc. The water found on the land is commonly
called ground water. Dew is also liquid state of water.
In gaseous state it mostly occurs as water vapour on condensation. This water

vapour changes to clouds, mist, fog etc.
In combined state water is an important constituent of all living matter. It is

present in carbohydrates, proteins etc. It is present in certain salts as water of
crystallization.

 CLOUD AND RAIN :
It is the heat form the sun and the wind around which increases the rate of
evaporation of water from the water bodies on the earth. Heat and wind also
increase the rate of transpiration from plants. Thus, a big amount of water from
the earth goes into the air. Normally, water vapour is not visible in the air. It gets
mixed up with the air. However, it’s presence is felt with the increased humidity.
 FORMATION OF CLOUDS :
Fine dust particles are present in the air. Water vapour in the air gets around the dust
particles to form tiny droplets of water. These tiny droplets of water float in the air
as clouds. Clouds are tiny droplets of water around dust particles floating in air.
 RAIN, THE PRECIPITATION OF WATER :
The main reason for the formation of clouds is the warm air. We also know that
the warm air rises up, and higher you go cooler it is. The tiny droplets of water
vapour in the clouds rise up. However, as these clouds rise they are cooled.
On cooling they cannot hold, as much water vapour condenses to form droplets of
water which are heavy enough to be held by the air. They came down as drops of
water, this is rain. Water drops coming down as rain is called precipitation.
At times, it is very cold in the air. The rain drops coming down when pass through
the cold region on their way to the earth may get frozen into ice crystals. These
ice crystals fall on the earth as hail (or) snow.
Snow fall is common on high hills. Advantage with the snow is that it remains in the
form of ice for a long time forming ice caps on the mountain tops. Snow melts
gradually forming water which comes out as springs (or) flows in the rivers.
Note: Rain is the primary source of water on land.
 GROUND WATER:
When it rains, a part of the water goes into the soil. It remains in the soil. The soil
water is available to the plants, seeds and animals living in the soil. Some of the
soil water passes through the pores in the soil to reach the non-porous rocks
beneath. Water gets collected on the non-porous rocks, and this is known as
ground water. The level attained by the ground water is called the water table.
Ground water keeps the soil moist. It is taken up by the deep growing roots from
the trees. Ground water is a good source of fresh and safe water for human
consumption. It can be obtained by sinking tube wells (or) digging wells.

 SURFACE WATER (OR) THE RUNAWAY WATER:
When it rains heavily a big quantity of water runs off the surface of the earth. It
goes into the drains, streams and the rivers. This is runaway water. A part of the
runaway water gets collected into low lying areas on land forming pools and ponds.
They also fill up the lakes. Rest of the water flows into the rivers which finally
reaches the sea. Once the water reaches the sea it is lost in the ocean.
The runaway water carries dust, minerals and many other impurities with it. This
water is not good for human consumption. It needs cleaning before it is used.
 SEA WATER:
Rivers ultimately flow into the sea. Rivers add all kinds of impurities to the sea
water. Water in the river also contains large amount of minerals dissolved in it.
This makes the sea water salty. Sea water is not fit for human use. Sea water
supports only marine life.
 WATER CYCLE - CIRCULATION OF WATER IN NATURE:

Water flows from a higher level to a lower level. Snow on high hills melts. This
brings water to rivers. Rain water adds to the water in rivers and rivulets. Water
on land is available from rain, springs, lakes, ponds, puddles, rivers and wells. River
flows into the sea. Nature has its own method for lifting the downward flowing
water and to take into a higher level. Water on the earth evaporates all the time at
all the places. Water vapour forms clouds. Clouds carry water to places at higher
levels. On cooling clouds bring rain. This cycles goes on in nature. The journey of
the water from oceans to atmosphere and back to the oceans is the “water
cycle”.
 Water as universal solvent:

Water can dissolve in it all kinds of solids, liquids(or gases) However, certain
substances dissolve rapidly where as certain substances very slowly.
The substances which dissolve rapidly in water are called soluble substances.
For example common salt, sugar, etc. are soluble substances.
The substances which dissolve very little (or) do not seem to dissolve are called
insoluble substances. For example glass, metals, stone etc, are insoluble substances.
It must be remembered that all substances dissolve in water over a period of time,
which may be a few minutes or a few centuries. It is because of this property that
water is called universal solvent.

 Solvent :
A liquid which dissolves other substances in it is called solvent.
For example in water common salt (or) sugar dissolves, therefore water is a
solvent.
 Solute :
A substance which dissolves in a liquid is called solute.
For example : common salt (or) sugar are solutes as they dissolve in water.
 Solution :
A product formed by the dissolution of solute in a solvent is called solution. For
example when common salt (solute) dissolves in water (solvent), then the product
so obtained is called common salt solution.
 Saturated solution :
A solution which cannot dissolve more of a solute at a given temperature is called
“saturated solution” at that temperature.
For example if we take 100 cc of water and add to it 10g of common salt and stir
it well, the common salt dissolves. However, if we go on adding more and more of
common salt, a stage will come when common salt will stop dissolving in water, no
matter how much you stir the solution. At this stage, the clear solution in contact
with its own solute (common salt) is called saturated solution.
 Solubility of a substance :
The maximum amount of solute which will dissolve in 100g of water at a given
temperature so as to form a saturated solution is called solubility of the substance
at that temperature.
For Example :
If 36 gm of common salt (NaCl) dissolves in 100g of water at 20 0 C then the
solubility of common salt is 36gm/100gm of water at 20°c. It must be remembered
that solubility is different for different substances.
 Importance of dissolved gases in water :
Dissolved gases in water provide taste to water. Oxygen dissolved in water helps
in the respiration and survival of aquatic life. Oxygen present in the water also
helps to kill some of the harmful germs and bacteria which may cause diseases.
Similarly, carbondioxide gas dissolved in water is a source of food for water plants.
In summer the fishes die in shallow ponds. It is because solubility of air decreases
with the rise in temperature. Thus, the fishes do not get sufficient amount of
oxygen and hence they die. When soft drink bottle is opened, it produces a lot of
froth. It is because the solubility of carbondioxide decreases when the crown is
removed from the bottle. The removal of the crown reduces pressure on the soft
drink. Now with the decrease in pressure the solubility of carbondioxide decreases
and hence it bubbles out.

 Causes of pollution of the natural water bodies :
4/5th of Earth’s surface is covered with water. However, even one percent of this
water is not available to man in the form of potable water. There are places on the
earth where there is an acute shortage of water. Even where potable water is
available, it is polluted with variety of chemicals, germs and bacteria. Let us study,
how water gets polluted.
 Pollution caused by defecation of living beings :
In most of the rural India, people defecate in the open fields. Animals also defecate
any where and every where. When it rains the excreta of humans (or) animals is
washed to streams and rivers. Thus, the potable water gets polluted. If polluted
water is consumed by the humans (or) animals it causes diseases like dysentery,
diarrhea, jaundice, cholera, typhoid etc. The excreta of humans and animals contains
eggs of worms like tapeworm, hookworm, round worms etc. When this polluted
water is consumed by animals the eggs hatch, causing serious diseases.
In many places, raw excreta is directly dumped in rivers. The sewage of big cites is
also discharged in the rivers directly. This highly polluted water can cause serious
epidemics in the population living down streams.
 How the problem of pollution due to defecation can be solved :
In villages the people should be encouraged to use pit latrines. In doing so, the
excreta is converted into useful manure. Furthermore, it is not carried to rivers by
rain water. The cow dung should be converted into biogas plants (Gobar gas plant).
This gas can be used for cooking and illumination purposes,where as the slurry left,
is a rich natural manure. It can be used for fertilising fields.
The sewage water in big cities should be treated properly and all harmful substances
should be removed from it before discharging it in the rivers.
 Pollution caused by Industries and Agricultural Operations :
Industries, such as chemical industry, paint industry, leather industry, textile industry,
dyestuff industry etc need large amount of fresh water. However, when this water
is discharged it contains metallic salts of mercury, lead, cadmium, chromium, arsenic
etc. These salts are highly poisonous in nature. If the water polluted by the above
industries is directly discharged in rivers it can kill the fish and water plants. If
consumed by the animals or plants it causes serious diseases.
During the agricultural activities farmers use a variety of artificial fertilisers. They
also spray the crops with very poisonous insecticides which are washed down to the
rivers, thereby causing pollution of potable water. Sometimes these chemicals
percolate through the soil and mix with the underground water. This causes pollution
of the underground water.

 How pollution due to industries and agricultural operation can be minimized.
The waste water coming out of factories should be treated with chemical substances,
so as to remove harmful metallic salts. The treated water should be discharged in
rivers.
Under the “Ganga Action plan” the water of river Ganga is being purified by forcing
the industries to set up water treatment plants.
 Purification of water :
Water is called universal solvent. It practically dissolves anything and everything in
it. Certain substances dissolve in it rapidly, where as others may take years (or)
centuries to dissolve.
If exposed to air, it dissolves a little of oxygen and carbondioxide gas. It
dissolves a very small amount of containers in which it is kept. Thus to prepare
perfectly pure water it is not impossible but it is very difficult.
However for all practical purposes water free from dissolved impurities and
pure enough for accurate chemical work can be obtained by distillation.
 Purification of water by distillation :
For the purification of water by distillation a more advanced distillation apparatus is
used. This apparatus is called continuous water still.
In this apparatus the tap water (or impure water) is warmed by condensing
steam, before it is actually boiled in the still. Thus less fuel is needed in changing the
water into steam and hence it is more economical. The water suitable for drinking is
called potable water.
2. How water is made safe for drinking ?
Clear water may not be safe for drinking as it may contain harmful bacteria and
germs. There are two ways to eliminate harmful microorganisms.
i) Boiling :
Small quantities of water can be made safe for drinking purpose by boiling it
for ten to fifteen minutes. During this time, all the germs and bacteria, are killed and
water becomes safe for drinking.
ii) Chemical treatment :
Boiling water is time consuming and expensive. To avoid this difficulty, water
is treated with chlorine which kills germs and bacteria. Explorers and soldiers are
supplied with chlorine (or) halazone tablets. When the tablets are dissolved in water
they liberate chlorine which kills germs and bacteria. Thus water becomes safe for
drinking.

 Floods due to excessive Rains:
Though rains bring enjoyment and relief to the people, especially the farmer but
heavy downpour during monsoon brings floods. Flood is the situation when rain
water does not get into the soil and the runaway water is not drained into the
river.The river over flows its banks and water spreads all over. Water submerges
the surrounding areas and water gets into our homes. It spoils everything which
comes in its way.
Floods affect the normal life. Water goes deep into the soil filling up the burrows
and the air cavities. Soil air comes out resulting in creating problem for the life in the
soil. Animals like ants, insects, earth worms, rats and snakes are forced to come
out of their living places as they are unable to breathe in water logged soil. The other
harmful effects of floods are:
1. Disruption of normal life
2. Damage to the property
3. Death of domestic animals due to drowning
4. Uprooting of the tress
5. Washing away of the crops
6. Disruption in transport and communication
7. Reduced availability of food
8. Spread of diseases
 Drought due to absence of rains :
What may happen if it does not rain at all. Without rain there is no water. Even the
air gets dry. Soil gets dry and parched. Streams, ponds and even lakes often dry up
completely. The dry soil gets loose and is blown away with the wind. This creates
damage to the soil.
Extreme lack of rain causes serious damage to the crops. Cattle die of thirst and
hunger. Forest fires are common. It becomes difficult to control fires in the absence
of sufficient water. Drought affects the soil, people, plants and animals
There are places in Rajasthan and Gujarat where some areas frequently suffer
from drought. The people there migrate to the place where they are able to get food
and water.
At times it is man who is responsible for the drought. The rains at a place are
affected by the vegetation and the trees growing at a place. It is also affected by the
poor maintenance of water resources. Indiscriminate cutting of tress and unscientific
cropping and harvesting may also result in poor rains at a place thus causing drought
conditions.

VI - CLASS CHEMISTRY – C.D.F
5. FUndamentals OF atOm

31
 MATTER : Matter is anything that:
1. Occupies space
2. Contains mass
3. Perceived by one or more of our senses
Ex : Air , Water, Food, e.t.c.
 COMPOSITION OF MATTER :
1. Matter is made up of extremely small and invisible particles called “ATOMS”.
2. The atoms are the building blocks of matter.
3. An element is a pure substance composed of only one kind of atom.
 ATOM :
1. The smallest particle of an element which participates in chemical reactions is
called an atom.
2. It may or may not have independent existence.
 MOLECULE :
1. The smallest particle of an element (or) compound that has independent existence
is called molecule.
2. The concept of molecule was first given by ‘Avogadro’.
NOTE :
1. Atoms of inert gases like Helium, Neon, Argon, Krypton, Xenon and Radon exist
independently while the other atoms always exist in molecular state.

 TYPES OF MOLECULES :
Molecules are of two types,
1. Homoatomic molecules
2. Heteroatomic molecules
 HOMOATOMIC MOLECULES :
1. A molecule formed from the same kind of atoms is called homoatomic molecule.
2. Homoatomic molecules are the molecules of an element.
Ex : Oxygen molecule (O2) contain two atoms of oxygen.
N2, F2, H2 etc.,
 HETEROATOMIC MOLECULES :
1. A molecule formed by the union of different kinds of atoms is called heteroatomic
molecule.
2. Heteroatomic molecules are the molecules of a compound.
Ex : H2O, HCl, NH3 etc.
A molecule of water contains two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen.
 ATOMICITY :
1. The number of atoms present in a molecule is called atomicity.
 MONOATOMIC : A molecule composed of only one atom.
Ex : Inert gases, metals.
 DIATOMIC : A molecule composed of two atoms .
Ex : H2, N2, O2, F2, etc.
 TRIATOMIC : A molecule composed of three atoms.
Ex : O3
 POLYATOMIC : A molecule composed of more than 3 atoms.
Ex : P4 (Tetra atomic ) , S8 ( Octaatomic)

STRUCTURE OF ATOM
1. FUNDAMENTAL PARTICLES :
Atoms of all elements are made up of three fundamental particles. They are electrons,
protons and neutrons.
F u n d a m e n ta l Disco ve re d
P a rticle by
E lec tron J.J. Thom s on
P roton G olds tein
Neutron Chadwic k
2. The central part of the atom is called nucleus. Nucleus contains protons and
neutrons.
electrons
Nucleus
Orbits
3. The nucleus is positively charged due to the presence of positively charged protons
in it.
4. The electrons are outside the nucleus and have negligible mass.
5. The electrons revolve rapidly around the nucleus in fixed circular paths called as
“shells” or “orbits” or “Energy levels”.
6. The neutrons present inside the nucleus possess no charge.
 PROPERTIES OF FUNDAMENTAL PARTICLES :
Particle Symbol Relative Absolute Mass (Kg)

Charge Charge
Electron e– – 1 –1.6 x 10–19 9.11 x 10–31
Proton p+ +1 + 1.6 x 10–19 1.673 x 10–27
Neutron n O O 1.675 x 10–27

 ATOMIC NUMBER (Z) :
* The number of protons present in the nucleus of an atom.(or )The number of electrons
present in a neutral atom.
* It is denoted by the letter ‘Z’.
 MASS NUMBER (A) :

* The total number of protons and neutrons present in the atom is called mass number.
* It is denoted by the letter A.
* A n p
* A=n+p
A=n+z
 n  A Z
Number of neutrons=Mass number - Atomic number
LIST OF ELEMENTS AND THEIR ATOMIC NUMBERS :
Element Symbol Atomic No. Mass No.

‘Z’ ‘A’
Hydrogen H 1 1
Helium He 2 4
Lithium Li 3 7
Beryllium Be 4 9
Boron B 5 11
Carbon C 6 12
Nitrogen N 7 14
Oxygen O 8 16
Fluorine F 9 19
Neon Ne 10 20
Sodium Na 11 23
Magnesium Mg 12 24
Aluminium Al 13 27
Silicon Si 14 28
Phosphorous P 15 31
Sulphur S 16 32
Chlorine Cl 17 35.37
Argon Ar 18 40
Potassium K 19 39
Calcium Ca 20 40

VI - CLASS
6. air
35 CHEMISTRY – C.D.F
 Introduction :
Air is found every where on the earth. Living things can’t survive without air. Air is
necessary for breathing and combustion. The earth is surrounded by an envelope of
air, which extends upto 200km into space. It is commonly called atmosphere.
Ancient philosophers regarded air as one of the most vital elements. However,
in 1674, it was proved that air consists of two substances, one of which is active
and other is inactive.
Lavioiser, in 1789, proved that active component of air is 1 5 th of the total
volume of air, whereas inactive component is 4 5 th of the total volume of air. He
named active component as oxygen and the inactive component as nitrogen. The
ratio of oxygen and nitrogen in air is about 1:4 by volume.
 Study of the various constituents of Air :
 To show the presence of oxygen and nitrogen in air :
To show that oxygen & nitrogen present in air, take a test tube 8cm long and fix
along its side a 5cm long strip of graph paper. In the test tube place a piece of
phosphorus and over it fix a cotton wool plug. Invert the test tube in a beaker which
is containing water and make the water level inside beaker & outside to zero. After
some time we will notice that the level of oxygen inside the test tube will increase by
1 cm. The oxygen which is present inside the test tube reacts with phosphorus to
form phosphorus pentoxide gas. This gas dissolves in water to form phosphoric
acid. That’s why water level increases.
Phosphorus + oxygen  Phosphorus pentoxide
Phosphorus pentoxide + water  Phosphoric acid
The level of water increases by 1cm out of 5cm. It is clear that air contains one part
of oxygen and the remaining four parts are nitrogen.

 To prove that oxygen is present in air :
Take two candles and keep them in two vessels and then light the candles and
invert two glasses on them. The candles burn for some time and after that both
candles will go off.
Because of oxygen present in the glass, candles burn for some time.After
completion of oxygen candles will go off.
 To prove that carbon dioxide is present in air :
To show that air contains carbondioxide, take a clean test tube and fill it with lime
water.Fix a rubber cork having two delivery tubes in the mouth of the test tube.
Suck the air from the tube which is not dipping in the lime water and exhale the air
from second test tube. Then we will identify that lime water turns milky. This indicates
that carbondioxide is present in the air. Ca  OH  2  CO2  CaCO3  H 2O
 If we burn anything in the closed room, we may get suffocation. This is due to
excess of carbondioxide present in the room.
 All plants & animals on burning produce carbondioxide mainly.
 To show the presence of water vapour in air :
Take a water bottle & fill with water, and place it in one cool room. After some time
we will find that the outer parts of test tube contain water droplets. This indicates
that atmosphere contains water vapour.
 Colourless anhydrous copper sulphate when kept outside during winter season
changes to blue colour. This also indicates that water vapour is present in air. During
winter you might have observed a beam of sunlight filter through the trees in which
dust particles appear dancing merrily around.
This shows that air contains dust particles. When we inhale air through nostrils fine
hair and mucus present inside the nose prevent dust particles from getting into the
respiratory system.
Air contains some gases, water vapour and dust particles. The gases in air are
mainly nitrogen, oxygen, small amounts of carbondioxide and other gases.
Oxygen becomes available to animals and plants living in water and soil.
Take some water in a glass vessel. Heat it slowly on a tripod stand well before
the water begins to boil. Look carefully you will find the bubbles. This proves that
oxygen is present in the water.
Some bubbles will be observed when water is poured on the lump of soil. The
organisms that live inside the soil and plant roots respire this air.

 Combustion :
Any material which burns in air or oxygen with release of large amount of heat
energy and light energy without the formation of harmful products to the environment
and life, is called fuel.
Fuel + oxygen  Carbondioxide + Water vapour + Heat.
Following are the commonly used fuels for heating or lighting.
1. Wood : It is the most commonly used fuel in rural India. In addition to it biomass is
also called fuel. Dried cow-dung cakes are also used as fuel.
2. Coal : Coal is generally used as an industrial fuel in big factories such as cement
factories, steel mills and glass factories. In addition to it vast quantities of
coal are used in thermo electrical power stations for producing steam.
3. Kerosene Oil : It is used as fuel in wick stoves and pressure stoves. It is also used
for illumination in wick lamps and petromax lamps.
4. LPG : It is liquefied petroleum gas. It is used as household fuel in urban India.
5. CNG : It is compressed natural gas. It mostly consists of methane gas. It is used
as fuel in CNG buses and big factories.
 To prove that air is necessary for combustion :
Take a candle about 8cm long, and fix it in a plastic trough. pour water into the
trough. Light the candle.
Now insert a glass tumbler over the burning candle. You will see that the candle
flame burns for a few seconds. The flame then starts flickering and finally goes off.
The reason is that the burning candle does not receive any fresh supply of air
on account of water seal. Thus, the activity proves that air is necessary for burning.
Similarly, we know from our every day experience that if wood fire gets dull, it
flares up on blowing air through it. Conversely if sand is poured over the burning
wood, it gets extinguished. It is because we cut off the supply of air.

 Dust and smoke :
The burning of fuel produces smoke. It contains a few gases and fine dust particles
and is often harmful. That is why long chimneys in factories are used . This takes the
harmful smoke and gases away from our houses.
How is the oxygen in the atmosphere replaced?
In photosynthesis plants make their own food and oxygen is produced along with it.
Plants also consume oxygen for respiration.
It is obvious that animals cannot live without plants. The balance of oxygen and
carbondioxide in the atmosphere is maintained through respiration in plants and
animals and by the photosynthesis in plants. This shows the interdependence of
plants and animals.
The wind makes the wind mill rotate. The wind mill is used to draw water from
the tube wells and to run flour mills. Wind mills are also used to generate electricity.
Air helps in movement of sailing yachts, gliders, parachutes and aeroplanes. Air plays
an important role in water cycle also.

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INDEX

S.NO : NAME OF THE LESSON PAGE NO:

1. MATERIALS AND THINGS 02 – 14

1. materials and things 

 A given material could be used to make a large number of objects.

Chair, table, bullock cart  objects made of these materials.

 Different types of materials have different properties.

Ex : 1) Wood looks very different from iron.

Ex : Materials which can be compressed easilly are called ‘Soft’.

 Materials which are difficult to compress are called ‘hard’.

Ex : Cotton is soft while iron is hard.

Ex : Salt  Dissappears completely in water..

Sand  does not disappear..

Does torch light pass through your palm ?

 All materials around us are made up of matter.

1. All material bodies have weight and hence have mass.

RAVINDRA BHARATHI GROUP OF SCHOOLS

 Let us study the properties of solids, liquids and gases.

RAVINDRA BHARATHI GROUP OF SCHOOLS

3. Gases can be compressed.

4. Gases have no free surface.

From the above properties we can define a gas as:

 Why matter exists in three different states :

 The intermolecular force of attraction between two molecules increases, if

 This space between the molecules is called intermolecular space.

 In case of solids, the molecules are very tightly packed.

 The intermolecular space between the molecules is very small.Thus they

It is on account of this reason that molecules cannot interchange their

The molecules are in a position to interchange their places. It is on account of

RAVINDRA BHARATHI GROUP OF SCHOOLS

Arrangement of Arrangement of Arrangement of

molecules in solids molecules in liquids molecules in gases

S.No. Solids Liquids Gases

Intermoleuclar force of Less intermolecular

RAVINDRA BHARATHI GROUP OF SCHOOLS

CHEMICAL CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER

PURE SUBSTANCES MIXTURES

ELEMENTS COMPOUNDS HOMOGENEOUS HETEROGENEOUS

METALS NON-METALS METALLOIDS NOBLE GASES

CHEMICAL CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER

of matter is made up of molecules, which are in turn made up of atoms of either

basing on the kind of particles constituting it.

set of properties is called a pure substance.

because each one has only one kind of particles.

RAVINDRA BHARATHI GROUP OF SCHOOLS

 Characteristics of pure substance :

1. A pure substance is homogeneous in nature.

2. It should have the same properties through out its mass.

any known physical (or) chemical means is called an element.

An element is made up of only one kind of atoms.

1. An element is a pure substance, made up of only one kind of atoms.

5. Some elemetns can be prepared artificially by the nuclear reactions.

6. Elements can be classified into four classes.

a) Metals b) Non metals c) metalloids d) Noble Gases.

7. Element has its own fixed melting and boiling points.

8. An element may chemically react with another element or compound.

RAVINDRA BHARATHI GROUP OF SCHOOLS

 CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS BASED ON PROPERTIES :