TECHNICAL PAPER
ISSN 1047-3289 J. Air & Waste Manage. et al.
Use of Membrane Collectors in Electrostatic Precipitators
David J. Bayless, Hajrudin Pasic, M. Khairul Alam, Liming Shi, Brian Haynes,
Joe Cochran, and Wajahat Khan
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Ohio University, Athens, Ohio
ABSTRACT
Membrane collection surfaces, developed and patented
by researchers at Ohio University, were used to replace
steel plates in a dry electrostatic precipitator (ESP). Such
replacement facilitates tension-based rapping, which
shears the adhered particle layer from the collector sur-
face more effectively than hammer-based rapping. Tests
were performed to measure the collection efficiency of
the membranes and to quantify the potential improve-
ments of this novel cleaning technique with respect to
re-entrainment. Results indicate that even semiconduc-
tor materials (e.g., carbon fibers) collect ash nearly as
efficiently as steel plates, potentially indicating that col-
lection surface resistivity is primarily dictated by the ac-
cumulated ash layer and not by the underlying plate
conductivity. In addition, virtually all sheared particles
separated from the collecting membranes fell within the
boundary layer of the membrane, indicating extremely
low potential for re-entrainment.
IMPLICATIONS
Replacing steel collecting plates with membrane collec-
tors offers numerous advantages for electrostatic precipi-
tation. Membranes kept in tension to maintain a planar
surface promote greater laminar boundary-layer stability,
potentially minimizing re-entrainment losses. Lighter-
weight collection surfaces permit alternative rapping
mechanisms, typically by induced ash layer shear-off.
These mechanisms have been shown to be more efficient
in cleaning particulates from the collection surfaces. Such
rapping techniques may also minimize re-entrainment
losses due to elimination of plate buckling. Because some
of the re-entrained particulate from dry precipitators is of
small diameter, primary PM2.5 emissions could be reduced
with lower re-entrainment losses. Further, the lower cost
and weight of the membranes could facilitate installation
in new construction and retrofitting in existing units. In
addition, woven membrane collectors may provide a func-
tional way to beneficially use corona wind to improve par-
ticulate collection.
Volume 51 October 2001
Bayless
Assoc. 51:1401-1407
Copyright 2001 Air & Waste Management Association
INTRODUCTION
The focus of this work was the development of membrane
collection surfaces for dry electrostatic precipitators (ESPs).
Since Frederick Garner Cottrell developed the first practi-
cal ESP, there have been relatively few major design
changes.1 Most work has been done in optimizing exist-
ing systems, such as charging electrodes, rapping controls,
and variation of collection plate spacing. Even with the
accumulated operational experience achieved, current
precipitators remain less than optimal for controlling pri-
mary and secondary PM2.5, especially re-entrainment from
rapping.2 Furthermore, solid collecting surfaces negate
advantageous transport of effects of corona wind by cre-
ating a rebound due to mass continuity. Corona wind is
the resulting gas flow toward the collecting plates as the
ions from the corona collide with gas molecules. This
motion assists in transport of particles toward the collect-
ing plates until the gas molecules strike the plate, then
rebound into the gas channel. This rebound effect not
only carries particles away from the collection plates, but
it also disrupts the laminar boundary layer, making re-
entrainment more likely.3
Most dry precipitator collection surfaces are cleaned
of collected particles by an impact-based process known
as rapping. During rapping, some of the detached ash re-
enters the bulk gas flow. This re-entrainment of fly ash
can account for 30% of the time-averaged penetration for
cold-side units and as much as 60% for hot-side units.4-7
Two effects contribute to the re-entrainment of collected
particulates during rapping. The first effect is gas-phase
transport of the dislodged particles, usually because of a
disruption of the boundary layer near the plate surface.2
The other effect occurs because of plate buckling caused
by rapidly delivered impulsive forces during rapping, as
shown in Figure 1. While the buckling may be very small
for stiffened plates, the result can be dramatic for plates
with imperfections. Even minor disruptions from buck-
ling can push the separated ash into the bulk flow, caus-
ing significant re-entrainment.4-8
Numerous studies on rapping have revealed funda-
mental behavior of plates and ash layers that could be
Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association 1401
Bayless et al.
Figure 1. Plate buckling during impact rapping.
manipulated to control or limit re-entrainment.8-19 Spe-
cifically, vibrations in the shear direction (parallel to the
plate) remove particles more efficiently than vibrations
in the direction normal to the plate. In addition, impul-
sive compressive loading in precipitators tends to deform
the plate by buckling, characterized by undesirable high-
amplitude and low-frequency vibrations that disintegrate
the particulate layer, producing a particulate cloud. Fur-
thermore, the wave traveling along the plate interacts with
imperfections in plates, causing a chaotic plate motion.
Plate stiffeners, which help eliminate some of the buck-
ling effect, lead to torsion buckling and lateral waves, re-
sulting in an undesirable stirring of the particulate layer.
The net result is that low-frequency, out-of-plane motion
promotes re-entrainment during rapping.
Based on the conclusion that the tensile, rather than
compressive, load would produce the desirable effects,
Pasic and Herrmann patented a method of rapping, pro-
posing that the plates be “pulled” rather than “pushed.”19
Choi et al. experimentally confirmed those findings: they
concluded that low-frequency shear acceleration is most
effective in both detaching the particulate layer and mini-
mizing re-entrainment.4 Further, Herrmann and Pasic,
then later Choi et al., indicated that the optimal alter-
native for removing collected particles would be to shear
the particles from the plate by the sudden application of
tension.4,8 Not only would the resulting particle layer
fall from the plate while remaining in the boundary layer,
but less force would be required, because shearing ac-
tion is more efficient in separating particles from the
collection surface.
Until recently, there was no practical way to imple-
ment these solutions. Heavily stiffened steel plates can-
not practically or economically be placed in sudden
tension inside a precipitator. Replacement of heavy steel
1402 Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association
plates with thin sheets (membranes) has been limited by
the operational conditions within the precipitator. ESP
environments are typically harsh, subjecting the collec-
tion electrodes to relatively high particulate loadings, a
high probability of acid attack (especially in regions that
drop below the acid dew point temperature), exposure to
combustible material carryover from the boiler, and po-
tentially thermally degrading temperatures in hot-side
units. Furthermore, the collection surface material must
have sufficient conductivity to prevent the buildup of a
charged ash layer, which would create a back corona and
reduce collection efficiency.
The development of strong, lightweight, and corro-
sion-resistant materials has provided the opportunity to
replace steel plates with membranes of these materials.
Such membranes, kept under initial tension to maintain
a planar profile, allow for the application of additional
impulse tensile loads, which produce only in-plane (shear)
motion during rapping. In addition, the lack of surface
imperfections in the pre-tensioned membranes provides
beneficial effects with respect to laminar boundary-layer
thickness. The absence of stiffeners results in reduced tur-
bulence and the possibility of increased particulate col-
lection efficiencies.20
Another consideration in the replacement of steel
plates is the negative effect of solid plates with respect to
corona wind. To overcome the resulting disruption, Lowke
et al. proposed the use of louvered collection surfaces to
allow for a dissipation and redirection of corona wind to
take advantage of the initial transport effects toward the
collection surfaces while minimizing the negative effects
of the rebound.3 Membranes made of woven, open mate-
rial could also minimize the corona wind rebound effects,
thus increasing collection efficiency and decreasing re-
entrainment. However, it is speculated that the bulk flow
toward the collecting surfaces from corona wind would
likely cancel from one channel to the other, leaving only
the dissipation of rebound as a positive effect for mem-
branes, as compared with solid collecting surfaces.
This paper presents the underlying theory and results
of a comparison of carbon fiber-woven membranes and
steel plates as collection surfaces in a bench-scale ESP.
Results are provided to indicate the effectiveness of ten-
sion-based rapping for maintaining the stability of the
detached ash through measurements of ash detachment
with respect to the membrane’s boundary-layer thickness.
METHODOLOGY
Experimental Facility
The experimental ESP, schematically shown in Figure 2
and imaged in Figure 3, was used to examine the perfor-
mance of different collecting surfaces in a controlled en-
vironment simulating conditions experienced in typical
Volume 51 October 2001

Figure 2. Diagram of the precipitator test section.
pulverized coal-fired flue gas. The experimental facility
consisted of four different parts: an ash fluidizer, an inlet
section, a test section, and an outlet. The ash fluidizer
introduced dispersed fly ash into the test section of the
precipitator by blowing compressed air underneath a fine
screen supporting the fly ash. A flow straightener was
constructed at the end of the inlet section to reduce the
turbulent intensity of the air and ash mixture in the test
section. Three membrane-collecting electrodes (304.8 ×
304.8 mm, spaced 16.5 cm from discharge electrodes) and
seven charging electrodes were located in the main test
section. The charging electrodes were made of 1/4-in. cop-
per tubes with protruding nails to enhance corona cur-
rent. Three of the seven discharge electrodes were placed
upstream of the membrane-collecting electrodes to en-
sure a high level of particle charging. The grounding ter-
minals for the pre-charging electrodes were located at the
precipitator wall across from the pre-charging electrodes.
The overall cross section for flow was 0.29 m2, with a
total collection surface (with the outside of two mem-
branes blocked from flow) of 0.37 m2. A hopper was placed
directly below the collecting surfaces to collect ash when
the surfaces were cleaned. The outlet of the precipitator
and bag filter was bolted on the back end of the test sec-
tion to catch any uncollected ash. The pneumatic cylin-
der, used to put the membranes in sudden tension for
rapping, is shown on top of the test section in Figure 3. The
tensioning frames attached to the rapper arm necessitated
Figure 3. Image of the precipitator test section with pneumatic rapper.
Volume 51 October 2001
Bayless et al.
extra spacing between the top of the membranes and the
precipitator cover. This spacing, while small, created some
sneakage that would be relatively insignificant on large
commercial precipitators.
Because the collection efficiency of a precipitator is a
function of particle diameter, the size range of fly ash used
in these experiments was 20–25 µm, which was as nar-
row a range as could be screened in our laboratory. This
range was picked because it was narrow, and the particle
size was relatively small but large enough that humidity-
based agglomeration would not be significant. To account
for the slight variation in size, it was assumed that there
was an even distribution of sizes in the sample used. Fur-
thermore, it was assumed that the fly ash, which had
undergone considerable grinding and abrasion during its
life, was nearly spherical. This assumption was later con-
firmed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images of
the ash, as shown in Figure 4. The fly ash used in experi-
mentation was taken from the American Electric Power
Gavin 1 Unit, burning a Clarion #4 seam coal using low
NOx burners, with a dielectric constant of 1.9 as measured
by MSI and a carbon content (measured by LOI) of 3–4%.
Velocities and temperatures inside the testing unit simu-
lated conditions of “typical” precipitators, ranging from
0.91 to 1.9 m/sec and 127 to 155 ºC, respectively, in the
tests performed for this work.
Theoretical Collection Efficiency
The Deutsch-Anderson equation was used to determine the
theoretical efficiency of particle collection in our tests.21,22
Assuming that the electrical migration velocity is constant,
the expression for collection efficiency becomes
Figure 4. SEM image of fly ash particle.
Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association 1403
Bayless et al.
 AVe 
η(D p ) = 1 − exp −  (1)
 Q 
where A is the collection area, Q is the volumetric flow
rate, and Ve is the electrical migration velocity of the par-
ticles. Q and A were measured from the experiment, and
Ve was calculated using a force balance on the particulate
particles. If the particles reach saturation charge for the
size range of interest, the migration velocity becomes
 3κ 
Cc E 2 ε o   Dp (2)
 κ + 2
Ve =
3µ g X
where Cc is the Cunningham correction factor given by
  −1.1 
Cc = 1 + Kn 1.257 + 0.4exp  (3)
  Kn  
Kn is the Knudsen number, E is the electric field strength
(V/m), εo is the permittivity of free space, κ is the dielec-
tric constant of the ash particles, Dp is the diameter of the
particles, and µ g is the viscosity of the gas. X is a correc-
tion factor for drag depending on the particle Reynolds
number (Rep), such that X = 1 when Rep < 0.1 (Stokes flow)
and X = 1 + 0.15Rep0.687 when Rep > 0.1.
Experimental Collection Efficiency
ESP experimental collection efficiency was defined as the
amount of collected fly ash by the membrane divided by
the modified amount of fly ash sent through the test fa-
cility. It was measured by weighing the mass of the ash
entering the precipitator and the ash collected on the
membrane. The mass of the fly ash entering the precipi-
tator was known by weighing the mass of the fly ash in
the fluidizer before the experiment and subtracting the
mass of the fly ash left over after the experiment. Drying
and then weighing the collecting membrane before and
after each experiment determined the mass of the col-
lected fly ash on the membrane. The actual experimental
efficiency of the precipitator then becomes
 m(collected) 
η(exp) =   (4)
 m(modified) 
where ηexp is the experimental efficiency, mcollected is the mass
of fly ash collected by the membranes, and mmodified is the
modified mass of fly ash. Because some of the particles
settled before reaching the membrane and some were
collected by the metal surfaces surrounding the mem-
branes, the modified amount of fly ash is equal to the
total amount of fly ash sent through the test facility cor-
rected for these effects, as given by
n collecting membrane would not experience a disruption
mmodified = ∑( m
i =1
i − m si − mmi ) (5)
1404 Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association
where, to one specified particle size, mi is the mass of fly
ash sent to the precipitator, msi is the mass of settled fly
ash, and mmi is the mass of fly ash collected by metal sur-
faces; n is the number of particle size bins, in our case 5.
Because msi and mmi depend on the size of the particles, a
bin size of 1 µm was used to calculate the effects of set-
tling and electrostatic collection on surfaces upstream of
the membrane collector.
Experimental uncertainty in the calculation of experi-
mental collection efficiency was estimated to be 11%. The
primary source of error was the estimated variability in
moisture content, even though drying was employed.
Other sources of error included the accuracy of the mi-
crobalance and errors in calculating the settled and
precollected portions.
Rapping Mechanism and Collecting Troughs
An ideal rapping condition exists when the detached par-
ticulate layer falls within the boundary layer to reduce re-
entrainment into the bulk flow. While not a guarantee
that re-entrainment would be prevented, an ash layer fall-
ing in the boundary layer would experience much less
mixing and influence from the bulk gas flow. The bound-
ary layer for a plate starts at zero at the leading edge (x =
0) and grows with distance in the direction of flow. For
laminar flow (Rex < 5 × 105), the boundary layer becomes23
δ
= 5.0 Re -1/2
x (6)
x
where δ is the boundary layer thickness and x is the distance
along the plate. The Reynolds number is calculated by
ρu ∞ x
Re = (7)
µ
where ρ is the density of air and µ is the viscosity of air.
Because boundary-layer thickness depends on distance
along the flow path, one thickness cannot be assigned to
the entire plate’s boundary layer. For this study, a value of
2 cm was used as the typical boundary-layer thickness.
The distance along the flow path needed for a 2-cm bound-
ary-layer thickness in a 1-m/sec velocity gas stream and a
temperature of 450 K was found to be ~50 cm. This indi-
cates that more than 80% of the typical depth (in the
flow direction) of an industrial collection surface should
have a laminar boundary-layer thickness of 2 cm or greater.
In the rapping experiments, sheet metal troughs were
used to collect the dislodged fly ash, as shown in Figure 5.
The troughs were spaced 0.5, 1, 2, and 3 cm from the sur-
face of the carbon fiber membrane on both sides. The
trough was designed so that fly ash separating from the
of flow characteristics due to the underlying support struc-
ture. For these experiments, a layer of fly ash was collected
Volume 51 October 2001

Figure 5. Carbon fiber membrane and collecting trough.
on the carbon fiber membranes and a pneumatic cylinder
was used to suddenly pull the membrane, shearing the at-
tached ash layer from the surface. The mass percent of fly
ash in each bin was used to determine the percentage of
ash falling within the membrane’s boundary layer.
Rapping test comparisons to steel plates were not
performed. Previous work has shown that tensile rapping
is better than compressive rapping for steel plates.12,17 Fur-
thermore, a direct comparison to steel plates was not made
because for the same force, the same particulate percent-
ages could not be removed (with tensile rapping being
more efficient.) To remove the same particulate percent-
age, the dispersion results would have skewed, because a
greater force would have been needed.
RESULTS
To quantify the behavior of membrane collection surfaces
relative to steel plates, particulate collection efficiency
experiments were performed on carbon fiber fabric #1150,
a semiconducting material made by Fabric Development
Inc., and separately on sheet metal steel plates under simi-
lar conditions. Rapping tests were performed on the car-
bon fiber membranes to examine the dispersion of the
detached ash layer with respect to the boundary layer
around the membrane.
Collection Efficiency Experiments
The collection efficiency results using the car-
bon fiber membrane are shown in Table 1 and
those for steel plates are shown in Table 2. The
data shown in Tables 1 and 2 are at directly com-
parable conditions, to minimize potential experi-
mental variation in collection. The temperature
for the experiments varied between 149 and 157
ºC, velocities through the test section varied from
Volume 51 October 2001
Bayless et al.
1.49 to 1.63 m/sec, and voltages supplied by the trans-
former-rectifier ranged from 34 to 36 kV.
It should be noted that the reported collection effi-
ciencies (both experimental and theoretical) were low,
ranging from 10.6 to 13.6% due to the small collection
area used in the test facility. However, the more accurate
performance metric is the relative collection efficiency of
each material. These data indicate that steel is a slightly
better collector, averaging 104.7% of theoretical collec-
tion capability, while carbon fibers yielded 101.5% of theo-
retical efficiency. If all data, even those at much higher
velocities and differing electric field strengths, were used,
the ratios became 104.2 and 100.8%, which is not signifi-
cantly different when considering the estimated experi-
mental uncertainty of 11%. However, it is important to
note that a lower collection efficiency was expected for
the semiconducting carbon fiber material. Therefore, while
the results do not differ more than the experimental un-
certainty, it is likely that carbon fiber membranes are in-
deed less effective collectors than are steel plates, thus
requiring more collection area to achieve the same par-
ticulate removal efficiency. But that does not rule out the
possibility of other membrane materials being equal or
better collectors than steel.
The effects of velocity, temperature, and field strength
(or voltage, for a fixed electrode spacing) are significant
to collection efficiency. An increase in gas stream veloc-
ity decreases the time a charged particle spends near the
collection surface. As a result, the particle is less likely to
migrate to the collecting surface during this shorter resi-
dence period. This effect is pronounced for a small collec-
tion area, such as the one used in this experiment.
Furthermore, an increase in voltage has the effect of in-
creasing the efficiency of a precipitator by giving the par-
ticles a larger charge and a larger electrostatic field, with
both factors leading to a larger migration velocity. Tem-
perature can affect the transport properties of the carrier
gas, thus affecting collection. While there was some de-
gree of variability in the experimental conditions that had
an effect on the efficiency of the tested collection elec-
trodes, such variability is not significant in the analysis.
Not only was the experimental variability minimized, but
Table 1. Collection efficiency results for carbon fiber membranes.
Voltage Temperature Velocity Experimental Theoretical Ratio of
(kV) (ºC) (m/sec) Efficiency Efficiency Exp./Theor.
35 154.4 1.52 11.4% 11.9% 95.5%
36 148.9 1.53 12.0% 12.1% 99.3%
36 154.4 1.54 12.4% 12.3% 100.3%
35 148.9 1.63 11.7% 10.6% 110.9%
Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association 1405
Bayless et al.

Table 2. Collection efficiency results for steel plates. known mechanical faults (sets 9–10), all of the
ash fell within the assumed laminar boundary
Voltage Temperature Velocity Experimental Theoretical Ratio of layer of the plate, indicating a lower probability
(kV) (ºC) (m/sec) Efficiency Efficiency Exp./Theor. of the ash being re-entrained into the moving gas.
When including the data from tests with known
34 148.9 1.49 13.6% 12.7% 107.1% excessive lateral vibration, 99% of the total dis-
34 148.9 1.51 12.9% 12.4% 104.1%
lodged ash mass fell within the prescribed bound-
34 157.2 1.52 12.5% 12.1% 102.9%
ary layer. These results indicate that a pulling
technique can be used to clean the surface and
potentially reduce rapping re-entrainment.
its effect on relative collection efficiency, as defined by
the ratio of experimental to theoretical collection effi-
CONCLUSIONS
ciency predicted by the Deutsch-Anderson equation,
A comparison of experimental and theoretical collection
should not be significantly affected by changes in experi-
efficiency results indicated that within experimental un-
mental conditions, because the effects on theoretical cap-
certainty, carbon fiber membranes are as effective as steel
ture and actual experimentation will approximately cancel
plates as a collection surface in a bench-scale ESP. This is
each other in the ratio.
significant because a semiconducting material, such as car-
bon fibers, could only have collection efficiencies approach-
Rapping Experiments ing that of conductive steel collection surfaces if no
After it was proved that carbon fibers may collect fly ash additional back corona was generated from the semicon-
at reasonable relative collection efficiencies, carbon fiber ducting collection surface. This leads to the conclusion that
fabric #1150 was tested to determine if a pulling tech- the time-averaged conductivity of the collecting plate is
nique could be used to clean the surface of the membrane. primarily limited by the conductivity of the collected ash
For the experiments, a carbon fiber membrane ~1 ft2 in layer and not that of the underlying collection surface. In
area was placed in sudden tension with a pneumatic cyl- addition, experimental results of impulse rapping tests us-
inder to dislodge the attached particulate. The pressure ing a carbon fiber membrane, coupled with a boundary
supplied to the pneumatic cylinder provided a shearing layer thickness analysis, indicated that impulse-tension
force of 1116 N on the carbon fiber membrane. The fly cleaning might reduce re-entrainment from the rapping
ash sheared from the membrane was collected in sheet process when membrane collection surfaces are used.
metal troughs placed at the bottom of the membrane. Despite these encouraging results, the application of
The ash collected in each bin of the trough was weighed, membrane collectors in real ESPs requires further investi-
and the percentage of the total separated fly ash mass in gation. First, while carbon fibers may require slightly more
each bin was calculated. The results are shown in Table 3. collection area to be as effective as steel for particulate col-
The results should be examined in two parts: first, lection, other materials may be at least as effective as steel
without considering the last two data sets, and second, for the same collection area. Further, the effects on trans-
considering all data, including the two data sets where port by corona wind from the use of woven membrane
membrane agitation occurred due to large lateral forces collectors must be examined. As described earlier, a woven
in the rapping mechanism. Excluding the data with membrane could allow for dissipation of the corona wind
rebound effect that plagues solid collection surfaces, thus
Table 3. Rapping test results. giving a beneficial transport of particulates to the collec-
tion surface without the negative counter-transport that
Mass Percentage Falling into the Bin results with rebound. This effect was not quantified dur-
Experiment % at 0.5 cm % at 1 cm % at 2 cm % at 3 cm ing this work and should be the subject of future work. In
addition, alternative rapping techniques, specifically ones
1 86.3 12.6 1.1 0.0 that do not induce side forces (shaking), must be explored
2 82.8 14.4 2.7 0.0
in future work to further minimize re-entrainment.
3 84.7 12.6 2.7 0.0
4 84.0 11.7 4.4 0.0
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
5 83.5 12.0 4.5 0.0
This work was partially funded by the Ohio Coal Devel-
6 86.9 12.2 0.9 0.0
7 86.3 11.3 2.5 0.0
opment Office, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
8 85.5 11.8 2.6 0.0 and Ohio University. Thanks also go to Mr. Randy Sheidler
9 88.2 9.0 0.9 1.8 of American Electric Power’s Gavin Plant for supplying
10 74.5 9.4 7.3 8.9 the fly ash and to Mr. John Caine of Southern Environ-
mental Inc. for his encouragement of our work.

1406 Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association Volume 51 October 2001

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About the Authors
David Bayless (corresponding author) is an associate pro-
fessor in the Department of Mechanical Engineering and
associate director of the Ohio Coal Research Center at Ohio
University. His address is 248 Stocker Center, Ohio Univer-
sity, Athens, Ohio 45701-2979. He can be reached by phone:
(740) 593-0264; fax: (740) 593-4902 (or -0476); or e-mail:
bayless@ohio.edu. Hajrudin Pasic is a principal investiga-
tor on the ESP project and professor of mechanical engi-
neering at Ohio University. M. Khairul Alam is the director of
the Center for Advanced Materials Processing at Ohio Uni-
versity and holds the title of Moss Professor of Mechanical
Engineering. Liming Shi is a postdoctoral researcher in the
Ohio Coal Research Center at Ohio University. Brian Haynes,
Joe Cochran, and Wajahat Khan were graduate students in the
Mechanical Engineering Department at the time of this writing.
Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association 1407