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Economics of Transition

Volume 10 (2) 2002, 393–403

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University of Maryland and Chief Economist of the Inter-American Development Bank.
Department of Economics, University of Maryland, 4118 Tydings Hall, College Park, MD
20742-7211, USA. E-mail: calvo@wam.umd.edu

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