The Study of International Tourism Demand:
A Survey of Practice
GEOFFREY I. CROUCH
International tourism demand and its determinants have been the subjects of numerous
studies over the past three decades. Previous reviews of this body of research have identi-
fied only a small number of these studies. In contrast, this survey has attempted a compre-
hensive review of the literature. In this article, the first in a three-part series, similarities
and dissimilarities in approach are discussed as a guide to researchers wishing to conduct
similar studies.
Since the 1950s, numerous empirical studies have been
undertaken in order to develop an understanding of the fac-
tors that affect the flows of international tourism. In that 30-
year period, total international tourist flows have grown by
a factor of six, to approximately 400 million. The impact of
this growth, in terms of employment, balance of payments,
the global economy generally, and the fostering of interna-
tional understanding, has been considerable. In the spirit of
Cheng (1959), this article seeks to review the practices of these
empirical studies and to present them in a systematic way
for convenient reference (see also Crouch and Shaw 1990,
for an earlier review of about half of these studies, and Witt
and Witt 1992).
Diamond (1969, p. 53) and Socher (1986, p. 24) have
noted the neglect and inadequacy of the application of the
theory of international trade to the study of international tour-
ism. Williams and Zelinsky (1970) were also startled &dquo;to dis-
cover how little attention the circulation of tourists among
nations has been accorded by geographers, demographers,
and other social scientists&dquo; (p. 549). Judging by the
accumulating body of empirical research, however, this sit-
uation is now changing.
The majority of studies have been macroeconomic in
nature, and it is these that are of principal interest in this
review. Microeconomic studies of individual or household
tourism behavior (e.g., Van Soest and Kooreman 1987) are
rare. Most demand studies have only modeled effective or
actual demand. Suppressed demand (i.e., potential and
deferred demand) has been largely ignored (Boniface and
Cooper 1987, p. 9).
&dquo;No doubt, tourist receipts depend on many factors act-
ing on both the demand and the supply side of tourist ser-
vices&dquo; (Gerakis 1966, p. 41). The diversity and heterogeneity
of international tourism produces markets &dquo;with features of
perfect competition and features of monopoly&dquo; (Martini 1981,
p. 34). The determinants of demand are therefore complex
and varied. They depend upon the motive for travel. For
Geoffrey ,. Crouch is an Associate Professor in the Faculty
of Management and a member of the World Tourism Educa-
tion and Research Centre at the University of Calgary. The
author wishes to acknowledge the input of Professor Robin
N. Shaw
example, the determinants of international business travel are
more predictable and stable than are those that influence the
variegated discretionary travel market (Cleverdon 1985,
p. 199). The determinants depend on the structure of the tour-
ism decision (i.e., how decisions about if, where, when, how,
and so forth are made) (Marche and Flaven 1968, p. 108).
Gray and Herbert (1983) also highlighted the extent to which
determinants are subject to knowledge or fantasy. They con-
cluded that &dquo;people may have only the vaguest and most neb-
ulous ideas about what their holiday destination will be like
but they have quite clear -
and often very accurate-
ideas
of who else will be going there&dquo; (p. 77).
RESEARCH HISTORY
Literature
The growth in the study of international tourism demand
parallels the growth in demand itself over the past three
decades. An extensive effort was made to collect as many
empirical studies of international tourism demand as could
be found. In total, 80 studies were identified. No empirical
study of the determinants of international tourism demand
was found for the period prior to the 1960s. However, dur-
ing the three decades since, a total of 5 (1960s), 33 (1970s),
and 42 (1980s) useful empirical studies were obtained. An
additional five studies reported since the turn of the decade
were also identified.
The earliest meaningful study located was therefore that
of Guthrie (1961), entitled Demand for Tourists’ Goods and
Services in a World Market. Other early pioneers in the field
in the 1970s include Artus, Edwards, Jud, and others.
Anastasopoulos, Edwards, Martin, Uysal, and Witt, among
others, lead the way in the 1980s.
Tables 1 to 4 summarize the practices of the past empiri-
cal studies.
Methodology
The methodologies employed vary in a number of ways.
The most important methodological dimensions include the
nature of the demand coefficient estimation
method, the func-
tional form of the model, the type of data used, whether a
single or simultaneous equation approach was adopted, and
41
the ways in which multicollinearity and serial correlation
were managed.
Ordinary least-squares (OLS) multivariable regression
analysis has been the most widely used approach. Its advan-
tages include the ability to model cause and effect, to carry
out &dquo;what if’ forecasting, and to provide statistical meas-
ures of accuracy and significance. However, regression ana-
lyses &dquo;may be inappropriate in certain cases and are gener-
ally more expensive than noncausal models. Econometric
forecasting also requires considerable user understanding in
order to develop the correct relationships&dquo; (Witt and Martin
1989, pp. 12, 13). Morley (1991) notes that it is unlikely &dquo;that
the widespread use of multiple regression for estimating tour-
ism demand functions will diminish, given its widely per-
ceived advantages over other ways of forecasting demand&dquo;
(p. 40). The use of regression analysis is not, however, with-
out its critics. Summary (1987) concluded that &dquo;multivaria-
ble regression analysis has limited usefulness in identifying
the significant factors which influence tourists’ decisions&dquo;
(p. 317). Uysal (1983) identified five limitations: (1) supply
factors are often ignored; (2) it may be difficult to forecast
explanatory variables for forecasting purposes; (3) the
appropriateness of variables may change; (4) in the long term,
noneconomic factors, which are often omitted from such
models, may be more important; and (5) they are frequently
only static representations (p. 51).
Other methods to receive attention in the literature include
ridge regression (e.g., Fujii and Mak 1981, p. 72; Uysal 1983,
p. 44), two-stage least-squares regression (Kanafani 1983,
pp. 274-75), nonlinear regression (Edwards 1979, p. 53), and
canonical correlation analysis (Uysal and O’Leary 1986,
p. 651).
In terms of the functional form of the model, there appears
to be almost universal agreement that the multiplicative (i.e.,
log-linear) form is superior to the additive (i.e., linear) form.
The multiplicative model often fits the data better and con-
veniently provides demand elasticities (Ashworth and John-
son 1990, pp. 15, 18; Houthakker and Magee 1969, p. 111;
Johnson and Ashworth 1990, p. 147; Krause, Jud, and Joseph
1973, p. 29; Sheldon and Var 1985, p. 185; Witt and Martin
1989, p. 16; Anastasopoulos 1984, pp. 15, 91-93;
Anastasopoulos 1989, p. 475; Bureau of Transportation and
Communications Economics, Australia 1988, p. 65; Clarke
1978, p. 52; Fujii and Mak 1981, p. 73; Hanlon 1976, p. 26,
29; Jud 1971, p. 80; Kanellakis 1975, p. 84; Kliman 1981,
p. 491; Paraskevopoulos 1977, p. 49; Poole 1988, p. 7; Quay-
son and Var 1982, p. 111; Uysal 1983, p. 129; Witt 1980a,
p. 166). Kanafani (1983, p. 245) and Bakkalsalihoglu (1987,
p. 93), however, point out that the multiplicative functional
form has a constant elasticity structure that can produce
absurd results when explanatory variables extend well beyond
their original range.
Regression modeling has generally been of three types.
Econometric models have focused on analysis of the impact
of economic influences on demand. Gravity models adopt
a geographic perspective, with an emphasis on mass (i.e.,
population) and distance considerations. Trip generation
models are a hybrid of these two models. The three types
differ more in terms of origin than of method, with gravity
models being expressed in a more rigid form (Archer 1980,
p. 8; Anastasopoulos 1984, p. 63).
Data in the form of time series has been commonly
employed. Typically, travel from a single origin country to
a single destination country has been modeled in this way.
42
On occasions, aggregate inbound or outbound travel has been
modeled as a time series. The principal advantage of time-
series analysis is that it enables the modeling of trends
(Armstrong 1972, p. 118). Its main limitation is that sample
sizes are often severely limited by the period of available data
(Cigliano 1980, p. 18). As a consequence, the number of
explanatory variables that may be studied can be stricted.
Furthermore, certain demand determinants (such as popula-
tion and cultural differences) are largely irrelevant in time-
series studies.
Cross-sectional analysis has been used to investigate
changes in the pattern of demand across countries, rather than
across time. Although time trends cannot be investigated and
results are less useful for forecasting purposes, cross-sectional
analysis can be used to investigate different types of factors.
Kanafani (1983) also noted that &dquo;In the case of cross-sectional
analysis, it can be assumed that a static equilibrium exists
and that the supply variables are not influenced by demand.
This is not as good an assumption in time-series modeling
where the data will reflect adjustments of supply conditions
from time period to time period that are possibly influenced
by demand&dquo; (p. 275).
Hanlon (1976) has noted, however, that &dquo;the parameters
of cross-sectional models generally reflect a different kind
of behavior than that which is examined in time-series ana-
lyses. Basically, the main difference is that cross-section
parameters measure long-term adjustments, whereas time-
series relationships are affected by short-term fluctuations.
In many cases, this may mean that time-series estimates of
demand elasticities are smaller than cross-section estimates&dquo;
(p. 48). A small number of researchers pooled time-series
and cross-sectional data in order to mitigate the limitations
of these approaches, but pooling might violate the assump-
tion of constant error variances assumed by regression anal-
ysis (Uysal 1983, p. 9; Clarke 1978, p. 9).
Further methodological problems concerning data relate
to its availability and accuracy. For example, modelers fre-
quently resorted to the use of consumer price indices to reflect
changing prices of tourism services, since travel price indi-
ces are rarely available. Data on airfares are also difficult
to obtain and are complicated by the wide array of fare types.
White and Walker (1982) effectively demonstrated the ques-
tionable accuracy of demand data by comparing reported
departures from country A to country B with reported arrivals
to country B from country A.
Most studies have applied regression analysis to the esti-
mation of parameters in single-equation models. A small
number of studies, however, have examined the application
of simultaneous equations. Bakkalsalihoglu (1987) argued that
such an approach is theoretically more flexible (p. 4). Fujii,
Khaled, and Mak (1985) noted that single-equation models
are inefficient in their use of information and are deficient
in their analysis of cross-price elasticities (p. 161). They
argued for the use of a systems approach favoring the appli-
cation of the Almost Ideal Demand System (AIDS) of Dea-
ton and Muellbauer (1980) over the Linear Expenditure Sys-
tem (LES) of Stone (1954). Other researchers who have
propounded the use of simultaneous equations include Smeral
(1988), Taplin (1982), White (1982), Walker and White (1980),
Mazanec (1983), and Van Soest and Kooreman (1987). On
the other hand, users of single-equation models generally
justify their decision on the basis that, with regard to the
modeling of international tourism demand, the explanatory
variables can be assumed to be predetermined; the analyst
can ignore the problem of simultaneity of supply and demand,
since the smaller demand by foreigners for tourism services,
compared to the demand by nationals, causes supply to be
largely perfectly elastic (Kanafani 1983, p. 271; Krause, Jud,
and Joseph 1973, p. 28; Anastasopoulos 1984, p. 63; Artus
1972, p. 583; Barry and O’Hagan 1972, p. 152; Bond 1979,
p. 261; Gray 1966, p. 86; Hanlon 1976, p. 10; Jud 1971,
pp. 69, 70; Kanellakis 1975, p. 82; Uysal and Crompton 1984,
p. 293).
The most common methodological problem encountered
has been the difficulty of separating the effect of certain deter-
minants as a result of multicollinearity. The simultaneity of
changes since the Second World War, such as rising real
incomes and falling real air fares, has made it difficult to iso-
late individual effects (Gray 1982, p. 119). To date, the prob-
lem has not been satisfactorily addressed. In response, some
researchers have simply dropped collinear variables from the
model. This is likely to result in a misspecified model, where
the estimated regression coefficients of the remaining varia-
bles are biased because the model omits other important
explanatory variables. Other researchers have reacted by com-
bining collinear variables to form a single composite varia-
ble, but this practice makes it difficult to interpret the esti-
mated regression coefficients (elasticities), since a change in
the explanatory variable may occur for different reasons. Pool-
ing data to increase the variability in the explanatory varia-
bles might also partially overcome the problem (Karuse, Jud,
and Joseph 1973, p. 26; Sheldon and Var 1985, p. 191; Fujii
and Mak 1980, p. 31), but results are again difficult to inter-
pret, since time series and cross-sectional data reflect differ-
ent kinds of behavior. Uysal (1983, p. 44) also proposed the
application of ridge regression as a possible solution.
Serial correlation has posed further problems. Applica-
tion of the Cochrane-Orcutt technique has been frequently
relied upon (Loeb 1982, p. 13; Witt and Martin 1987). John-
son and Ashworth (1990, p. 150) have suggested, however,
that little consideration has been given to the possibility that
serial correlation is due to misspecification. Morley (1991,
p. 42) has also suggested that serial correlation requires closer
analysis with regard to the dynamics and lag structure of
demand models.
The methodologies employed by each of the studies are
summarized in Table 1. Approximately 84 % of the studies
appear to have used ordinary least-squares multiple regres-
sion, although approximately 89% of the studies use some
form of regression analysis, including Cochrane-Orcutt
regression, two-stage least-squares regression, generalized
least-squares regression, ridge regression, and constrained
and Bayesian regression. Other methods employed include
quasi-experimental static group comparison, AIDS system
of demand equations solved by maximum likelihood estima-
tion or the generalized least-squares method for seemingly
unrelated regressions, maximum likelihood, canonical corre-
lation, variance component modeling of pooled data, and
other ad hoc procedures.
Dependent Variables
Table 2 indicates the type of dependent variables exam-
ined in each of the studies. Sixty-three percent of the studies
examined the number of tourist arrivals and departures as
the measure of demand. Other studies (48 % ) measured
demand in terms of expenditures and receipts. The number
of tourist-nights and the average length of stay have also been
studied (by 6 % and 3 % , respectively).
Demand theory suggests that, ideally, the demand varia-
ble used to estimate elasticities of demand should represent
the quantity of the product demanded. In the study of tour-
ism, however, &dquo;the dependent variable is an aggregate of
several separate activities definable in money terms and not
a quantity as in the conventional way of estimating such coeffi-
cients&dquo; (Kanellakis 1975, p. 17). Hence, the matter of an
appropriate measure of demand is problematic and is fur-
ther compounded by the fact that tourism demand in real
money terms represents both an amount of expenditure and
the quality of consumption (Smeral 1988, p. 40).
Demand measured in real money terms is therefore prefer-
able, but reliable data is often not available (Anastasopoulos
1984, p. 97; O’Hagan and Harrison 1984a, p. 921). Data on
tourist numbers is generally more reliable (Barry and
O’Hagan 1972, p. 147) but is likely to be less responsive to
determinants, since tourists are able to alter both their length
of stay and their daily expenditures as they adjust to chang-
ing circumstances. Paraskevopoulos (1977, p. 31) suggested
that the night stay is the basic commodity purchased by
tourists. Such a measure is superior to tourist numbers, since
it accounts for changes in the average length of stay, but it
does not allow for changes in average daily expenditure.
A further consideration in the selection of an appropriate
dependent variable concerns the intended use of the results.
For example, Mak, Moncur, and Yonamine (1977, p. 5) point
out that transportation carriers are primarily interested in tour-
ist numbers. Lodging establishments, on the other hand, have
a particular interest in the length of stay. Merchants are
interested in the level of spending by tourists, and govern-
ments are interested in all measures of demand.
Independent Variables
The number of potential demand determinants is very
indeed (Keintz 1968, p. 59). Selection of appropriate
large
variables will depend on a number of factors, including the
countries examined, the time-period investigated, whether a
time-series or cross-sectional study is to be attempted, and
the type of tourism involved (e.g., business travel, &dquo;sunlust&dquo;
or &dquo;wanderlust&dquo; pleasure travel, travel for the purpose of visit-
ing friends and relatives, and so forth). Mikulicz (1983, p. 8)
has isolated three groups of independent variables. These
include factors that determine (1) market volume (e.g., popu-
lation, income, leisure time, education, occupation, and so
forth), (2) the cost of travel (e.g., the cost of tourist services,
including the impact of inflation and exchange rates, and
travel cost, distance, and time), and (3) utility image (such
as tourist appeal, publicity, information, weather, language,
ancestry, and so forth). Vanhove (1980) defined four mutu-
ally exclusive groups of explanatory variables: (1) the mar-
ket element represents factors determining the overall num-
ber of trips; (2) the destination element includes attributes
of the destination that would attract or deter tourists; (3) the
location element defines the geographic relationship between
the destination and the market; and (4) the ties element
includes factors that represent business, cultural, and other
links between countries (p. 2). Six classes of variables were
defined by Noval (1975), namely, (1) tendency to generate
travel, (2) tendency to receive/attract travel, (3) impediments
to travel, (4) interaction between pairs of countries,
(5) interdependence factors (e. g. , the influence of third coun-
tries), and (6) stochastic disturbances (p. 141).
Modeling constraints, particularly with regard to consider-
ations of sufficient degrees of freedom, multicollinearity, and
43
 TABLE 1
METHODOLOGIES

44
 TABLE 1
METHODOLOGIES (continued)

aSee also Krause, Jud, and Joseph (1973).

bSee also Smeral, Witt, and Witt (1992).
Legend: 1) Ordinary least-squares multiple regression
2) Multiple regression using the Cochrane-Orcutt procedure
3) Quasi-experimental static group comparison (ex post facto design)
4) Almost Ideal Demand System (AIDS) of demand equations solved by maximum likelihood estimation
5) Ordinary least-squares multiple regression using residuals
6) Two-stage least-squares estimation
7) Generalized least-squares estimation
8) Ridge regression
9) Regression with a first-order autocorrelation correction procedure, using the SHAZAM computer program
10) Maximum likelihood estimation
11) Canonical correlation analysis
12) Constrained regression
13) Bayesian regression
14) Variance component modeling of pooled data
15) Ad hoc procedure involving fitting an S-curve to market share and relative price data by regression analysis, where the
two variables are expressed in percentage of annual change to derive elasticities
16) Version of AIDS systems of demand equations solved using Zellner’s generalized least-squares method for seemingly
unrelated regressions
17) Single equation estimation using seemingly unrelated regressions
18) Ordinary least-squares estimation using the Gauss-Seidel method to solve the system of equations iteratively

45
 TABLE 2
DEPENDENT VARIABLES, TIME INTERVALS, AND DATA TYPE

46
reliability of data, have usually governed the selection of
independent variables. Paraskevopoulos (1977, p. 23) noted
that, in applied econometric work, efficiency of estimation
is not always compatible with the inclusion of all relevant
variables. Kanafani (1983, p. 246) argued that about 10
degrees of freedom are required in travel demand research
after the number of independent variables has been chosen.
It is likely that many analysts would suggest that a much
higher figure is desirable.
A further important consideration associated with the
selection of independent variables concerns their definition.
There are a multitude of ways in which factors such as
income, price, travel cost, and so forth could be defined.
Should they be represented in real or nominal terms? Should
they be expressed in per capita terms or should population
be included as a separate explanatory variable? Would an
absolute or relative price definition be more effective? If price
is to be defined in relative terms, to what should it be related

TABLE 2
DEPENDENT VARIABLES, TIME INTERVALS, AND DATA TYPE (continued)

Note: Time interval and data type classifications relate only to study results that have not already been published by the same author(s)
in an earlier study listed above.

47
-
prices in the origin country, prices in alternative destina-
tions, or some other alternative? How should changes in
exchange rates be modeled? Would it be best to adjust prices
for changes in exchange rates, or do tourists respond differ-
ently to exchange rate changes than they do to price changes?
(See, for example, Edwards 1987, p. 11; Gray 1982, pp. 120-
121 ; Lin and Sun 1983, p. 52; Little 1980, pp. 42, 47; Trem-
blay 1989, p. 480; Truett and Truett 1987, p. 183.) An exami-
nation of the past research reveals a wide variety of decisions
on these issues, with more disagreement than consensus.
Understandably, the availability of suitable data and the
specific objectives of the study have shaped the selection and
definition of these variables. It sometimes appears, however,
that insufficient attention has been paid to model specifica-
tion and interpretation issues. Too often, estimated demand
elasticities are discussed as though their meaning were univer-
sal, although estimates are rarely exactly comparable because
they are a function of the definition of the respective varia-
ble and the form of the specified model. Greater care is neces-
sary to define variables and interpret results correctly.
The independent or explanatory variables investigated are
summarized in Table 3. Measures of income (employed in
89 % of the studies), the price of tourist goods and services
(both own-price and cross-price effects) (70%), the cost of
transportation (58 % ), and exchange rates (33 % ) dominate the
research history. This reflects the fact that the majority of
studies have adopted an econometric approach to the
phenomenon. A little more than half of the studies (54 % )
have included dummy variables to account for various dis-
turbances that might have biased the estimated parameters
had they been ignored. Typically, such disturbances include
political factors (e.g., political unrest or terrorism), various
travel restrictions (e.g., limits on foreign spending), special
events (e.g., Olympic Games or Expo), and other transitory
disturbances that are difficult to quantify. A number of the
time-series (18 % ) also included a trend term in order to
account for changing travel &dquo;tastes&dquo; and to deal with multi-
collinearity, particularly among the decrease in the real cost
of air transportation, the increase in real incomes, and the
increasing propensity to travel over the study period.
Other independent variables of particular interest have
included measures of marketing effort, population, ethnic
attraction/cultural ties, and distances/travel time. Some
studies in particular have specifically focused on the impact
of marketing effort (in terms of total promotional spending,
advertising spending, or other spending) by national govern-
ments to facilitate development of their own tourism indus-
tries. Travel distance is also an interesting factor, since dis-
tance can both deter and attract tourists (Mayo and Jarvis
1986; Beaman 1974; Smith 1983).
Variables that have been the subject of minor interest
include measures of weather and climate (Mieczkowski 1985),
supply factors (Stroombergen, Jackson, and Miller 1991;
Summary 1987; Truett and Truett 1982), the introduction of
direct flights (Fujii, Im, and Mak 1989), trade and business
links, tourist appeal, barriers to travel, demographic factors,
and the extent of previous visitation. A number of studies
have also considered the temporal aspect of causal relation-
ships by introducing lagged variables into the regression equa-
tions. Income, prices, exchange rates, transportation costs,
and marketing expenditures have each been examined in this
way. Anticipatory effects (e.g., anticipation of future income)
have also been evaluated by specifying lead variables in
the model. Other similar attempts have included moving
48
averages, quadratic lag structures, and the definition of &dquo;per-
manent&dquo; income. Habit/persistence has been investigated by
introducing a lag in the dependent variable as an explana-
tory variable for the next time period. This approach also
allows for the explicit evaluation of short- and long-term
demand elasticities.
Countries Studied
International travel to and from a large number of coun-
tries has been examined. While some studies individually have
analyzed the demand determinants of a large set of countries,
no study has ever attempted to analyze the complete world
tourism system as a closed system. The majority of studies
have selected only a small group of countries for analysis.
As expected, tourism among West European and North
American countries has dominated the research (these areas
account for a very large proportion of tourism flows). Several
studies, however, have also examined international travel
involving Australia, Japan, and Turkey. With few exceptions,
other countries have largely been ignored. Two studies have
comprehensively examined Central and South America,
otherwise this region, together with most of Africa, most
of Asia, the Pacific, the Middle East, and Eastern Europe,
is not significantly represented in the findings of the iden-
tified body of research. The difficulties of comparing data
series among these geographic regions presents a hurdle to
such work.
Data Periods Studied
The data periods analyzed in these studies span the early
1950s to the late 1980s. The average period of study is approx-
imately 14 years, and all but a small number of studies have
been based on annual data. A minority analyzed half-yearly,
quarterly, monthly, or moving averages of annual data. Four-
teen percent of studies have data periods of 20 years or more,
and 20 % have used data from periods of less than 10 years.
As indicated earlier, the majority of studies have analyzed
the data as a time-series, but a small number of studies have
utilized cross-sectional data or have pooled the data across
countries and time periods.
Detailed data on the countries and data periods studied
may be obtained from the author.
Reported Measures
The reporting and publication of results provide the most
effective means of disseminating knowledge. The advance-
ment of knowledge is therefore critically dependent on what
results are reported and how they are reported.
The various measures reported in each of the studies are
summarized in Table 4. This information is of particular
interest, since the availability of various measures will shape
the way in which study findings can be interpreted and
integrated. Frequently, however, data sources are not ade-
quately described and variable definitions are expressed in
vague or ambiguous terms. Any important interstudy differ-
ences, which might explain the variation in estimated coeffi-
cients across studies, need to be reported if the full value of
the results are to be realized.
The reporting of all important details of the findings is
also critical. Details on all variables included in a model
specification should be provided, since their inclusion or
omission may bias the results for other variables in the model.
These details have not always been reported some studies
-
 TABLE 3
INDEPENDENT/EXPLANATORY VARIABLES

49
have omitted details on variables that produced an unexpected
sign or were found to be statistically insignificant.
CONCWSION
In this article, the practices of a large number of demand
studies in international tourism have been surveyed. The
results provide a useful guide for other researchers inter-
ested in carrying out similar studies. The selection of the
most suitable approach, however, will depend upon the
circumstances and objectives of the study being planned.
It would be wrong to blindly adopt any one approach
without first judging its limitations and assumptions. In this
regard, this comprehensive survey provides a convenient
reference.

TABLE 3
INDEPENDENT/EXPLANATORY VARIABLES (continued)

50
 TABLE 4
REPORTED MEASURES

51
 TABLE 4
REPORTED MEASURES (continued)

Note: Only significance levels reported in numerical terms are counted in this table. Where statistical significance was only indicated as
being within a certain range, the information is of limited usefulness when quantitatively integrating results.

52
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