EXPLORING ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY

Unit 4 - Review on Basic Principles Applied in Analytical

Chemistry

This unit presents the basic guiding principles used in analytical

chemistry. These principles were discussed in previous chemistry courses. It
includes chemical reactions and mathematical manipulations in order to quantify
results from data given or obtained.

Learning Outcomes

● Demonstrate mathematical skills in solving problems of the different methods of

expressing concentration;
● Acquire laboratory skills in volumetric measurements and demonstrate proper
techniques applicable and
● Develop competency in preparing reagent solution according to required
concentration.

Pretest
Test I. Match each item with the correct statement below.
a. Henry's law b. immiscible c. saturated solution
d. supersaturated solution e. concentration
____ 1. describes liquids that are insoluble in one another
____ 2. solution containing maximum amount of solute
____ 3. solution containing more solute than can theoretically dissolve at a given
temperature
____ 4. At a given temperature, the solubility of a gas in a liquid is directly proportional
to the pressure of the gas above the liquid.
____ 5. measure of the amount of solute dissolved in a specified quantity of solvent

Match each item with the correct statement below.

a. molarity b. dilutions c. Henry’s law d. solute e. solvent
____ 6. number of moles of solute dissolved in 1 L of solution
____ 7. reduces the number of moles per solution
____ 8. directly proportional
____ 9. solid substance

Test II. Multiple Choice Identify the choice that best completes the statement or answers the
question.

____ 10. Which of the following usually makes a substance dissolve faster in a solvent?
a. agitating the solution b. increasing the particle size of the solute c.
lowering the temperature d. decreasing the number of particles
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____ 11. Which of the following pairs of factors affects the solubility of a particular
substance?
a. temperature and the nature of solute and solvent
b. temperature and degree of mixing
c. particle size and degree of mixing
d. particle size and temperature
____ 12. In a concentrated solution there is ____.
a. no solvent b. a large amount of solute
c. a small amount of solute d. no solute _
____ 13. What does NOT change when a solution is diluted by the addition of solvent?
a. volume of solvent b. mass of solvent
c. number of moles of solute d. molarity of solution
____ 14. How many mL of a 2.0M NaBr solution are needed to make 200.0 mL of 0.50M
NaBr?
a. 25 mL c. 100 mL b. 50 mL d. 150 mL

Content

1.1. Ionic Equations

These sample below was extracted from
http://dept.harpercollege.edu/chemistry/chm/100/dgodambe/thedisk/chemrxn/ionic2.htm

4.1.1 Write the molecular equation and balance it.

2 AgNO3 + Na2SO4   Ag2SO4 + 2 NaNO3

4.1.2. Determine the state of each substance (gas, liquid, solid, aqueous).
Soluble ionic are identified with an (aq), insoluble ones with an (s).
Most elements and covalent compounds are insoluble in water and should be shown
with an (s), (l) or (g).

2 AgNO3(aq) + Na2SO4(aq)   Ag2SO4(s) + 2 NaNO3(aq)

4.1.3. Write the ionic equation by breaking all the soluble ionic compounds (those marked
with an (aq)) into their respective ions.
Each ion should be shown with its charge and an (aq) to show that it is present in
solution.
Use coefficients to show the number of each ion present.
Rewrite the elements and covalent compounds as they appeared in the preceding
step.

2 Ag+(aq) + 2 NO3-(aq) + 2 Na+(aq) + SO4-2(aq)   Ag2SO4(s) + 2

Na+(aq) + 2 NO3-(aq)

4.1.4. Write the net ionic equation by removing the spectator ions.
Spectator ions are those ions that appear exactly the same on each side of the ionic
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equation.

2 Ag+(aq) + SO4-2(aq)   Ag2SO4(s)

1.2. Methods of Expressing Concentrations

There are many ways in expressing concentrations and the following methods are the
most commonly used. Definition of the following terms and method were adopted from
Quantitative Chemical Analysis, 12th edition by Hamilton and Simpson, 1973:

A. Gram per unit volume. This method expresses the concentration of solute in terms
of grams (or milligrams) in each liter (or millilitre) of solution.

B. Percentage composition. The concentration is expressed in terms of grams of

solute per grams of solution.

% solute = { wt. solute, g / ( wt. solute, g + wt. solvent, g ) } x 100

% Solvent = { wt. solvent, g / (wt. solute, g + wt. solvent, g) } x 100

C. Specific gravity. The specific gravity of a solution of a single solute is a measure of

the concentration of the solute in the solution.

D. Volume ratios. This method is used in a particular work requiring calculations from
the volume used. It given in terms of volume ratio of chemical reagent with high
concentration and water.

Example: H2SO4 (1:3) means that for every volume of concentrated H2SO4 you have
to add 3 volumes of water to make a solution with the specified ratio.

E. Molar and Formal Solutions. A gram-molecular weight (or gram-mole, or simply

mole) of a substance is its molecular weight expressed in grams.

A formula weight is that weight in grams corresponding to the formula of the

substance, thus, formula weight is equal to gram-molecular weight.

A molar solution = gram-molecular wt. of solute / liter of solution

A formal solution = formula wt. of solute / liter solution

Molar solution = Formal solution

F. Normal solution (N) is one containing a gram-equivalent weight of solute in a liter of

solution or gram-milliequivalent weight in a milliliter of solution.

An equivalent weight of a substance is that weight which is directly or indirectly

equivalent in reacting power of an atom of hydrogen.
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A milliequivalent weight is one thousandth of the equivalent weight.

A gram-equivalent weight is the equivalent weight express in grams and is

therefore that weight equivalent to a gram-atom (1.008) of hydrogen.

A gram milliequivalent weight is one thousandth of the gram equivalent weight.

The normality of the solution is its relation to the normal solution

Activity (a) of an ion or molecule can be found by multiplying its molar

concentration(c) by an activity coefficient (f). An activity coefficient is therefore a
factor which converts molar concentration to a value which expresses the true mass-
action effect.

pH is defined as common logarithm of the reciprocal of the hydrogen ion

concentration.
pH = log (1/H+) = - log [H+] = colog [H+]

pOH is the logarithm of the reciprocal of the hydroxyl ion concentration.

The pH value and the pOH value of pure water at 250C are each 7.0. In general, in
any aqueous solution at 250C;

pH + pOH = 14
An acid solution has pH value less than 7.0; alkaline solutions pH values greater
than 7.0

Buffered solutions are used to control the pH of a solution to a certain point where
selective precipitation can be made. They are also used in colorimetric determination
of pH values by means of indicators.

Learning Activities:

Let’s do these…
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Assessment

Test I. Solve the following problems:

Problem 1. A 5.0-g sample of spinal fluid contains 3.75 mg (0.00375 g) of glucose. What is the
percent by mass of glucose in spinal fluid?

 Problem 2. Concentrated hydrochloric acid is an aqueous solution of 37.2% HCl that is

commonly used as a laboratory reagent. The density of this solution is 1.19 g/mL. What mass of
HCl is contained in 0.500 L of this solution?

Problem 3. A bottle of a tile cleanser contains 135 g of HCl and 775 g of water. What is the
percent by mass of HCl in this cleanser?

Test II – Perform Laboratory Activity on Volumetric Measurement

Accuracy in volume measurements Requirements

● 50 mL burette ● Burette clamp and stand ● Funnel ● Water

● 100 mL graduated cylinder ● 100 mL beaker

Health and safety Outline instructions

1. Set up a burette on a stand assembly (see Figure 4.1)

2. Fill the empty burette with water. Make sure the meniscus of the water in the burette
rests on the 0.00 mL line at the top of the burette (see Figure 4.2).

Figure 4.1. Burette assembly set up retrieved from

https://www.rsc.org/cpd/teachers/content/filerepository/frg/pdf/Accuracyinvolumemeasur
ements.pdf
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Figure 4.2. Burette filling and stopcock open and close positions

3. Place a 100 mL graduated cylinder beneath the tip of the burette. Open the stopcock
and slowly release about 40 mL of water from the burette into the graduated cylinder.
Record the exact volume of water dispensed from the burette in the appropriate column
of the results table. In this experiment the volume released from the burette will
represent the accepted value.
4. Read the volume of water in the graduated cylinder by observing the markings on the
side of the cylinder. Be sure to read the volume at the bottom of the meniscus. Record
the volume of water in the graduated cylinder in the correct column of the results table.
5. Pour the water in the measuring cylinder into the beaker. Read the volume of water in
the beaker by observing the markings on the side of the beaker. Record this volume in
the correct column of the results table.
6. 6. Calculate the difference in the volume read from the graduated cylinder and the
volume read from the burette. Enter the difference in the “Difference” column of the
results table.
7. Calculate the difference in the volume read from the beaker and the volume read from
the burette. Enter the difference in the “Difference” column of the results table

Table 4.1. Table of volumetric data and results

The accuracy of a piece of laboratory glassware is often expressed in terms of its percentage
error. The lower the percentage error, the more accurate the piece of glassware.
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Percentage error can be calculated using the expression:

% error = [(difference between measured value and accepted value)/accepted value] × 100

Use your experimental results to calculate the percentage error of:

(i) the 100 mL measuring cylinder
(ii) the 100 mL beaker Notes/observations/questions

1. Based on your calculations, which of the two (the beaker or the measuring cylinder) is the
more accurate piece of apparatus when measuring volume?

2. Look closely at the calibration markings on each of the three pieces of equipment. Why do
you think the burette reading was chosen as the accepted value?

3. Which piece of glassware should not be used in a quantitative experiment? Give reasons for
your choice.