Erica Raus

May 1st, 2020

COM 460

Professor Baran

The influence of the media and its impact on how girls perceive themselves.

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Detailed Outline

Introduction
● Introduce what my topic is
● The intended topics I plan to cover
● Introduce “The Thin Ideal”, recurring theme throughout paper
● Impression of thin media ideals

Media Consumption Statistics

● How often children are actually consuming media

Media Multitasking
● Data on media multitasking statistics

Cell Phone Usage

● Share data statistics
● Negative consequences of constant digital conversation

Exploration of Social Media, Body Image focused

● Photo-shopping phenomenon
● Potential messages social media portrays
● Negative effects of using social media early

Unrealistic Messages on Social Media about Body Image

● Pressure to fit the mold
● Social Media comparison culture

Promotion of Healthy Lifestyle, Social Media

● Is it really healthy?
● What are example messages?
● How can this consumption affect an individual?

Internet Browsing, Gender Stereotypes in young girls

● How media messages can contribute to our idea of career aspirations and capability based
on gender

Sexualization of Media
● What age is appropriate to be consuming media?
● How children can interpret sexualization in media

Defining Sexualization

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 ● How do we determine what is / is not appropriate for children?
● Can children identify sexualization in the media?

Sexualization Ideals
● Are kids conforming to the media's sexualization ideals?

Girls Body Image

● “Am I too fat to be a princess?
● Research on media messages about thin ideal and its effects

Introduce Disney Princesses

● Studies about gender stereotypes
● Effects on young girls development of the “self”
● How Disney depicts what a princess is supposed to look like

Long Term Impact of Growing up with Disney Princesses

● Are kids consistently consuming the media?
● What messages does Disney Princesses say about body images

Media Literacy Importance

● Stress this with Disney and Barbie
● The relationship to have if kids are consuming these subliminal thin ideal messages

Introduce Barbie
● Does Barbie make girls want to be thin?

Barbie and the Thin Ideal

● Satistics of Barbie usage in young girls
● How Barbie can impact young girls development of their body image

Dolls and Food Intake

● Does playing with dolls affect kids' food intake?
● What does this sugguest?

Barbie Speaks out

● How Barbie responds to criticism about their dolls proportion
○ Again, mention Media Literacy importance
The New Barbie
● Barbie looks to appeal to more body types
○ Do people like the “New Barbie”?
○ What does this reaction show

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Children's understanding of weight
● Age they likely grasp the understanding of weight
● What they consider to be weight loss methods

Define Anorexia
● Defining the term clearly

Media Effects Linked to Anorexia

● What are the dangers
● Is there an impact

How media depicts Anorexia

Messages they’re sending

Conclusions
● Why is this important to media literacy
● How this impacted me
● Potential to impact my little sister

Media Effects on Development of Girls

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 Today, kids are surrounded by an increasing number of media outlets. Many of which

messages aren’t tailored to educate children but their main focus is to sell. We are unconsciously

consuming media messages about our appearance from an early age. The norms of body types

can be detrimental to the development of young girls and we are seeing girls receive these

messages during their very early years of age. The thin ideal is a common theme among media

marketed to girls, which depicts the ideal girl to be unrealistically thin. The thin body ideal can

be seen in magazines, television, to the physical toy’s girls play with. Being surrounded by such

unrealistic standards of what beauty is can lead to negative consequences cognitively and

physically. It is crucial we educate children to be media literate that not everything you see in

media is necessarily realistic. Within my research I will look at the development of girls

surrounded by media images and potential consequences.

I started my research looking at the amount of time kids are spending consuming media.

Overall, the statistics suggest that the amount of time children are using media consumption

devices takes up a significant part of their day. In a national sample of over 2,000 8- to 18-year

olds, the Kaiser Family Foundation found that the average total time that children reported

experiencing media in the following Data published on usage of media multitasking claimed,

““TV, Music/audio, Computer, Video games, Print, and Movies” rose to 10 hr 45 min (treating

simultaneous media use as distinct activities) per day in 2009, up from 8 hr 33 min in 2004 and 7

hr 29 min in 1999—a 44% increase over a decade”(Roy, et al). The research done on the amount

of time spent using technology did not include the usage for schoolwork. Thus, this implies kids

are actively increasing the amount of time they spend consuming media. A contributor to this is

the idea of media multitasking, which refers to consuming more than one platform of media at a

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time. An example of this is if the television is on and kids also have a computer or tablet screen

in front of them as well, consuming both simultaneously. The same foundation conducted

research in media multitasking. They shared an increase in statistics for media multitasking as

well depicting “multitasking—the proportion of media time spent using more than one medium

concurrently—increased from 16% in 1999 to 26% in 2004 to 29% in 2009” (Roy, et al). With

an increase of overall media consumption, and media multitasking, this has become a new way

of life for children. As it is likely to continue increasing if it follows the current trend of increase.

As kids adapt to the normalization technology lifestyle, along with commonality of media

multitasking, kids are then introduced to the cell phone. While kids are already likely used to

having more than one device already, the cell phone adds another element. Cell phones can be

used to consume media but primarily are intended to serve the purpose of communicating. In

such a digital age, kids are getting used to using this as their primary form of communicating,

which can decrease their skill in actual in person communication. Research conducted by the

Kaiser Family Foundation reported cell phone use among kids and media multitasking, “third

screen” (other than TV and computer): mobile smartphones and game consoles (Rideout et al.,

2010). The Pew Internet & American Life Project (Lenhart, Ling, Campbell, & Purcell, 2010)

reported that 75% of 12- to 17-year-olds owned cell phones, with 87% of them texting and half

of the texters (over one third of all 12- to 17-year-olds) sending 50 texts daily.”(Roy, et al). Thus,

kids are beginning to consistently use texting to communicate versus traditional in person

communication. The research follows up these statistics with potential consequences of texting

using a regression analysis that indicates a negative social well being was positively associated

with levels of uses of media. Primarily associated with media use for interpersonal

communication. Concluding that face-to-face communication ultimately had the strongest

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association to a positive social well-being. Seeing the increase in overall technology use in kids

has the potential to impact kids overall well being.

Giving kids technology can lead to the opportunity to explore the use of social media at

earlier stages of development. The media has a tendency to portray women unrealistically thin

this can send messages to users of the standard to follow. The reality is, most of what we see in

the media has been touched up or photoshopped altering elements considered flaws. Making

most of what we see is perfectionalized and not realistic. A journal published on “Photoshopping

the Selfie: Self Photo Editing and Photo Investment Are Associated with Body Dissatisfaction in

Adolescent Girls.” highlights the use of media and tendencies to alter themselves due to body

dissatisfaction. The term “The Thin Ideal” was introduced to me within this reading, explaining

that overall media has a tendency to portray beauty standards as thin.

The journal explains social media engagement in adolescent girls as high usage. The

participants were assessed using a 10 item Body Dissatisfaction scale on eating disorders, using

phrases such as “I feel satisfied with the shape of my body” were rated on a 6‐point scale from 0

(never) to 5 (always). The study found higher levels of body related and eating concerns for

participants engaging in more social media related self photo activity (such as a selfie).

Indicating the more an individual did share photos, there was correlation to a tendency of

photomanipulation. Showing the use of media can cause individuals to compare themselves to

what is an unrealistic image of women. Now unsatisfied with their appearance,the research

showed “ In addition, for those who shared photos higher investment in self‐photo activities was

associated with greater overvaluation of shape and weight, and body dissatisfaction.” (McLean,

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et al). While sharing photos is supposed to be positive, the media now is a competitive

environment of looks. Striving to be the ideal figure of being thin and using photo altering tools

is more common to fit the mold. Many can depend on the sense of reassurance when given

positive feedback on their shared body image.

Social media is a platform that projects body images that are unrealistic, as we explored

there is potential that most of what we’re consuming is edited to fit the mold. Consuming such

images has the potential to damage a young woman's self-perception as what is considered to be

flaws is rarely promoted. In a world where the number of likes can deter one's demeanor, it is

inevitable to start comparing your self image to others, “The interactive format and content

features of social media, such as the strong peer presence and exchange of a multitude of visual

images, suggest that social media, working via negative social comparisons, transportation, and

peer normative processes, can significantly influence body image concerns” (Perloff, 2014). This

pressure can be damaging to one's confidence and social media is so easily accessible today

we’re constantly surrounded and communicating through it. Furthermore, we see comparison as

impactful to an individual's self-esteem, “Thus social media-triggered appearance-focused

comparisons should have a greater effect on body image disturbance when a thin body image is

an important part of women’s self-concept. Specifically, we would expect that appearance-

focused social comparisons made on social media sites will lead to more online and offline body

dissatisfaction and negative affect among women for whom appearance is a major dimension of

self-worth, or are high in thin-ideal internalization, particularly when these women are depressed

or low in self-esteem” (Slater, et al). Not only can this impact body dissatisfaction but one's

mental health can be compromised from constant comparison to an unrealistic body image.

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 There are many sites that look to promote “healthy lifestyles” but are not actually sending

the right messages. If one is seeking to live a healthier life following an account that claims to

promote isn’t necessarily the answer, “Healthy Living blogs also emphasize thin appearance

values and disordered nutritional messages, while also containing self-objectifying messages

about women” (Thompson, 2010). Promoting that the ideal healthy lifestyle is directly associated

with being thin, when that isn’t necessarily the case.

Many websites that target the thin lifestyle promote messages that are encouraging

seemingly unhealthy lifestyles. These slogans are subtle but send the message that thin is

beautiful, “The sadly iconic Kate Moss aphorism—“Nothing tastes as good as skinny feels”—

exemplifies the electronic world of the pro-ana sites. Many Websites are devoted to promoting

pro anorexic ideals (see Bardone-Cone and Cass 2007). These contain positive depictions of an

anorexic lifestyle; religiously-based metaphors; and some 10 core themes, such as perfection

(cultural norms linking thinness with perfection); transformation (eating disorders can help

transform an individual from the hated “ugly” and “fat” to the desired “thin and beautiful”); and

success (association of success with strength and ability to keep the weight off; see Norris et al.

2006)”(Perloff). The core themes within websites are posting transformations that are targeted to

be positive but actually send negative messages. Consuming these messages constantly puts

pressure on individuals to keep up with the core themes to fit what is most desired. To be

beautiful, you must be thin and desire that lifestyle regardless if it’s healthy. An alternate

approach to this type of marketing would potentially send messages promoting confidence of

their current body types.

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 What may seem like an innocent task of browsing the internet today can send messages

about body image and gender-roles. Much of what we see today has become increasingly

focused on outer appearance we’re not paying attention to what this does to us internally

(emotionally). An article published in the Journal of Youth and Adolescence by Amy Slater,

Emma Halliwell, Hannah Jarman, and Emma Gaskin called “More than Just Child’s Play?: An

Experimental Investigation of the Impact of an Appearance-Focused Internet Game on Body

Image and Career Aspirations of Young Girls” looks specifically at the impact of the Internet

games. In the study it looks into appearance-based focused Internet games and its impact on

young girl’s body image as well as career aspirations. The participants were young girls ranging

from 8-9 years old given 10 minutes to play a video game. The girls were randomly assigned a

game that was appearance-focused or non-appearance focused as their control. The results

indicated the girls who were assigned the appearance based video game had greater body

dissatisfaction. The participants were then asked to indicate what figure looked like their current

body size. Followed by indicating which figure they would most desire to look like.

The results showed girls in the appearance-based game group chose the significantly

thinner figures as their ideal model. Young girls are now at risk of early exposure to messages

that have a lasting impact, “Based on theory and research on the role individual difference

variables play in body image dynamics, one can reasonably argue that the following should place

adolescent girls and young women at risk for body image problems: low self-esteem, depression,

perfectionism, internalization of the thinness ideal, and centrality of appearance to self-worth”

(Slater, et al).

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 The girls in the study indicated they felt boys could achieve more than they could, “This

suggests that the observed discrepancy between what girls themselves believe they can achieve

and what boys can achieve may not necessarily be a result of the gender of the comparison target

but reflects either a general modesty in self presentation or lack of self-confidence in girls”

(Slater, et al). Confidence being something developed during the earlier stages of life, gives these

messages the opportunity to damage that.

During children's development seeing appearance based internet content may influence

their self-perception long term. Following the results of the study, “Children are being exposed

to appearance-focused messages and sexualized portrayals at an early stage of their socio-

emotional development. This is concerning as even very young children may be influenced by

this exposure. From as young as 3 years old, children are able to verbally describe themselves”

(Slater, et al). We need to be aware that these messages are reaching children subliminally at the

very early stages of their development. If these are negative messages instilled we can assume

their impact isn’t going to reflect positively. The article also touches on this point, “While

appearance-focused internet games are only one source of influence on young girls, recognizing

and understanding these influences may help to curb the cumulative impact of societal influences

on the development of body dissatisfaction” (Slater, et al). Beyond the video games there are

other influences that can contribute to these harmful messages.

So what age is appropriate to expose kids to the media? Research suggests the age of

awareness of media may be younger than we think, “Even girls as young as five show these

patterns (Dohnt & Tiggemann, 2006; Murnen, Smolak, Mills, & Good, 2003). These findings

suggest that girls, unlike boys, may begin to internalize cultural beauty standards portrayed in the

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media at a young age and continue to do so throughout development.” Showing that these media

messages can have a long term impact on children's development. Although the consumption of

media is inevitable, it is suggested that even the age of 14 is too young.

In a study completed by Jackson, Sue, and Sarah Goddard, “‘I’d Say 14 Is Too Young’:

Pre-Teen Girls’ Negotiations of ‘Sexualized’ Media.” shares the concerns of exposure to

sexualized content too young. The study used participants of New Zealand pre-teen girls

exposure to the ‘hypersexy’ performances of female pop celebrities. There were two studies

conducted in which girls talked about representations of female pop celebrities. I highlighted in

my presentation the example of Miley Cyrus and the girls awareness of sexual content they’re

consuming. While watching Miley Cyrus, the research showed “At the same time, girls’ self-

positioning as aware, knowing consumers intertwined with boundaries around what was (not)

appropriate for their own age” (Jackson, Goddard). The consumption of sexualized images in

pop culture by younger children can be difficult to distinguish what is or isn’t appropriate. There

is potential for young girls to imitate what they’re consuming. Following their favorite pop-stars

who are over-sexualized in the media aren’t going to be seen as necessarily inappropriate.

Continuing the theme of research on sexualization of media consumed by children, a

Journal of Gender Studies published “Because Looks Can Be Deceiving: Media Alarm and the

Sexualisation of Childhood - Do We Know What We Mean?” by Kirrilly Thompsom takes a

deeper look into the association of media and sexualization of children. Establishing that adults

make the guidelines for what is appropriate for kids and what is considered inappropriate. An

interesting perspective, “Sexualised behaviour is generally considered appropriate for adults

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(assuming it is expressed in socially acceptable ways).”(Thompson, 2010). If kids mimic adults,

as it is assumed they act appropriately, it can be difficult for kids to distinguish sexualization of

adults in the media as inappropriate. Thompson shows moves, language, look, clothing and self-

presentation that adults interpret as sexual. Sharing that “Rarely is sexualised behaviour amongst

girls understood as the harmless mimicking of behaviours associated with adults,

decontextualized from adult meanings. We seem happy for little girls to play with kitchen sets,

shopping trolleys and other apparently benign symbols of normalised adult womanhood.

However, we seem to draw the line on play when it strays into behaviours that, to adults,

represent sexuality.” (Thompson, 2010). Showing that we tend to believe that children are too

naive to understand adult sexuality.

In another study conducted looking at the sexualization of media, found similar findings

to the association between direct and indirect media exposure of teens. The findings found that

it’s not necessarily always the content you find being sexual, but the conversations that follow.

Their findings shared “Media content seemed to be a more robust predictor of engagement in

sexualizing appearance behaviors than direct media exposure (i.e., individual exposure to teen

television programs). Furthermore, this influence was mostly explained by attainability

perceptions rather than experiencing pressures to conform to an appearance ideal” (Trekels,

Eggermont). As media is consumed the perceptions gained and discussed can cause pressure to

conform to the unrealistic ideal. This raised the question of what we allow our kids to consume

and how we determine it to be appropriate.

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 Continuing the theme of girls' perceived body image, what inspired the second half of my

research was the following Journal published looking at the effects of exposure Princess figures.

The title alone was extremely impactful “Am I too Fat to be a Princess? Examining the effects of

popular children's media on young girls' body image.” in the British Journal of Developmental

Psychology by Hayes, Sharon, and Dunn, Stacey Tantleff. Looking at the association between

body image and the ideals of being a princess. The study looked at the effects of brief exposure

to appearance-related media on young girls' body image with 121 participants of girls ages

ranging from 3-6 years old. The results indicated, “At pre‐test, 50% of girls identified the

thinnest child figure as the 'real' princess 28% identified the average‐sized figure and 23%

identified the heaviest figure.” (Hayes, et al). This indicates that children under the age of 10 are

aware of the concept that thin is what is portrayed as ideal by standards of media being

consumed.

The company that markets a princess brand of female characters to children is Disney. I

began to look further into the effects of children being exposed to messages promoted by Disney

Princesses at a young age. Looking specifically at gender stereotypes Disney princess stories

depict, and whether kids follow the storyline as their guidelines in real life. A study I found

looking at the longitudinal effects of children's engagement with Disney Princesses opens

conversation about its potential to impact the mindset of children. The journal titled “Pretty As

a Princess: Longitudinal Effects of Engagement with Disney Princesses on Gender Stereotypes,

Body Esteem, and Prosocial Behavior in Children.” by Sarah Coyne looks specifically at the

implications of Disney’s messages about gender roles and how children interpret it.

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 First addressing that mass media in general sends out limited messages to children about

their roles “The mass media consistently exposes girls to a limited and static image of girlhood,

an issue that is particularly apparent when observing Disney Princess media” (Coyne, 2016).

Looking specifically at Disney, the research found four common themes within the princess play

“Thematic analyses identified four themes that defined the participants’ princess play: beauty,

focus on clothing and accessories, princess body movements, and exclusion of boys” (Coyne,

2016). The method of Coynes research was conducted by observation of participants who were

preschool girls ages 3-6. Her research indicated her participants on average, were exposed to

Disney Princess screen media about once per week. Looking to examine the young girls'

perceptions of princesses and the gender-roles portrayed in each princess’s story and character

development. The observation was completed by viewing their actions through timed pretend

play. The children defined playing princess as the act of dressing up to look like a princess.

Participants confirmed this idea through their responses to the interview questions.

Based on the four themes the research found their results supported the girls were

influenced by the storyline depicted within the movie. Within their pretend play some girls were

frantic picking out the perfect outfit, and began fighting over the dresses. When the children

were asked how they pretended to be a princess and what some responded with the following

“Ten girls responded that, when they pretended to be a princess, they dressed up like one saying

“I wore the dress” one responded with “We pretended that we had dresses on”. Some girls could

not even consider what else they did when they pretended to be a princess, other than wear a

dress.” Thus, placing emphasis Disney puts pressure on the portrayal of looks and the way girls

should be acting. Overly emphasizing the importance of looks to girls, not core values.

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 The imitation of princesses was displayed by the girls through mimicking of Disney

Princess behavior by turling, dancing, and hand posing. This shows that the girls imitated based

on what they observed the princesses to be doing. Some even speaking like the princesses, “they

not only verbally emphasized their princess personas, but they also physically practiced and

reinforced the princess movements” (Coyne, 2016). This doesn’t leave young girls much room

for imagination as they’re tendency is to directly follow along. Although this is just dancing, it

places emphasis on the idea that girls are consuming the media as a realistic form of behavior to

follow. During play time, the girls were introduced to boys who were eager to play along.

Unfortunately excluded from the activity, showing the roles Disney depicts is what the girls tend

to follow. If a boy wasn’t part of a scene or story they weren’t included in the play. Interestingly

enough, when looking at the storylines of romantic relationships, the male figures traditionally

dominated, “In terms of ideal expressions, but male characters were the dominant pursuers in 9

of the 11 films that featured a romantic relationship” (Hefner, et al). Sending the message that

girls are inferior to males in a relationship setting.

Overall, the research concluded that being exposed to disney princesses can have a

narrowing effect on children's perspective of their role as a girl “Exposure to pervasive Disney

Princess media has the potential to restrict girls’ pretend play behaviors and narrow their

burgeoning understanding of femininity to a set of gender stereotypes” (Coyne, 2016). Another

example of this was found for example, “First grade girls, after being read the book Cinderella,

identified and reinforced the gender stereotypes present in the story through their discussion,

suggesting that girls accept the traditional, feminized image of the princess as presented by

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Disney.”(Baker, Sperry). The idea that kids are viewing messages portrayed by Disney as reality

and rules to follow can be negative towards the development of their perspectives.

Another study looking to examine the effects Disney Princess media and products

children presented evidence there are effects on long term development. In a study published in

the Child Development Journal, tittled “Pretty As a Princess: Longitudinal Effects of

Engagement with Disney Princesses on Gender Stereotypes, Body Esteem, and Prosocial

Behavior in Children.” Sarah Coyne shares her findings on Disney’s danger to development of

young kids. Her study looked into the level of engagement children had with Disney Princess

media and products. Her participants consisted of 198 kids ranging from 4-5 years of age.

Participants were tested at two time points (approximately 1 year apart), looking at self esteem

and social impact of the media.

What is Disney portraying as the “typical” Princess? According to her research, “The

typical princess is portrayed as young and attractive with large eyes, small nose and chin,

moderately large breasts, prominent cheekbones, lustrous hair, and good muscle tone and skin

complexion”(Gangestad and Scheyd). Traditionally, following the trend of the thin ideal which

can be defined as representing an unrealistically thin female figure as the most desireable

((Lacroix). So what children are seeing and idolizing represents an unrealistic and seemingly

perfectionalized version of a body type. Specifically looking at media portrayal of the Princess

figure, “Disney Princess movies, their portrayal of the thin ideal, and emphasis on the princess’

beauty may be an early context in which girls are taught that attractiveness is a necessary

component of female identity” (Coyne, 2016). This is a common theme among the messages that

Disney projects. The idea that as a female your beauty and attraction is extremely important to

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your persona as a girl. We saw this reference to previous research, as young girls were focused

on the perfect outfit to fit the part.

Looking at the data for how often children are actually partaking in the consumption of

Disney Princess media content, it is clear Disney has . To no surprise, the majority of

participants were consuming on a weekly basis, “We first examined gender differences in all

main variables at Time 1. For Disney Princess engagement, 22% of girls and 8% of boys viewed

Disney Princess media at least once a week, with 50% of girls and 29% of boys viewing such

media at least once a month. Only 4% of girls and 13% of boys reported never viewing Disney

Princess media. In addition, over 61% of girls played with Disney Princess toys at least once a

week, compared with only 4% of boys (indeed, 90% of boys rarely, if ever, played with such

toys, according to their parents)” (Coyne, 2016). Thus, the statistics showed overall kids were

consuming Disney media pretty much weekly with lower percentage reporting never viewing. In

addition to the media, a high percentage showed they were also playing with physical Disney

Princess related objects often.

The results suggested Disney Princess media and merchandise did impact the participants

behavior, “Furthermore, higher princess engagement was associated with increased female

gender-stereotypical behavior for both girls and boys (trend level) 1 year later, even after

controlling for initial levels of gender-stereotypical behavior” (Coyne, 2016). Seeing the increase

in gender stereotypes as a result of Disney Princesses from a young age is concerning the

development of children's gender development, “Disney Princesses from a young age on gender

development in both adolescence and adulthood. Additionally, although preschool and

kindergarten are important developmental periods for examining gender development,

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conceptions of gender begin earlier than the preschool age”(Coyne, 2016). As the development

of children's perception of gender roles has been identified to be at early stages we must monitor

what they’re consuming.

In such a media surrounded world, children are consuming many unhealthy messages so

it is important to bring awareness to the messages they view. Parents play an important role in

their kids development, and having a relationship that explains these messages is crucial, “Media

engagement with parents: The social cognitive theory of gender development also suggests that

the process of direct tuition occurs when parents verbally discuss appropriate gender behavior

with children” (Bussey & Bandura). Discussion of the content, especially from Disney, and the

messages they portray can be beneficial towards kids development and giving them the ability to

be media literate. There are messages Disney sends off about the superiority of race as well,

“The problem of pervasive, internalized privileging of Whiteness has been intensified by the

Disney representation of fairy tale princesses which consistently reinforces an ideology of White

supremacy” (Hurley, 2005). Giving children the right foundation to identify these will protect

them from internalizing these messages.

Another company that targets young girls in marketing is Barbie. Barbie not only

produces the infamous doll, but movies and books that are popular to a young demographic as

well. There are many different platforms for children to consume Barbie, not just the physical

doll. However, the doll itself has body proportions that are extremely unrealistic and have the

potential to negatively affect young girls' perception of their body image.

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 A journal published “Does Barbie Make Girls Want to Be Thin? The Effect of

Experimental Exposure to Images of Dolls on the Body Image of 5- to 8-Year-Old Girls” by

Helga Dittmar, Emma Halliwell, and Suzanne Ive, conducted a study on the potential cause for

body dissatisfaction. The participants were a total of 162 girls, with an age range of 5-8. They

were exposed to images of either Barbie dolls, Emme dolls (U.S. size 16), or no dolls (the

control group). This was then followed up by the participants completing assessments of their

feelings on body image. The results indicated “Girls exposed to Barbie reported lower body

esteem and greater desire for a thinner body shape than girls in the other exposure conditions”.

Thus, provides evidence that Barbie may unconsciously affect young girls' perception of their

body image. Lowering their self esteem and desiring a thinner body based on the dolls unrealistic

proportions is dangerous for young girls. However, the results suggested that this was no longer

evident in the older girls, “However, this immediate negative impact of Barbie dolls was no

longer evident in the older girls. These findings imply that, even if dolls cease to function as

aspirational role models for older girls, early exposure to dolls epitomizing an unrealistically thin

body ideal may damage girls’ body image, which would contribute to an increased risk of

disordered eating and weight cycling” (Dittmar, et al). As young girls are consuming these thin

body ideals there are long-term effects that can lead to increased negative behavior.

In an article connecting exposure to Baribie and the thin ideal shares a perspective of how

common ownership of the infamous doll is. Titled “Exposure to Barbie: Effects on thin-ideal

internalisation, body esteem, and body dissatisfaction among young girls by Karlie Rice, Ivanka

Prichard, Maria Tiggerman, and Amy Slater”, they share statistics of Barbie ownership in the

United States. What they found was, “Some statistics of how Barbie doll ownership is very

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common among young girls in many different countries, with an estimated 59% ownership rate

among U.S. 4- to 7-year olds” (Ricea, et al). Displaying more than half of the age demographic

owned the Barbie doll.

In the study conducted participants were 160 girls within the age of 5-8 years old. Each

girl was randomly assigned one of 3 conditions of Barbie engagement. They were given Barbie

in the form of physical engagement, just observation, or print observation. The results opened

conversation about long term effects of exposure to Barbie regardless of the type, “The major

finding is clear. Exposure to Barbie promoted internalisation of the thin ideal in this sample of

young girls, regardless of whether Barbie exposure occurred from printed images, the

observation of an actual Barbie, or physically playing with a Barbie” (Rice, et al). Identifying

Barbie as a contributor to the introduction of the thin ideal in childhood. This can be detrimental

as internalisation is important because once a thin ideal is acquired, it tends to remain stable into

adolescence and adulthood (Rice, et al). Barbie's direct relationship to the promotion of the thin

ideal is concerned with long-term development of girls body image.

Seeing girls are likely to go from watching the movie to purchasing the physical doll we

see the role it can play, ““Since much preschool-age children's knowledge is gained via their

interacting with concrete objects, the use of dolls could serve as more tangible if not necessarily

realistic stimuli for assessing attitudes toward body shapes.” (Ambrosi-Randic, 2000, Hendy et

al., 2001, Heron et al., 2013, Musher-Eizenman et al., 2003, Williamson and Delin, 2000).

Having a physical toy can have a high impact as it is the most realistic form of the character.

There is potential to decrease eating habits to become a thinner body shape as a result of

21
playing with seemingly thin dolls. A journal published called “The Effects of Playing with Thin

Dolls on Body Image and Food Intake in Young Girls” by Doeschka Anschutz and Rutger

Engels conducted a study looking at how playing with thin dolls can impact food intake of young

girls. The participants were young girls ranging from ages 6-10 years old. They were randomly

assigned one of three control groups of a body size of the dolls to play with. Each was assigned

either a thin doll, average sized doll, or legos (this was the control group) as it had no condition.

After 10 minutes of play time, they then participated in a taste-test, followed by questionnaires.

The results indicated that there were no differences were found between conditions for any of the

body image variables. There were however, significant results in the relationship between the

doll’s size and food intake, “However, girls who played with the average-sized doll ate

significantly more food than girls in other exposure conditions. Although no support was found

for the assumption that playing with thin dolls influences body image, the dolls directly affected

actual food intake in these young girls”( Anschutz, et all). Giving the young girls a doll that

perhaps had a more “average” figure, has the potential to not have negative impacts on eating

habits and how young girls perceive their figures.

Barbie however, does not feel they are responsible for the body dissatisfaction found

among young girls. They claim they are not the ones to point a finger at, but it’s moms who

should be to blame instead. An article published titled “Barbie Lead Designer Blames Moms,

Not Doll's Crazy Proportions, for Girls' Body Issues' by Laura Stampler addressed the

accusations of Barbie's unrealistic body figure and if it is an unhealthy body image. Mattel

supports their claim with a statement “Mattel has some scientific support for that view. In a USA

Today article, Dr. Leslie Sim, clinical director of Mayo Clinic's eating disorders program and a

22
child psychologist, also pointed the finger not at Barbie's or the media, but moms:"Moms are

probably the most important influence on a daughter's body image. Even if a mom says to the

daughter, 'You look so beautiful, but I'm so fat,' it can be detrimental," she said.” This claim does

have some weight as moms are influential to the development of their children's body image”.

However, as my prior research suggests there is an impact their doll makes on an individual's

perception of themselves.

The article also shares insight from Kim Culmone, VP of Design at Mattel as she

explained why the company still produces a doll with such drastic measurements, “that if real,

would result in a woman with half a liver who could only walk on all fours. "Barbie's body was

never designed to be realistic. She was designed for girls to easily dress and undress”. If the

corporation of Barbie is going to make that statement, then I believe it would be beneficial to

market on the box that the proportions are unrealistic. Showing kids that the doll is not

representing accurate proportions of what a girl's body should look like. Children are innocently

playing with this doll that is supposed to represent the perfectionalized girl and aren’t necessarily

able to distinguish the shape to be realistic or not. This also emphasizes the importance of media

literacy training and the relationship mothers have with their children. Towards the media,

parents should have frequent conversation about the media consumed and whether it is

unrealistic or not.

We are then introduced to “The New Barbie”. In an article published about the new

Barbie doll and how the public felt about it. The article called “The New Barbie: Meet the Doll

with an Average Woman's Proportions”, by Laura Stampler follows the claim that Barbie can

23
negatively affect the body image of girls. Mattel created a new Barbie that is claimed to fit all

body types such as “tall”, “curvy” and “petite” body types. The study investigated young girls in

what is known as “self-other matching”. This can be done when identifying the Barbie doll body

type representations. A sample of 38 young girls aging from 6-14 years old were given a “body-

part compatibility task”(Stampler, 2014).

The goal of the study was to collect information about how girls relate cognitive

representations of their own body to the different doll images. The results showed that the curvy

doll was most liked, yet not seen as the most attractive, “Participants reported curvy Barbie as

the most pleasant (or “likeable”) body type, but also as the least desirable and the least attractive.

In contrast, the original and tall Barbie representations were both rated low for pleasantness, but

high for desirability and attractiveness. The petite Barbie was revealed as the most preferred

body type overall” (Stampler, 2014). Thus, the girls enjoyed the more realistic body type, yet

still hold the same beauty standard of thin being ideal. The results suggested there in fact is a

relationship between doll size and body image development, “Results provide new evidence on

the underlying cognitive mechanisms that occur when girls are exposed to physique-salient toys,

and may have implications for young girls’ body image development and use of appearance-

based social comparisons.”(Stampler, 2014). If young kids are purchasing these Barbies to play

with alongside the movie, or book, they’re being exposed to the thin ideal but having a physical

form of it is much more detrimental. Barbie is known as“perfect” girl and being displayed as

extremely thin, it isn’t unreasonable to think young girls will want to follow this.

The age children develop the idea of weight loss is much earlier than we may think. In a

24
study done by Xu, Tingting, and Jannah Nerren titled “Investigating Young Children's

Perceptions of Body Size and Healthy Habits” it explores children's understanding of what

determines our weight. The participants consisted of 48 first and third graders. The demographic

being ages 6-9 years old. After a series of interview questions surrounding their perspective of

body sizes, “One-on-one interviews were conducted with young children from 1st grade and 3rd

grade to explore young children’s perceptions about body sizes, their explanations of causes of

the body size differences, the strategies they indicated to change body size, and their optimal

body size” (Xu, Nerren). The results of the interviews conducted suggested that young children

are aware that food intake does influence your weight, “The majority of children were aware that

the quality and quantity of food influences body size” (Xu, Nerren). Knowing that the quality of

food has an impact on weight most of the kids associated foods with high sugar to be avoided.

The participants also shared their understanding methods to lose weight that included “To

reduce body size, children frequently recommended strategies such as to (1) increase amount of

exercise, (2) eat more fruit and vegetables, (3) restrict certain type of food such as candy, and (4)

reduce the amount of food intake” (Xu, Nerren). While most of those are indicators of healthier

methods, the reduction of food amounts is concerning. As food reduction being a habit can be a

dangerous method to weight loss. There was concern that the children made connections between

slimmer body types to reduction of food,“Likewise, children associated a skinny body size with

food restriction and stated that the image of the child at size 1 (the smallest point of the

spectrum) must barely eat” (Xu, Nerren). Showing their understanding to be thin is directly

related to restriction of diet.

A few of the children indicated that a thinner body type can be related to the status of a

25
family, “In addition to associating body size with food, a few children associated the thinner

body image with family socioeconomic status. One child explained: ‘‘Well if you like to see

someone really skinny you will probably think they are poor and they don’t have any food”(Xu,

Nerren). These children have created false idealizations of what it means to be thin. To them, if

you desire to be thin you can reduce the amount of food intake. This can lead to dangerous

habits, potentially anorexia.

Focusing specifically on the negative consequences of consuming the thin ideal of media,

a potential behavior to develop is anorexia. Anorexia can be defined as, “Anorexia nervosa is a

debilitating psychiatric disorder with profound biological, psychological, and social

consequences. After an initial evaluation of the most widely used diagnostic criteria for anorexia

nervosa, this paper reviews genetic and environmental risk factors for the development of

anorexia with special emphasis on gene environment interplay and the impact of adverse

perinatal events. (Bulik, 2005). A book published on Body Image by Sonia Mele (et al) follows

up with prior research about experience-based anorexia. The chapter titled “Altered exposure-

related reshaping of body appreciation in adolescent patients with anorexia nervosa” looks to

conduct a study that further investigates how perceptual experience affects body appreciation in

teens with anorexia. The participants consisted of 20 adolescents with anorexia and 20 “healthy”

adolescents as the control group. The participants were then exposed to images of models who

were depicted as “thin” or “round”, followed up by their judgement of likability based on the

body's weight. The results indicated evidence of norm-based reshaping of body appreciation in

anorexia patients based on the exposure to thin ideals in the media.

With the thin ideal being portrayed throughout many platforms, this is negative to the

26
development of how we view ourselves, “The constant proposal of ultra-thin models in the

media may lead to the internalization of lean body ideals of beauty, contributing to increase the

degree of body dissatisfaction in adolescent and young women (Benowitz-Fredericks)”. These

ideals can cause destructive behavior such as decrease in food consumption, “Those who are

dissatisfied with their bodies are also more likely to engage in potentially harmful weight-control

behaviors and they are at risk of developing EDs (Moore).” The study shows the importance of

how thin ideal media exposure affects our body perception and appreciation for ourselves despite

what we see in the media.

Media can define this disorder in extreme ways, ‘It questions the tendency to position the

obese and the anorexic body as separate, polar opposites – as overeating juxtaposed with self-

starvation. Instead, this volume approaches obesity and eating disorders as mutually-implicating

conditions that together draw attention to the material extremes of fat and emaciated bodies,

overeating and self-starvation, and fatty and lean foods” (Ulijaszek, Karin). Thus, the focus still

is highlighted on body image and labeling. By placing these labels on the disorder it creates

stigmatization and doesn’t help to bring awareness, it would more so cause those to shy away

from being open.

There are many takeaways from how the media can affect the development of body

image from a very early age. This stresses the importance embedding media literacy into the

education of children growing up in a media dependent world. With constant media messages

that can impact the way we perceive ourselves, having the ability to define ourselves without that

influence can be difficult. Especially for young children who do not know any better than to

listen.

27
 This is important to media literacy because we see the messages that just a children's toy

doll can send to young girls. There are hidden messages in movies, magazines, books, etc that

are not beneficial to the development of children's values, confidence, and morals.

We see that if not monitored, these media messages can ultimately result in negative

consequences. Completing this research I felt a passion to uncover the impact some of these

companies can specifically have on young girls. As I grew up idolizing Disney Princesses and

participating in role play with Barbies, I was unaware of the messages that I was receiving from

such an early age.

I now have the ability to influence my 1 year old baby sister, based on my research about

the potential danger in media messages. Seeing how young children are aware of body image

inspires me to instill a media literate relationship between my sister and I. Although I cannot stop

her from consuming all media, I am now aware of the messages these companies send and how

to prevent them from negatively affecting her by educating myself and those around her.

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Source Sheets
Source 1
Pea, Roy, et al. “Media Use, Face-to-Face Communication, Media Multitasking, and
Social Well-Being Among 8- to 12-Year-Old Girls.” Developmental Psychology, vol. 48, no. 2,
Mar. 2012, pp. 327–336. EBSCOhost, doi:10.1037/a0027030.

32
 ● Regression analyses indicated that negative social well-being was positively associated
with levels of uses of media that are centrally about interpersonal interaction (e.g., phone,
online communication)
○ Uses of media that are not (e.g., video, music, and reading).
● Video use was particularly strongly associated with negative social well-being indicators
● Conversely, face-to-face communication was strongly associated with positive social
well-being.
● In a national sample of over 2,000 8- to 18-year olds, the Kaiser Family Foundation
found that the average total time that children reported experiencing media in
● “TV, Music/audio, Computer, Video games, Print, and Movies” rose to 10 hr 45 min
(treating simultaneous media use as distinct activities) per day in 2009, up from 8 hr 33
min in 2004 and 7 hr 29 min in 1999—a 44% increase over a decade.
○ These figures do not include reported hours spent texting, phoning, or using
computers for schoolwork.
○ Perhaps most remarkable is that the reported proportion of time spent
multitasking—the proportion of media time spent using more than one medium
concurrently—increased from 16% in 1999 to 26% in 2004 to 29% in 2009. Apart
from the increase in overall time spent consuming media is the finding that youth
consume 20% of their media on a “third screen” (other than TV and computer):
mobile smartphones and game consoles (Rideout et al., 2010). The Pew Internet
& American Life Project (Lenhart, Ling, Campbell, & Purcell, 2010) reported that
75% of 12- to 17-year-olds owned cell phones, with 87% of them texting and half
of the texters (over one third of all 12- to 17-year-olds) sending 50 texts daily.

Source 2
‘I'd say 14 is too young’: Pre-teen girls' negotiations of ‘sexualized’ media.

Jackson, Sue, and Sarah Goddard. “‘I’d Say 14 Is Too Young’: Pre-Teen Girls’
Negotiations of ‘Sexualized’ Media.” Continuum: Journal of Media & Cultural Studies, vol. 29,
no. 2, Apr. 2015, pp. 241–252. EBSCOhost, doi:10.1080/10304312.2015.1022944.

33
Summary:
This article examines the ways New Zealand pre-teen girls make sense of the ‘hypersexy’
performances of female pop celebrities. To do so, it analyses focus group material from two
studies in which girls talked about representations of female pop celebrities. Analyses identify
ways girls draw on Girl Power discourse to disrupt their positioning in sexualization discourse
whilst also underscoring the fragility of such agency in contexts where consumption of
‘sexualized’ images is seen by parents and younger children

Watching Miley Cyrus

● At the same time, girls’ self-positioning as aware, knowing consumers intertwined with
boundaries around what was (not) appropriate for their own age. Explicitly (e.g. stating
they would not pose semi-nude) and implicitly (e.g. watching did not mean imitation
followed) girls drew a line at their own performance of versions of sexuality presented to
them in pop music culture. It is possible to read this as an example of the powerful
infiltration of a ‘sexualization’ discourse in girls’ sense making of ‘sexualized’ media but
also as a rejection of hypersexual femininity resourced by public discoursing of
‘sexualized’ portrayals through feminist, classed or moral lens. Countering the latter
somewhat, however, was the notion in some girls’ talk that by young adulthood the body
could be displayed in a sexual way.

Source 3
Photoshopping a selfie

McLean, Siân A., et al. “Photoshopping the Selfie: Self Photo Editing and Photo
Investment Are Associated with Body Dissatisfaction in Adolescent Girls.” International
Journal of Eating Disorders, vol. 48, no. 8, Dec. 2015, pp. 1132–1140. EBSCOhost,
doi:10.1002/eat.22449.

34
Summary: The Thin Ideal
Social media engagement by adolescent girls is high. Despite its appeal, there are potential
negative consequences for body dissatisfaction and disordered eating from social media use. This
study aimed to examine, in a cross‐sectional design, the relationship between social media use in
general, and social media activities related to taking “selfies” and sharing specifically, with
overvaluation of shape and weight, body dissatisfaction, and dietary restraint. Method:
Participants were 101 grade seven girls (Mage = 13.1, SD = 0.3), who completed self‐report
questionnaires of social media use and body‐related and eating concerns measures

● Body dissatisfaction was assessed with the 10‐item Body Dissatisfaction subscale of the
Eating Disorders Inventory‐3.[ 32] Items such as “I feel satisfied with the shape of my
body” were rated on a 6‐point scale from 0 (never) to 5 (always). This measure has
adequate test–retest reliability in mixed‐age samples[ 33] and discriminant and
convergent validity in nonclinical samples.[ 32] A total score was calculated by summing
items with higher scores reflecting higher body dissatisfaction.
● higher levels of body‐related and eating concerns were found for participants engaging
in more social media‐related self‐photo activities, including online photo sharing, and
higher frequency of manipulation of photos for online posting, but concerns were
unrelated to participants’ level of media exposure. In addition, for those who shared
photos higher investment in self‐photo activities was associated with greater
overvaluation of shape and weight, and body dissatisfaction.
● Media exposure, social media engagement, and self‐image variables had small positive
correlations with overvaluation of shape and weight, body dissatisfaction, dietary
restraint, and internalization of the thin ideal in the total sample, although not all
correlations were statistically significant. Within the self‐photo sharing group, high
scores for self‐photo investment and self‐photo manipulation were associated with high
scores for body‐related and eating concerns.

Source 4
Because looks can be deceiving: media alarm and the sexualization of childhood - do we know
what we mean?

Thompson, Kirrilly. “Because Looks Can Be Deceiving: Media Alarm and the
Sexualization of Childhood - Do We Know What We Mean?” Journal of Gender Studies,
vol. 19, no. 4, Dec. 2010, pp. 395–400. EBSCOhost, doi:10.1080/09589236.2010.533492.

Summary:

35
This article considers ongoing moral outrage over the assumed sexualization of young girls by
the media. It questions this taken-for-granted association between the media and the
sexualization of children. It suggests that this visceral anxiety reflects a particularly adult-centric
view of children’s behaviour and considers how this may serve to discipline girls’ sexuality in
particular.
Suggests:
● To advance a critical anthropology of the relationship between childhood, sexualisation
and the media, this article’s aims are four-fold: (1) to establish a cultural incongruence
between childhood and sexuality; (2) to propose that debates over childhood and
sexuality are adult-centric; (3) to suggest a need for ethnographic research to understand
children’s perspectives; and (4) to propose that children should be taught critical thinking
skills in order to question the representations with which they are frequently faced.

Source 5
Trekels, Jolien, and Steven Eggermont. “‘I Can/Should Look Like a Media Figure’: The
Association Between Direct and Indirect Media Exposure and Teens’ Sexualizing Appearance
Behaviors.” Journal of Sex Research, vol. 55, no. 3, Mar. 2018, pp. 320–333. EBSCOhost,
doi:10.1080/00224499.2017.1387754.

36
 1. Our findings indicate that indirect media influences through peer discussions about

media content seemed to be a more robust predictor of engagement in sexualizing

appearance behaviors than direct media exposure (i.e., individual exposure to teen

television programs).

a. The more kids were exposed to the culture of sexualization the greater risk of

partaking

2. Furthermore, this influence was mostly explained by attainability perceptions rather than

experiencing pressures to conform to an appearance ideal.

Source 6:

Duursma, Elisabeth, et al. “The Impact of Home Literacy and Family Factors on Screen
Media Use Among Dutch Preteens.” Journal of Child & Family Studies, vol. 26, no. 2, Feb.
2017, pp. 612–622. EBSCOhost, doi:10.1007/s10826-016-0584-5.

● This study examined preteens' screen media use and potential differences in

37
 media use by child and family. The results demonstrated that watching TV is
still a very popular activity among children. However, other electronic
media are also popular within this age group as 72 % of preteens had a
cellphone.

● The children in this study were participants of a randomized controlled study

on book reading. A total of 87 schools from rural as well as urban areas in
the Netherlands participated in this study, of which 44 were randomized to
the intervention. Schools were recruited via an email list for Dutch
elementary schools. Parents at participating schools received a letter with
information on the study and a request for their child to fill out the
questionnaire.

● Almost all children (97 %) in this study had a computer, an iPad/tablet or

laptop at home. Sixty-one percent of children had their own TV, 72 % had
their own cellphone or smartphone, and 80 % had a video game console or
gaming computer. Table 2 shows how much time children spent each day on
different screen media such as watching TV and playing videogames. The
majority of children in this study were not heavy media users with almost
half of the children watching between 1–3 h a day of TV, movies or videos
and about 18 % spending 3 h or more on this activity. Watching movies on
the internet was less popular, with more than half of the children (57 %)
reporting to spend less than an hour on this activity and 17 % no time at all.
About a third of children spent between 1–3 h playing computer games and
9 % even reported spending between 3–5 h daily. Reading stories on the
Internet was not a popular activity: 35 % spent less than an hour each day
and 55 % did not spend time on it at all. Forty-one percent of children
reported using the computer daily for social media such as Facebook or
chatting, while 25 % did this once or twice a week.

Source 7:
Am I too fat to be a princess? Examining the effects of popular children's media on
young girls' body image.

Hayes, Sharon, and Dunn, Stacey Tantleff. “Am I Too Fat to Be a Princess?
Examining the Effects of Popular Children’s Media on Young Girls’ Body Image.”
British Journal of Developmental Psychology, vol. 28, no. 2, June 2010, pp. 413–

38
 426. EBSCOhost, doi:10.1348/026151009X424240.

Summary:
The current study investigated the effects of brief exposure to appearance-related media on
young girls' body image. One hundred and twenty-one girls aged 3-6 years old participated.
Results indicated that exposure did not affect body dissatisfaction or engagement in appearance-
related play behaviours

Girls ranged in age from 3 to 6 years old

Effect of appearance‐related media on girls' perceptions of princesses

At pre‐test, 50% of girls identified the thinnest child figure as the 'real' princess (28% identified
the average‐sized figure and 23% identified the heaviest figure). A mixed model ANOVA was
conducted to assess the effects of appearance‐related media exposure on girls' choice of the 'real'
child princess. There were no significant main effects or interactions.

Source 8
Playing Princess: Preschool Girls’ Interpretations of Gender Stereotypes in Disney Princess
Media.

Golden, Julia C, and Jennifer Wallace Jacoby. “Playing Princess: Preschool Girls’
Interpretations of Gender Stereotypes in Disney Princess Media.” Sex Roles : A Journal of
Research, vol. 79, no. 5-6, 2018, pp. 299–313., doi:10.1007/s11199-017-0773-8.

39
The mass media consistently expose girls to a limited and static image of girlhood, an issue that
is particularly apparent when observing Disney Princess media

Thematic analyses identified four themes that defined the participants’ princess play: beauty,
focus on clothing and accessories, princess body movements, and exclusion of boys

Baker-Sperry (2007), for example, found that first grade girls, after being read the book,
Cinderella, identified and reinforced the gender stereotypes present in the story through their
discussion, suggesting that girls accept the traditional, feminized image of the princess as
presented by Disney.

.Exposure to pervasive Disney Princess media has the potential to restrict girls’ pretend play
behaviors and narrow their burgeoning understanding of femininity to a set of gender
stereotypes.

Participants included 31 preschool girls between the ages of 3-6

To examine girls’ perceptions of the princesses and their awareness of gender-role stereotypes
present in Disney media and, second, to investigate how girls either reinvented or incorporated
Disney’s princess stories and characters into their pretend play

Suggesting that child participants, on average, were exposed to Disney Princess screen media
about once per week.

Second, participants in the sample owned an average of 13

Imitated in turling, dancing and hand posing

They not only verbally emphasized their princess personas, but they also physically practiced
and reinforced the princess movements..Excluded boys from princess play

Source 9

Daniels, Elizabeth A, et al. “Grooming Ten-Year-Olds with Gender Stereotypes? A

Content Analysis of Preteen and Teen Girl Magazines.” Body Image, vol. 19, 2016, pp. 57–67.

Grooming ten-year-olds with gender stereotypes? A content analysis of preteen and teen girl
magazines

40
The primary topics of media aimed at female viewers are altering the body to conform to beauty
ideals and emphasizing sexual appeal resulting in dissatisfaction of body types

Experimental research has also shown that exposure to magazine images of models predicts
lower body satisfaction and self-esteem in adolescent girls (Clay, Vignoles, & Dittmar, 2005;
Daniels, 2009a).

Even girls as young as five show these patterns (Dohnt & Tiggemann, 2006; Murnen, Smolak,
Mills, & Good, 2003). These findings suggest that girls, unlike boys, may begin to internalize
cultural beauty standards portrayed in the media at a young age and continue to do so throughout
development.

A sizable portion of girls reported reading magazines sometimes (26.3%) and often (26.3%)
compared to never (36.8%).

who reported reading magazines,the most common frequency was

4–7 days per week (26.3%; followed by 0–1 days, about once a

month, and 2–3 days).

Source 10

Raque-Bogdan, Trisha L, et al. “Self-Compassion As a Mediator between Attachment

Anxiety and Body Appreciation: An Exploratory Model.” Body Image, vol. 19, 2016, pp. 28–36.,
doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2016.08.001.

41
Self-compassion as a mediator between attachment anxiety and body appreciation: An
exploratory model

Body appreciation has been found to be linked to interpersonal and intrapersonal factors, with
attachment styles and self-compassion separately identified as important correlates. The present
study examined these variables together in a model, and we hypothesized that maternal
attachment anxiety was related to peer and romantic attachment anxiety, which, in turn, was
associated with self-compassion and body appreciation. Using structural equation modeling,this
cross-sectional study with a sample of 1306 incoming first year college women found that the
proposed model explained 40% of the variance in body appreciation. Results further revealed
that peer and romantic attachment anxiety mediated the relationships between maternal
attachment anxiety and self-compassion, and that self-compassion mediated the associations
between peer and romantic attachment anxiety and body appreciation. Self-compassion appears
to hold a central role in explaining the relation between attachment anxiety and body
appreciation.

Participants were a diverse, representative sample of incoming first-year college women

The model shows The current study presents a model of interpersonal (i.e., maternal, peer, and
romantic attachment) and intrapersonal (i.e., self-compassion) variables that identifies relations
with body appreciation. This model provided an overall good representation of how college
women's relationships with their mothers, friends, and romantic partners may relate to their
ability to be compassionate with themselves and to appreciate their body. More specifically, the
model offered support for Hypotheses 1–3, and explained 40% of the variance in body
appreciation. Further, support was found for Hypotheses 4 and 5, with maternal attachment
anxiety associated with higher peer and romantic attachment, and self-compassion serving an
integral role in connecting anxiety in friendships and romantic relationships to body
appreciation.

Source 11

Mele S, et al. “Altered Exposure-Related Reshaping of Body Appreciation in Adolescent

Patients with Anorexia Nervosa.” Body Image, vol. 19, 2016, pp. 113–121.,
doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2016.08.014.

42
Altered exposure-related reshaping of body appreciation in adolescent patients with anorexia
nervosa.

Several studies suggest a relation between repeated exposure to extremely thin bodies in media
and the perceptual and emotional disturbances of body representation in anorexia nervosa (AN).
In this study, we utilized an exposure paradigm to investigate how perceptual experience
modulates body appreciation in adolescents with AN as compared to healthy adolescents.
Twenty AN patients and 20 healthy controls were exposed to pictures of thin or round models
and were then required to express liking judgments about bodies of variable weight. Brief
exposure to round models increased the liking judgments of round bodies but not those of thin
bodies in healthy adolescents

The constant proposal of ultra-thin models in the media may lead to the internalization of lean
body ideals of beauty, contributing to increase the degree of body dissatisfaction in adolescent
and young women (Benowitz-Fredericks, 2002)

Those who are dissatisfied with their bodies are also more likely to engage in potentially harmful
weight-control behaviors and they are at risk of developing EDs (Moore, 1993). This urges the
study of how media exposure affects body perception and its appreciation in adolescents.

A total of 40 female adolescents were enrolled: 20 patients with a diagnosis of AN and 20

healthy volunteers

In conclusion, the present study provided evidence of weak norm-based reshaping of body
appreciation in AN patients based on the exposure to thin ideal in media

Source 12

Nesbitt, Amy, et al. “Barbie’s New Look: Exploring Cognitive Body Representation
among Female Children and Adolescents.” PLoS ONE, vol. 14, no. 6, June 2019, pp. 1–18.
EBSCOhost, doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0218315.

The New Barbie

43
The original Barbie doll’s unrealistic body shape can negatively affect young girls’ body image.
Mattel produced new Barbie dolls with “tall”, “curvy”, and “petite” body types, yet how girls
perceive and evaluate the three new Barbie body types remains unknown. This study investigated
whether young girls engage in an automatic “self-other matching” process when viewing the
different Barbie doll representations. Female children and adolescents (N = 38; Mage = 10; 6–14
years old; SD = 2.24 years) completed a body-part compatibility task to provide an index of how
they implicitly relate cognitive representations of their own body to the different doll images.

Results provide new evidence on the underlying cognitive mechanisms that occur when girls are
exposed to physique-salient toys, and may have implications for young girls’ body image
development and use of appearance-based social comparisons.

Following initial screening, a total of 38 female children ages 6-14 completed the study protocol
—first completing a body-part compatibility task and then a self-report questionnaire. In the
body-part compatibility task, participants

Participants reported curvy Barbie as the most pleasant (or “likeable”) body type, but also as the
least desirable and the least attractive. In contrast, the original and tall Barbie representations
were both rated low for pleasantness, but high for desirability and attractiveness. As seen in
Table 2, the petite Barbie was revealed as the most preferred body type overall.

Source 13

Stampler, Laura. “The New Barbie: Meet the Doll with an Average Woman’s
Proportions.” Time.Com, Mar. 2014, p. 1. EBSCOhost, bryant.idm.oclc.org/login?
url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=94894894&site=ehost-
live.

44
Barbie Lead Designer Blames Moms, Not Doll's Crazy Proportions, for Girls' Body Issues.

And what about the accusations that Barbie's unrealistic cinches and curves contribute to young
girls' unhealthy body image?

Mattel has some scientific support for that view. In a USA Today article, Dr. Leslie Sim, clinical
director of Mayo Clinic's eating disorders program and a child psychologist, also pointed the
finger not at Barbie's or the media, but moms:
"Moms are probably the most important influence on a daughter's body image. Even if a mom
says to the daughter, 'You look so beautiful, but I'm so fat,' it can be detrimental," she said.

Kim Culmone, VP of Design at Mattel explained why the company still produces a doll with
measurements that if real, would result in a woman with half a liver who could only walking on
all fours. "Barbie's body was never designed to be realistic. She was designed for girls to easily
dress and undress."

Source 14

Dittmar, Helga, et al. “‘Does Barbie Make Girls Want to Be Thin? The Effect of
Experimental Exposure to Images of Dolls on the Body Image of 5- to 8-Year-Old Girls’:
Correction to Dittmar, Halliwell, and Ive (2006).” Developmental Psychology, vol. 42, no. 6,
2006, pp. 1258–1258., doi:10.1037/0012-1649.42.6.1258.

45
Does Barbie Make Girls Want to Be Thin? The Effect of Experimental Exposure to Images of
Dolls on the Body Image of 5- to 8-Year-Old Girls

The ubiquitous Barbie doll was examined in the present study as a possible cause for young
girls’ body dissatisfaction. A total of 162 girls, from age 5 to age 8, were exposed to images of
either Barbie dolls, Emme dolls (U.S. size 16), or no dolls (baseline control) and then completed
assessments of body image. Girls exposed to Barbie reported lower body esteem and greater
desire for a thinner body shape than girls in the other exposure conditions. However, this
immediate negative impact of Barbie doll was no longer evident in the oldest girls. These
findings imply that, even if dolls cease to function as aspirational role models for older girls,
early exposure to dolls epitomizing an unrealistically thin body ideal may damage girls’ body
image, which would contribute to an increased risk of disordered eating and weight cycling.

“Since much of preschool-age children's knowledge is gained via their interacting with concrete
objects, the use of dolls could serve as more tangible if not necessarily realistic stimuli for
assessing attitudes toward body shapes.” (Ambrosi-Randic, 2000, Hendy et al., 2001, Heron et
al., 2013, Musher-Eizenman et al., 2003, Williamson and Delin, 2000)”

Source 15

Anschutz, Doeschka J, and Rutger C. M. E Engels. “The Effects of Playing with Thin
Dolls on Body Image and Food Intake in Young Girls.” Sex Roles : A Journal of Research, vol.
63, no. 9-10, 2010, pp. 621–630., doi:10.1007/s11199-010-9871-6.

46
 ● The Effects of Playing with Thin Dolls on Body Image and Food Intake in Young Girls

● This study experimentally tested the effects of playing with thin dolls on body image and

food intake in 6- to 10-year-old Dutch girls (N=117).

● Girls were randomly assigned to play with a thin doll, an average-sized doll, or Legos in

a no doll control condition.

● After 10 min, they participated in a taste-test and completed questionnaires about body

image.

● No differences were found between conditions for any of the body image variables.

However, girls who played with the average-sized doll ate significantly more food than

girls in other exposure conditions.

● Although no support was found for the assumption that playing with thin dolls influences

body image, the dolls directly affected actual food intake in these young girls.

Source 16

Perloff, Richard M. “Social Media Effects on Young Women’s Body Image Concerns:
Theoretical Perspectives and an Agenda for Research.” Sex Roles : A Journal of Research, vol.

47
71, no. 11-12, 2014, pp. 363–377., doi:10.1007/s11199-014-0384-6.

● Social Media Effects on Young Women's Body Image Concerns: Theoretical

Perspectives and an Agenda for Research

● Although there is a voluminous literature on mass media effects on body image concerns
of young adult women in the U.S., there has been relatively little theoretically-driven
research on processes and effects of social media on young women’s body image and
self-perceptions
● The interactive format and content features of social media, such as the strong peer
presence and exchange of a multitude of visual images, suggest that social media,
working via negative social comparisons, transportation, and peer normative processes,
can significantly influence body image concerns
● The sadly iconic Kate Moss aphorism—“Nothing tastes as good as skinny feels”—
exemplifies the electronic world of the pro-ana sites. Many Websites are devoted to
promoting pro anorexic ideals (see Bardone-Cone and Cass 2007). These contain positive
depictions of an anorexic lifestyle; religiously-based metaphors; and some 10 core
themes, such as perfection (cultural norms linking thinness with perfection);
transformation (eating disorders can help transform an individual from the hated “ugly”
and “fat” to the desired “thin and beautiful”); and success (association of success with
strength and ability to keep the weight off; see Norris et al. 2006). Healthy Living blogs
also emphasize thin appearance values and disordered nutritional messages, while also
containing self-objectifying messages about women (Boepple and Thompson 2013).

Source 17

Slater, Amy, et al. “More Than Just Child’s Play?: An Experimental Investigation of the
Impact of an Appearance-Focused Internet Game on Body Image and Career Aspirations of
Young Girls.” Journal of Youth and Adolescence : A Multidisciplinary Research Publication,
vol. 46, no. 9, 2017, pp. 2047–2059., doi:10.1007/s10964-017-0659-7.

48
More than Just Child’s Play?: An Experimental Investigation of the Impact of an Appearance-
Focused Internet Game on Body Image and Career Aspirations of Young Girls

Eighty British girls aged 8–9 years were randomly assigned to play an appearance-focused or a
non-appearance focused game for 10 minutes. Girls in the appearance focused game condition
displayed greater body dissatisfaction compared to the control condition. Type of game did not
impact girls’ perceived capacity to do various jobs. However, girls who played the appearance-
focused game reported a greater preference for feminine careers compared to the control group.
This provides preliminary evidence that appearance-focused Internet games may be detrimental
to young girls’ body image and aspirations. Internet games should be included in our
consideration of influential messages for young girls.

However, girls in the appearance game condition selected significantly thinner figures for their
ideal figure,

Children are being exposed to appearance-focused messages and sexualized portrayals at an

early stage of their socio-emotional development. This is concerning as even very young children
may be influenced by this exposure. From as young as 3 years old, children are able to verbally
describe themselves

Each girl was asked to point to the figure that most looks like her (current body size) and then
the figure that she would most like to look like (ideal body size)

Based on theory and research on the role individual difference variables play in body image
dynamics, one can reasonably argue that the following should place adolescent girls and young
women at risk for body image problems: low self-esteem, depression, perfectionism,
internalization of the thinness ideal, and centrality of appearance to self-worth.

Source 18

Investigating Young Children's Perceptions of Body Size and Healthy Habits.

Xu, Tingting, and Jannah Nerren. “Investigating Young Children’s Perceptions of Body Size and
Healthy Habits.” Early Childhood Education Journal, vol. 45, no. 4, July 2017, pp. 499–507.

49
EBSCOhost, doi:10.1007/s10643-016-0786-x.

Forty-eight children from 1st grade and 3rd grade were interviewed.

The majority of children were aware that the quality and quantity of food influences body size.
They expressed similar strategies to change body size; however, some of their strategies were
extremely unhealthy. Children in this group prefer an average body size rather than the thinnest
size body from the selections presented. Information obtained from the study demonstrated the
importance of guiding children to establish appropriate eating and healthy habits that might
ultimately prevent extreme behaviors and health problems.

Likewise, children associated a skinny body size with food restriction and stated that the image
of the child at size 1 (the smallest point of the spectrum) must barely eat. Some of them stated
that the types of food they ate makes them look differently; food that contains a lot of sugar
would make a body fat. In addition to associating body size with food, a few children associated
the thinner body image with family socioeconomic status. One child explained: ‘‘Well if you like
see someone really skinny you will probably think they are poor and they don’t have any food

One-on-one interviews were conducted with young children from 1st grade and 3rd grade to
explore young children’s perceptions about body sizes, their explanations of causes of the body
size differences, the strategies they indicated to change body size, and their optimal body size.

To reduce body size, children frequently recommended strategies such as to (1) increase amount
of exercise, (2) eat more fruit and vegetables, (3) restrict certain type of food such as candy, and
(4) reduce the amount of food intake

Source 19

Exposure to Barbie: Effects on thin-ideal internalisation, body esteem, and body dissatisfaction
among young girls.

50
Ricea K, et al. “Exposure to Barbie: Effects on Thin-Ideal Internalisation, Body Esteem, and
Body Dissatisfaction among Young Girls.” Body Image, vol. 19, 2016, pp. 142–149.,
doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2016.09.005.

Barbie doll ownership is high among girls in early primary school. It has been suggested that
exposure to Barbie impacts negatively on body image. The present study sought to investigate
the effect of exposure to Barbie on young girls’ thin-ideal internalisation, body esteem, and body
dissatisfaction. Participants were 160 girls (aged 5–8 years) from Adelaide, South Australia.
They were randomly allocated one of three Barbie conditions (physical engagement, physical
observation, print observation) or to a control toy. Results indicated that exposure to Barbie,
irrespective of format, led to higher thin-ideal internalisation than exposure to the control, but
had no impact on body esteem or body dissatisfaction. This suggests that interacting with Barbie
may encourage girls in early primary school to adopt a preference for a thin body, but with no
immediate effect on body image. The long-term impact of Barbie exposure on body image
remains unknown.

Barbie doll ownership is very common among young girls in many different countries, with an
estimated 59% ownership rate among U.S. 4- to 7-year old

Nevertheless, the identification of Barbie as a contributor to childhood thin-ideal

Internalisation is important because once a thin ideal is acquired, it tends to remain stable into
adolescence and adulthood

While Barbie exposure had no immediate detrimental effect on body image, her association with
increased thin-ideal internalisation raises concerns about the longer-term effects on body image

Source 20

Coyne, Sarah M, et al. “Pretty As a Princess: Longitudinal Effects of Engagement with Disney
Princesses on Gender Stereotypes, Body Esteem, and Prosocial Behavior in Children.” Child
Development, vol. 87, no. 6, 2016, pp. 1909–1925., doi:10.1111/cdev.12569.

51
This study examined level of engagement with Disney Princess media/products as it relates to
gender-stereotypical behavior, body esteem (i.e. body image), and prosocial behavior during
early childhood. Participants consisted of 198 children

. The typical princess is portrayed as young and attractive with large eyes, small nose and chin,
moderately large breasts, prominent cheekbones, lustrous hair, and good muscle tone and skin
complexion (Gangestad & Scheyd, [ 24] ; Lacroix, [ 39] ).
Additionally, princesses generally embody a form of “thin‐ideal” media, meaning that they
represent an unrealistically thin female figure as the most positive and desirable (Lacroix, [ 39] ).
Studies have shown that as early as preschool, children begin to express a preference for thin
body types, and girls as young as 5 years old express fears of getting fat or show problems with
body esteem, a self‐evaluation of one's body and appearance (Tremblay, Lovsin, Zecevic, &
Lariviere, [ 61] ).

According to research on the thin‐ideal internalization, a belief that “thin is good” results when
individuals internalize perceptions that are voiced by significant or respected individuals,
including parents, peers, and the media (Thompson & Stice, [ 60] ). Media messages regarding
the thin ideal are both pervasive and powerful and may negatively influence body esteem in
viewers (Hohlstein, Smith, & Atlas, [ 36] ).

Additionally, princesses generally embody a form of “thin-ideal” media, meaning that they
represent an unrealistically thin female figure as the most positive and desirable (Lacroix, 2004).
Studies have shown that as early as preschool, children begin to express a preference for thin
body types, and girls as young as 5 years old express fears of getting fat or show problems with
body esteem, a self-evaluation of one’s body and appearance (Tremblay, Lovsin, Zecevic, &
Lariviere, 2011).

Source 22

Worobey J, and Worobey HS. “Body-Size Stigmatization by Preschool Girls: In a Doll's

World, It Is Good to Be ‘Barbie.’” Body Image, vol. 11, no. 2, 2014, pp. 171–4.,

52
doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2013.12.001.

We examine the utility of dolls in measuring body shape preferences.

•
We replicate research that shows preschool age girls prefer thinness over fatness.

•
Dolls may be well-suited for measuring body preferences by preschool children.

How dolls represented the thin ideal

What they depict about ideal body shapes

Including charts that display measurements, shows dolls proportions are unrealistic to the
actual body shapes girls have

Source 23

Harriger JA, et al. “You Can Buy a Child a Curvy Barbie Doll, but You Can't Make Her
Like It: Young Girls' Beliefs About Barbie Dolls with Diverse Shapes and Sizes.” Body Image,
vol. 30, 2019, pp. 107–113., doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2019.06.005.

53
 ● Many young girls demonstrated negative attitudes toward the curvy Barbie doll.

•
Girls displayed more positive attitudes towards the original, tall, and petite dolls.

•
Girls with greater body dissatisfaction demonstrated less negative attitudes towards the
original doll.

•
Attempts to reduce weight bias and to encourage acceptance of diverse body sizes are
needed.

Source 24

Kuther, Tara L, and Erin McDonald. “Early Adolescents' Experiences with, and Views
of, Barbie.” Adolescence, vol. 39, no. 153, 2004, pp. 39–51.

54
 ○ There has been a great deal of debate over the influence of Barbie dolls on girls'
developing self-concept and body image.

● Two qualitative studies were conducted to gather information about early adolescents'
experiences with, and perspectives on, the controversial toy

● .In Study 1, focus groups with twenty 6th-grade girls suggested that they have ambiguous
feelings toward the doll and the feminine sexualized image it represents.

● Study 2 gathered essay responses from fifty 7th- and 8th-grade boys and girls regarding
their experiences with, and opinions on, Barbie dolls. Participants reported both positive
and negative feelings toward the doll and its influence on girls' development

Source 25
“Kids’ Media Consumption.” Electronic Media, vol. 19, no. 51, Dec. 2000, p. 16. EBSCOhost,

55
search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=3919632&site=ehost-live.

● Presents clear charts with data on consumption of media

● Gives me an understanding of how much kids are actually using media

● Age of kids is 6-11 years old

● Kids are consuming media on a daily basis

● Next looking into why this can be negative

Source 26

56
Bulik, Cynthia M, et al. “Anorexia Nervosa: Definition, Epidemiology, and Cycle of Risk.”
International Journal of Eating Disorders, vol. 37, no. S1, 2005, p. 9., doi:10.1002/eat.20107.

● Defining anorexia

● Anorexia nervosa is a debilitating psychiatric disorder with profound biological,

psychological, and social consequences. After an initial evaluation of the most widely
used diagnostic criteria for anorexia nervosa, this paper reviews genetic and
environmental risk factors for the development of anorexia with special emphasis on gene
environment interplay and the impact of adverse perinatal events.

● In follow-up studies of AN, even in those who no longer met criteria for AN, relatively
low body weight and cognitive features characteristic of AN (perfectionism and cognitive
restraint) persist.^

● In addition to identifying risk factors, the identification of protective factors is equally

critical. As a cohort of women with eating disorders has entered and traversed
childbearing age, we can expect their offspring to be at risk on the basis of existing
family study data.

Source 27

57
Ulijaszek, Stanley J., and Eli Karin. Obesity, Eating Disorders and the Media. Routledge, 2014.
EBSCOhost, search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=nlebk&AN=790665&site=ehost-
live.

Questions to ask:

How does media depict eating disorders?

How do the media represent obesity and eating disorders?

How are these representations related to one another?

And how do the news media select which scientific findings and policy decisions to report?

Conversation about; Obesity, Eating Disorders and the Media presents critical new perspectives
on media representations of obesity and eating disorders, with analyses of print, online, and
televisual media framings

This volume is premised on the idea that we can best understand the media’s representations of
obesity and eating disorders by conceptualizing them as closely interlinked, rather than distinct,
public health and social phenomena. It questions the tendency to position the obese and the
anorexic body as separate, polar opposites – as overeating juxtaposed with self-starvation.
Instead, this volume approaches obesity and eating disorders as mutually-implicating conditions
that together draw attention to the material extremes of fat and emaciated bodies, overeating and
self-starvation, and fatty and lean foods.

Eating disorders and obesity are not, in themselves, contrasting conditions. While obesity can be
defined by metrics, such as body mass index, eating disorders are defined primarily through
ideation and practice; underweight, rather than being the endpoint of eating disorders, is only one
possible outcome. Far from being mutually exclusive, obesity and eating disorders, at times, co-
exist, and the clinical literature has long recognized connections between the two conditions. As
early as the 1970s, prominent eating disorders clinicians such as Hilde Bruch (1974) and Arthur
Crisp (1980) published case study monographs that highlighted links between obesity and eating
disorders, and implicated childhood obesity as a risk factor for the development of anorexia
nervosa later in life.

58
Source 28

Hurley, Dorothy L. “Seeing White: Children of Color and the Disney Fairy Tale Princess.” The
Journal of Negro Education, vol. 74, no. 3, 2005, pp. 221–232.

● This article argues that children's self-image is affected by the ways in which they see
themselves in texts both verbal and visual, and that fairy tales play an important role in
shaping self image and the belief-system of children. The images found in fairy tales,
therefore, have particular importance for children of color in relation to the
internalization of White privileging.

● This article presents a comparative analysis of the Disney version of six classic fairy tales
spotlighted in Disney's Princess: The Essential Guide against the "classic" source text
versions:

● Sleeping Beauty, Cinderella, The Little Mermaid, Beauty and the Beast, Snow White,
and Aladdin and the Wonderful Lamp from the perspective of ideological/racial basis in
the context of the goals of multicultural education. Findings from this analysis support
the need for the development of critical literacy skills in children as well as in their
teachers and highlight the importance of exposing children to transcultural literature

● The problem of pervasive, internalized privileging of Whiteness has been intensified by

the Disney representation of fairy tale princesses which consistently reinforces an
ideology of White supremacy (Hurley, 2005)

59
Source 29

Hefner, Veronica, et al. “Happily Ever After? A Content Analysis of Romantic Ideals in Disney
Princess Films.” Communication Studies, vol. 68, no. 5, 2017, pp. 511–532.,
doi:10.1080/10510974.2017.1365092.

● This study presents a quantitative content analysis of the romantic expressions portrayed
in the 12 Disney princess movies. The films were analyzed for presence of romantic
expressions (ideals and challenges) and the character reactions to those expressions.

● Results indicated that romantic expressions are prevalent in these films, with idealization
of others as the most common ideal expressed.

● The transitional era of films contained roughly the same number of ideals as the other
eras of classic (i.e., movies released before 1989) and modern (i.e., movies released after
1998) combined. Further, ideals were three times more common than challenges in
classic films, whereas ideals and challenges were expressed equally in transitional and
modern films. In general, across all three eras, challenges were most commonly met with
punishing and negative reactions, whereas ideals were most often rewarded. Finally, there
were no sex differences in terms of ideal expressions, but male characters were the
dominant pursuers in 9 of the 11 films that featured a romantic relationship.

60
Source 30

Wohlwend, Karen E. “Damsels in Discourse: Girls Consuming and Producing Identity Texts
through Disney Princess Play.” Reading Research Quarterly, vol. 44, no. 1, 2009, pp. 57–83.,
doi:10.1598/RRQ.44.1.3.

● Drawing upon theories that reconceptualize toys and artifacts as identity texts, this study
employs mediated discourse analysis to examine children's videotaped writing and play
interactions with princess dolls and stories in one kindergarten classroom. The study
reported here is part of a three-year ethnographic study of literacy play in U.S. early
childhood classrooms.

● The specific focus here is on young girls who are avid Disney Princess fans and how they
address the gendered identities and discourses attached to the popular films and
franchised toys. The study employs an activity model design that incorporates
ethnographic microanalysis of social practices in the classroom, design conventions in
toys and drawings, negotiated meanings in play, and identities situated in discourses.

● The commercially given gendered princess identities of the dolls, consumer expectations
about the dolls, the author identities in books and storyboards associated with the dolls,
and expectations related to writing production influenced how the girls upheld,
challenged, or transformed the meanings they negotiated for princess story lines and their
gender expectations, which influenced who participated in play scenarios and who
assumed leadership roles in peer and classroom cultures. When the girls played with
Disney Princess dolls during the writing workshop, they animated identities sedimented
into toys and texts.

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