2

Basic Concepts in Reservoir Engineering

1. INTRODUCTION

2. MATERIAL BALANCE
2.1 Introduction to Material Balance (MB)
2.2 Derivation of Simplified Material
Balance Equations
2.3 Conditions for the Validity of Material
Balance

3. SINGLE PHASE DARCY

∇ . LAW
3.1 The Basic Darcy Experiment
3.2 Mathematical Note: on the Operators
“gradient” ∇ and “divergence” ∇ .
3.3 Darcy’s Law in 3D - Using Vector and
Tensor Notation
3.4 Simple Darcy Law with Gravity ∇
3.5 The Radial Darcy Law

4. TWO-PHASE FLOW
4.1 The Two-Phase Darcy Law

5. CLOSING REMARKS

6. SOME FURTHER READING ON

RESERVOIR ENGINEERING
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:

Having worked through this chapter the student should:

• be familiar with the meaning and use of all the usual terms which appear in
reservoir engineering such as, Sw, So, Bo, Bw, Bg, Rso, Rsw, cw, co, cf, kro, krw, Pc etc.

• be able to explain the differences between material balance and reservoir

simulation.

• be aware of and be able to describe where it is more appropriate to use material

balance and where it is more appropriate to use reservoir simulation.

• be able to use a simple given material balance equation for an undersaturated oil
reservoir (with no influx or production of water) in order to find the STOOIP.

• know the conditions under which the material balance equations are valid.

• be able to write down the single and two-phase Darcy Law in one dimension (1D)
and be able to explain all the terms which occur (no units conversion factors need
to be remembered).

• be aware of the gradient (∇) and divergence (∇.) operators as they apply to
the generalised (2D and 3D) Darcy Law (but these should not be committed to
memory).

• know that pressure is a scalar and that the pressure distribution, P(x, y, z) is a
scalar field; but that ∇P is a vector.

• know that permeability is really a tensor quantity with some notion of what this
means physically (more in Chapter 7).

• be able to write out the 2D and 3D Darcy Law with permeability as a full tensor
and know how this gives the more familiar Darcy Law in x, y and z directions when
the tensor is diagonal (but where we may have kx ≠ ky ≠ kz).

• be able to write down and explain the radial Darcy Law and know that the pressure
profile near the well, ΔP(r), varies logarithmically.

2
 Basic Concepts in Reservoir Engineering
2
REVIEW OF BASIC CONCEPTS IN RESERVOIR ENGINEERING

Brief Description of Chapter 2

This module reviews some basic concepts of reservoir engineering that must be
familiar to the simulation engineer and which s/he should have covered already. We
start with Material Balance and the definition of the quantities which are necessary
to carry out such calculations: φ, co , cf , Bo , Swi etc. This is illustrated by a simple
calculator exercise which is to be carried out by the student. The same exercise is then
repeated on the reservoir simulator. Alternative approaches to material balance are
discussed briefly. The respective roles of Material Balance and Reservoir Simulation
are compared.

The unit then goes on to consider basic reservoir engineering associated with fluid
flow: the single phase Darcy law (k), tensor permeabilities, k , two phase Darcy Law
- relative permeabilitites (kro , krw) and capillary pressures (Pc).

Note that many of the terms and concepts reviewed in this section are summarised in
the Glossary at the front of this chapter.

1. INTRODUCTION
It is likely that you will have completed the introductory Reservoir Engineering part
of this Course. You should therefore be fairly familiar with the concepts reviewed
in this section. The purpose of doing any review of basic reservoir engineering is
as follows:

(i) Between them, the review in this section and the Glossary make this course more
self-contained, with all the main concepts we need close at hand;

(ii) This allows us to emphasise the complementary nature of “conventional” reservoir

engineering and reservoir simulation;

(iii) We would like to review some of the flow concepts (Darcy’s law etc.), in a
manner of particular use for the derivation of the flow equations later in this course
(in Chapter 5).

An example of point (ii) above concerns the complementary nature of Material Balance
(MB) and numerical reservoir simulation. At times, these have been presented as
almost opposing approaches to reservoir engineering. Nothing could be further from
the truth and this will be discussed in detail below. Indeed, a MB calculation will be
done by the student and the same calculation will be performed using the reservoir
simulator.

In addition to an introductory review of simple material balance calculations, we will

also go over some of the basic concepts of flow through porous media. These flow
concepts will be of direct use in deriving the reservoir simulation flow equations in
Chapter 5. Again, most of the concepts are summarised in the Glossary.

Exercises are provided at the end of this module which the student must carry out.

Institute of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University 3

The following concepts are defined in the Glossary and should be familiar to you:
viscosity (μo, μw, μg), density (ρo, ρw, ρg), phase saturations (So, Sw and Sg), initial or
connate water saturation (Swi or Swc), residual oil saturation (Sor). In addition, you
should also be familiar with the basic reservoir engineering quantities in Table 1
below:

Symbol Name Field Units Meaning / Formulae

Bo, Bw, Bg Formation volume bbl/STB

factors (FVF) for oil, or RB/STB Bo = Vol. oil + dissolved gas in reservoir
Vol. oil at STC
water and gas
STC = Stock Tank Conditions (60°F; 14.7 psi).
Likewise for water (usually const.) and gas; Pb
= bubble point pressure below.

Bg Bo
FVF
Bw

P Pb

Rso, Rsw Gas solubility factors SCF/STB Vol. dissolved gas in reservoir
or solution gas oil Rso =
Vol. gas at STC
ratios
Rso
Rso

P Pb

-1
co, cw, cg Isothermal fluid psi 1
ck = 1 ∂ρk =- ∂Vk
compressibilities of
oil water and gas
ρk ∂P Vk ∂P Table 1: Basic reservoir
ρk and Vk - density and volume of phase k; engineering quantities to
k = o, w, g revise

2. MATERIAL BALANCE

2.1 Introduction to Material Balance (MB)

The concept of Material Balance (MB) has a central position in the early history of
reservoir engineering. MB equations were originally derived by Schilthuis in 1936.
There are several excellent accounts of the MB equations and their application to
different reservoir situations in various textbooks (Amyx, Bass and Whiting, 1960;
Craft, Hawkins and Terry, 1991; Dake, 1978, 1994). For this reason, and because
this subject is covered in detail in the Reservoir Engineering course in this series,
we only present a very simple case of the material balance equation in a saturated
reservoir case. The full MB equation is presented in the Glossary for completeness.
Our objectives in this context are as follows:

• To introduce the central idea of MB and apply it to a simple case which we

will then set up as an exercise for simulation;

4
 Basic Concepts in Reservoir Engineering
2
• To demonstrate the complementary nature of MB and reservoir simulation
calculations.

Material balance has been used in the industry for the following main purposes:

1. Determining the initial hydrocarbon in place (e.g. STOIIP) by analysing mean

reservoir pressure vs. production data;

2. Calculating water influx i.e. the degree to which a natural aquifer is supporting
the production (and hence slowing down the pressure decline);

3. Predicting mean reservoir pressure in the future, if a good match of the early
pressure decline is achieved and the correct reservoir recovery mechanism has been
identified.

Thus, MB is principally a tool which, if it can be applied successfully, defines the

input for a reservoir simulation model (from 1 and 2 above). Subsequently, the mean
field pressure decline as calculated in 3 above can be compared with the predictions
of the numerical reservoir simulation model.

Before deriving the restricted example of the MB equations, we quote the introduction
of Dake’s (1994) chapter on material balance.

Material Balance Applied to Oilfields

(from Chapter 3; L. P. Dake, The Practice of Reservoir Engineering, Developments
in Petroleum Science 36, Elsevier, 1994.) Dake says:

It seems no longer fashionable to apply the concept of material balance to oilfields,

the belief being that it has now been superseded by the application of the more
modern technique of numerical reservoir simulation modelling. Acceptance of this
idea has been a tragedy and has robbed engineers of their most powerful tool for
investigating reservoirs and understanding their performance rather than imposing
their wills upon them, as is often the case when applying numerical simulation directly
in history matching.

As demonstrated in this chapter, by defining an average pressure decline trend for a

reservoir, which is always possible, irrespective of any lack of pressure equilibrium,
then material balance can be applied using simply the production and pressure
histories together with the fluid PVT properties. No geometrical considerations
(geological models) are involved, hence the material balance can be used to calculate
the hydrocarbons in place and define the drive mechanisms. In this respect, it is the
safest technique in the business since it is the minimum assumption route through
reservoir engineering. Conversely, the mere act of construction of a simulation
model, using the geological maps and petrophysically determined formation properties
implies that the STOIIP is “known”. Therefore, history matching by simulation can
hardly be regarded as an investigative technique but one that merely reflects the input
assumptions of the engineer performing the study.

Institute of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University 5

There should be no competition between material balance and simulation, instead they
must be supportive of one another: the former defining the system which is then used
as input to the model. Material balance is excellent at history matching production
performance but has considerable disadvantages when it comes to prediction, which
is the domain of numerical simulation modelling.

Because engineers have drifted away from oilfield material balance in recent years,
the unfamiliarity breeds a lack of confidence in its meaningfulness and, indeed, how
to use it properly. To counter this, the chapter provides a comprehensive description of
various methods of application of the technique and included six fully worked exercises
illustrating the history matching of oilfields. It is perhaps worth commenting that in
none of these fields had the operators attempted to apply material balance, which
denied them vital information concerning the basic understanding of the physics of
reservoir performance.

Notes on Dake’s comments

1. The authors of this Reservoir Simulation course would very much like to echo
Dake’s sentiments. Performing large scale reservoir simulation studies does not
replace doing good conventional reservoir engineering analysis - especially MB
calculations. MB should always be carried out since, if you have enough data to
build a reservoir simulation model, you certainly have enough to perform a MB
calculation.

2. Note Dake’s comments on the complementary nature of MB in defining the

input for reservoir simulation, as we discussed above.

3. Take careful note of Dake’s comment on where a reservoir simulation model

is used for history matching. The very act of setting up the model means that you
actually input the STOIIP, whereas, this should be one of the history matching
parameters. The reservoir engineer can get around this to some extent by building
a number of alternative models of the reservoir and this is sometimes, but not
frequently, done.

2.2 Derivation of Simplified Material Balance Equations

Material balance (MB) is simply a volume balance on the changes that occur in the
reservoir. The volume of the original reservoir is assumed to be fixed. If this is so,
then the algebraic sum of all the volume changes in the reservoir of oil, free gas,
water and rock, must be zero. Physically, if oil is produced, then the remaining oil,
the other fluids and the rock must expand to fill the void space left by the produced
oil. As a consequence, the reservoir pressure will drop although this can be balances
if there is a water influx into the reservoir. The reservoir is assumed to be a “tank”
- as shown in Figure 5 Chapter 1. The pressure is taken to be constant throughout
this tank model and in all phases. Clearly, the system response depends on the
compressibilities of the various fluids (co, cw and cg) and on the reservoir rock formation
(crock). If there is a gas cap or production goes below the bubble point (Pb), then the
highly compressible gas dominates the system response. Typical ranges of fluid and
rock compressibilities are given in Table 2:

6
 Basic Concepts in Reservoir Engineering
2
-6 -1
Fluid or formation Compressibility (10 psi )

Formation rock, crock 3 - 10

Table 2: Typical rock and Water, cw 2-4
fluid compressibilities (from Undersaturated oil, co 5 - 100
Craft, Hawkins and Terry, Gas at 1000psi, cg 900 - 1300
Gas at 5000psi. cg 50 - 200
1991)

The simple example which we will take in order to demonstrate the main idea of
material balance is shown in Figure 1 where the system is simply an undersaturated
oil, with possible water influx.

Initial conditions After production (Np)

pressure = po pressure = p
Oil, Np

Oil Oil

N (N - Np)Bo Water, Wp

NBoi = Vf.(1-Swi) NBoi = Vf.(1-Swi)

Figure 1.
Simplified system for
material balance (MB) in
Water, Swi Water, Swi
a system with an
undersaturated oil above the W = Vf.Swi W + We - Wp
bubble point and possible
Water influx Water influx We
water influx.

Definitions:
N = initial reservoir volume (STB)
Boi = initial oil formation volume factor (bbl/STB or RB/STB)
Np = cumulative produced oil at time t, pressure p (STB)
Bo = oil formation volume factor at current t and p (bbl/STB)
W = initial reservoir water (bbl)
Wp = cumulative produced water (STB)
Bw = water formation volume factor (bbl/STB)
We = water influx into reservoir (bbl)
cw = water isothermal compressibility (psi-1)
Δ P = change in reservoir pressure, p - po
Vf = initial void space (bbl); Vf = N.Boi/(1- Swi); W = Vf.Swi
Swi = initial water saturation (of whole system)
1  ∂Vf 
cf = void space isothermal compressibility (psi-1); c f =  
Vf  ∂p 

(NB: (i) bbl = reservoir barrels, sometimes denoted RB; and (ii) in the figures
above, the oil and water are effectively assumed to be uniformly distributed
throughout the system)

Institute of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University 7

Definitions of the various quantities we need for our simplified MB equation for the
depletion of an undersaturated oil reservoir above the bubble point (Pb) are given
in Figure 1. (NB a more extensive list of quantities required for a full material
balance equation in any type of oil or gas reservoir is given in the Glossary for
completeness).

In going from initial reservoir conditions shown in Figure 1 at pressure, po, to pressure,
p, volume changes in the oil, water and void space (rock) occur, ΔVo, ΔVw, ΔVvoid
(ΔVvoid = - ΔVrock). The pressure drop is denoted, Δ P = p - po. The volume balance
simply says that:

∆Vo + ∆Vw + ∆Vrock = ∆Vo + ∆Vw − ∆Vvoid = 0 (1)

Each of these volume changes can be calculated quite __ straightforwardly as

follows: ∆Vw = W - (W - W p Bw + W e + W .c w . ∆ p

__
Oil volume
∆Vchange,
= WΔVBo - We - W.c w .∆ p
w p w

Initial oil volume in reservoir = N.Boi (bbl = RB)

__
= Vtf time
Oil volume - Vf .c f .p∆ p )
- (Vt,f pressure = (N - Np). Bo (bbl)
__
= V .c .∆ p
Change in oil
f volume,
f ΔVo = N.Boi - (N - Np). Bo (bbl) (1)

__
∆Vrockchange,
Water volume = - ΔV∆Vvoid = - Vf .c f .∆ p
w

Initial reservoir water volume = W (bbl)

Cumulative water production at time = Wp (STB)

Reservoir volume of cumulative water production at time
= Wp.Bw (bbl)

Volume of water influx into reservoir

= We (bbl)

Water volume change due to compressibility

= W.cw. Δ P (bbl)

Change in water volume, ΔVw = W - (W - Wp Bw + We + W.cw. Δ P )

(bbl)

ΔVw = Wp Bw - We - W.cw. Δ P (2)

Change in the void space volume, ΔVvoid

Initial void space volume = Vf (bbl)

8
 Basic Concepts in Reservoir Engineering
2

Change in void space volume, ΔVvoid

= Vf - (Vf - Vf.cf. Δ P )

= Vf.cf. Δ P

Change in rock volume, ΔVrock = - ΔVvoid = - Vf.cf. Δ P (3)

Now adding the volume changes as follows:

__ __
∆Vo + ∆Vw + ∆Vrock = N . Boi + ( N − N p ). Bo + Wp . Bw − We − W .cw .∆ P − Vf .c f .∆ P = 0
(4)
 Swi .cw + cf  __ __ __
∆VNo. B+oi∆−VNw . B+equation
Rearranging +VN p . Bo=−4N
o∆
rock .eB+oiW+noting
Wand Nw −−Nthat
p .(B N. Bpoi).W V .S  .∆and
Bo 1+=−W P =V0 = N.B /(1-S ), we
Swipf . Bwiw − We −f W .cw .∆oiP − Vwif .c f .∆ P = 0
obtain:

 Swi .cw + c f  __  S .c + cf  __
. Bo o++NN
NN..BBoioi −− NN. B p
− N−. BW
p . Bo. B
o
oi  + W . B −  .∆ P = 0 wi w
e 1 −pS w  N . Boi   .∆ P = 0
wi
 1 − Swi 
(5)
 Swi .cw + crock  __
N . Boi − N . Bo + N p . Bo + N . Boi   S .c + .c∆ P = 0__ __ __
Equation ∆V5 +
is ∆ V
the
N.B − N.B + N .B − N.B + ∆ V
(simplified) =  N .1B−
materialwiS+ ( N − fN ).
wbalance B + W
expression
.∆ P = 0 . B −
for W
the − W .c . ∆ P
undersaturated − V .c . ∆ P
oi
o
o
w
p
rock
o oi 
oi wi p
 o p w e w f f
system given in Figure 1 (as longas it1 − Swi above its bubble point).
remains
 S .c + c  __
To Nillustrate
. Boi − N . Bthe
o + use
N p . Bof
o +material
N . Boi  wibalance
w
in an
rock
.∆ Peven
= 0 simpler  Swiexample,
.cw + cf let __
us assume
N . B − N . B + N . B
 −1 W
−
o =0) S + W  . B
pc w  − N . B  .∆ P =the0 MB
oi  = 0). Therefore,
that there is no oi water oinfluxp (W S .c
or
e wi +
production (W
__
p 1 − Swi 
N . Boi −simplifies
equation N . Bo + Neven + N . Boito:
p . Bo further
e

wi w rock
 .∆ P = 0
 1− S wi 

 S .c + c  __
N . Boi − N . Bo + N p . Bo − N . Boi  wi w __f  .∆ P = 0
S .c + c − S
N . Boi − N . Bo + N p . Bo + N . Boi  wi w S 1rock .∆ P=0 __
 wi
wi .cw+ crock
(6)
N . B − N . B + N . B 
+ N . 1
B − S  . ∆ P = 0
Note that we can divide through equation
oi o p o oi 6Sby.cN +
wi
(the  __reservoir oil volume,
c initial
bbl = RB) to Boi − N . Bo + N p . Bo + N . Boi  wi1 −wSwi rock  .∆ P = 0
N .obtain:
 S .c1 −+ Scwirock   __
N . Boi − N . Bo + N p . Bo + N . Boi  wi w  .∆ P = 0
 1 − Swi 
Np  Swi .cw + c f  __
Boi − Bo + N . Bo − Boi   S .c + c .∆ P__= 0
Boi − Bo +N p . Bo − Boi  1wi− Swwi f  .∆ P = 0 (7)
N  1 − Swi .c  + crock  __
N . Boi − N
which rearranges . Bo +to:N p . Bo + N . Boi  wi w
easily  .∆ P = 0
 1 −__Swi 
 Np  Boi Boi  Swi .cw + c f 
  N = 1 − B +   Swi .cw + cf .∆ P__= 0
 N p = 1 −Bo oi +BB oi 1 − Swi  .∆ P = 0
  o
 
 N Bo Bo  1 − Swi  (8)

where the __quantity (Np/N) is the Recovery Factor (RF) as a fraction of the STOIIP.
∆ p__= 0
It is seen from equation 8 that, at t = 0, Bo = Boi and and therefore (Np/N)= 0, as
∆p=0
expected. Note also in equation 8 that ∆P is negative in depletion ( ∆P = p-po,
where po. is the
Q higherkinitial
∆P pressure
k  ∂for
P depletion).
u=  =− . = − . 
 AQ  µk L∆P µk ∂∂xP 
u= =− . = − . 
 A µ L µ  ∂x 

Institute of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University 9

It is convenient to rearrange equation 8 above as follows:

 N p  Boi Boi  Swi cw + c f 

1 − = −   ∆P
 N  Bo Bo  1 − Swi  (9)

We then identify 1-(Np/N) as the fraction of the initial oil still in place. We can then
plot this quantity vs. - ∆P shown in Figure 2 (we take - ∆P since it plots along the
positive axis, since ∆P is negative).

1 "almost" straight line

for w/o systems
Np
1-
N

Figure 2
Plot of remaining oil,
0
 Np 
-∆P 1 −  vs. − ∆P
 N
As noted in Figure 2, this decline plot is not necessarily a straight line but for oil water
systems, it is very close in practice. Figure 2 suggests a way of applying a simple
material balance equation to the case of an undersaturated oil above the bubble point
(with no water influx or production). This is a pure depletion problem driven by the
oil (mainly), water and formation compressibilities. Suppose we know the pressure
behaviour of B0 (i.e. B0(P)) as shown in Figure 3.

1.4
Bo(P) = m.P + c
Oil FVF
Bo
1.3
Figure 3
B0 as a function of pressure
4000 P (psi) 5500
for a black oil.

If we draw the reservoir pressure down by an amount ∆P (known or measured) and

we know that to do this we had to produce a volume Np (STB) of oil. This point of
depletion is shown in Figure 4.

Np X
1-
N
Y
Figure 4
Reservoir depletion on a
0
-∆P plot following equation 9.

10
 Basic Concepts in Reservoir Engineering
2
We know Y ( it is ∆P ), we can calculate X (the RHS of equation 9). X is equal to 1-
(Np/N) and we know Np (the amount of oil we had to produce to get drawdown ∆P ).
Hence, we can find N the initial oil in place. An exercise to do this is given below.

2.3 Conditions for the Validity of Material Balance

The basic premise for the material balance assumptions to be correct is that the
reservoir be “tank like” i.e. the whole system is at the same pressure and, as the
pressure falls, then the system equilibrates immediately. For this to be correct, the
pressure communication through the system must at least be very fast in practice
(rather than instantaneous which is strictly impossible). For a pressure disturbance
to travel very quickly through a system, we know that the permeability should
be very high and the fluid compressibility should be low (pressure changes a re
communicated instantaneously through and incompressible fluid). Indeed, we will
show later (Chapter 5) that pressure equilibrates faster - or “diffuses” through the
system faster - for larger values of the “hydraulic diffusivity”, which is given by
k/(φµc) (Dake, 1994, p.78).

Dake (1994, p.78), also points out two “necessary” conditions to apply material
balance in practice as follows:

(i) We must have adequate data collection (production/pressures/PVT); and

(ii) we must have the ability to define an average pressure decline trend i.e. the more
“tank like”, the better and this is equivalent to having a large k/(φμc) as discussed
above.

EXERCISE 1.

Material Balance problem for an undersaturated reservoir using equation 8 above.

This describes a case where production is by oil, water and formation expansion
above the bubble point (Pb) with no water influx or production.

Exercise:

Suppose you have a tank - like reservoir with the fluid properties given below (and
 Np 
in Figure 4). Plot a figure of 1 −  vs. - ∆P over the first 250 psi of depletion
 N
of this reservoir. Suppose you find that after 200 psi of depletion, you have
produced 320 MSTB of oil. What was the original oil in place in this reservoir?

Input data: The initial water saturation, Swi = 0.1. The rock and water
compressibilities are, as follows:

cf = 5 x 10-6 psi-1; cw = 4 x 10-6 psi-1.

The initial reservoir pressure is 5500 psi at which Boi = 1.3 and the bubble point is
at Pb = 4000 psi where Bo = 1.4. That is, the oil swells as the pressure drops as
shown in Figure 4.

Institute of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University 11

3. SINGLE PHASE DARCY LAW

We review the single phase Darcy Law in this section in order to put our own particular
“slant” or viewpoint to the student. This will prove to be very useful when we derive
the flow equations of reservoir simulation in Chapter 5. We also wish to extend
the idea of permeability (k) somewhat further than is covered in basic reservoir
engineering .
∇ texts. In particular, .
∇ we wish to introduce the idea of permeability as
a tensor property, denoted by k . Some useful mathematical concepts will also be
introduced in this section associated with vector calculus; in particular, the idea of
gradient ∇ and divergence ∇ • will be discussed in the context of the generalised
formulation of the single phase Darcy law. Note w + crock
Swi .cthat  __ many of the terms
for reference,
N . Boiare− also
discussed here o + N p . Bo + in
N . Bsummarised N .the
Boi Glossary.  .∆ P = 0
 1− S
wi 
3.1 The Basic Darcy Experiment
Darcy in 1856 conducted
N a series of flow
S .ctests through __ packs of sands which he took
w + cf 
Boi − experimental
as approximate Boi  wiof an
Bo + p . Bo −models  P
.
aquifer ∆ for=the
0 ground water supply at
1 − Sexperiment
Dijon. A schematic ofNthe essential Darcy wi  is shown in Figure 5 where
we imagine a single phase fluid (e.g. water) being pumped through a homogeneous
sand pack or rock core. (Darcy used a gravitational head of water as his driving force
whereas, inNmodern
p B B  S .cw +would
c f  normally
__
  = 1 −coreoilaboratories,
+ oi wi we
 .∆ P = 0 use a pump.)

 N Bo Bo  1 − Swi 
The Darcy law given in Figure 5, is in its “experimental” form where a conversion
factor, β, is indicated that allows us to work in various units as may be convenient
__
to the problem
∆ p =at0hand. In differential form, a more useful way to express the Darcy
Law and introducing the Darcy velocity, u, is as follows:

Q k ∆P k  ∂P 
u=  =− . = − . 
 A µ L µ  ∂x  (9)

where the minus sign in equation 9 indicates that the direction of fluid flow is down
the pressure gradient from high pressure to low pressure i.e. in the opposite direction
to the positive pressure gradient.

∆P
Q Q

k.A ∆P
Q = β. .
µ L

Definitions:

Symbol Dimensions Meaning Consistent Units

c.g.s lab. field SI -
field

Q L3/T Volumetric cm3/s cm3/s bbl/day m3/day

flow rate

L L Length of cm cm ft. m
system
12
A L2 Cross - sectional cm2 cm2 ft.2 m2
 2
∆P
Q Basic Concepts in Reservoir Engineering
Q

k.A ∆P
Q = β. .
µ L

Definitions:

Symbol Dimensions Meaning Consistent Units

c.g.s lab. field SI -
field

Q L3/T Volumetric cm3/s cm3/s bbl/day m3/day

flow rate

L L Length of cm cm ft. m
system

A L2 Cross - sectional cm2 cm2 ft.2 m2

area

µ Viscosity cP cP cP Pa.s

∆P M.L.T.2 Pressure drop atm dyne/cm2 psi Pa

(Force/Area)

k L2 Permeability# darcy darcy mD mD

-6 -3
β dimensionless Conversion 1.00 9.869x10 1.127x10 8.527
factor x10-3

Figure 5. # permeability - dimensions L2; e.g. units m2, Darcies (D), milliDarcies (mD); 1 Darcy
= 9.869 x 10-9 cm2 = 0.98696 x 10-12 m2 ≈ 1 µm2.
The single phase Darcy Law

Note on Units Conversion for Darcy’s Law: the various units that are commonly used
for Darcy’s Law are listed in Figure 2 above. Sometimes, the conversion between
various systems of units causes confusion for some students. Here, we briefly explain
how to do this using
k.A the∆examples
P in the previous figure; that is, we go from c.g.s.
Q -=gram
(centimetre .  units where β = 1, indeed, the Darcy was defined such
β. - second)
µ  L
that β = 1. Starting
k.Afrom
 ∆Pthe
 Darcy Law in c.g.s. units:
Q = β. .
µ  L
k (Darcy) . A (cm 2 )  ∆P (atm ) 
Q (cm 3 / s) = 1.00 . 
µ (cp) 2  L ( cm ) 
k (Darcy) . A (cm )  ∆P (atm ) 
Q (cm 3 / s) = 1.00 . 
µ (cp)  L (cm ) 
Suppose we now wish to convert to field units as follows:
k (Darcy) . A (ft 2 )  ∆P ( psi) 
Q ( bbl / day) = ?? . 
µ (cp) 2  L ( ft.) 
k (Darcy) . A (ft )  ∆P ( psi) 
Q ( bbl / day) = ?? . 
µ (cp)  L (ft.) 
k ∆P
 bbl 1.58999x10 5  ( mD) . A (ft.2 ).30.482  ( psi) 
How do we Q find the
. correct conversion 1000 for these new units? Essentially,
 = factor k . 14 ∆
.7we
P

 day ( mD)µ. (A
5  the c.g.s. expression
 L (βft=.).(1. ) 
4
convert it unit by unit 8starting
.64 x10 from cp()ft. ).we
where
2 2
.48 that
30know 30
psi.48
 bbl 1.58999 x10  1000 
 14 . 7 
We do need Q to know. a few conversion  = factors as follows: 1 ft. = 30.48 cm . (exact),

14.7 psi = 1 atm.,day 1 bbl8.64 x10
= 5.615
4
ft3= 5.615 x 30.483 cm µ 3(cp )
= 1.58999  L3,(1ft.).
x 105 cm day30.48 
 
= 24 x 3600 s = 8.64 x 104 s. Thus, we now 4 convert 2 everything in the field units to2
c.g.s. units  bbl 
Qas follows
 for 8cp.
.64which are the same):  k ( Darcy) . A ( ft. ) . P( p
x10 . 30.48   ∆
 = (except

 day   1000 . 1.58999x410 5. 14.27 . 30.48  µ (cp)  L (ft
 bbl   8.64 x10 . 30.48  k (Darcy) . A (ft.2 )  ∆P( p
Q =   .
 day   1000 . 1.58999x10 5. 14.7 . 30.48  µ (cp)  L (ft
 bblEngineering,
Institute of Petroleum  Heriot-Watt k (Darcy) . A (ft. )  ∆P( psi) 
-3 University
2
13
Q  = 1.126722x10 . 
 day  µ (cp) 2  L ( ft.) 
  ∆P psi
 k.Ak.A∆P ∆P
Qβ=. 3βµ. . L.   k (Darcy) . A (cm 2 )  ∆P (atm ) 
Q=
µ  L
Q (cm / s) = 1.00 . 
µ (cp)  L (cm ) 
k (Darcy) . A (cm 2 )  ∆2P (atm ) 
Q (cm 3 / s3) = 1.00 k (Darcy) . A 2(cm. )  ∆P (atm ) 
Q (cm / s) = 1.00 ) ). A (ft )  L∆P(.cm
µ (cp
k (Darcy ) ) 
( psi 
Q ( bbl / day) = ?? µ (cp) .  L (cm  ) 
µ (cp)  L (ft.) 
k (Darcy) . A (ft 2 )  ∆P ( psi) 
Q ( bbl / day) = ?? k (Darcy) . A .(ft L
2
) (ft∆P ( psi) 
Q ( bbl / day) = ?? µ (cp)k . .)  2  ∆P
µ (cp)( mD) . A  (Lft.(ft)..)30.482  ( psi) 
 bbl 1.58999x10  5
1000  14 . 7 
Q . = k .

 day 8.64 x10  cp.2)).30.482  ∆PL (psi
µ ((ft  .48 
4
ft.).30
( mD ) . A ( )
 bbl 1.58999x10  142.7 ∆P  
5
Q .  =5
1000 k
( mD ) . A ( ft .2
). . .48
30 ( psi )
 day
 bbl 8.1.58999
4
64 x10 x10   µ (cp)  
Q . = 1000  L (ft.). 30.48
. 14.7 
  
Thus, collecting
day 8.64 thex10  factors togetherµwe
numerical
4
(cpobtain:
) L (ft.).30.48 
 bbl   8.64 x10 4. 30.482  k (Darcy) . A (ft.2 )  ∆P( psi) 
Q =   . 
 day   1000 . 1.58999 5
2 .7 . 30.48 
4 x10 . 14 µ (cp)2  L (ft.) 
 bbl   8.64 x10 . 30.48  k (Darcy) . A (ft. )  ∆P( psi) 
Q =   . 
 day   1000 . 1.58999 10 5
. 14. 7 . 30 .48  µ (cp)  L (2ft.) 
 bbl    k (Darcy) . A (ft. )  ∆P( psi) 
x 4 2
8.64 x10 . 30.48
Q   = 
 bbl k ( Darcy ) . A ( ft .2
)  ∆P( psi)  . 
Q   day  
=  1000
1.126722 .
x 1.58999
10 -3 5
x10 . 14.7 . 30.48 .   µ ( cp )  L ( ft .) 
which simplifies
 bbl  to µ  
-3 k ( Darcy ) . A ( ft. )  ∆P( psi ) 
day  ( cp ) 2 L ( ft .)
Q  = 1.126722x10 . 
 day  µ (cp)  L2 (ft.) 
 bbl  -3 k ( Darcy ) . A ( ft. )  ∆P( psi ) 
Q  = 1.126722x10 . 
 day  µ (cp)  L (ft.) 

and hence β = 1.127 x 10-3 for these units (as given in Figure 5).∇ .
∇ .
3.2 Mathematical Note: on the Operators “gradient” ∇ and
“divergence” ∇ •
Before generalising the Darcy Law to 3D, we first make a short mathematical digression
to introduce the concepts of gradient and divergence operators. These will be used
to write the generalised flow equation of single and two phase flow in Chapter 5.

Gradient (or grad) is a vector operation as follows:

∂∂ ∂∂ ∂∂
∇
∇ = = ∂∂x ii +
+ ∂∂y jj +
+ ∂∂z kk
∇ = ∂x i + ∂y j + ∂z k
∂x ∂y ∂z
where i, ij, and k are the unit vectors which point in the x, y and z directions,
i , jj and
and kk
respectively.
i , j and gradient
The k operation can be carried out on a scalar field such as
pressure, P, as follows:
∂∂P
P i + ∂∂P
P j + ∂∂PP
∇ .
∇
∇P
P =
= ∂
∂Px i + ∂
∂Py j + ∂∂Pz kk
∇P = ∂x i + ∂y j + ∂z k
∇ .
∂x ∂y ∂z
where ∇ P∇ is sometimes written as grad P. The quantity ∇ P is actually a vector of
∇PP
the pressure
∇Pgradients in the three directions, x, y and z as follows:

 ∂∂P P i 
 ∂∂P x i 
 ∂∂xx i 
∇  ∂∂P P j 
P =
∇P =  ∂∂P j
∇P =  ∂yy j 
 ∂y 
 ∂∂P P k
 ∂∂∂Pzz kk
 ∂z 
14
 ∂∂P   ∂P   ∂∂P
P 
 P  ii,,  ∂P  jj,, and
and   kk
  ∂P 
i

2
 ∂x 
Basic

∂P Concepts
 in Reservoir Engineering
∇P =  j
 ∂y 
 
 ∂P k
 ∂z 
∇ .
This is shown schematically in Figure 6 where the three components of the vector
∂P  ∂P   ∂P 
∇ P, i.e.   i,   j, and   k , and are shown by the dashed lines.
 ∂x   ∂y  ∂z

Figure 3: The definition of grad P or

∆
z P Unit vectors
k i
j
y

∇ .
Figure 6
The definition of grad P or x

∇P

Divergence (or div) is the dot product of the gradient operator and acts on a vector
to produce a scalar. The operator is denoted as follows:

.
∇ = i
 ∂
 ∂∂x
. . ∂
∂∂y
j
∂ 
k
∂∂z 
.
.
∇ = i
 ∂x
. . ∂y
j
∂z 
k .
.
For example, taking
∇ =  i. .
 ∂ the divergence
∂
j k .
∂ of the Darcy  u i 
velocity vector, u, gives the

.. . .
following:
. . . .. z ∂∂ i   ∂ j ∂ 
x
 ∂∇ u ∂=∂x ∂ i ∂∂y ∂∇j ∂=
.
∇ = i j
∂y ∂∂x ∂z ∂∂y
k  k   uu yx ij 
∂∂zx   ∂y ∂z 
k
 ∂x
.
∇ u = i
 ∂x
. . ∂y
j
∂
. 
k   u zy kj 
∂z   u i 


∂   u z k
. . . .
x
 ∂ ∂  ux i 
∇ u = i j  u x i k ∂ u y j  ∂
. . . . .

 
 ∂ 
. . .. .
 ∂  ∂∂x ∂∂y∇  u ∂= z   i x 

u i j∂u k ∂uu y j 
∇ u
where we∇can =  i
 ∂xexpand

u =  ∂the
∂ j ∂ k
y i RHS∂zofj the
∂∂x (3x1)
 u ∂
  above
∂∂y matrix  u∂∂zto
j
. 
. .
k x uu zxy ij  =
y  ∂equation u
  a “1x1
k ∂by x ∂z
i i +  out
y multiplying

  matrix”
 y the 
.
∂u
j j +first z k k 
∂∂uyuyisz kascalar

(1x3) matrix by the second zkobtain   ∂∂ux which ∂∂uzz
as follows: .
∇ u = i
 ∂x
. . ∂y
j . . .
k   u zy kj  =  x i i +
∂z   u i   ∂x ∂y
jj + .
∂z

k k

∂   u z k  ∂u x
.. . .. .. . . . .
x
 ∂ ∂ ∂uuy i  ∂ u 
∇i i =u j =j = k ik = 1 j  u x i k ∂ u y j =∂  i i∂ +  xj j +  ∂uz k k 
.
∇ u = i
. ..
 ∂
..
 ∂∂x
j
∂∂y∇  u ∂= . . . .. .
z   ∂u   ∂x∂u y k ∂yu∂ujz =  ∂zx i i +
k  u y j  ∂=xui z kxi ∂iy+j
  ∂ j j +  y k k ∂x
z
. 
i i∂x= j j =∂ky k = 1 ∂z     ∂x ∂y  ∂z  
 u z k  u z k
.. .  ∂u x ∂u y ∂u z 
.
∇i i =u j =j = k k =+1 +
∂uz 
.
where
i i =we . ..
j j∇use
= kthe

 ∂∂ux
.
uk =relationships,
= 1 x +
∂∂uy
y ∂ . .
i i += j j z= k k = 1 , to obtain:
 ∂ x ∂ y ∂z 
. .
∇P ∇ ∇P∂u x
∇ u =  +
∂u y
+
∂u z 

.
∇ u =∇P ∇ .
 ∂u x ∇P∂∂uxy
+
∂∂uy  . ∂z ∂u x
+ ∇z  u =  ∂x + ∂y + ∂z 

∂u y ∂u z 

 ∂x ∂y ∂z    ∂P  
∇P ∇ ∇P .   ∂x  
i
Institute of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University   ∂
∇P ∇ ∇P .  ∂ ∂
.
∇P ∇ ∇P    i 
∂    ∂P
P 
x    ∂ P  2
15
 ∂ P
2
∂
 . u =  ∂∂x i. . .  u j  =  ∂∂ux i.i + . .
x
∂ ∂ ∂u y ∂u z 
∇ j k x
jj + k k
. . .
y
∂y ∂z ∂y ∂z 
i i = j j = k k = 1  u z k

. . .
i i = j j = k k =1
∇ . u =  ∂∂ux x
+
∂u y
+
∂u z∂
.
∂y∇ = ∂ z∂x i . ∂
j . ∂ 
k.
∂y
. ∂z 
.. .
 ∂u ∂u y ∂u z  ∇
∇ u =  x + +
∇ ∇  ∂x ∂y ∂z 
∇P ∇ ∇P.  uquantity,

Likewise, we can take the divergence of the grad P vector, ∇ P, to obtain the xi
∇P ∇ ∇P .
∇ • ∇ P, (sometimes denoted div grad
∇ P), u as
 ∂
= follows:
i
∂
j
∂
. 
k   uy j  . . .
 ∂x  ∂P  ∂y ∂z   

  ∂x  
i  u z k
  ∂P  
  ∂x  
i  

∇ . ∇P =  i
. .
 ∂
 j∂x
∂
. . . .
∂    ∂P    ∂ 2 P 
. .
 ∂2 P   ∂2 P 
∇ ∂ ∇P =∂ i ∂   j∂P   k ∂2 P   j  ∂=2 P 2  i ∂i2 uP+ i  2  j j +  2  k k 
k ∂y  j ∂z=    ∂iyi +  2  ∂ j xj + xk  ∂ky   ∂z∂u

. . . . .
∂ ∂y  ∂ ∂z 2     ∂u x
 ∂x ∂y ∂z    ∂y    ∂x 2 
∇ u =  i

  ∂P    ∂x  ∂P  ∂y j . k
∂z  
 
u y j

. =  i i + . y
j j
 ∂u z
+ . 
k k . . .
   k    k   ∂x ∂y ∂z 
  ∂z     ∂z    u z k 

. . .. .
Again
i i = j using
j =i ki k=the
expression:
=j1jrelationships,
= k k =1 . . . .
i i = j j = k k = 1 , we obtain the familiar

. ∇P =∇. ∂∂x∇PP += ∂∂y∂P P + + ∂∂z∇P∂.P=u∇+=P ∂∂uP  += ∂∇u P +

2 2 2
∇ 2 2 2 2
x y ∂u z 
∇. ∂x 
2 2 2

∂z 
2
     ∂x   ∂y

2
 ∂y  2
 ∂z   2

where, in summary, ∇ 2 is the Laplacian ∇ ∇P

∇P operator: .
. ∇ = div . grad = ∂∂x ∂2 ∂2
2
∇2 = ∇ + +   ∂P  
2
∂y 2 ∂y 2
  ∂x  
i
The final issue we wish to discuss in this mathematical note is the rule for  taking
the dot product of a tensor and a vector. N.B. We
k xx k xy k xz
 i, j and k in the
the unit vectors,
∇ ∇ P
 following developments.
= .  now

∂ omit∂the explicit
 ∂x
i
∂y
. j k .
∂ inclusion
  .
   ∂P of  ∂ 2 P 
j =
∂z    ∂y    ∂x 2 
  .
i i +  .
 ∂2 P 

 ∂y 2 
j j + .
 ∂2 P 
 2 k k
 ∂z 
k =  k yx k yy k yz   
 k in    ∂P  
3.3 Darcy’s
Suppose we
2 Law
∇ =have zx k
∇ a∇tensor zy ..
3D k- zzUsing
= div k grad
Vector
. ∂ 2 and Tensor
= ∂ 23D+ can
which ∂in
∇ = ∇ ∇ = div grad = x 2 + ∂y 2 + ∂y 2
2
.
2
∂2
∂ 2 + ∂2
∂2
Notation
2be represented
2
by
   k
a 3∂zx 3
matrix as follows: ∂x ∂y ∂y
∇P k ∇P . i i = j j = k k =1 . . .
 k xx k xy k xz 
 k k k xz 
k =  k xx
yx k xy yy k yz    ∂P   2
k =  k yx k yy k yz 
 k
.
k
∇  k zx kzy
zx k  ∇
k xx k zzk xy k xz 
zy zz  ∇  P∂ x = .
   ∂ P 

 2 
 ∂x 
+
 ∂2 P 
 2
 ∂y 
+
 ∂ 2 P  ∇ 2
 2  = ∇ P
 ∂z  
.
 
Suppose we k ∇Pwish
∇Pnow
. . 
= k k
k ∇P  toyxtake yya dot yz
  ∂P  
k product
  of 
 ∂y  this tensor, k , with the vector ∇ P;
that is k •∇∇
P P. kThe .
∇Pdot
 k zx k zy k zz  ∂P 

product of a tensor and a vector is a vector and the operation
is carried out like a matrix multiplicationas follows:


 
  ∂Pz  
  ∂∂P 
x  
 k xx k xy k xz   ∂x   

..
k ∇P =  k xx
 k
yx
k
k xyyy
k xz   ∂P     ∂P 
k yz   ∂∂P

k ∇P =  k yx k yy k yz   ∂∂yx     ∂x 
P
 ∂P 
  k xx   + k xy   + k xz    
 ∂y 
 ∂P   
 ∂z   
k k k  ∂ y 
 kk xx kk xy kk xz   ∂P   
zx zy zz

.  zx zy zz   ∂∂P P
    ∂P 

k ∇P =  k yx k yy k yz   ∂z   = k yx   + k yy   + k yz   
  ∂y     ∂x 
 ∂P 
 ∂y 
 ∂P   
 ∂z   
k  
  ∂ z  
  
 zx k zy k zz  ∂P  
   
    k zx  ∂P  + k zy  ∂P  + k zz  ∂P 
  ∂Pz    ∂P  ∂P  ∂P 
16
  k xx  ∂∂xP  + k xy ∂∂yP + k xz  ∂∂Pz 

  ∂∂Px   k xx  ∂x  + k xy  ∂y  + k xz  ∂z   
       
 ∇P .
k∇∇PP k ∇P .
Basic Concepts
  ∂P   in

 k xx kxyk k xz k 
  ∂Reservoir
P Engineering
  ∂x     ∂x  
k   
2
.  xy ∂P  xz
xx
   ∂P  
k ∇Pk = ∇
k
.
k yx k k
P = yyk yx yz kyy ∂yk yz
 
    
  ∂y 
 zx kzyk k zz k ∂Pk   
   
     ∂P  
zx zy zz

which multiplies out as follows:   ∂z      

  ∂z  

  ∂P   k  ∂P  + k  ∂P  + k  ∂P   
xy  
  ∂x   ∂P ∂x  k  ∂P∂y  + k ∂∂Pz   + k  ∂P 
xx xz

 k xx k xy k xz            xz  
xx
 ∂x  xy
 ∂y    ∂z 
  ∂P   ∂x ∂P  
k . 
∇P =  k yx kyyk xxk yz k xy k xz =
∂P ∂x    ∂P∂y 
 
 k yx    + k yy  ∂P  + k yz  ∂P   
∂∂Pz   
k ∇.   ∂y 
P =kzyk yxk zz kyy k yz    = k yx   + k yy   + k yz  
k zx
  ∂P   ∂y    ∂x   ∂y  
 ∂P 
 ∂z 
k k   k  k zx  ∂P   + k zy  ∂P  + k zz  ∂P  
 zx  
zy ∂z zz 
∂P  ∂x    ∂y   ∂z 
 ∂P  
   ∂P   ∂P 
  ∂z   k zx   + k zy   + k zz  
  ∂x   ∂y   ∂z 
giving the final
result: ∂P   ∂P   ∂P   
k xx   + k xy   + k xz    
  ∂x   ∂y   ∂z   
   ∂
  P  ∂ P    ∂P   
. 

  ∂Pk xx   ∂P+ k xy   ∂P + k xz    
k ∇P = k yx   + ∂kxyy  + k∂yzy   
 ∂x   ∂y   ∂z   
 ∂z   
    
k ∇ .
  ∂P  ∂P  ∂P 
P = k
 ∂P ∂P   ∂P   
 + k
k zx   yx+ ∂kxzy  yy+ k∂zzy   yz  ∂z   
∂x
+ k
   ∂y  ∂z  
  ∂P   ∂P   ∂P  
k zx   + k zy   + k zz   
  ∂x   ∂y   ∂z  


Using the above concepts from vector calculus (div. and grad), we can extend the
Darcy Law (in the absence of gravity) to 3D as follows by introducing the tensor
permeability, k :

  ∂P   ∂P    ∂∂PP    ∂P
  ∂P  
  k xx   ∂P+ k xy   +k xxk xz    + k xy 
  ∂x     ∂x∂x    ∂y    ∂∂xz     ∂y
 k xx k xy k xz  
k∂xx
P   k xy1 k xz∂P 
   ∂P   
1
. 1
∇P = 1-  k yx k yy k yz1   = - k yx  ∂P+ k yy  1 + k yz ∂P   
 ∂P  
u= - k
µ u .
= - µkk ∇kP = k- k∂yxy   k yyµ k yz∂x   = -∂y  k yx   ∂z    +
µ  zx zy zzµ ∂P     ∂x  
 ∂P
k yy 
 ∂P∂y    ∂Pµ   ∂P  
 ∂y
k zx   k zy kkzz 
  ∂z   zx    + k zy   + k zz   

  ∂ x ∂
 P  ∂y     ∂ P ∂z  
  ∂P 
  k zx   + k zy  
  ∂z  
  ∂x   ∂y 
which we maywrite
 ∂Pas:
  ∂P   ∂P   
 ux  k xx   + k xy   + k xz    
  ∂x   ∂ y   ∂z   
 
  
1   ∂P 
  ∂P∂ P   ∂P  ∂P   ∂P   
u =  u y  = - kuyx   + k xx   + k+yz  k xy  
k yy + k xz    
µ  x  ∂x 
  ∂y ∂ x   ∂z   
   ∂z  ∂y 
    
    ∂P       
k zx   1+
∂P  ∂P 
 uz  k zy   ∂P + k zz   ∂P   ∂P   
u =  u y ∂=
 yx  
 
x - k ∂y   
+ ∂kzyy   + k yz   
  µ   ∂x   ∂y   ∂z   
   
1   ∂P u   ∂P  ∂P∂P    ∂P   ∂P  
u x = - k xx   z+ k xy  k+zx k xz    + k zy   + k zz   
 ∂x   
µ
  ∂x  
 ∂y  ∂z  ∂y   ∂z  


1   ∂P   ∂P   ∂P  
u y = - k yx   + k yy   + k yz   
µ   ∂x  1   ∂∂yP   ∂z ∂P   ∂P  
u =- k + k 
 xx  Heriot-Watt
xy   + k xz    17
Institute of Petroleum
x Engineering,
µ ∂x University
 ∂y   ∂z  
1  ∂P   ∂P   ∂P  
  ∂z 
  ∂x   ∂y   ∂z  

  ∂P   ∂P   ∂P   
  k   + k + k xz   
 ux 

 
xx
 ∂x  xy 
 ∂y 
  ∂z   
    ∂P  ∂P  ∂P  
 u x    k   + k   + k  
1   ∂P x   ∂Pz  
xx xy xz
 ∂P y 
u =  u y  = - k yx   + k yy   + k yz    
  µ   ∂x   ∂y   ∂z   
1  ∂P  ∂P  ∂P  
u =  u y  = - k yx   + k yy   + k yz    
  
µ   ∂Px   ∂∂Py   ∂zP
 uz   k 
 zx    + k zy   + k zz   
  ∂x  ∂y   ∂ z 
   
  ∂P   ∂velocity
P  ∂P  
 u z  the three
and we can identify components of the
k zx   + k zy   + k zz    as follows:
  ∂x   ∂y   ∂z  

1   ∂P   ∂P   ∂P  
u x = - k xx   + k xy   + k xz   
µ   ∂x   ∂y   ∂z  
1  ∂P  ∂P  ∂P  
u x = - k xx   + k xy   + k xz   
µ   ∂x   ∂y   ∂z  
1   ∂P   ∂P   ∂P  
u y = - k yx   + k yy   + k yz   
µ   ∂x   ∂y   ∂z  
1  ∂P  ∂P  ∂P  
u y = - k yx   + k yy   + k yz   
µ   ∂x   ∂y   ∂z  
1   ∂P   ∂P   ∂P  
u z = - k zx   + k zy   + k zz   
µ   ∂x   ∂y   ∂z  
1  ∂P  ∂P  ∂P  
u z = - k zx   + k zy   + k zz   
µ   ∂x   ∂y   ∂z  
If the permeability tensor is diagonal i.e. the cross-terms are zero as follows:
 k xx 0 0 
 
k = 0k k0yy 00 
xx
0 
k = 0 k0yy k0zz 
0 0 k zz 


then the various components of the Darcy law revert to their normal form and :

1  ∂P 
ux = - k xx  
µ  ∂x 
1  ∂P 
u x = - 1 k xx  ∂P 
1 u = -∂µP k xx  ∂x 
u x = - kxxx  µ   x 
µ u y = -∂1x k yy  ∂P 
µ  ∂y 
1  ∂P 
u y = - 1 k yy  ∂P 
1 u = -∂µP k yy  ∂y 
u y = - kyyy  µ 1   ∂∂Py 
µ u z = -∂y k zz  
µ  ∂z 
1  ∂P 
u z = - 1 k zz  ∂P 
3.4 1 u = -∂µ P k zz  ∂z with Gravity
u z =Simple
- kzzz Darcy µ1  Law  ∂zP ∂z 
µ u x = -∂of
In the presence z gravity
k xx  the-1D gρDarcy Law becomes:
µ  ∂x ∂x 
1  ∂P ∂z 
u x = - 1 k xx  ∂P - gρ ∂z 
1 u = -∂µP k  ∂∂xz - gρ ∂x 
u x = - kx∂xxz µ -xxgρ∂x  ∂x 
µ   ∂=x cos θ ∂x 
 ∂x 
where, inthe∂zcase of a simple inclines system at a slope of θ, as shown in Figure 7,
 ∂∂xz  = cos θ
 ∂z    , =ascos θ
  = cos  ∂xθ 1 shown ∂Pin the figure above
 and:
 ∂x  u x = - k xx  - g.ρ. cosθ
µ  ∂x 
1  ∂P 
u x = - 1 k xx  ∂P - g.ρ. cosθ
1 u = -∂µP k  ∂x - g.ρ. cosθ

u x = - kxxx 2 πµkhr-xxgdP .ρ∂.xcosθ
  
µ Q = ∂x
µ  dr 
18 2 πkhr  dP 
Q = 2 πkhr  dP 
Q = dPµ  dr 
2 πkhr
 Basic Concepts in Reservoir Engineering
2
Note that:
∂z
= cos θ
∂x
x
Figure 7
Radial form of the single- θ

phase Darcy Law

3.5 The Radial Darcy Law

In the above discussion, in both 1D and 3D we considered the Darcy Law in normal
Cartesian coordinates (x, y and z). In Chapter 6, we will explain how wells are
treated in reservoir simulation. Because a radial (r/z) geometry is appropriate for
the near-well region, it is useful to consider the Darcy Law in radial coordinates. In
1D, this simply involves the radial coordinate, r. In fact, the radial form of the Darcy
law can be derived from the linear form as shown in Figure 8.
1  ∂P 
ux = - k xx  
µ  ∂∂P 
1  xQ dr
u x = - k xx  
µ  ∂x 
1  ∂P 
uy = - k yy   Area, A = 2π.r.h
µ
1  ∂∂P
y 
u
h y = - k yy  
Figure 8 µ  ∂y  r
Radial Darcy Law is:
Single phase Darcy Law in 1  ∂P 
u z = - k zz   k.A dP 2πkhr dP
an inclines system - effect of µ  ∂∂Pz  Q= =
1   µ dr µ dr
gravity u z = - k zz  
µ  ∂z 
Notation: 1Q  ∂=Pvolumetric∂z flow rate of fluid into well
u x = - k xx  - gρ 
µr  ∂∂=P ∂∂xz  from well
radial distance
1  x
u x = - h k xx  = height
- gρ of formation

µdP  ∂=xincremental∂x  pressure drop from r→ (r + dr) i.e. over dr
 ∂z  A = area of surface at r = 2π.r.h
  =μ cos θ = fluid viscosity
 ∂∂xz 
  k
  = cos θ = formation permeability
 ∂x  r = wellbore radius
w
1dr  ∂=Pincremental radius

u x = - k xx  - g.ρ. cosθ
µ  ∂∂P
x
1radial form 
Starting from the 
u x = - k xx  - g.ρ. cosθ Law, as follows:
of the Darcy
µ  ∂x 
2 πkhr  dP 
Q=
2 πµkhr  dP
dr 
Q=
µ  dr 
we can rearrangeµthis
Q todrobtain:
dP =  
kh  dr
2µπQ r 
dP =
2 πkh  r 

Institute of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University 19

Taking rw as the wellbore radius and r some appropriate radial distance, we can easily
integrate the above equation to obtain the radial pressure profile in a radial system
as follows:
r r
µQ dr
∫r dP
r = µQ ∫r  dr 

 r 
∫rw dP = 22ππkh r∫w
kh rw  r 
w

which gives:
µQ  r 
∆P( r ) = µQ ln r 
∆P( r ) = 2 πkh ln rw 
2 πkh  rw 

where weuhave k.k rw the

denoted ∂Pw ∂z 
w = - k.k  ∂Pradial
- gpressure
ρw ∂z  drop (or increase for a producer) from rw to
r as, ΔP(r).
u wNote
= - that,  ∂xw the
µ rw unlike - linear x  Law, the pressure profile is logarithmic
gρw ∂Darcy
µ means
in the radial case. This ∂x  drops are much higher closer to the well.
∂x that pressure
This is exactly what we expect physically since the area is decreasing with r as we
approach uthe=wellk.k ro Q∂Piso the same;∂ztherefore,

- k.kand  ∂P - gρo ∂z  the pressure drop, dP, over a given
o

u o = - µ  ∂x - gρo ∂x 
dr is higher. This is shown
ro o 
schematically for an injector and a producer in Figure 9.
The formulae and µthe ideas ∂x developed 
∂x here will be used later in Chapter 4 on well
modelling in reservoir simulation and we will not discuss this further here.
 ∂Pw   ∂P 
 ∂P  and  ∂Po 
 ∂xw  and  ∂xQo  Q
 ∂x   ∂x Injector Producer
Pwf
∆P(r)
Pc (Sw ) = Po − Pw ∆P(r)
Pc (Sw ) =∆P(r)
Po =−PP
wfw- P(r)
Figure 9
∆P(r) = P(r) - Pwf
Pc (Sw ) = Pnon − wett . − Pwett . Pressure profiles, ΔP(r), in
Pc (Sw ) = Pnon − wett . − Pwett . Pwf radial single-phase flow; Pwf
is the well flowing pressure
k rww = k k rwr rw r
(at rw)
k w = k k rw
4. TWO-PHASE
k o = k kFLOW
ro
k o = k k ro
4.1 The Two-Phase Darcy Law
Darcy’s Law was originally applied to single phase flow only. However, in reservoir
k w and k o
engineering, it hask been convenient to extend it to describe the flows of multiple
k w and
phases such as oil, owater and gas. To do this, the Darcy Law has been modified
empirically to include a term - the relative permeability - which is intended to describe
the impairment of the flow of one phase due to the presence of another. A schematic
representation of a steady-state two phase Darcy type (relative permeability) experiment
is shown in Figure 10, where all of the quantities are defined. Examples of the relative
permeability curves which can be measured in this way are also shown schematically
in Figure 10 and actual experimental examples are given for rock curves of different
wettability states in the Glossary.

20
 Basic Concepts in Reservoir Engineering
2
At steady - state flow conditions, the oil and water flow rates in and out,
Qo and Qw, are the same:

∆Po

∆Pw
Qw Qw

Qo Qo
L

The two - phase Darcy Law is as follows:

k.krw.A ∆Pw Schematic of relative

Qw = . permeabilities, krw and kro
µw L
1
kro
k.kro.A ∆Po Rel.
Qo = . Perm.
µo L
Figure 10 krw

The two-phase Darcy Law 0

0 Sw 1
and relative permeability

Where:
Qw and Qo = volumetric flow rates of water and oil;
A = cross-sectional area;
L = system length;
µw and µo = water and oil viscosities;
k = absolute permeabilities;
ΔPw and ΔPo = the pressure drops across the water and oil phases at
r steady-state
r flow conditions
µthe
Q water
 drand

∫
krw and kdP ==
2 πkh r∫w  r 
oil relative permeabilities
r r
µQ  dr 
∫ dP = 2πkh ∫  r 
ro
rw
NB the Units for the two-phase Darcy Law arerwexactly the same
rw as those in Figure
5.
µQ  r
∆P( r ) =form of ln
The differential   phase Darcy ∆Law µQ  including
r
2 πkh the rtwo
w P( r )in= 1D, again
ln  gravity
which is taken to act in the z-direction, is as follows: 2 πkh  rw 

k.k rw  ∂Pw ∂z 
uw = -  - gρw  k.k rw  ∂Pw ∂z 
µ  ∂x ∂x  uw = -  - gρw 
µ  ∂x ∂x 

k.k ro  ∂Po ∂z 
uo = -  - gρo  k.k ro  ∂Po ∂z 
µ  ∂x ∂x  uo = -  - gρo 
µ  ∂x ∂x 
where we note
∂P that the flow
∂P of the two phases (water and oil, in this case) depends
 w  
  and  o  ∂P ∂P
 ∂x gradient
on the pressure  phase; i.e. on  w  and  o  .
 ∂inx that
 ∂x   ∂x 

Pc (Sw ) = Po − Pw
Pc (Sw ) = Po − Pw
Institute of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University 21

P (S )=P − P
 = µQ∫  dr   
∫ dP
∫ dP =2kπ.kh
k ∫∂P
r  
rw khrwrw wr - gρw ∂z 
urw w = - 2 πrw k.k rw  ∂Pw ∂z 
µ  ∂x ∂x  uw = -  - gρw 
µ  ∂x ∂x 
µQ  r r 
∆P∆(Pr()r=) k=.kµQln  
ro ∂Pln ∂z 
u o = - 2 π2khπ  orwr-w gρo 
kh uo = -
k.k ro  ∂Po ∂z 
- gρo 
µ  ∂x ∂x  
µ  ∂x ∂x 
k.k  ∂PwP ∂z∂z
u wu ∂=P=-w - k.rwk rw ∂∂P w- gρw
ρ 
 µand
The phase pressures, P∂and
x o
 - g wx 
∂  ∂SPw (S
 = 1 - ∂SPo), are generally
∂x  saturation,
w
P , at a given
∂x  µ o ∂∂xx w  w  oand  w
 ∂x  pressure,
 ∂x as  follows:
not equal. However, they are related through the capillary
k.kk.rok  ∂P∂oP ∂z∂z
co(S
=- w-)µ= Proo ∂−x Po w- -gρgoρ∂o x  
 
u=
u oP
Pc (Sw ) = Po − Pw
µ  ∂x ∂x 
More strictly, the capillary pressure is the difference between the non-wetting
 ∂Pc∂w(Pw)andnon
P S = P ∂P− wett . − Pwett .
phase pressure the Po 
 ∂owetting-phase pressure; Pc (Sw ) = Pnon − wett . − Pwett .. We
 of the w and
and ∂x pressure
can think ∂x  capillary  ∂x   as a constraint on the phase pressures. That is, if
∂x
we know kthe capillary pressure function - from experiment , say - then, if we have
w = k k rw
Po at a given saturation, we can calculate Pw. Examples k w =of kcapillary
k rw pressure curves
(SwS) =in=Pthe
are alsoPshown
cP
c ( w) oP −
o
Glossary.
−PwP w
k o = k k ro
o = k k ro
Note that, as in the single-phase Darcy Law, we maykgeneralise the two-phase Darcy
PcP(Swto
expressions ) =
3D.
P Defining− Pthe combination of absolute permeability in its full
c ( )
S = non P − wett . − wett
kw, with non − wett . P.
wett .
tensor form,
k w and k o the phase relative permeabilities gives:
k w and k o
k wk = =k kk rwk
w rw

k ok = =k kk rok
o ro

where k wk and k o are the effective phase permeability tensors of water and oil,
w and k o
respectively. Using this notation, the Darcy velocity vectors for the water and oil, uw
and uo, may be written in 3D as follows:

1
uw = − k w .(∇Pw − ρw g∇z)
µw

1
uo = − k o .(∇Po − ρo g∇z)
µo
This form of these equations is particularly useful in deriving the two-phase flow
equations in their most general form (this will done in Chapter 5).

5. CLOSING REMARKS

The purpose of Chapter 2 is to review some key concepts in reservoir engineering

which impact directly on the subject matter of reservoir simulation. The topics
reviewed specifically involved:

- Material balance and its particular relationship with reservoir simulation;

- The single-phase Darcy law and its extension using vector calculus terminology
to a 3D version of the Darcy Law including tensor permeabilities;

22
 Basic Concepts in Reservoir Engineering
2
- The two-phase Darcy Law and the related concepts that arise in two-phase
flow e.g. relative permeabilities (kro and krw), phase pressures (Po and Pw),
capillary pressure (Pc(Sw) = Po - Pw), etc.

Ideas and concepts developed here will be used in other parts of this course.

6. SOME FURTHER READING ON RESERVOIR ENGINEERING

A full alphabetic list of References which are cited in the course is presented in
Appendix A. Many excellent texts have appeared over the years covering the basics
of Reservoir Engineering. Some of these are listed below, although this list is far
from comprehensive.

Amyx, J W, Bass, D M and Whiting, R L: Petroleum Reservoir Engineering, McGraw-

Hill, 1960. This is still an excellent petroleum engineering text although the coverage in
some areas a little old fashioned. It has a very good chapter on material balance.

Archer, J S and Wall, C: Petroleum Engineering: Principles and Practice, Graham

and Trotman Inc., London, 1986. This book offers a good overview of petroleum
engineering and covers many of the basics of reservoir engineering. This book is
also one of the earliest proponents of the importance of integrating the geology within
the reservoir model.

Craft, B C, Hawkins, M F and Terry, R E: Applied Petroleum Reservoir Engineering,

Prentice Hall, NJ, 1991. The original text by Craft and Hawkins was already an
early classic. This was revised and updated by Terry and reissued in 1991. This has
very good clear coverage of material balance and its application in various reservoir
systems.

Craig, F F: The Reservoir Engineering Aspects of Waterflooding, SPE monograph,

Dallas, TX, 1979. This text is confined to the underlying principles and reservoir
engineering applications of waterflooding. It is an excellent monograph on the
subject and an essential reference text for the reservoir engineer who is interested in
the traditional analytical methods for assessing waterflooding.

Dake, L P: The Fundamentals of Reservoir Engineering, Developments in Petroleum

Science 8, Elsevier, 1978. This has become a modern classic on the basics of reservoir
engineering. It is very widely referenced and draws on Dake’s vast experience of
teaching reservoir engineering basics. It has particularly good coverage of material
balance and Buckley-Leverett theory.

Dake, L P: The Practice of Reservoir Engineering, Developments in Petroleum

Science 36, Elsevier, 1994. This book is a modern plea for the continued application
traditional reservoir engineering principles and techniques in performance analysis and
prediction. It gives central place to the interpretation of well testing, the application
of material balance and the use of Buckley Leverett theory. It has many examples
from the hundreds of reservoirs that Dake himself worked on. This book also makes
a number of interesting and controversial observations on reservoir simulation (not
all of which the authors agree with!).

Institute of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University 23

Solution To Exercises

EXERCISE 1:

Material Balance problem for an undersaturated reservoir using equation 8 above.

This describes a case where production is by oil, water and formation expansion
above the bubble point (Pb) with no water influx or production.

Exercise: For the input data below, do the following:

(i) Plot the function (1 - N/Np) as calculated by equation 8 vs. -ΔP.

 Np  B B  Swi + c f 
As a reminder equation 8 is 1 −  = 1 − oi + oi   ∆P
 N Bo Bo  1 − Swi 
This is shown below

(1-Np/N) vs. -DP

0.999

0.997

0.995
(1-Np/N)

0.993
Series 1
0.991

0.989

0.987

0.985
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
-∆p (psi)

(ii) Note from the graph (or from your numerical calculation when plotting the
graph) that, at - ΔP = 200 psi, then (1 - Np/N) = 0.991. However, we know by field
observation that this 200 psi drawdown was caused by the production of 320 MSTB.
That is, we know that Np = 320 MSTB. Hence,

(1 - 320/N) = 0.991 => N = 35555.5 MSTB ≈ 35.6 MMSTB

Answer: the STOOIP = 35.6 MMSTB.

Input data: The initial water saturation, Swi = 0.1. The rock and water compressibilities
are, as follows:

crock = 5 x 10-6 psi-1; cw = 4 x 10-6 psi-1.

The initial reservoir pressure is 5500 psi at which Boi = 1.3 and the bubble point is
at Pb = 4000 where Bo = 1.4. That is, the oil swells as the pressure drops as shown
below:

24
 Basic Concepts in Reservoir Engineering
2

1.4
Bo(P) = m.P + c
Oil FVF
Bo
1.3

4000 P (psi) 5500

Institute of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University 25

26