IFP Materials PDF

Part Two
HEAT TRANSFER
TECHNOLOGIES
The great majority o f operations carried out in the refining and petrochemical
industries use temperature as one o f the main operating variables. Whether to
vaporize a hydrocarbon cut during distillation or to make certain molecules react
in order to convert them (with or without a catalyst), the temperature must always
be adjusted to the level required by the specified operation. Consequently, the
equipment used to this end is indispensable at numerous locations in a process.
The requisite temperature range is very wide i f extremes are considered: ti-om the
liquefaction temperature o f methane (-161 "C) to its cracking temperature
(approximately 1 OOO'C).
Two different types o f equipment are used to make these temperature adjust-
ments:
furnaces which produce most o f the energy required in the differentrefining
operations in the form o f high temperature heat;
heat exchangers which recover the most possible thermal energy contained
in the different refinery streams and thereby adjust temperature levels over
the whole refinery flow scheme.
Chapters 5 and 6 present furnaces and heat exchangers respectively,
5
Process ]Furnaces
Claude Bonnet
5.1 Furnace Functions

Furnaces as dealt with in this chapter are equipment where fluids are heated
by the gases produced by combustion of a liquid or gaseous fuel. They are
termed direct fired furnaces, as the heat of the combustion gases is directly
transmitted to the cold fluid that circulates in a tubular coil. These furnaces
are different from indirectly fired furnaces where the process fluid to be
heated circulates in a tube bundle submerged in a hot fluid, which is itself
heated directly by the fuel combustion gases (Fig. 5.1). Direct fired furnaces
must also be distinguished from mixing type furnaces (such as catalyst regen-
erators) where the process fluid is raised to the specified temperature by mix-
ing with the fuel combustion gases (Fig. 5.2).
The heat transmitted to the heated fluid can be used:
simply to heat it: the temperature of the process fluid is raised so that it
can undergo a physical or chemical change later on (steam superheater,
catalytic reformer gas heater, liquid hydrocarbon heater feed for the cat-
alytic cracking unit, heat transfer fluid, etc.);
to accomplish a chemical change: by pyrolysis (steam cracking furnaces
to manufacture ethylene, dichloroethane and acetic acid cracking fur-
nace, etc.).
In other cases, the change is accomplished in the presence of a catalyst
@reduction of synthesis gas from natural gas or naphtha, isopropyl alcohol
cracking furnaces, etc.). In the most common instance, several operations are
carried out either simultaneously or successively in the same furnace, for
example: visbreaking furnace where sensible, reaction (thermal cracking) and
vaporization heats are supplied.
160 Chapter 5 PROCESS FURNACES
I
Flue gases
L I
Figure
5.1 Indirectly fired furnace.
Several different fluids can also be heated simultaneously in the same fur-
nace which is said to be multi-service. However, here only one of the services
can generally be controlled, with heat automatically supplied to the others. An
accessory device is then incorporated to control their outlet temperature.
5.2 Description of a Furnace

Generally speaking, furnaces comprise the following main parts (Figs. 5.3 and
5.4):
(a) A radiation section consisting essentially of a combustion chamber
where the tubes are located. The tubes are separate from each other but con-
nected by elbows. The process fluid circulates inside this tube bundle and
heat is transferred from flue gases mainly by radiation. Part of the transfer is
also achieved by convection between the flue gases and the tubes. The tem-
perature of the flue gases exiting the radiation section is high (700 to 1 100°C)
and so the efficiency is low (approximately 50% of the low heating value (P,,)).
@) In order to recover the sensible heat from the flue gases, they circulate
at high speed (parallel or perpendicular) through a tube bundle where heat is
Chapter 5. PROCESS FURNACES 161
Hot mixture of air

and flue gases
t
-E
Cold air
Fuel
1 Figure
5.2 Mixing type air furnace.
transferred chiefly by convection. This sector is then called the convection

section. The tubes may be finned or studded in order to increase the heat
transfer surface area on the combustion gas side, the flue gases usually being
the fluid with the greater thermal resistance. The efficiency of a furnace with a
convection section is obviously higher than that of a furnace with a radiation
section alone. Efficiency depends on the inlet temperature of the heated fluid
(flue gases can not be cooled below the temperature of the cold fluid), but also
on the size of the heat exchange surface area in the furnace.
(c) A stack t o discharge the flue gases.
Tube handling
bracket
Stack
I
Damper
Safety ladder
Convection
Radiation
box
Figure
5.3 Vertical cylindrical furnace.
Damper
.-
m
I Tubesheet
tube bundle
.-
Tub bundle support

Air box LBurner
Figure
5.4 Cabin furnace with horizontal tubes.
To stack To stack
B
t t
000000
000000
Out In - * out
Burners Burners
To stack D To stack
t
/=
J.
J'L
I 1 - I n
I I
Burners
p t -
Burners
Vertical cylindrical furnaces.

A. With vertical tubes in the radiation section and horizontal ones in the con-
vection section. B. With the convection section integrated in the radiation sec-
tion. C. With vertical tubes in the radiation and convection sections. D. With a
helicoid coil in the radiation section.
Chapter 5 PROCESS FURNACES 165
5.3 Different Types of Furnaces

There are numerous layouts for tubes in the radiation and convection sections
and for one section in relation to the other. There are consequently many
types of furnaces, that can however be classified into the following different
categories:
Vertical cylindrical furnaces: the radiation section is in the shape of a

cylinder with a vertical axis. The burners are located on the floor at the base
of the cylinder. The heat exchange area covers the vertical walls and therefore
exhibits circular symmetry with respect to the heating assembly (Fig. 5.5).
Box type furnaces with vertical tubes: here the general shape of the
radiation section is a parallelepiped. The burners are situated on the floor and
the heat exchange area covers the vertical side walls. Sometimes the combus-
tion chamber is divided up into several cells by rows of tubes parallel to one
of the side wall faces (Fig. 5.6).
Cabin furnaces with horizontal tubes: here the general shape of the
radiation section is a parallelepiped, with the greatest length being horizontal.
The tubes are placed horizontally on the longest side walls. The burners are
located on the floor, on the lower part of the longest side walls or on the end
walls where there are no tubes (Fig. 5.7).
Radiant wall furnaces: the heat exchange surface area is located on the
median plane of the combustion chamber. The burners are distributed on the
longitudinal sidewalls (Fig. 5.8).
Double fired furnaces: here the tube plane constituting the heat
exchange surface area is in the median plane of the rows of burners (Fig. 5.9).
As a reminder, some types of furnaces are shown that are still in use but
seldom built today (Figs. 5.10 and 5.11).
The convection section can be situated above the furnace in all the types
of furnaces mentioned above, except for those with roof burners. It can also be
placed on the side of the radiation section, in which case flues with very hot
gases connect the two sections.
The tubes constituting the heat exchange surface area in the radiation sec-
tion are placed in front of the refractory lining insulating the shell. A space
equal to around one tube diameter is left between the tubes and the refractory
wall. Although tube heating is unevenly distributed, it takes place over the
whole periphery.
The furnace shell does not form a perfect seal, especially due to ageing and
the numerous tube passages. For safety reasons (furnace in a confined envi-
ronment) or to protect equipment, the inside of the furnace is kept under neg-
ative pressure with respect to atmospheric air. The negative pressure is most
often generated by the stack draft or sometimes by a draft fan, placed directly
above the convection section or on the ground beside the furnace.
166 Chapter 5 PROCESSFURNACES
To stack
A
t
O
000000
O
000000
000000
000000
oooooo
oc
00
O
t
~ ~In ~
Burners
To stack
B
I+l
- In
out * * out
-7-7-
Burners Burners
Box furnaces with vertical tubes in the radiation section.

A. Arch-shaped tubes in the radiation section. B. Multicell radiation section
A To stack €3 To stack
t t
out + out
Burners
-t-tJ
Burners
C To stack
In
out + out
m
Figure
5.7 Cabin furnaces with horizontal tubes.
A. One cell with burners on the floor. B. With a separation wall and side burn-
A B To stack
To stack
t
Itl
I1-
00000
000000
000000
000000
000000
000000
000000
000000
t In
I
'\ Burners
t t
Burners
'\,
Burners
/
i
out
5.8 Radiant wall furnaces.

A. With radiant burners. B. With flat flame burners.
The combustion air is introduced in the burners either by the negative

pressure prevailing in the combustion chamber (natural draft burner) or by a
fan (forced air burner). To achieve complete combustion of the fuel, excess air
must be added in relation to the stoichiometric value. The amount of excess
air depends on the burner, the temperature of the combustion air and mainly
on the fuel. The most commonly used excess air values are a s follows
expressed in percent of stoichiometric air:
-1 Fuel oil
-I+ Cold air (20°C) Hot air (300°C)
:I:
A To stack
,ooo'iln
000000000000
1
C I stack
out
L
T-tL
Burners
Burners
I out1 4] 4] out
Figure
5.9 Double fired furnaces.
A. One cell with vertical tubes in the radiation section and burners on the floor.
170 Chapter 5. PROCESS FURNACES
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 000000
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
To stack
To stack
Figure
Furnace with a double 5.1 1
row of tubes on the
walls of the radiation
section.
The choice of a type of furnace depends chiefly on the following factors:

the type of product heated and operating conditions (flow rate, tempera-
ture, pressure),
the tube coil drainability,
the presence or absence of a catalyst in the tubes,
the fuel,
the ground spacelhead room,
the ease of construction or transportation,
the cost for a given application.
5.4 Furnace Thermal Efficiency

Heat losses through the furnace walls depend on the material composing the
insulating refractory lining and its thickness. However, for an economically
optimum insulating lining these losses are low. For furnace of 10 MW or more,
they are from 1 t o 2% of the low heating value. Heat losses are greater in a
small furnace, a s the ratio between the area of the shell walls and the volume
of the radiation section decreases when furnace size increases.
The greatest heat losses are due t o the hot flue gases discharged via the
stack. They are the result of the flue gas flow rate and temperature. The flue
gas flow rate increases with excess air, so the furnace should operate with the
least possible excess air. Due attention should be paid to obtaining complete
combustion without unburned fuel, however. Operation with too little excess
air may lead to unburned fuel losses that are greater than the efficiency gained
by reducing the excess air. Independently of the loss due to the latent heat of
unburned fuel, this fuel also causes fouling of heat exchange surfaces.
Consequently, the flue gas temperature rises and remains high after a return
to operation with complete combustion.
However, the flue gas temperature is the main factor in furnace heat losses.
When flue gases are cool, excess air no longer has any importance since all the
heat transferred to the excess air has been recovered from them. In order to
cool them, a cold fluid must be available that needs to be heated. If the fluid to
be heated is at a temperature that is too high to give a sufficiently low flue gas
temperature, i.e. a satisfactory thermal efficiency, the following solutions can
be used:
Steam production: this solution does not reduce fuel consumption, but it
is advantageous if the steam can be exploited.
Recycling the flue gas heat by heating the combustion air: when the flue
gases exit from the convection section, they are cooled in a heat exchanger
whose cold fluid is the air required by the furnace t o burn the fuel. Heating the
combustion air allows a thermal efficiency of approximately 90% of the low
heating value, but it requires an air blower. Flue gas cooling is limited by cor-
rosion problems caused by sulfuric acid condensation due t o the presence of
sulfur compounds in the fuels burned.
5.5 Component Parts of a Furnace

5.5.1 Tube Bundles
Tube bundles are usually made up of straight seamless parallel pipes con-
nected to one another by:
180" return bends welded on the pipes, or
special connections called plug headers with one or two orifices closed
off by plugs that allow the inside of the tubes to be inspected and
cleaned.
The most common furnace tube dimensions and tolerances are indicated
in Table 5.1
Inches 1.9 2.375 2.875 3.5 4 4.5 5.563 6.625 8.625 10.75
mm 48.3 60.3 73 88.9 101.6 114.3 141.3 168.3 219.1
Inches 0.145 0.154 0.203 0.216 0.226 0.237 0.258 0.280 0.322 0.365
mm 3.68 3.91 5.16 5.49 5.74 6.02 6.55
7
Table
5.1 Most common dimensions of furnace tubes.
Tube materials: the choice of material for tube bundles is based on the fol-
lowing criteria:
resistance to corrosion by the heated fluid,
resistance t o oxidation by hot combustion gases,
high temperature mechanical strength with respect to:
- the inside pressure of the heated fluid,
- the mechanical stress due to the weight of the tube bundle
and the fluid it contains.
The most common materials are indicated in Table 5.2, with the maximum
working temperature for resistance to oxidation by the flue gases.
Designation
Type Maxim
according to
according workin
French
to AISI * tempera1
AFNOR
United State ("C)
standards
steel TU42F 480

Alloy steels 1.25%Cr - 0.5%Mo TU 10 CD 5-05 600
with 2.25%Cr - 1%Mo TU 10 CD 9-10 635
5% Cr - 0.5%Mo TUZ 12 CD 05-05 650
9 %Cr- 1%Mo TUZ 10 CD 09 700
Stainless 18 Cr - 8 Ni 304 Z6 CN 18-10 870
steels 18 Cr - 8 Ni -Ti 32 1 Z 6 CNT 18-10 870
18 Cr - 8 Ni 18 Cr - 8 Ni - Cb 347 Z6 CN Nb 18-10 870
18 Cr - 8 Ni - Mo I
316 Z6 CND 17-12 870
35 Ni 20 Cr 43 Fe 985
resistant (alloy 800 H)
steels 72 Ni 15 Cr 8 Fe 1100
(alloy 600)
25 Cr 20 Ni (HK 40) 1010
35 Ni 25 Cr Nb 1100
-
Table
5.2 Most commonly used tube materials and maximum working temperatures.
5.5.2 Tube Coil Supports

Free expansion of tube coil elements is the basic principle of support systems.
The materials used must withstand:
flue gases,
oxidation,
corrosion by liquid fuel ash (vanadates, sulfates, etc.) and exhibit good
hot mechanical strength (creep and elastic range).
In some cases metals with little or no alloys are used, but they are pro-
tected from flue gas effects (temperature, oxidation) by a refractory lining.
This is true especially of end supports in convection sections.
174 ChaRter 5 PROCESS FURNACES
5.5.3 Furnace Wall Lining

Furnace shells (combustion chamber, convection section, stack) comprise a
metallic wall covered inside with an insulating refractory lining. A variety of
properties are required for this type of lining:
low thermal conductivity,
high pyroscopic temperature,
high mechanical strength,
good resistance to variations in temperature,
ease of installation.
Since these properties are contradictory, selecting a material for a particu-
lar application is the result of a compromise. In some cases a multilayer lining
will allow the opposed properties of several materials t o be combined.
Different types of lining

(a) Materials that can be used directly in COnfQCtwith flue gases
Refractory bricks: made of fire clays (hydrated aluminum silicate) or
diatomaceous earth, with a naturally or artificially porous structure. The
fire bricks are ordinarily produced by molding and firing and are laid with
an air setting cement.
Castable refractory concrete: composed of a mixture of calcium alumi-
nate cement and refractory aggregates and poured or gunned into place.
Hardening is hydraulic. It is fastened by V-shaped anchors welded to the
metal sheet of the furnace shell.
Ceramic fibers: produced in diameters of 3 pm by blowing a molten mass
of refractory silica-alumina made from ultra pure components. The fibers
are available in the following forms:
- fiber blankets fixed on the furnace walls by studs (for example rod and
washer) welded on the sheet metal,
- prefabricated modules, an assembly of ceramic fiber blankets in the
form of cubes (0.3 x 0.3 m cross-section) fixed side by side on the metal
sheet. A variation can consist of strips cut out of ceramic fiber blan-
kets, assembled together when the furnace is erected and constituting
the equivalent of modules.
@) Materials that can be used in second layer
Q
In order to improve the thermal resistance of a wall providing good heat

resistance but poor insulation, the following materials can be used:
Inorganic fibers: obtained by blowing a molten mass of synthetic refrac-
tory rocks. The panels made of these fibers are good insulators and are
used behind fire brick walls.
Rigid calcium silicate panels: good insulators, used in the second layer
behind a refractory brick or concrete wall.
5.5.4 Burners
5.5.4.1 Combustion
Included in this term are all the chemical reactions taking place during com-
plete or partial oxidation of the carbon, hydrogen and sulfur in fuels. The reac-
tions generally give rise to a flame.
Definitions
Neutral combustion: without excess or deficit of air and without unburned
fuel fractions.
Oxidizing combustion: with excess air. However, excess air is no guarantee
of complete combustion (i.e. without unburnt).
Combustion requirements
Raise the temperature of reactants t o the ignition temperature.
Maintain this ignition temperature, i.e. remain within the ignition range.
Propagate combustion.
Flame propagation speed V,

The flame propagation speed (approximate value of V,: 1 m/s) depends on:
the fuel (it is approximately 3 times faster for hydrogen than for hydro-
carbons),
the initial temperature, and
it increases with the diameter of the pipe and the turbulence.
5.5.4.2 The Flame

The flame is the volume in which the combustion reactions occur. It can be
larger than the visible part which is commonly considered t o be the flame.
Two sorts of flame can be distinguished depending on how the oxidizer/fuel
mixture is accomplished:
premix flames,
diffusion flames.
There can obviously be flames in between the two types.
a. Gaseous Fuel Flame

Premix flame
Combustion of a homogeneous gaseous fuel and oxidizer mixture takes
place largely on a very thin surface called the flame front. Beyond this surface
where 95% of the combustion occurs, there is a plume resulting from combus-
tion of the remaining fuel with the oxygen in the surrounding medium which
diffuses in the direction opposite to the gas flow.
Diffusion flame
The gaseous fuel and the oxidizer are introduced via separate inlets. The
two gases mix together gradually by diffusion and the greater the turbulence,
the more thorough the mixture. The flame is long in comparison with a premix
flame.
b. Liquid Fuel Flame

The liquid fuel is atomized into fine droplets which are vaporized by expansion
and heating in the burner quarl and may become coked. The vapors diffuse
into the oxidizer and the oxidizer diffuses in the opposite direction to oxidize
the particles of coke. Generally speaking, the flame is of the diffusion type.
5.5.4.3 Burner Operation

The function of burners is to carry out combustion and therefore to:
mix the fuel and the oxidizer so that each molecule of one can find the
molecule(s) of the other that it is going to associate with,
ignite the mixture,
insure both stable and complete combustion.
In order to achieve complete combustion, excess air is added with respect
to the stoichiometric value. The excess air increases fuel consumption, since
this ambient air is discharged at the flue gas temperature. The higher the flue
gas temperature, the greater the loss in efficiency due to excess air, i.e. the
lower the thermal efficiency of the furnace. In an extreme case, excess air
would be of no importance in a furnace with 100%efficiency.
If the excess air is reduced below a value that yields complete combustion,
the unburned fuel fraction increases. This offsets the gain anticipated by
reducing the excess air in two ways:
immediately: the heat of combustion of the unburned fuel is lost,
with time by a cumulative effect: unburned fuel can foul heat exchange
surfaces, causing the flue gas temperature to rise and sensible heat to be
lost.
a . Combustion Air
Forced air and natural draft burners
There is no essential difference between a forced air and a natural draft
burner. The difference is only in the pressure loss by the air in the burner.
This pressure difference is generated:
by a fan in forced air burners (pressure loss in burners of up t o approxi-
mately 250 daPa), their capacity can go up t o 80 MW;
by the furnace draft in burners termed “natural draft” (pressure loss from
6 to 20 daPa), their capacity can go up t o 7 MW.
Premix burners
The air is introduced by exchange of momentum. For example the pressur-
ized fuel gas transmits part of its momentum to the ambient air at the inlet of
a venturi tube. Then the kinetic energy of the mixture is transformed into pres-
sure in the venturi diffuser.
b. Fuel
Liquid
The liquid is atomized:
by steam at a higher pressure than the fuel. The burner flow turn down
is approximately 3/1;
mechanically and with the addition of steam at a pressure lower than the
fuel. The burner flow turn down is approximately 3/1;
mechanically alone. Turn down is low and this type of atomization (prac-
tically totally phased out) does not usually permit compliance with regu-
lations on unburned fuel fractions in the flue gases.
Gaseous
Without premixing. Burners of this type have a great deal of flow rate
turn down and can accommodate fuel with a high hydrogen content and even
pure hydrogen (high flame propagation speed). This is because the flame can
not be propagated inside the burner since the air is mixed at the burner noz-
zle. The air flow rate must be adjusted when the operating rate varies.
With premixing. The burners have:
- limited flow turn down (3/1),
- a short flame,
- an air/gas flow rate ratio that is roughly constant versus the operating
rate, solely by controlling the pressure of the fuel gas,
- a flame that stabilizes well,
- some sensitivity to the hydrogen content in the fuel gas (flash back).
The burners usually have deliberately incomplete premixing, with only
part of the combustion air mixed with the gas. As a result, the flame shape is
somewhere between that of burners without and with premixing.
The heat transferred to the heated fluid is adjusted by regulating the fuel
gas control valve. For a given fuel and an expansion lower than the critical
expansion, the pressure varies as the square of the amount of heat to be sup-
plied. If the gas characteristics vary, the ratio @/d) Pzi = p W 2must remain con-
stant to insure that the power released remains the same.
With, for the fuel gas:
p pressure (Pa)
Pci low heating value per unit of volume (J/m3)
d specific gravity of the fuel gas in relation to air

f'ci
W Wobbe index = - (J/m3)
!lG
c. Pollutant Emissions
The chief pollutants are:
1) unburnt fuel (CO, CH,, etc.),
2) sulfur oxides SO, (SO, + SO&
3) nitrogen oxides NO, (NO, NO,, N,O).
1. Unburnt fuel
The unburnt fuel content is usually low and generally only exists with
overly low excess air. For a liquid fuel, unburnt fuel can be due t o faulty con-
ditioning (temperature/viscosity), inadequate atomization (fuel pressure,
atomization steam pressure, worn spray orifices).
2. Sulfur oxides
The sulfur in the fuel is totally converted, mainly into sulfur dioxide SO,
(except for some sulfates in liquid fuel ash). A small fraction is oxidized to sul-
fur trioxide. All the sulfur in the fuel introduced in the furnace is found in the
flue gases.
In order to reduce sulfur-compound emissions, the sulfur in the fuel must
be limited. No flue gas desulfurization unit, which is expensive, is usually
planned for furnaces.
3. Nitrogen oxides
During combustion only the nitrogen oxides NO and NO, are formed in sig-
nificant amounts. The NO (approximately 90% of the NO,) formed in the com-
bustion chamber is converted into NO, during discharge (stack) by photo-
chemical reaction with the oxygen in the air.
There are two main ways in which nitrogen oxides can be formed:
Part of the nitrogen in the air is converted into nitrogen oxide in the high
temperature flame zone (prompt NO and thermal NO).
NO, can also be formed from nitrogen compounds in the fuel (such a s
NH,) that react with oxygen (fuel NO,). This source of NO, is particularly
significant with heavy liquid fuels that contain a high nitrogen compound
content (0.2 t o 0.6% weight of nitrogen).
The following methods can be used to reduce nitrogen oxide emissions:
Reduce the oxygen content (reduce excess air). However, for excess air
lower than 10-15%,temperature prevails in the NO, formation process.
Reducing excess air below 10% requires careful control of combustion.
Reduce the temperature in the combustion zone. This can be achieved by
burners that use one of the following devices:
- Staged air (for gaseous or liquid fuels):
- a primary zone with insufficient air,

- additional air injected downstream from the high temperature flame
zone.
- Staged fuel (for gaseous fuels):
- a fraction of fuel is injected in the total air,
- additional fuel is injected downstream of the primary flame zone.
- Recirculating flue gases
- flue gases are reinjected with the combustion air.
Flue gases are reinjected by an outside circuit to the combustion chamber
(fan) (gaseous or liquid fuel) or by using the momentum of the gaseous fuel to
recycle flue gases from the combustion chamber (gas burner).
Separate fuel dreams. Dividing up the fuel flow gives separated combus-
tion zones cooled by radiation on the heat exchange surfaces. This solution is
being developed for liquid fuels, for which the staged fuel method is practi-
cally not applicable.
The NO, content is most often expressed for liquid or gaseous fuels in vpm
(volume per million) or in mg/m3N, on dry flue gases with 3%oxygen and all
nitrogen oxides considered as NO,.
Other methods o f reducing NO, emissions. Flue gases can be treated by

catalytic reduction of NO, (for example: injection of NH, - temperature of 300
to 450°C - catalyst).
5.5.5 Air Heater

When the inlet temperature of the process fluid does not allow flue gases to be
cooled sufficiently such that the furnace can work at its economic optimum,
thermal recycling can be performed with a change in heat carrier. The aim is
to remove the heat from the flue gases exiting the furnace in order to introduce
it back at the inlet to the combustion chamber.
Simply recycling the flue gases is pointless, as the temperature of the cold
fluid limits the cooling temperature of the flue gases. A fluid at a lower tem-
perature must therefore necessarily be used. Combustion air fulfills this con-
dition.
Several flow schemes can be employed.
Combustion air is heated directly by the flue gases (Fig. 5.12). A heat
exchanger placed on the flue gas circuit heats the combustion air that is fed
into the burners.
An intermediate fluid is placed between the flue gases and the combustion
air, such as pressurized water or oil (Fig. 5.13). The heat pipe finds a particu-
lar technological application for this flow scheme. A variation on this uses the
main fluid to be heated (Fig. 5.14) whose temperature is lowered by heating
the combustion air and then raised in an extra convection section before pass-
ing through the normal circuit.
Fluid being
heated
Figure
5.12 Combustion air directly heated by furnace flue gases.
Fluid being fluid

heated +
r
Expansion
vessel
3
n
I Combustion
air
Figure
5.13 Combustion air heated by flue gases with an intermediate heat transfer fluid
circuit.
Extra
convection
section
1 I Combustion
+ Burner -
Air healter LJ
Figure
Combustion air heated by flue gases. The fluid to be heated functions as a heat
transfer fluid.
Different Types of Air Heaters

a. Integrated Air Heater (Fig. 5.15)
These are heat exchangers consisting of steel tubes placed in the convection
section of the furnace which is designed the same as conventional convection
sections for heating process fluids. Here again the heat exchange surface area
on the flue gas side can be increased by fins or studs.
b. Separate Air Heater
There are two major types on the market:
static heaters,
dynamic or regenerative heaters.
Static air heaters
They may feature:
cast iron tubes,
steel plates, or
steel tubes.
182 Chapter 5. PROCESS FURNACES
Fluid being
heated
R--Air heater
"I,
P=-
Burner
dn:i:mbustion
Air fan
Among the various designs worthy of mention is the static heater with very
thick cast iron tubes and fins on both flue gas and air circuits. The tubes are
stacked on top of one another. End flanges have a groove that receives a seal
gasket and provide spacing between tubes where the flue gases pass. In cold
zones the tubes have no fins on the air side in order to increase the tempera-
ture of the metal. At low temperatures, cast iron tubes are replaced by glass
tubes sliding in polytetrafluoroethylene sleeves.
Regenerative air heaters
The most frequently used of the dynamic heaters consists of a rotor
equipped with a stack of thin corrugated sheets. A motor causes the rotor to
rotate. The rotor sheets pass successively in the flue gas stream where they
are heated and in the combustion air stream which is heated by contacting
them. Metal sealing joints mounted on the rotor provide a partial seal with the
stator and between the air and flue gas circuits. Part of the air, overpressured
with respect to the flue gases, thus passes through the gases and lowers their
temperature. The air and flue gas fans must supply the added energy for this
leak of pressurized air. Heat exchange surfaces are ordinarily mounted in eas-
ily replaceable baskets.
Whatever the solution, a combustion air heater should preferably be

equipped with a by-pass. This will allow maintenance to be done on the
heaters without having to shut down the whole installation. Operations pro-
ceed at a lower thermal efficiency when the air heater is shut down.
In furnaces fired by liquid fuels, it is important for air heaters to have large
enough flue gas passages so that fouling due to ash or even soots does not
cause rapid plugging of the flue gas circuit.
5.5.6 Sweepers
Sweepers are installed in the convection sections in order to keep the flue gas
circuit clean and preserve the efficiency of heat exchange surfaces. Several
types are available:
Air or steam blowing devices. These are fixed or retractable rotating
pipes carrying blowing nozzles. They are used intermittently (generally
3 times per 24 hours) to blow dusty deposits off the heat exchange sur-
faces.
Acoustic or subsonic sweepers. These devices emit acoustic or subsonic
vibrations in the convection section enclosure in order to keep dusts in
suspension and prevent deposition on heat exchange surfaces.
5.6 Designing a Furnace

Designing a furnace to heat a fluid involves various aspects that interfere with
each other.
Combustion
Flue gas composition from the fuels.
Heat available in the flue gases according to their temperature.
Thermal
Input and output heat balance.
Heat transfer (heat exchange surface areas, insulating lining).
Hydrodynamic
Pressure drop undergone by:
the heated fluid,
the air and the flue gases (furnace draft).
Mechanical
Temperature and pressure behavior of heat exchange surfaces.
Tube bundle supports.
Furnace structure resistance to dead weight (refractories, heat exchange
surfaces) and to outside forces (wind, earthquakes).
184 Chaoter 5 PROCESS FURNACES
5.6.1 Determining Heat Exchange Surfaces

Heat exchange surface area calculations are based on the following two points:
the thermal balance,
heat transfer laws.
5.6.1.1 Thermal Balance

Whatever the shape and dimensions of heat exchange surfaces, a thermal bal-
ance must be set up for each section of the furnace and for the whole furnace.
The amounts of heat per unit U of fuel (weight (kg) or volume (m3)) are as fol-
lows:
Entering
Fuel: Pei latent heat of combustion (low heating value) (J/W
qc sensible heat (J/W
Combustion air: qa sensible heat (J/W
Fuel atomization fluid (for a liquid fuel when applicable):
qv sensible heat (J/W
Exiting
Qu
Heated fluid: -
Xc
with: Qu power absorbed by the heated fluid 0
nC fuel flow rate (U/s)
Flue gases: qF sensible heat (J/W
qFirnblatent heat of unburnt fuel (if any) (J/U)
Losses through furnace walls:
P
- with P = power lost by the walls 0.
7%
The useful power Q, can be written:

Qu = %[Pci + Qc + Qa + 4v - qF1 - P
In this expression the value between brackets represents the available heat
q,, of the flue gases per unit of fuel. Therefore:
Qu + p =
For a given case, the fuel, the excess air and the temperatures (fuel, air,
atomization fluid) are fixed and therefore the available heat depends only on
the flue gas temperature TF:
q D = f(TF)
The partial useful power QU1 plus the corresponding losses through the fur-
nace walls P , can therefore be expressed by the proportionality relation:
with qI1 = available heat at the flue gas temperature T,.

Furthermore, the thermal efficiency q of a furnace expressed as a fraction
of the low heating value of the fuel is defined by:
QL power released by combustion = nCPci (W)

P
Po = - = heat losses through the walls expressed as a fraction of the
KcPci
neat released QL
For a given thermal efficiency q and losses through the walls Po, the heat
available qo is defined and so the flue gas temperature T,, at the furnace exit
is known.
Beginning with this flue gas temperature TFs,for the total useful power of
the furnace Q, plus the losses through the walls P, the flue gas temperature is
therefore known for any of the values (Q,; + P,) by relation 5.1.
The variation in flue gas temperature can be represented versus (Qui + Pi>
as shown in Figure 5.16. If the value of the temperature of the heated fluid is
plotted on this same graph versus (Qui + Pi>, the differences in temperature
between the flue gases and the heated fluid are obtained directly.
However, these temperature differences are not valid in the radiant section,
as it shall be seen hereafter. If the flue gas temperature at outlet of radiant sec-
tion is chosen, the split of radiant and convection sections powers is achieved
and all temperatures are known.
5.6.1.2 Brief Review of Heat Transfer Laws [3,4,8]

In order to determine the heat exchange surface area in the radiation and con-
vection sections, all that has to be done from now on is apply the heat trans-
fer laws.
There are three modes of heat transfer:
radiation,
convection,
conduction.
a. Radiation
Thermal radiation is a transverse electromagnetic vibration with a wave
length A,, which is transmitted in a straight line in a vacuum. On impact with
186 ChaDter 5 PROCESS FURNACES
??
3
c
E
al
F
e
0 *
0 (Q,+& ncqDs= Q,+ P Available
power K c q D
. Radiation zone Convection zone Stack
losses
.
Figure
Variation in temperatures o f flue gases and heated fluid versus the power avail-
able in the flue gases.
T,: theoretical temperature o f combustion
TF(temperature o f flue gases exiting the radiation section.
T,,c temperature o f flue gases exiting the convection section [furnace exit).
n,q,s. power available in the flue gases exiting the furnace = Q, + I?
a body, all or part of it is absorbed and becomes degraded into heat. The
remainder is transmitted or reflected.
There is a general formula: Q + f + r = 1 with:
a absorptivity (dimensionless)
f transmissivity (dimensionless)
r reflectivity (dimensionless).
Absorptivity Q: This is the ratio between the amount of energy absorbed by
the body and the amount of incident energy under the angle a.
In general, depends on the incidence a and the wave length A,. By defini-
tion a = 1 for a black body whatever the values of a and A,. If a is independent
of a, it is termed diffuse, as opposed t o a mirror-like or specular body. If Q is
independent of A,, it is termed gray.
Radiation of solid bodies:
- Stefan Boltzmann law: cpo = o0T4
with:
cpo energy radiated by the surface of the black body in all directions
and wave lengths per unit of surface area and time (w/m?
cso Stefan Boltzmann constant = 5.68 x lo4 W/m2.K4
T absolute temperature of the surface of the body (K)
Kirchhoff law: cp = a cpo = a ooT4
with:
cp radiation emitted on all wave lengths and in all directions by a dif-
fuse body at the absolute temperature T (w/m2>
a total absorptivity in relation t o the black body
Mutual radiation of two black or gray surfaces separated by a non-
absorbent medium.
(1) The surfaces are black
Q = 00pi,, Si (G- = 00P Z ,S
~z (G- Tf)
with:
Q heat power exchanged (W)
pl,, factor of projected angle under which surface S, is seen from surface
S, (dimensionless)
p,,, factor of projected angle under which surface S, is seen from surface
S, (dimensionless)
S surface area (m?
Therefore: P1,ZSl = PZ,, S,
Figure 5.17 gives the angle factor p for heat exchange by radiation between
an emitting plane and a row of tubes.
Special case: the two surfaces S, and S, are in the presence of surfaces with-
out any flux. Surfaces without any flux in furnaces are for example refractory
surfaces that will reradiate all the heat they receive by radiation. Losses
through the walls are in fact small and they can be assumed to be equal to
those transmitted by convection from the flue gases.
The exchanged heat between surfaces 1 and 2 becomes:
Q=ooSiFi,z[T;- Tf1 =ooSzFz,i[Tg- Tfl

with F2,,the overall exchange factor, which is the fraction of black radiation
emitted by surface S, which reaches S, directly and by means of the no-flux
surfaces. Figure 5.18 gives the overall exchange factor F between an emitting
plane and a row of tubes placed in front of a no-flux refractory surface.
(2) The surfaces are gray: the exchanged heat can be expressed in the
same form:
[ T ; - T f ]= 0,S,9,,1 [ T ; - Tf]
Q = oOSl9,,,
Here %,, depends on the geometry a s previously, as well as on the total
emission factor of all the surfaces.
188 Chapter 5 PROCESSFURNACES LIVE GRAPH
Click here to view
~ 0.9
L
0.8
m
c
-
a, 0.7
rn
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
1
L
Figure
5.17 Angle factor p for heat
exchange by radiation
between a plane and a
0.2 row o f tubes.
0.1
0 I I I I I
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Distance between tube axes - E
Tube outside diameter -D
LIVE GRAPH
Click here to view
1
LL
L
20 0.9
CU
c
a, 0.8
0
C
," 0.7
'
0
0.6
0.5
Overall exchange fac- 0.4

tor F for heat exchange
by radiation between a 0.3
plane and a row o f
0.2
tubes (the factor F
applies to the area S o f 0.1
the plane).
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Distance between tube axes -E
Tube outside diameter - D
Gas radiation: in industrial furnaces only biatomic gases with asymmetrical

molecules and tri- and polyatomic gases emit or absorb radiation. However,
CO, SO, and SO, gases and CnH, hydrocarbons are in very low concentration
in the flue gases and, barring exceptions, only CO, and H,O are considered.
Gas radiation depends mainly on the shape and dimensions of the gas volume,
the wave length and the temperature.
Reduced thickness n
n=ecp
with:
e equivalent thickness of gas that radiation passes through (m)
c volume concentration of the gas under consideration
p absolute pressure of the mass of gas (pa)
Total emissivity E~ of the gas increases with the reduced thickness n and
decreases with temperature.
Figures 5.19 to 5.22 give the emissivities of carbon dioxide and steam.
Gases absorb (or emit) only in certain spectral bands. CO, and H,O absorp-
tions are therefore added together as their absorption bands are different.
However, some bands overlap partially and the sum of emissivities must be
corrected by Figure 5.23.
The value of the equivalent thickness e for different gas shapes is indicated
in Table 5.3.
I Shape of the gas volume Equivalent thickness: e

Parallelepiped, with sides t',L , and L,
exL,x~,
lxlxl 0.6 e
1 x 1 ~ 4 0.81 e
1 x 2 ~ 6 1.1 e
lxcaxco 1.8 e
Cylinders, radiating toward side walls

Diameter D x height h
D x 0.5 D 0.46 D
DxD 0.60 D
Dx2D 0.76 D
DXCC 0.94 D
Outside space of an infinite bank of tubes
with diameters D whose centers are
at the vertices of equilateral triangles
whose sides are equal to:
2 times D 2.8 D
3 times D 7.6 D
Table
Equivalent thicknesses of a volume o f gas for heat exchange by radiation
between the gas and a surface.
190 Chapter 5. PROCESS FURNACES LIVE GRAPH
Click here to view
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
w
% 0.3
%
4-
.-
‘5 0.2
.-
u)
E
E;:00.08
0.07
0.06
0.05
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.01
-
Figure
5-19 Emissivity ofsteam for a partial pressure pw # 0 and a total pressure o f the gas
mass pr = I atm.
Combustion of liquid hydrocarbons leads to the formation of carbon parti-

cles. They radiate according to a continuous spectrum and increase the emis-
sivity of the flue gases that contain them.
Radiation between a gas and a black surface:
T i - aglT!]
Q = oOS[E~
with:
E~ total emissivity of a gas at a temperature Tg (dimensionless)
ag absorptivity of a gas at Tgwith respect to black radiation at Tg (dimen-
sionless)
a, absorptivity of a gas at T,, with respect to black radiation at T,
aglabsorptivity of a gas at a temperature Tgwith respect to black radiation
at TI
Click here to view
LIVE GRAPH
i
s
E
QJ
9
3
6
E:
0
P
k
B
0
v,
&!
4
c
U
'
rI
'
8
4
._
4"
i
L
E
5~ 1.8 Pwe
0.015
0.1
1.6
0.2
0.3
1.4 0.5
1 .o
2.0
1.2 3.0
1 .o
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0 I I I 1
I I
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 .o 1.2
(pW+pr)12 atm
Figure
Correction factor C, for steam when the partial pressure pw is different from 0
and/or the total pressure pr is differentfrom 1 atm.
Figure
5.22 Correction factor C, for carbon dioxide when the total pressure pr is different
from 1 atm.
0.05 1.5
0.04
0.03 I Figure 1
1
a" Fig. 5.23A, B and C

0.02
L Correction A& to be
subtracted from the
sum of emissivities
(E, + ~3due to over-
lapping of H 2 0 and
0.01
CO, emission bands.
pw partial pressure of
steam (atm).
0.00 pc partial pressure of
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 carbon dioxide (atm).
Pw e equivalent thickness
P c +PW (m).
T temperature of the
gas r C ) .
0.04
0.03
2i 0.02
0.01
I
194 Chaoler 5 PROCESS
FURNACES
$ 0.07
T > 925°C
0.06
0.05
0.04
Figure
5.23C
0.03
0.02
0.01
0.oc
.O
Pw
Pc +Pw
Note that in general:

E, # agl;agl f a,;a g , # a,
Mutual radiation of two black or gray surfaces separated by an absorbent
medium.
(1) If the gray gas is of uniform temperature, then E~ = a,,the absorption of
radiation by the gas does not modify the spectral distribution of the radiation:
Q = 0oS1%1,2 [ T i - T f ]
with %,,* an overall exchange factor that depends on the presence of the gas.
(2) Exchange by radiation between the gas g and the surface S, (black or
In the special case where there is only one receiving surface S1, one no-flux
surface A, and a gas of average emissivity eg:
with:
E, emissivity of the receiving surface S,

For a furnace, pRlis the angle factor between the emitting (refractory) sur-
face A , and the receiving (tubes) surface S,. The discontinuous receiving sur-
face S, (tubes) will then be temporarily replaced by the continuous surface A
passing through the center of the tubes and corrected by the overall exchange
factor F (Fig. 5.18).
The heat flux density on this fictitious surface A , obtained from Eq. 5.2, will
be converted later into heat flux density on the real surface of the tubes.
The angle factor pR,,between the emitting surface of the refractories A ,
and the receiving surface, was determined experimentally by Lob0 and Evans
by applying the theoretical equations to 19 furnaces whose operating charac-
teristics were measured. The resulting angle factor pRl is represented in
Figure 5.24 versus the ratio ARIFA.
Nota bene: At the temperatures usually found in industrial flames (1 5OO0C),
the energy emitted by the black body in the visible spectrum represents only
1% of the total energy emitted in the whole spectrum. When a flame is
observed, the visible energy is therefore not at all representative of the total
energy radiated by the flames and the flue gases.
LIVE GRAPH
Click here to view
1
E 0.9
3
0.8
c
2
Lc 0.7
'
a,
m 0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
- A ,q/FA
Figure
5.24 Angle factor p,, between the refractory wall surface A, and the receiving sur-
face FA.
b. Convection
Heat convection is the transfer of heat between a fluid and a wall with a rela-
tive movement of the fluid with respect t o the wall.
A distinction can be made between:
Natural convection, when the fluid movement is due to its variation in
temperature. For furnaces, natural convection is involved in exchanges
between the outside air and the outer shell of the furnace. It is also
involved in the flue gas recirculation movements in the radiation section.
Forced convection, when the fluid movement is induced by a mechanical
device (pump, fan, compressor).
In furnaces the outer wall of tube bundles is heated externally by convec-
tion and radiation of the flue gases. The tube wall transmits by conduction the
heat it has received t o the process fluid circulating inside the tubes. The heat
exchange between the wall and the fluid takes place by forced convection.
The heat exchanged Q by convection is:
Q=h(O-t)S (5.3)
with:
h convection coefficient (W/m2.K)
8 temperature of the tube wall in contact with the fluid (K)
t temperature of the fluid (K)
S surface area of the tube in contact with the fluid (m2>
Convection inside a tube

(1) In steady-state regime for a single one-phase flow
Laminar flow (Reynolds number Re lower than 2 100)
In horizontal tubes at a uniform temperature with a tube diameter dt and a
moderate temperature difference At between the wall and the tube:
(Sieder and Tate) (5.4)
with:
h , average convection coefficient at the arithmetical average temperature
for a tube of length L
k thermal conductivity of the fluid at the average temperature of the fluid
(W/m.K)
dt inside diameter of the tube (m)
p viscosity of the fluid at the average temperature of the fluid (Pa.s)
pw viscosity of the fluid at the temperature of the tube wall (Pa.s)
Re Reynolds number at the temperature of the fluid = V.d,.p/p
V velocity of the fluid (m/s)
p density of the fluid (kg/m3)
Pr Prandtl number at the temperature of the fluid = C,p/k
C,, specific heat of the fluid at constant pressure (J/kg.K)

L heated length of a straight tube (m)
Note that the convection coefficient h depends on the length L of tube from
the entrance. The value of h is very high at the beginning of the tube but
decreases with L and reaches an asymptotic value independent of the flow
velocity and equal to:
k
h = 3.66 -
dt
The value h, given by Eq. 5.4 therefore allows an exchange surface area to
be determined. However, for an imposed heat flux density, all the values
included between zero and L will have t o be taken into account in order to
determine the temperature of the wall.
Turbulent flow: 10000 < Re < 120000, L/d a 60
k
hlog= 0.023 - Pr1/3x Re0.8
dt
( ),.,' (Sieder and Tate) (5.5)
with hlog= average convection coefficient at the logarithmic mean of tempera-

tures.
(2) Two-phase flow
In two-phase flow the convection coefficient depends on a great many
parameters. There are two main cases as follows:
- The flow is two phase without mass transfer or with mass transfer
between the liquid and gas phases but without boiling.
- The two-phase flow occurs with boiling of the liquid phase.
Furthermore, the flow rates and respective properties of the two phases
have an influence on the type of flow: plug, annular, dispersed, etc. Formulas
have been established experimentally for each type of flow. They are usually
valid for limited domains.
Here only the Dengler relation will be mentioned, which was experimentally
established for vertical tubes with a rising flow:
hTP 1 0.5 1
- = 3.5(--) with 0.25 < - < 70
hL xtt
where:
hT, is the convection coefficient for two-phase flow (W/m2.K)
h,- is the convection coefficient for the liquid flow alone according to for-
mula 5.5
X,, is the Lockhart and Martinelli parameter =
y is the mass fraction in the vapor phase

p is the density, pL of the liquid phase, pv of the vapor phase (kg/m3)
p is the absolute viscosity, pL of the liquid phase, pVof the vapor phase
(Pa.s)
198 ChaDter 5 PROCESSFURNACES
Convection outside a tube bundle, with the fluid flowing

perpendicular to the tubes
(1) Smooth tubes
k
h, = b - RemPr1/3 (Grimison)
Dt
with:
2 000 < Re < 40 000
h, average convection coefficient over the whole tube bundle (W/m2.K)
k thermal conductivity of the fluid (W/m.K)
D, outside diameter of the tubes (m)
Re Reynolds number = VD,p/p = CD,/p
C mass flow per unit of cross-section (kg/s.m2>
The coefficients b and m are given in Table 5.4. The values obtained are
valid for bundles of at least 10 rows of tubes
For fewer than 10 rows, the multiplying coefficients in Table 5.5 are applied
to h, calculated for 10 rows.
The values of k , Re and Pr should be taken at the average temperature
between the wall temperature and the average temperature of the fluid in the
cross-section.
(2) For tubes with fins or studs

Fins or studs are often welded onto the tubes in the convection section t o
increase heat exchange for the same tube length. The convection coefficient
for tubes with extended surface area depends greatly on the shape and dimen-
sions of the relevant fins or studs.
c. Conduction
Conduction is a mode of heat transmission on a molecular level and its laws
are similar to those for electrical conduction.
In a furnace, conduction is involved mainly:
- in the insulating walls of the furnace shell,
- in the tube walls making up the exchange surface.
Conduction in a flat wall with isothermal faces:
with:
cp heat flux density (W/m2)
hmoy average thermal conductivity of the wall between 8 and 8' (W/m.K)
eP wall thickness (m)
8 and 8' temperature of each wall side (K)
Chaprer 5. PROCESS FURNACES 199
k
h, = b - Remfi1’3 (Grimison)
Dt
e
XT = -
T XL= -
eL
Dt Dt
Tube layout
staggered lined up
00 I eL
00
eT eT
T u i d
Values of b and rn for a number of rows N 10

T Fluid
xT =1.25 xT = 1.5 X, = 2.5

XL
b m b m b m b m
Staggered
0.6 0.234 0.616
0.9 0.491 0.571 0.441 0.581
1 0.547 0.558
1.125 0.526 0.565 0.570 0.560
1.25 0.570 0.556 0.556 0.554 0.571 0.556 0.574 0.562
1.5 0.496 0.568 0.506 0.562 0.497 0.568 0.537 0.568
2 0.444 0.572 0.458 0.568 0.530 0.556 0.494 0.570
3 0.341 0.592 0.392 0.580 0.484 0.562 0.463 0.574
Lined up
1.25 0.383 0.592 0.302 0.608 0.110 0.704 0.0696 0.752
1.5 0.404 0.586 0.275 0.620 0.111 0.702 0.0746 0.744
2 0.460 0.570 0.329 0.602 0.252 0.632 0.218 0.648
3 0.319 0.601 0.393 0.584 0.411 0.581 0.315 0.608
Table
Tonvection outside a tube bundle, with the fluid flowing perpendicular to the
‘ubes.
N 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
~~~~~~
Staggered 0.74 0.82 0.88 0.91 0.94 0.96 0.98 0.99 1

Lined up 0.64 0.8 0.87 0.9 0.92 0.94 0.96 0.98 0.99 1
i
Table
5.5 Convection outside a tube bundle. Reducing coefficient o f h, for a number N
o f rows less than 10.
Conduction in a cylindrical layer with isothermal sides (pipe):

2n L ~ . ~- e~j ~ ( e ~
Q=
In Re
-
Ri
with:
Q heat exchanged (W)
L length of the cylindrical layer (m)
Re,Ri radii of the 2 sides respectively with temperatures 8, and Oi (m)
n 3.14159
5.6.1.3 Radiation Section

a. Exchange Surface Area
The thermal balance of the radiation section can globally be written:
-
~ ) A F + = ~ C F C ~ , , , ~ ~TF)-P
Q R = C F , ~ ~ , ~ ( T ; - ~h(T-8)SI (T,- (5.7)
with:
QR useful power in the radiation section (W)
Tg temperature of the flue gases radiating toward the tube surface (K)
T temperature of the flue gases in contact with the tubes (K)
T, theoretical combustion temperature (K)
TF temperature of the flue gases exiting the radiation section (tempera-
ture of the bridge wall) (K)
8 temperature of the outside tube wall (K)
nF flue gas flow rate (kg/s)
CFmoyaverage specific heat of the flue gases at constant pressure between
T, and TF (J/kg.K)
h convection coefficient between the flue gases and the tubes
W/m2W
S, receiving surface area of the tubes in the radiation section (m2)
A continuous surface area passing through the center of the tubes
(m9
F overall exchange factor as per Figure 5.25
P losses through radiation section walls (W)
LIVE GRAPH
Click here to view Chapter 5 PROCESS FURNACES 201
Refractory
1st row ooooc

I
Radiating plane
1.oo
1 F 2 rows
0.90
0.80
\< \ F 1 row
0.70
0.60 II for one r( Fforthe \

or the 1st \ 1st of 2 rows
\
of 2 ri3ws
.
\
0.50 \ ‘l
0.40
0.30
0.20
0.10
p-F
F of the 2nd
Of rows /
p of the 2nd of a total
0
1 2 3 4
-E_ - Distance between tube axes
D Tube outside diameter
Figure
5.25 Overall exchange factor F and angle factor p for heat exchange by radiation
between a radiating plane and one or two rows o f tubes (black surface) placed
Equal velocity Isothermal curves

curves (mk) ("C)
Figure
Example of equal velocity curves (on the leftj and isothermal curves (on the
right) for the flue gases in the combustion chamber of a Petro-Chem vertical
cylindrical furnace with a reradiation cone IS].
Heat exchange can be recognized in the first equation:

-
by radiation C J ~ %(,T, ~i - O4)AFbetween the flue gases and the tubes,
by convection h (T - O)Sl between the flue gases and the tubes.
Solving this 2-equation system would allow the furnace tube surface area to
be determined if the flue gas temperatures Tg, T and TF were identical.
However, this is not the case.
In the combustion chamber, a temperature and a flue gas velocity field
(Fig. 5.26) prevail such that in the equation above:
Ts is an average radiation temperature that represents the temperature of
the whole emitting furnace mass
T is an average temperature of the flue gases in contact with the tubes
TF is the temperature of the flue gases exiting the combustion chamber
h depends on the flue gas velocity in contact with the tubes and is the
average value over the whole bundle corresponding to the average
value T
The differences between these temperatures depend particularly on:
the burners,
the fuel,
the shape and dimensions of the combustion chamber,
the operating rate of the furnace.
The velocity field (Fig. 5.26) prevailing in the combustion chamber is the
result of the momentum introduced by the burners (air and fuel) and the tem-
perature effect (natural circuiation).
In order t o solve the 2-equation system above, it is necessary to resort to
experience with operating furnaces.
1. Overall calculation. This calculation is based on the fundamental
hypothesis of a uniform flue gas temperature in the whole radiation section.
The first equation can be used to determine the exchange surface area from a
temperature T, = T. Calculation is performed with the emissivity of the gases
as defined in Section 5.6.1.2.a and with a convection coefficient h, (usually
equal to 12 W/m2."C as obtained statistically on working furnaces with hori-
zontal tubes).
Experimental values giving the difference Tg - TF allow T, to be deduced.
During a number of tests a difference of between 100 and 160°C was found for
(Tg- TF). Therefore:
( T i - 04)AF+hg(Tg- 0) Sl = TCFCF,,,,,~
Q R = oO?Fg,l (TC - TF) - P (5.8)
with:
204 ChaDter 5 PROCESS FURNACES
el tube emissivity
1 + A X -
FRl 1
A , refractory surface area outside of the walls covered by tubes (m2)
eg flue gas emissivity at a temperature Tg
lRl angle factor between the refractories and the receiving surface
(Fig. 5.24)
2. For usual cases, calculation, corrected by experience, was carried out in
a priori fashion and the results are presented in the form of a chart (or table).
Figures 5.27 and 5.28 concern furnaces with vertical and horizontal tubes
respectively. They give the heat flux density on tubes with a spacing of two
nominal diameters (approximately 1.8 outside diameters) versus the tempera-
ture 0 of the tube metal, with the temperature T, being a parameter.
Note that when the power increases for a given exchange surface area, the
flue gas temperature T, increases because the flue gas flow rate increases a s
well. This obvious comment is made as opposed to an exchanger where the
outlet temperature of the hot fluid generally decreases when the power is
raised by acting on the cold fluid.
3. Distribution of the heat flux density in the radiation section:
Along the longitudinal axis of the tubes
In the overall calculation above, only an average temperature 0 of the
receiving surface is mentioned. This temperature will be designated 0, to show
that it is relative t o the outside of the tubes.
The outside temperature of the tubes 0, is:
0, = t + (ei - t) + (0, - €Ii)
with:
Re
cp -
0. - t = - after Eq. 5.3 for convection
h Ri
where cp is the heat flux density on the outside surface of the tubes.
Note that this equation assumes a uniform distribution of the heat flux over
the whole periphery of the tube. It will be seen later on that this is not the
e
case. Consequently, this equation is often replaced by 0, - Bi = cp -, which is
h
also inexact but simpler.
The temperature 0, is not uniform for various reasons.
LIVE GRAPH
Click here to view
Figure
5.27 Heat flux density cp on the surface of tubes in the radiation section of furnaces
with vertical tubes heated on only one side, with 20% excess air (after 121).
Conditions inside the tubes:

- the temperature of the fluid is not uniform between the entrance and
exit of the radiation section,
- the convection coefficient of the heated fluid is not identical from the
entrance to the exit of the radiation section.
LIVE GRAPH
Click here to view
50
&?
E
s
v
40
30
20
Tube metal temperature (“C)

~
7
1 Figure 1
Heat flux density cp on the surface o f tubes in the radiation section in furnaces
with horizontal tubes heated on only one side, with 20% excess air (after[Z]).
(Between-axis spacing E o f the tubes/outside diameter D o f the tubes = 1.8).
Conditions outside the tubes:

- the temperature of the flue gases is not uniform in the radiation cham-
ber, the angle factor between the flue gases or the emitting surfaces is
not uniform in the combustion chamber.
The distribution of the heat flux outside the tubes depends on:
the ease with which the tubes are cooled inside,
the development of the flames, which in turn depends on:
- the fuel,
- the mixture of the fuel with the combustive air (burner),
- the flue gas recycle movements inside the combustion chamber (geom-
etry, momentum introduced).
Figures 5.29 and 5.30 give examples of the distribution in incident heat flux
density by radiation in a vertical cylindrical furnace and in a furnace with hor-
izontal tubes.
The choice of the assumed temperature TF of flue gases exiting the com-
bustion chamber can be used to determine the useful power and the heat
exchange surface area in the radiation section. A heat flux density on the tube
surface is therefore obtained. Tube metal temperatures on the outside and the
inside of the wall correspond to this heat density.
The temperatures may not be acceptable:
for the tube metal (utilization limit for a given metal: oxidation, corro-
sion, mechanical strength),
for the heated fluid: thermal degradation.
Even though the tube temperature is the most important parameter, mean
heat flux densities are habitually fixed for the most common services. This is
because the metal temperature is often more difficult to define beforehand
(Table 5.6).
Heat flux density on

Service the outside surface of the tubes
@W/m2,
Heating a liquid heat transfer fluid 31.5
Atmospheric distillation 39
Vacuum distillation 29
Reboiler 39
Hydrotreating 35
Catalytic reforming 35
Hydrodesulfurization 35
Vis breaking 25
Thermal cracking 25
Steam superheater 39
Lube oil heater 25
Table
Mean value of heat flux density in the radiation section for tubes heated on one
side only and a between-axis to nominal diameter ratio of 2.
208 Chapter 5 PROCESS FURNACES LIVE GRAPH
Click here to view
21 t ~
111 Fuel oil tests
l9I
18
Fuel gas
0 50 100 150 200

.
Heat flux density (kW/m*)
Figure
5.29 Vertical distribution o f incident heat flux density b-v radiation in a vertical cylin-
drical furnace (After [7]).
LIVE GRAPH Chapter 5. PROCESS FURNACES 209
Click here to view
_ _ _ ~ ~ . . ~ ~
Operating factor
1
0-0 100%
I x-x 75%
20 -
0-0 50%
19 -
18 -
17 -
0 0 0 0
16 -
0 0 0 0
D D O O
15 - 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
14 -
13 -
12 -
11 -
10 -
9-
8 -
7 -
6
5 -
4-
3-
2 -
1 -
0 I *
0 50 100 150
Heat flux density (kW/rn*)
-
Figure
5.30 Vertical distribution o f incident heat flux density by radiation in a furnace with
horizontal tubes (After [71).
Distribution of heat flux around the tubes

Tubes heated on one “side” alone
In the radiation section the tubes are generally placed in a row in front of
the refractory walls making up the shell of the combustion chamber. They
have a between-axis spacing of E (most often with 1 . 7 0 < E < 2.80), 0 being
the outside diameter of the tubes. The distance between the row of tubes and
the refractory wall is generally small (around 1.50 between the tube axis and
the wall).
When heat exchanges by radiation between hot flue gases and the cold
receiving surface are evaluated, the emitting flue gases are usually represented
210 Chaoter 5 PROCESS FURNACES
schematically by a plane. When a tube in the receiving panel receives direct

radiation from the emitting plane, the various generatrices on the tube cir-
cumference are exposed at different angles to the radiating plane. They there-
fore receive different radiative energy. The effect of angle of incidence @ is
given by the Lambert law:
e = e, cos @
with:
eo energy received by the surface in a normal direction (W)
e energy received by the surface in a direction making an angle @ with the
normal (W)
The emitting plane emits energy that passes between the tubes and
reaches the refractory wall behind them. This wall is a surface that can be
considered as being without flux. All the energy it receives will be re-emitted
toward the tubes and the combustion chamber. Similar t o the direct radiation
considered above, the radiation re-emitted by the refractory wall reaches the
back surface of the tubes according to the Lambert law.
Figure 5.31A shows the distribution of heat received around the tubes by
direct radiation and radiation re-emitted by the refractory wall, along with
their sum. The heat flux density on the tube circumference exhibits a maxi-
mum. The ratio between this maximum value and the mean value over the
whole circumference depends on the between-axis Eldiameter D ratio and is
represented in Figure 5.32.
The tube metal temperature exhibits distribution similar to that of the heat
flux density by radiation. Note that the heat flux density due to flue gas con-
vection does not follow this distribution, however. It tends to attenuate the
ratio of maximum and mean flux densities given in Figure 5.32.
The convection inside the tube between the heated fluid and the tube as
well a s the heat conduction in the tube thickness tangentially to the tube cir-
cumference also tend to equalize the heat flux distribution around the tubes,
Double-fired tubes
When the tube row is placed in the median plane of a combustion chamber
(i.e. heated on both sides) the heat flux distribution exhibits two identical
maximums and therefore tends to be uniform over the whole circumference
(Fig. 5.31B).
The tube metal temperature, which depends directly on the heat flux den-
sity, will be more uniform around the circumference when heated on both
sides than on only one. For the same maximum metal temperature (or tem-
perature of the fluid in contact with the metal), this allows the heat exchange
surface area t o be reduced.
A furnace will be chosen with a double-fired rather than a single-fired heat
exchange surface in the radiation section on the basis of an economic study.
Although the reduction of heat exchange surface area is in fact conducive t o a
reduction in furnace price, it should be borne in mind that this advantage can
be offset or even reversed by the higher costs for burners, refractories, the
structure, etc.
Radiating plane Radiating plane 1

,/, I //,,, I ,'/ ,
//,~/,,,/,,,/,,,/,,,~,/,,/, /, //////////// /////,,//,,,,,'/,
///,//////~///,,/,,///,~.//////// ,,),/,/,'/L
A B
1 1
10 4 10 4
7 7
Refractory Radiating plane 2

?/// / '////////////////
'/I///'I// "/'// '// '///// ' / ?//////// '/'i/
i / / / ' / / / i / / / / /.//I
/ / '//"/
i/'//'
Direct radiation Reradiation
Distribution o f heat received around the tubes by direct radiation and radiation
reernitted by the rekactory wall IS].
A. Single-fired tube. B. Double-fired tube.
When two rows of tubes are double fired for the sake of symmetry, each of
the rows behaves like a single row placed in front of a no-flux wall (refractory)
and heated on only one side (curve in Fig. 5.32).
b. Zone Method [3]

The calculation of heat exchange in the radiation section presented in Section
5.6.1.3.a employs the assumption of a uniform flue gas temperature in the
whole radiation chamber. This simplifying hypothesis entails corrections so
that results are in agreement with experience.
It is important to determine the heat flux density at each point on the
receiving surface for furnaces where the heated fluid is at high temperature,
and particularly for furnaces where a chemical reaction takes place. Other
more sophisticated methods have been developed to simulate physical reality
more closely.
Furnace with a large dimension in the flue gas and heated fluid flow direc-
tion. Here a uniform distribution of temperatures is assumed in a cross-sec-
tion, but temperature variations are taken into account along the longitudinal
axis of the tubes.
212 Chapter 5. PROCESS
FURNACES
gig Double row of tubes

along a wall
4 3.5 Triangular pattern
3.0
2.5 Double row heated

equally from both sides
Between axis spacing
between the 2 rows: 2 0
2.0
1.5
Single row heated equally
from both sides
1.o I I
\ I ’ I
Figure
5.32 Distribution o f the heat flux density cp by radiation on the tube circumference
versus the between-axis E/diameter D ratio of the tubes and the configuration
The development of large-capacity high-speed computers makes meth-

ods possible today that were not feasible in the past. In the zone method
(Hottel and Sarofim), the radiation chamber is divided up into small elements
of volume and the walls into small elements of surface area.
The properties are assumed t o be uniform for each of these elements. The
equations of heat exchange for each of the zones with the others are written
along with the thermal balance for each element. The distribution of tempera-
ture and heat flux density is obtained by solving the system of equations. This
allows the assumed properties to be corrected if need be and the calculations
to be reiterated.
The calculation can be performed assuming a uniform flue gas flow veloc-
ity in the whole section, a parabolic distribution or a distribution with recy-
cling, etc. The heat released in the zones where combustion occurs is also
taken into account.
5.6.1.4 Convection Section.

Determining the Exchange Surface Area
The flue gas temperature exiting the radiation section defines the thermal
power of the convection section completely. Referring to Section 5.6.1.1, all the
temperatures are defined. The thermal balance has also defined the flue gas
flow rate. Based on these elements, a geometrical configuration is assumed
beforehand for the tubes where the heated fluid flows. The flue gases and
heated fluid circulate globally parallel to each other:
counter-currently, the most frequently;
in the same direction in some cases:
- to increase the metal temperature at the fluid inlet when there is a risk
of low-temperature corrosion,
- with two-phase flow when the particular conditions could lead to
phase separation phenomena,
- when the cold fluid circulates by thermosiphon.
The heat exchange surface arrangement is chosen beforehand. The con-
vection section is usually composed of a tube bundle with the flue gases flow-
ing perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the tubes. The tubes can be stag-
gered or lined up. A staggered pattern is the more common because it leads to
smaller heat exchange surface areas.
In zones where the temperatures reached by metal are low with respect to
the fluid temperature or the type of tube metal, the outer tube surface area is
extended by welded studs or fins. The increase in outer surface area allows a
very significant reduction in the number of tubes making up the convection
section by acting on the heat exchange coefficient and the outer surface area
of the tube bundle, which generally constitutes the rate limiting side in heat
exchange.
The heat exchange surface area is given by the heat exchange equation:
Q = K SiAtmoy
with:
Q power exchanged (W)
K overall heat exchange coefficient (W/m2.K) with
1
- ---
1 1 si
+ f(e, A) + - -
K hi he s e
S heat exchange surface area (m2) (subscript i: inside of tube,
e = outside)
Atmoy mean logarithmic temperature difference between the hot fluid
(7) and the cold one (r)
A1 = T, - t, temperature difference between hot and cold fluids in Section 1

of the heat exchanger (K)
A2 = T2 - t2temperature difference between hot and cold fluids in Section 2
of the heat exchanger (K)
hi convection coefficient between the fluid and the inside wall of
the tubes (W/m2.K)
he radiation and convection coefficient between the flue gases and
the outside surface of the tubes (and the studs or fins if appli-
cable) (W/m2.K)
f(e, h) =- In Re
Ri - assuming uniform distribution of the heat flux over the
h Ri
whole periphery of the tubes (m2.K/W)
Re8i outside and inside radii of the tube respectively (m)
h thermal conductivity of the tube wall (W/m.K)
e tube thickness = R e - Ri (m)
5.6.2 Fluid Dynamics in a Furnace

5.6.2.1 Review of Fundamental Laws
The fluid flow inside as well as outside the tubes must be calculated along with
the calculation of heat exchanges in a furnace. The fundamental laws of steady
state fluid flow between two points 1 and 2 can be used to write:
with:
P pressure (Pa)
G mass flow per unit of cross-section = p V (kg/m2.s)
V fluid velocity (m/s)
g acceleration of gravity 9.81 m/s2
P fluid density (kg/m3)
2 altitude (m)
Anf pressure losses by friction (continuous) and eddies (local) (Pa)
These irreversible pressure losses can be written:
with, for losses by friction:
h, friction coefficient, which is dependent on the Reynolds number and

the relative roughness of the pipe
L length of the tube or circuit with a uniform cross-section of diameter
4
For local losses in changes of cross-sectional area or direction: 5 is a factor

that depends on the shape of the feature causing disturbance.
For the term

i,’
G dVthere are two simple cases:
If G = a constant (constant tube cross-section, heated or cooled):
\,’ C dV= C(V, - V,)

If p = a constant (change in cross-sectional area):
5.6.2.2 Pressure Loss by the Heated Fluid

The diameter of tubes used in the different sections of the furnace and the
number of circuits in parallel (passes) depend on the pressure loss that is con-
sidered acceptable in the furnace. A high pressure loss allows fewer passes,
thereby reducing the risk of poor distribution between them. In contrast, it
also leads to energy expenditure, i.e. added operating costs. An excessively
low pressure loss leads to low circulation velocities. The convection coeffi-
cient inside the tubes depends greatly on the velocity (velocity to the 0.8
power in a turbulent regime) and a low velocity therefore does not allow the
tubes to be cooled efficiently. As a result, metal temperatures are high, which
can cause degradation of the heated fluid and/or require the use of more
sophisticated tube materials.
The formula above can be applied to calculate the pressure loss for a given
tube bundle or on the contrary to choose the diameter and number of passes.
The choice influences the heat exchanges and in general it is an iterative cal-
culation that will allow the exchange surface areas and tube diameters to be
determined.
5.6.2.3 Vaporization of the Heated Liquid

When a liquid or a gas are heated without any change in state, the temperature
and pressure can vary independently. For a pure liquid that is vaporized, the
pressure can not vary independently of the temperature: “At a given pressure,
the equilibrium temperature between the two phases of a given substance is
determined and vice versa.” This relationship is defined by the vaporization
curve.
In contrast, for each temperature with its corresponding pressure, the per-
cent vaporized depends on the enthalpy of the liquid and vapor phases. The
vaporization of a mixture of miscible pure compounds can be represented in
the form of a Cox diagram (Fig. 5.33). Here the vaporization curve of a pure
Vapor
Temperature T
Figure
5.34 Vaporization of a mixture.
ABC: at constant pressure and increasing enthalpy.
follow an isenthalpic curve along segment DE. The temperature falls and a
fraction of the sensible heat of the liquid will be used to provide the latent heat
of vaporization. When all of the liquid has changed phase, the vapor will be
superheated as per vertical line EF. A classical example of variation according
to this process is given by the transfer lines between a furnace and a distilla-
tion column.
c. Vaporization at Increasing Enthalpy and Decreasing Pressure

These are the conditions that prevail in the tubular coil in a furnace. The two
extreme cases discussed above are superimposed here and the representative
point of the heated fluid will describe an intermediate curve. Depending on the
relative magnitude of the amount of heat absorbed and the loss of pressure
sustained, the average temperature of the fluid in the tube section could
exhibit a maximum upstream from the furnace exit (Fig. 5.35). Note that this
maximum is not related to any anomaly in the heat flux density transmitted to
218 FURNACES
Chapter 5 PROCESS
the tube but rather to the variance of the system alone.

For a thermosensitive fluid that is vaporized, an optimum will therefore
have to be found between:
high velocity leading to:
- a good convection coefficient and consequently a small difference in
temperature between the metal and the fluid,
- but the possibility of a temperature peak;
low velocity leading to:
- a low convection coefficientand consequently a large difference in tem-
perature between the metal and the fluid,
- but no temperature peak.
A : temperature peak TG
Temperature T f(T)
Figure
5.35 Vaporization o fa mixture in the tubular coil o fa furnace at increasing enthalpy
and decreasing pressure.
5.6.2.4 Pressure Loss by the Flue Gases

a. Draft
Draft is the flow of fluids that allows:
air to be brought into contact with the fuel,
the circulation of flue gases along the heating surface,
discharge of the flue gases above ground level.
Draft is termed natural when it takes place without the use of a fan and
mechanical or forced when assisted by a fan. Here only natural draft will be
dealt with.
Applying Eq. 5.9 between points (1) and (2), successively:
to the flue gases inside the furnace stack circuit:
with pFmoy:average density of the flue gases;

to the outside air (fluid without movement):
P A (z2 - zl)&? + (P2 - PI) =
with pA: density of the air. This is the law of aerostatics.
These two expressions are applied to a furnace (Fig. 5.36) and the variation
in outside air and flue gas pressures is plotted. Inside, the flue gases have their
pressure that varies according to variations in altitude z, and losses by friction
and eddies of the flue gases in the circuit. Outside the furnace between the
burner inlet and the stack orifice the air pressure falls. This pressure drop is
due to the increase in altitude z alone, since there is no air flow and conse-
quently no loss by friction and eddies.
The draft, or more precisely the negative draft pressure, is the pressure dif-
ference between the flue gas circuit inside the furnace and the air circuit out-
side it at a given level. It is the difference in gas pressure that is measured with
a U-tube draft gauge and frequently expressed in millimeters of water. It is
given a positive value when the flue gas pressure is lower than that of the air.
If the variation in draft is plotted, it is seen to have a non-monotonic vari-
able value, whereas the pressure is obviously constantly decreasing in each
circuit (except if there is a transformation of dynamic to potential energy:
expansion).
b. Profit o f the Concept o f Draft

It is the draft that is measured and not the absolute pressure.
Furnaces are not absolutely tight and consequently if the draft at one point
of the furnace is negative the flue gases will escape from the furnace via
cracks. If the furnace is located inside a building it will be uncomfortable if not
dangerous for the operators. Since most furnaces are located outdoors, the
danger will be damage to the furnace shell by hot flue gases.
I _
L
Figure
Draft
- Pressure
5.36 Variation in draft and in air and flue gas pressures in a furnace (simplified
diagram).
If the draft is positive, air will tend to enter the flue gas circuit. The result
will only be a cooling of the flue gases that is detrimental to efficiency, but the
furnace structure will not be at risk.
Influence of different factors
Draft will be greater when:
the air density pn is higher:
- in cold weather,
- in dry weather,
- at the lowest altitude;
the flue gas density is lower:
- with hot flue gases;
the height H a n d the diameter d of the stack are significant.
c. Adjusting the Draft

Generally speaking, the minimum draft is located at the exit of the radiation
section. Atmospheric conditions as well as the furnace operating rate cause
the draft to vary.
In order to keep the draft at its minimum value at the exit of the radiation
section (approximately 2 mm of water), a variable resistance is incorporated.
This is the function of the stack damper. The damper should be adjusted by
the draft and not, as is too frequently seen, by the oxygen content in the flue
gases. The excess air (or the oxygen content in the flue gases) will be adjusted
by adjusting the burner inlet air dampers.
If there is a combustion air blower fan, it is the fan flow rate that will allow
the excess air to be adjusted. A minimum positive draft will have to be main-
tained at the exit of the radiation section by acting on the stack damper.
5.6.3 Mechanical Design of Structures

Furnace structures are designed to withstand the stresses due to wind, earth-
quakes and their own weight conventionally like any other metal structure. In
addition, the shell also has to withstand pressure differences between the
inside and the outside, under the effect of any blowing and/or suction fans.
5.6.4 Control of Operating Furnaces

Furnaces are generally equipped with an automatic control on the heated fluid
exit temperature. The temperature controls a fuel pressure (or flow rate) con-
troller upstream from the burners directly or more often by a cascade.
Furnace operation is usually stable and there is most often no combustion
control. The excess air used in the furnaces is ordinarily sufficient so that the
slight variations in operating rate or atmospheric conditions (draft) d o not
lead to operation with insufficient air. Combustion air is controlled manually
and usually this adjustment is modified only when the operating rate of the
installation changes.
However, whether the burners operate with natural or forced draft, sophis-
ticated systems are sometimes employed. Here the air flow rate is automati-
cally controlled by the fuel flow rate. The residual oxygen contained in the flue
gases is measured and acts to correct the air flow rate/fuel flow rate ratio.
A third control system can be used to keep a given draft at the point where
it is minimum, i.e. at the exit of the combustion chamber. The draft measured
at this point automatically controls the position of the stack damper. This
device is particularly advantageous with natural draft burners which are more
sensitive than forced draft burners to the variations in draft due to outside
conditions.
Independently of the automatic firing control mentioned above, furnaces
must be equipped with safety devices. Fuel flow to the burners must be shut
down automatically to guarantee the safety of equipment and personnel in the
event of an emergency. The following instances can be mentioned:
the heated fluid stops circulating,
there is no flame,
222 Chaoter 5 PROCESSFURNACES
the flue gas temperature exiting the combustion chamber is too high,
combustion air feed is interrupted (with a blowing fan),
a draft fan stops working.
Each particular installation must be studied to determine the factors to be
taken into account in the safety system. In addition, a number of parameters
must also be measured to give a constant report on deviations, whether ver-
sus time or accidental. Alarms are used to warn operating personnel when
these parameters reach preset extreme values, for example:
high exiting temperature,
high tube wall temperature,
tube wall temperature too low in an air heater or an economizer,
fuel pressure too low or too high.
Lastly, it should be borne in mind that independently of automatic or man-
ual monitoring and control during operation, it is necessary to have periodic
equipment inspection. Inspections allow degradation or corrosion to be
detected and faulty parts to be repaired or replaced.
References
Bonnet C. (1982) Save energy in fired heaters. Hydrocarbon Processing,
March 1982, 131-137.
Berman H.L. (1978) Fired heaters - How combustion conditions influence
design and operation. Chemical Engineering, August 14th, 1978, 129-140.
Hottel, Sarofim (1967) Radiative transfer. McGraw-Hill Book Co.
McAdams (1954) Heat Transmission, 3rd Edn. McGraw-Hill Book Co.
Mekler L.A. (1956) Effect of convection heat in radiant section of tubular
process heaters. Wichita, Kansas, Regional meeting, Western Petroleum
Refiners Association, 21-22 June 1956.
Mekler L.A., Fairall R.S. (1952) Evaluation of radiant heat absorption rates
in tubular heaters. Petroleum Refiner, June, Nov., Dec. 1952.
Toussaint M. (1980) Evaluation des transferts d e chaleur par rayonnement
dans les fours de raffinage. loe journCes d’Ctudes sur les flammes, 19-20
March 1980.
Veron (1956) Cours de thermique industrielle. CNAM. 1955-1956.

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Part Two

5.1 Furnace Functions

5.2 Description of a Furnace

Hot mixture of air

transferred chiefly by convection. This sector is then called the convection

Tub bundle support

Vertical cylindrical furnaces.

5.3 Different Types of Furnaces

Vertical cylindrical furnaces: the radiation section is in the shape of a

Box furnaces with vertical tubes in the radiation section.

5.8 Radiant wall furnaces.

The combustion air is introduced in the burners either by the negative

The choice of a type of furnace depends chiefly on the following factors:

5.4 Furnace Thermal Efficiency

5.5 Component Parts of a Furnace

steel TU42F 480

5.5.2 Tube Coil Supports

5.5.3 Furnace Wall Lining

Different types of lining

In order to improve the thermal resistance of a wall providing good heat

Flame propagation speed V,

5.5.4.2 The Flame

a. Gaseous Fuel Flame

b. Liquid Fuel Flame

5.5.4.3 Burner Operation

d specific gravity of the fuel gas in relation to air

- a primary zone with insufficient air,

Other methods o f reducing NO, emissions. Flue gases can be treated by

5.5.5 Air Heater

Fluid being fluid

Different Types of Air Heaters

Whatever the solution, a combustion air heater should preferably be

5.6 Designing a Furnace

5.6.1 Determining Heat Exchange Surfaces

5.6.1.1 Thermal Balance

The useful power Q, can be written:

with qI1 = available heat at the flue gas temperature T,.

QL power released by combustion = nCPci (W)

5.6.1.2 Brief Review of Heat Transfer Laws [3,4,8]

Q=ooSiFi,z[T;- Tf1 =ooSzFz,i[Tg- Tfl

Overall exchange fac- 0.4

Gas radiation: in industrial furnaces only biatomic gases with asymmetrical

I Shape of the gas volume Equivalent thickness: e

Cylinders, radiating toward side walls

Combustion of liquid hydrocarbons leads to the formation of carbon parti-

a" Fig. 5.23A, B and C

Note that in general:

E, emissivity of the receiving surface S,

Convection inside a tube

(Sieder and Tate) (5.4)

C,, specific heat of the fluid at constant pressure (J/kg.K)

with hlog= average convection coefficient at the logarithmic mean of tempera-

y is the mass fraction in the vapor phase

Convection outside a tube bundle, with the fluid flowing

(2) For tubes with fins or studs

Values of b and rn for a number of rows N 10

xT =1.25 xT = 1.5 X, = 2.5