Electrical

Engineering
Prepared by

Prof. Dr. Mohamed EL-Shimy Mahmoud Bekhet

Professor of electric power systems - Department of Electrical Power and

Machines - Faulty of Engineering – Ain Shams University

Second Year
2018/2019
 Acknowledgments

This two-year curriculum was developed through a participatory and collaborative approach
between the Academic faculty staff affiliated to Egyptian Universities as Alexandria University, Ain
Shams University, Cairo University , Mansoura University, Al-Azhar University, Tanta University, Beni
Souef University , Port Said University, Suez Canal University and MTI University and the Ministry of
Health and Population(General Directorate of Technical Health Education (THE). The design of this
course draws on rich discussions through workshops. The outcome of the workshop was course
specification with Indented learning outcomes and the course contents, which served as a guide to
the initial design.

We would like to thank Prof.Sabah Al- Sharkawi the General Coordinator of General Directorate of
Technical Health Education, Dr. Azza Dosoky the Head of Central Administration of HR
Development, Dr. Seada Farghly the General Director of THE and all share persons working at
General Administration of the THE for their time and critical feedback during the development of
this course.

Special thanks to the Minister of Health and Population Dr. Hala Zayed and Former Minister of
Health Dr. Ahmed Emad Edin Rady for their decision to recognize and professionalize health
education by issuing a decree to develop and strengthen the technical health education curriculum
for pre-service training within the technical health institutes.
 Contents

Course Description .............................................................. 1

Chapter 1: Electric Power Systems – An Overview……………………………...4

Chapter 2: Electric Power Distribution Systems…………………………………..15

Chapter 3: Reliability and Power Quality ................................... 35

Chapter 4: Standby and Alternative Power Supply Options and Their

Applications ...................................................................... 49

Chapter 5: UPS Configurations For 7 X 24 Continuous Power Facilities

and Power Plants ............................................................... 71

References and Recommended Readings .................................... 80

v
 Electrical Engineering

‫ صيانة األجهزة الطبية‬: ‫قسم‬

‫توصيف مقرر دراسى‬
‫ بيانات المقرر‬-1

1 : ‫المستوى‬/ ‫الفرقة‬ ‫ هندسة كهربية‬: ‫اسم المقرر‬ : ‫الرمز الكودى‬

Electrical Engineering

‫عملى‬ 2 ‫ نظرى‬2 : ‫عدد الوحدات الدراسية‬ : ‫التخصص‬

This course aims to: :‫ هدف المقرر‬-2

 Provide detailed description of electric power systems
with a focus on electric distribution subsystems.
 Illustrate the impacts of power supply outages of
various load types.
 State various solutions for enhancing the power supply
reliability, and quality.

: ‫ المستهدف من تدريس المقرر‬-3

By the end of this course, the students should be able to:

‫ المعلومات‬.‫ا‬
a1- Describe the dominant structures of electric power : ‫والمفاهيم‬
systems.
a2- Describe various layouts distributions systems.
a3- List various automation levels of electromechanical UPS
systems.
a4- List various types of static UPS systems.
a5- State the differences between the applications of UPS
systems.

By the end of this course, the students should be able to:

‫ المهارات‬-‫ب‬
b1- Identify the suitability of the grid provided distribution
system layout for the required supply reliability. : ‫الذهنية‬
b2- Identify the suitable UPS type based on the load
requirements, and reliability status of the utility mains.

By the end of this course, the students should be able to:

‫ المهارات المهنية‬-‫ج‬
c1- Select a suitable electromechanical UPS automation level :‫الخاصة بالمقرر‬
for a given requirements.
c2- Select a suitable static UPS type for a given application.
c3- Devise suitable supply layouts for a given set of
requirements.

By the end of this course, the students should be able to:

‫ المهارات‬-‫د‬
d1- Write technical report. : ‫العامة‬
vi
 Electrical Engineering

d2- Present scientific work.

d3- Work in a team.

:‫ محتوى المقرر‬-4

4.1 - Lectures ‫ أساايب التعليم والتعلم‬-5

4.2 – Assignments
4.3 - Project
4.4 – Site visit

Special care will be given for applicable and acceptable ‫ أساليب التعليم والتعلم‬-6
cases. ‫للطالب ذوى القدرات المحدودة‬

: ‫ تقويم الطالب‬-7

1. Assignments ‫ األساليب المستخدمة‬-‫أ‬

2. Quizzes
3. Midterm exam
4. Site visit and/or Project
5. Final exam

1. Assignments (1st to 13th week) ‫ التوقيت‬-‫ب‬

2. Quizzes (3rd, 8th, and 12th week)
3. Midterm exam (6th week)
4. Site visit and/or Project (14th week)
5. Final exam (15th week)

1. Attendance and Participation (5%) ‫ توزيع الدرجات‬-‫ج‬

2. Assignments (5%)
3. Quizzes (10%)
4. Midterm exam (20%)
5. Site visit and/or Project (20%)
6. Final exam (40%)

: ‫ قائمة الكتب الدراسية والمراجع‬-8

To be delivered to the students as notes, and presentations. ‫ مذكرات‬-‫أ‬

The course textbook. ‫ كتب ملزمة‬-‫ب‬

[1] Kundur P, Balu NJ, Lauby MG. Power system ‫ كتب مقترحة‬-‫ج‬
stability and control. New York: McGraw-hill;
1994.
[2] Gonen T. Electrical power transmission system
engineering: analysis and design. CRC press; 2015.
[3] Roe E, Schulman PR. High reliability management:

7
 Electrical Engineering

Operating on the edge. Stanford University Press;

2008.
[4] Bollen MH, Bollen MH. Understanding power
quality problems: voltage sags and interruptions.
New York: IEEE press; 2000
[5] Anders GJ. Probability concepts in electric power
system; OSTI; 1989.
[6] Kusko A, Thompson MT. Power quality in
electrical systems. McGraw-Hill; 2007.
[7] King A, Knight W. Uninterruptible Power Supplies.
McGraw-Hill; 2003.
http://shimymb.tripod.com ...... ‫ دوريات علمية أو نشرات‬-‫د‬
‫الخ‬

vi
ii
 Course Description

This book presents the first course in electrical engineering for high level
technicians working in the fields of electrical systems in medical facilities, medical
industries, and other critical facilities. The book focuses on the power supply systems at
the medium voltage (MV), and low voltage (LV) levels. It presents the fundamentals and
advanced layouts of distribution systems. In addition, various standby power supply
options hosted in distribution systems and within specific facilities to supply essential and
critical loads are covered from pure technical aspects and practical applications points of
view. The economics of such system are indirectly demonstrated. Due to the time limits
of the course, and the its wide essential objectives, simplified mathematical models are
provided for limits situations; however, the book focuses on the quality of knowledge
needed for certificating the target audiences to work in the mentioned electrical systems
and their maintenance.
This main objective of the course are to: (a) provide a detailed description of
electric power systems with a focus on electric distribution subsystems, (b) illustrates the
impacts of power supply outages of various load types and (c) state various solutions for
enhancing the power supply reliability, and quality.
The book consists of five chapters. The first chapter is entitled ‘Electric Power
Systems – An Overview’ and it provides an overview of the subsystems comprising utility
grids, and load requirements in the utilization subsystem. The second chapter ‘Electric
Power Distribution Systems’ focuses on the layouts of primary and secondary distribution
systems for general purpose demands. The requirements for satisfactory operation of the
loads are summarized. In addition, design and operational requirements such as voltage
regulation and power loss are presented. The third chapter ‘Reliability and Power Quality’
focus on the reliability and power quality requirements, and provides the base background
to understand and deal with these aspects. Various standby, emergency, and alternative
power supply systems for securing the power supply for important loads are presented in
chapter 4, while practical configurations of LV distribution systems hosting
Uninterruptable Power Sources (UPSs) are presented in chapter 5.

1
 Core Knowledge
By the end of this course, students should be able to:
 Describe the dominant structures of electric power systems.
 Describe various layouts distributions systems.
 List various automation levels of electromechanical UPS systems.
 List various types of static UPS systems.
 State the differences between the applications of UPS systems.

Core Skills
By the end of this course, students should be able to:
 Identify the suitability of the grid provided distribution system layout for the required
supply reliability.
 Identify the suitable UPS type based on the load requirements, and reliability status of
the utility mains.
 Select a suitable electromechanical UPS automation level for a given requirement.
 Select a suitable static UPS type for a given application.
 Devise suitable supply layouts for a given set of requirements

Course Overview

Lectures Tutorials Practical

No Course Content Weeks
(hours) (hours) (hours)

1 Electric power systems 2 2 1

Distribution System and power
2 supply reliability 4 4 2
Power Quality and Classification of
3 Disturbances 4 4 2
Standby power supply and UPS
4 devices 2 2 1
Energy sources for static UPS
5 systems 2 2 1
Configurations for 7 X 24 Continuous
6 Power Facilities 6 4 3

7 Application Considerations 2 2 1

8 Site visit & Project 2 8 2

Total (13 weeks) 22 22 8 13

2
 Note for the instructors
Some of the terms, and partial topics presented in this document are advanced in comparison
with the course level. The compulsory topics are stated in the course specs, but they are
subjected to slight modifications based on the background, and level of the students. For
example, the classification of power quality disturbances (presented in chapter 3) may be
presented to the students in a more superficial way based on their capabilities of
understanding. Alternatively, various power quality disturbances may be presented as
laboratory experiments.

3
 Chapter 1
Electric Power Systems – An Overview

Objectives

This chapter presents:

 An overview of the major components comprising electric power systems, and utility
grids.
 Explanations of the voltage levels at various zones of power systems.
 Focus on various parts of the power distribution systems.

From the past to the present

The electric power industry began in the late 1800s as a component of the electric
lighting industry. At this time, the lighting was the only application of electricity, and homes
had other methods of illumination if the electricity supply was interrupted. Electricity was
essentially a luxury item and reliability was not an issue.
As electricity became more common, new applications began to appear. Examples
include electric motors, electric heating, irons, and phonographs. People began to grow
accustomed to these new electric appliances, and their need for reliable electricity
increased. This trend culminated with the invention of the radio. No non-electrical appliance
could perform the same function as a radio. If a person wanted to listen to the airwaves,
electricity was required. As radio sales exploded in the 1920s, people found that reliable
electricity was a necessity. By the late 1930s, electricity was regarded as a basic utility.
As shown in Fig. 1, modern power system consists of four main subsystems: Generation,
Transmission, Distribution, and Utilization (i.e. loads, or users) Subsystems. The salient
function of each subsystem is illustrated in the figure. The electricity is most often generated
at a power station by electromechanical generators, primarily driven by engines fueled by
chemical combustion, or nuclear reactions (fission). In addition, other means such as the
kinetic energy of flowing water (i.e. hydropower), wind, solar photovoltaic, and geothermal
power are used in the electric energy production.
The high voltage transmission system links the generators to substations, which supply
power to the user through the distribution system. The subtransmission system is also
sometimes designated to indicate the portion of the overall system that interconnects the
Extra High Voltage (EHV) and High Voltage (HV) transmission system to the distribution
system.

4
 Fig. 1: Typical subsystems of an electric Power System

We distinguish between various portions of the power system by voltage levels as

shown in Fig. 2.

Fig. 2: Voltage levels of various portions of a typical utility grid

5
 Interruptions in these connecting links can disrupt the flow of power from generators to
the users. Over the last fifty years, demands on the power system have changed radically
forcing a rethinking of the transmission and distribution (T&D) system. Today’s realities
require that future T&D systems;
1. Provide for load growth and enhanced robustness of the T&D systems with minimal
addition of new lines.
2. Make greater use of renewable such as wind and photovoltaic system.
3. Increase energy efficiency and reduce pollution and greenhouse gas emissions.
4. Increase the level of local reliability (i.e. continuity of the power supply availability) to
insure the necessary power quality demanded by customers’ loads.

For providing useful information and skills to the targeted students, this course focuses on the
distribution, and load subsystems considering the reliability, and power quality. The rest of
this chapter presents an overview of distribution system layouts, and equipment.

Distribution System Elements and their definitions

The safe operation of a power distribution system requires much dedicated equipment;
this equipment is installed throughout the distribution system and it includes elements, such
as power transformers, circuit breakers, and control and monitoring apparatuses. The most
important elements and a brief definition are presented as follows.

Lines
Lines are responsible for transporting electrical energy between two distant
points; overhead lines are typically made of bare aluminum (being ACSR a commonly
used type), whereas underground lines commonly use cables with polymer-insulation, such as
XLPE and EPR. Cables and conductors used for distribution lines are characterized by their
current capacity and rated voltage.

Transformer
A transformer is an electric device that consists of two or more windings coupled by
their electromagnetic fields; it transfers power from one winding to another without
changing the frequency and is capable of performing voltage level transformations
(reduction or increment). Transformers are used to perform successive voltage
reductions along the distribution system in order to adjust the voltage level to an
adequate value for every system section. Read the next section for more details about the
operating concepts of transformers.

Circuit Breaker
A circuit breaker is a switching device designed to open and close a circuit by
non-automatic means and to open the circuit automatically on a predetermined overcurrent
in order to avoid damage to itself and other equipment.

Potential Transformer
A potential transformer is a conventional transformer with primary and
secondary windings on a common core. Standard potential transformers are single-phase

6
units designed and constructed so that the secondary voltage maintains a fixed relationship
with primary voltage. They are used to reduce the primary circuit voltage to a safe value (like
120 V), so it can be used as an input signal for monitoring and protection devices; these
transformers only have the capacity to serve low rating meters and relays.

Current Transformer
A current transformer transforms line current into values suitable for standard
protective and monitoring devices, and isolates the relays from line voltages. A
current transformer has two windings, designated as primary and secondary, which are
insulated from each other. The primary winding is connected in series with the circuit
carrying the line current to be measured, and the secondary winding is connected to
protective devices, instruments, meters, or control devices. The secondary winding
supplies a current in direct proportion and at a fixed relationship to the primary current.

Relay
A relay is an electronic, low-powered device used to activate a high-powered
device. In distribution systems, relays protect feeders and system equipment from
damage in the event of a fault by issuing tripping commands to the corresponding
circuit breakers in order to interrupt the current produced by the fault.

Recloser
The automatic circuit recloser is a protective device with the necessary intelligence to
sense overcurrents and interrupt fault currents, and to re-energize the line by reclosing
automatically. In case of a permanent fault, the recloser locks open after a preset
number of operations (usually three or four), isolating the faulted section from the main part
of the system.

Fuse
A fuse is a protective device used in distribution systems to protect laterals, secondary
circuits, and low power transformers; it consists of a strip of wire that melts and clears an
electric circuit when an overcurrent or short-circuit current passes through it. Melting and
clearing times depend on the fuse’s time-current curves. The most commonly used fuses are
the types K and T.

Sectionalizer
The sectionalizer is a circuit-opening device used in conjunction with source-side
protective devices, such as reclosers or circuit breakers, to automatically isolate faulted
sections of electrical distribution systems. The sectionalizer senses current flow above a
preset level, and when the source-side protective device opens to de-energize the circuit, the
sectionalizer counts the overcurrent interruption.

Switch
A switch is a switching device used to isolate a system element for repair or
maintenance. It must be capable of carrying and breaking currents during normal
operating conditions; a switch may include specified operating overload conditions and also
carrying for a specified time currents under specified abnormal circuit conditions such as

7
those of a short circuit. A switch, therefore, is not expected to break fault current,
although it is normal for a switch to have a fault making capacity.

Voltage regulator
A voltage regulator is transformer with a 1:1 nominal transformation ratio
equipped with an on-load tap changer; this device allows the transformer to vary its
transformation ratio to react to voltage variations at the primary side. Voltage regulators are
installed at intermediate points of long primary lines in order to compensate the
voltage drop produced along the circuit; voltage control will impact the voltage profile of all
loads downstream from the voltage regulator.

Capacitor Bank
A capacitor bank is a local source of reactive power. By correcting power factor it can
perform voltage regulation and reduce system losses. Capacitor banks are generally
three-phase and are installed within the distribution substation or at intermediate points of a
primary circuit line.

SCADA
The SCADA (System Control and Data Acquisition) is a communication system that
allows real-time monitoring of the distribution system; it collects information from equipment
installed throughout the system and stores it in a database accessible to different users and
applications. The measured values reflect different time varying quantities, such as bus
voltages, line currents and tap changer positions . A SCADA also has the capability to
remotely operate circuit breakers and switches, which provides a greater flexibility for system
operation and reduces response times for switching actions.

Fundamentals of Distribution Systems

Distribution is the last section of the electrical power system operated by the utility
grid. Note that the load (or utilization) subsystem is owned and operated by the users with an
agreement with the grid. Fig. 3 shows the major components of the power grid.
The power plants convert the energy stored in the fuel (coal, oil, gas, nuclear) or hydro
into electric energy. The energy is supplied through step-up transformers to the transmission
network. To reduce energy transportation losses, step-up transformers increase the voltage
and reduce the current. The high-voltage network, consisting of transmission lines, connects
the power plants and high-voltage substations in parallel. The high-voltage substations are
located near the load centers, for example, outside a large town. This network permits load
sharing among power plants and assures a high level of reliability. The failure of a line or
power plant will not interrupt the energy supply.
The subtransmission system connects the high-voltage substations to the distribution
substations. These stations are directly in the load centers. For example, in urban areas, the
distance between the distribution stations is around 5 to 10 miles. In high load density areas,
the subtransmission system uses a network configuration that is similar to the high voltage
network. In medium and low load density areas, the loop or radial connection is used.

8
 Fig. 3: Major components of power grids

Fig. 4: Primary, and secondary distribution subsystems within the power grid

9
 The distribution system has two parts (Fig. 4), primary and secondary. The primary
distribution system consists of overhead lines or underground cables, which are called
feeders. The feeders run along the streets and supply the distribution transformers that step
the voltage down to the secondary level (Fig. 2). The secondary distribution system contains
overhead lines or underground cables supplying the consumers directly (houses, light industry,
shops, etc.) by single- or three-phase power. Separate, dedicated primary feeders supply
industrial customers requiring several megawatts of power. The subtransmission system
directly supplies large factories consuming over 50 MW.

Power Transformers
As illustrated in the previous sections, power transformers perform the essentially
required voltage magnitude transformations in power systems, and they are also among the
main components of power substations. Transformers are devices that transfer energy from
one circuit to another by means of a common magnetic field (Fig. 5). In a typical power
transformer, there is no direct electrical connection from one circuit to the other.
When an alternating current flows in a conductor, a magnetic field exists around the
conductor as illustrated in Fig. 5(a). If another conductor is placed in the field created by the
first conductor as shown in Fig. 5(b), such that the flux lines link the second conductor, then
a voltage is induced into the second conductor. The use of a magnetic field from one coil to
induce a voltage into a second coil is the principle on which transformer theory and
application is based.

Fig. 5: Basic concepts of transformers. (a) Magnetic field; (b) Magnetic induction and
coupling; (c) Single-phase transformer

10
 (a)

(b)
Fig. 6: Three windings transformer; primary, secondary, and tertiary.

The ability of iron or steel to carry magnetic flux is much greater than air. This ability
to carry flux is called permeability. Modern electrical steels have permeabilities on the order
of 1500 compared to 1.0 for air. This means that the ability of a steel core to carry magnetic
flux is 1500 times that of air. Steel cores (Fig. 5(c)) are used in power transformers when
alternating current circuits for distribution of electrical energy were first introduced. When
two coils are applied on a steel core as illustrated in Fig. 5(c), almost 100% of the flux from
coil 1 circulates in the iron core so that the voltage induced into coil 2 is equal to the coil 1
voltage if the number of turns in the two coils are equal. Since the flux flowing in all parts of
the core is essentially equal, the voltage induced in any turn placed around the core will be
the same. This results in the unique characteristics of transformers with steel cores.
Multiple secondary windings can be placed on the core to obtain different output
voltages. Each turn in each winding will have the same voltage induced in it. Refer to Fig. 6.
The ratio of the voltages at the output to the input at no load will be equal to the ratio of the
turns. The voltage drops in the resistance and reactance at no load are very small with only
magnetizing current flowing in the windings. The relationship E1/N1 = E2/N2 is important in
transformer design and application.

11
The Distribution Substation
The distribution substation (Fig. 4) receives power from one or more transmission or
subtransmission lines at the corresponding transmission or subtransmission voltage level and
provides that power to one or more distribution feeders that originate in the substation and
comprise the primary network. Most feeders emanate radially from the substation to supply
the load. There are five main functions of the distribution substation:

[1] Voltage transformation: One or more transformers will always be located within the
substation to step down the voltage to the primary distribution voltage level. These
transformers will always be three-phase banks, or they will be three single-phase banks
connected in a three-phase configuration.

[2] Switching and protection: Different kinds of switchgear will be located at the
substation, including the following:
a. Switches: devices that can carry and interrupt normal load current and thus
disconnect portions of the network.
b. Circuit breakers: devices that can carry and interrupt normal load current, like
switches; in addition, they interrupt short-circuit (fault) current. Circuit
breakers are always paired with a relay which senses short-circuit condition
using potential transformers (PTs) and current transformers (CTs).
c. Reclosers: devices similar in function to circuit breakers, except they also have
the ability to reclose after opening, open again, and reclose again, repeating
this cycle a predetermined number of times until they lockout.
d. Fuses: devices that can carry a defined load current without deterioration and
interrupt a defined short-circuit current.

Fig. 7: High reliability substation layout

Note: Circuit breakers, reclosers, and fuses are protection devices. Often, switches are
used on the high side of the transformer, and protection devices are used on the low side,
but substations supplying large amounts of load may have protection devices on both sides
of the transformer. Special substation designs to achieve high reliability may utilize

12
multiple circuit breakers, as shown in Fig. 7. Less expensive designs may use protection
only in series with the feeders, as shown in Fig. 8.

Fig. 8: Low reliability substation layout

In these figures, switches and circuit breakers are normally closed (N.C.) unless there is a
“N.O.” (normally open) indicated beside it. Fig. 7 design provides that all feeders can
remain supplied for a transformer outage (caused by maintenance or fault) or a
subtransmission line outage. The low voltage breaker scheme of Fig. 7 is called “breaker
and a half” because it requires 3 breakers to protect 2 feeders.

Fig. 9: Illustration of feeder voltage variations as affected by the loading levels

[3] Voltage regulation: Because current I flows from source to load along the length of the
feeder, and because the feeder has some amount of impedance per unit length Z, the
feeder will cause a voltage drop IZ volts per unit length. Thus, loads connected along
the length of the feeder will see different voltage levels with the load at the far-end of
the feeder seeing the lowest voltage of all. This is illustrated by the solid line in Fig. 9.
Note that this line indicates the voltage at the substation end of the feeder is 1.02 pu.
However, the voltage at feeder far-end is about 0.97 pu. If the load were to increase,
the far-end voltage would drop to an even lower value. As a result, we must regulate

13
 the voltage along the feeder as the load varies. Ways to do this include substation
voltage regulator (shown in Fig. 9), or regulators within the feeder. More details about
voltage regulator will be presented later in this chapter.

[4] Metering: Most substations have some sort of metering device that records, at a
minimum, existing current and current max and min that have occurred in the last time
period (e.g., 1 hour). Digital recording is also heavily used and capable of recording a
large amount of substation operational information.

14
 Chapter 2
Electric Power Distribution Systems

Objectives
The objectives of this chapter include:
 Presentation of the main layout of primary and secondary distribution systems.
 Defining the basic concepts, such as feeder voltage regulation, voltage drop, power
loss, and power factor.
 Presentation of the electric load characteristics, and the main factors used in its
description and analysis.

Primary Distribution
The most frequently used voltages and wiring in the primary distribution (Fig. 4) are 11
kV, or 22 kV in Egypt. Primary distribution, in low load density areas, is a radial system. This
is economical but yields low reliability. In large cities, where the load density is very high, a
primary cable network is used. The distribution substations are interconnected by the feeders
(lines or cables). Circuit breakers (CBs) are installed at both ends of the feeder for short-
circuit protection. The loads are connected directly to the feeders through fuses. The
connection is similar to the one-line diagram of the high-voltage network shown in Fig 4. The
high cost of the network limits its application.
A more economical and fairly reliable arrangement is the loop connection, when the
main feeder is supplied from two independent distribution substations. These stations share
the load. The problem with this connection is the circulating current that occurs when the
two supply station voltages are different. The loop arrangement significantly improves system
reliability. The circulating current can be avoided by using the open-loop connection. This is a
popular, frequently used circuit. Fig. 10 shows a typical open-loop primary feeder.
In Fig. 10, the distribution substation has four outgoing main feeders. Each feeder
supplies a different load area and is protected by a reclosing CB. The three-phase four-wire
main feeders supply single-phase lateral feeders. A recloser and a sectionalizing switch divide
the main feeder into two parts. The normally open tie-switch connects the feeder to the
adjacent distribution substation. The fault between the CB and recloser opens the reclosing
CB. The CB recloses after a few cycles. If the fault is not cleared, the opening and reclosing
process is repeated two times. If the fault has not been cleared before the third reclosing,
the CB remains open.

15
 (a)

Fig. 10: Open-loop. (a) Concept; (b) primary feeder

Then the sectionalizing switch opens and the tie-switch closes. This energizes the

16
feeder between the recloser and the tie-switch from the neighboring feeder. Similarly, the
fault between the recloser and tie-switch activates the recloser. The recloser opens and
recloses three times. If the fault is not cleared, the recloser remains open and separates the
faulty part of the feeder. This method is particularly effective in overhead lines where
temporary faults are often caused by lightning, wind, and metal balloons.
A three-phase switched capacitor bank is rated two-thirds of the total average reactive
load and installed two-thirds of the distance out on the feeder from the source. The capacitor
bank improves the power factor and reduces voltage drop at heavy loads. However, at light
loads, the capacitor is switched off to avoid over-voltages. The lateral single-phase feeders
are supplied from different phases to assure equal phase loading. Fuse cutouts protect the
lateral feeders. These fuses are coordinated with the fuses protecting the distribution
transformers.
The fault in the distribution transformer melts the transformer fuse first. The lateral
feeder fault operates the cutout fuse before the recloser or CB opens permanently. A three-
phase line supplies the larger loads. These loads are protected by CBs or high-power fuses.
There are several configurations of the primary feeders; however, primary distribution
circuits are generally radial in design, unlike transmission systems where circuit designs are
meshed or looped. In comparison with meshed circuits, radial designs present certain
advantages for power distribution:

(1) Protection is basically overcurrent,

(2) Lower fault currents,
(3) Voltage regulation and power flow control are easier to implement, and
(4) System design is less expensive.

The general radial circuit design can present different variations (Fig. 11), such as the
single mainline, or the branched mainline.

Fig. 11: Common configurations of primary arrangements with a single feeder

With the single feeder configuration (Fig. 11) all power demanded by laterals and

17
secondary circuits is served by a single primary line. Either a single mainline (Fig. 11(a)),
or a branched primary line (Fig. 11(b)) may be used. In a branched-configuration, several
branches stem from the original feeder in order to cover a larger area. These branches are
not to be confused with laterals; laterals present a much lower current capacity,
whereas the branches have the same (or similar) capacity as the main feeder.
In case of failure or any other event that forces the feeder to be out of
service (e.g. maintenance), all loads will experience a service interruption. These
problems can be reduced with the use of the open-loop primary arrangement shown in Fig.
10. In the open-loop configuration, two feeders parting from the same substation are
connected at their end terminals through a normally-open tie-switch. Under normal
conditions each feeder serves a different number of lateral circuits but has the capacity to
provide the necessary power to all circuits connected to both feeders. Load transfer between
feeders is possible by closing the normally-open tie-switch (either manually or automatically).
This configuration presents a greater reliability level than the single feeder configuration
but requires that each feeder have the capacity to carry the load corresponding to both
feeders; additionally, extra equipment is needed (e.g. the tie-switch).
Most primary feeders in rural areas are overhead lines using pole-mounted distribution
transformers. The capacitor banks and the reclosing and sectionalizing switches are also pole-
mounted. Overhead lines reduce the installation costs but reduce aesthetics. In urban areas,
an underground cable system is used. The switchgear and transformers are placed in
underground vaults or ground-level cabinets. The underground system is not affected by
weather and is highly reliable. Unfortunately, the initial cost of an underground cable is
significantly higher than an overhead line with the same capacity. The high cost limits the
underground system to high-density urban areas and housing developments. Flooding can be a
problem.

Secondary Distribution
The secondary distribution system provides electric energy to the customers through
the distribution transformers and secondary cables. Fig. 2 shows the typical voltage, while
Fig. 12 shows wiring arrangements. Depending on the location, either underground cables or
overhead lines are used for this system. High-rise buildings are supplied by a three-phase
four-wire spot network.
The connection of a typical house (or a general secondary load) is shown in Fig. 13. The
incoming secondary service drop supplies the kW and kWh meter. The modern, mostly
electronic meters can measure 15-min kW demand and the kWh energy consumption. It can
record the maximum power demand and energy consumption. The electrical utility maintains
the distribution system up to the secondary terminals of the meter. The homeowner is
responsible for the service panel and house wiring. The typical service panel is equipped with
a main switch and circuit breaker. The main switch permits the de-energization of the house
and protects against short circuits. Each outgoing line is protected by a circuit breaker. The
neutral has to be grounded at the service panel, just past the meter. The water pipe was used
for grounding in older houses. In new houses a metal rod, driven in the earth, provides proper
grounding. In addition, a separate bare wire is connected to the ground. The ground wire
connects the metal parts of the appliances and service panel box together to protect against
ground-fault-produced electric shocks.

18
 Fig. 12: Wiring arrangement of secondary distribution.

Fig. 13: Residential electrical connection

In rural and suburban areas, a radial secondary configuration (Fig. 14(a)) is the
most common design in secondary circuits; however, in urban circuits different
configurations can be used depending on the type of load to be served. The spot
configuration (Fig. 14(b)) is used for large loads concentrated in one point (e.g. factories and
large buildings), whereas the network configuration (Fig. 14(c)) is used to serve great
number of loads distributed over a large area.

19
 (a) (b)

(c)
Fig. 14: Secondary distribution configurations. (a) Radial; (b) Spot; (c)
Network

Generally, the secondary network is used in urban areas with high load density. Fig.
14(c) shows a segment of a typical secondary network. The secondary feeders form a mesh or
grid that is supplied by transformers at the node points. The multiple supply assures higher
reliability and better load sharing. The loads are connected directly to the low-voltage grid,
without any protection equipment. The network is protected by fuses and network protector
circuit breakers installed at the secondary transformers. A short circuit blows the fuses and
limits the current. The network protectors automatically open on reverse current and reclose
when the voltage on the primary feeder is restored after a fault.

20
Feeder Voltage Regulation
The voltage supplied to each customer on a distribution feeder should be within the ±
5% limit. For example, which, at a nominal voltage of 120 V, the corresponding limits are 114
V and 126 V. Fig. 15 shows a typical voltage profile for a feeder at light and heavy load
conditions. The figure shows that at heavy load, the voltage at the end of the line will be less
than the allowable minimum voltage.
At the light load condition the voltage supplied to each customer will be within the
allowable limit. Calculation of the voltage profile, voltage drop, and feeder loss is one of the
major tasks in distribution system design; however, they are out of the scope of this chapter.

Fig. 15: Feeder voltage profile at various loading levels

21
 Fig. 16: Feeder voltage regulation using capacitors

The voltage drop can be reduced by the application of a shunt capacitor. As shown in
Fig. 16, a properly selected and located shunt capacitor assures that the voltage supplied to
each of the customers will be within the allowable limit at the heavy load condition.
However, at light load, the same capacitor will increase the voltage above the allowable
limit. Most capacitors in the distribution system use switches. The capacitor is switched off
during the night when the load is light and switched on when the load is heavy. The most
frequent use of capacitors is on the primary feeders. In an overhead system, three-phase
capacitor banks with vacuum switches are installed on the poles. Residential underground
systems require less shunt capacitance for voltage control due to the reduced reactance. Even
so, shunt capacitors are used for power factor correction and loss reduction. The optimum
number, size, and location of capacitor banks on a feeder is determined by detailed computer
analyses. The concept of optimization includes the minimization of the operation,
installation, and investment costs. The most important factor that affects the selection is the
distribution and power factor of loads. In residential areas, the load is uniformly distributed.
In this case the optimum location of the capacitor bank is around two-thirds of the length of
the feeder.
The voltage regulator is a tap-changing transformer (Fig. 17), which is located, in most
cases, at the supply end of the feeder.

22
 Fig. 17: Tap changing transformers

The tap changer increases the supply voltage, which in turn increases the voltage above the
allowable minimum at the last load. The tap changer transformer has two windings. The
excitation winding is connected in parallel. The regulating winding is connected in series with
the feeder. The latter has taps and a tap changer switch. The switch changes the tap position
according to the required voltage. The tap changing requires the short interruption of load
current. The frequent current interruptions reduce the lifetime of the tap changer switch.
This problem limits the number of tap changer operations to, one to three operations per day.

Secondary Circuits: Voltage Drop, Power Loss, and Power Factor

Fig. 18: Voltage drop, losses, and power factor definitions considering AC single-phase feeder
section

23
Voltage drop
Wires carrying current always have inherent resistance (R), and reactance (X) (or
impedance (Z)) to the current (I) flow. The voltage drop (V) is defined as the amount of
voltage loss that occurs through all or part of a circuit due to its impedance.
A common analogy used to explain voltage, current and voltage drop is a garden hose.
Voltage is analogous to the water pressure supplied to the hose. Current is analogous to the
water flowing through the hose. And the inherent resistance of the hose is determined by the
type and size of the hose - just like the type and size of an electrical wire determines its
impedance.
It is recommends limiting the voltage drop from the breaker box to the farthest outlet
for power, heating, or lighting to 3% of the circuit voltage. This is required for the proper
operation of general equipment; however, sensitive electronic equipment should not be
subjected to an input voltage with a voltage drop more than 1.5% or even less drop.
Otherwise, improper operation, or malfunction, or possible damage, or lifetime reduction
may be exhibited.

Fig. 19: Limits on voltage drop

For example, consider 220 V supply provided at the breaker box shown in Fig. 19. Two
sockets are connected to this breaker box to supply medical loads. The socket #1 supplies a
sensitive load, while socket #2 supplies a regular load. Mathematically, the voltage drop is
defined in Fig. 18. Keeping in mind that the maximum voltage drop to supply the sensitive
load is 1.5% of the 220V. Therefore, the maximum voltage drop equals to 3.3 V i.e. the
minimum voltage to supply the sensitive load equals to 216.7 V. For the regular load the
allowable voltage drop equals to 3% i.e. 6.0 V, and the load should not be supplied with less
than 213.4 V.
The voltage drop, and minimum voltage limit constraints are usually secured by
selecting the right size of wires, and installation of voltage regulators. In some cases,
additional equipment are used for securing continuous power source with strict qualifications
to supply some very sensitive, or critical equipment such as intensive care medical

24
equipment. The next chapters will focus on the power supply reliability, power quality, and
ways for securing continuous power supply to critical and essential equipment.

Power losses
The feeder power losses are of two main different kinds as shown in Fig. 18 for the
considered single-phase feeder. The values of the power losses depend on the amount of
current flow over the feeder. The first is called the active power losses which result from the
heating of the conductor and the cable (or wire) insulation. Mathematically, the active losses
can be simplified to Ploss = I2R, where R is the conductor resistance. In this model the
insulation heat losses are neglected. The second type of losses are the reactive power losses,
which is the energy needed for creation and storage of the magnetic fields associated with
the flow of current, and the electric fields associated with the voltage separation. The
reactive power loss can be simplified as Qloss = I2X, where X is the reactance of the line. It is
well known that X = 2fL, where L is the inductance of the conductors.
The power lost in a cable depends on the cable length, cable size and the current
through the cable. Therefore, there are three ways to lower the resistance in the cable:
 Shorten the length of the cable. Consequently, the cable impedance is reduced,
 Increase the size of the conductor. Therefore, its resistance is reduced, and
 Decrease the current through the cable by reducing the loading level.

Load Power factor

In electrical engineering, the power factor of an AC electrical power system is defined
as the ratio of the real power (P) flowing to the load to the apparent power (S = sqrt(P2 + Q2))
in the circuit, and is a dimensionless number in the closed interval of −1 to 1; see Fig. 20.

Fig. 20: Power factor. (a) Definition and mathematical representation; (b) Enhanced power
factor; (c) Degraded power factor

25
 A power factor of less than one means that the voltage and current waveforms are not
in phase, reducing the instantaneous product of the two waveforms (V × I). Real power is the
capacity of the circuit for performing work in a particular time. Apparent power is the
product of the current and voltage of the circuit. Due to energy stored in the load and
returned to the source, or due to a non-linear load that distorts the wave shape of the current
drawn from the source, the apparent power will be greater than the real power. A negative
power factor occurs when the device (which is normally the load) generates power, which
then flows back towards the source, which is normally considered the generator.

Fig. 21: Power factor – further definitions

There is also a difference between a lagging and leading power factor (Fig. 21). The
terms refer to whether the phase of the current is leading or lagging the phase of the voltage.
A lagging power factor signifies that the load is inductive, as the load will “consume” reactive
power, and therefore the reactive component Q is positive as reactive power travels through
the circuit and is “consumed” by the inductive load. A leading power factor signifies that the
load is capacitive, as the load “supplies” reactive power, and therefore the reactive
component Q is negative as reactive power is being supplied to the circuit.
In an electric power system, a load with a low power factor draws more current than a
load with a high power factor for the same amount of useful power transferred. The higher
currents increase the energy lost in the distribution system, and require larger wires and
other equipment. Because of the costs of larger equipment and wasted energy, electrical
utilities will usually charge a higher cost to industrial or commercial customers where there is
a low power factor.
In industrial and commercial facilities, the majority of electrical equipment acts like
resistors or inductors. Resistive loads include incandescent lights, baseboard heaters, and
cooking ovens. Inductive loads include fluorescent lights, AC induction motors, arc welders,
and transformers.

Example: A wound coil that has an inductance of 180mH and a resistance of 35Ω is connected
to a 100V 50Hz supply. Calculate: a) the impedance of the coil, b) the current, c) the power

26
factor, and d) the apparent power consumed. Also e) draw the resulting power triangle for
the above coil. Data given: R = 35Ω, L = 180mH, V = 100V and ƒ = 50Hz.

Solution

(a) Impedance (Z) of the coil:

(b) Current (I) consumed by the coil:

(c) The power factor and phase angle, θ:

27
(d) Apparent power (S) consumed by the coil:

(e) Power triangle for the coil:

Typical percentage power factor values for some inductive loads are:

28
 LOAD POWER FACTOR (% LAGGING)
Induction motors 70-90
Small adjustable speed drives 90-98
Large adjustable speed drives 40-90
Fluorescent lights:
Magnetic ballast 70-80
Electronic ballast 90-95
Arc furnaces 75-90
Arc welders 35-80

Advantages of improving the power factor:

(1) Reduction in circuits current.
(2) Increase in voltage level at load buses.
(3) Reduction in system energy losses.
(4) Reduction in investments in the system facilities per kW of the load supplied.
(5) Lower utility operating costs and hence, lower customer costs.
(6) Reduction in the kVA loading of the system equipment. This is may relieve an
overloading condition or release capacity for additional growth of load.
(7) Reduction in kVA demand charges for large consumers.
(8) Improved equipment operation by reducing the voltage drop.

Linear loads with low power factor (such as induction motors) can be corrected with a
passive network of capacitors or inductors. Non-linear loads, such as rectifiers, distort the
current drawn from the system. In such cases, active or passive power factor correction may
be used to counteract the distortion and raise the power factor. The devices for correction of
the power factor may be at a central substation, spread out over a distribution system, or
built into power-consuming equipment.

Load Characteristics, and Analysis

In this section the normal variations of the loads, load characteristics, and load analysis
will be presented. Let us start with the basic definitions.
The demand of an installation or system is the load that is drawn from the supply at a
specified interval of time; it is expressed in KWs, KVA or Amperes.
The connected load is the sum of continuous ratings of all the equipment’s connected
in supply system.
The load which a power system has to supply is never constant because of variable
demands at different time of the day .The variations can be seen from the predication load
curve which is a graphic record showing the demand of the power for every instant during the
hour, the day, the month or the year. Fig. 22 represents the daily load curve, which is called
the chronological load curve.

29
 Fig. 22: The chronological load curve

The maximum load (or the peak load) represents the maximum power that
consumed by the load during a specific given time. It is also equal to the maximum actual
power generated by the plant minus the transmission and distribution losses.
The average load is the average power that consumed by the load during a certain
period of time and it is equal to the average power that generated by the plant during the
same period of time when neglecting transmission line losses. The average load is represented
by,

The load factor is the ratio of the average load to the maximum load for a certain
period of time. The load factor is called daily load factor if the period of time is a day, and if
the period of time is a month, the load factor is called monthly load factor, and
similarly for the year load factor. The load factor is  1.0. The load factor is represented by,

The demand factor is the ratio of the maximum load to the connected load. It
indicates the degree to which the total connected load is operated simultaneously. The
demand factor is  1.0. it is important to note that the lower the demand factor, the less

30
system capacity required to serve the connected load.

Example: if a residence having 6000W equipment connected has a maximum demand of

3300W,then the demand factor = 3300W/6000W = 55% or 0.55

Feeder-circuit conductors should have an ampere sufficient to carry the load; the ampere of
the feeder-circuit need not always be equal to the total of all loads on all branch-circuits
connected to it. Remember that the demand factor permits a feeder-circuit ampere to be less
than 100% of the sum of all branch-circuit loads connected to the feeder.

The diversity factor is the ratio of the sum of individual maximum demand of a group
of loads to their overall maximum demand as seen by the power source (i.e. the distribution
substation).The diversity factor is always  1.0

Example: A distribution feeder serves 5 houses, each of which has a peak demand of 5 KW.
The feeder peak turns out to be 20 kW. The diversity is then 20/25 or 0.8. This results from
the timing differences between the individual heating/cooling, appliance usages in the
individual customers. Note that, as supply availability decreases, the diversity factor will tend
to increase toward 1.00. This can be demonstrated when restoring service after outages
(called “cold starts”) as the system initial surge can be much greater than the historical peak
loads.

Example: A substation has three outgoing feeders:

 Feeder 1 has maximum demand 10 MW at 10:00 am,
 Feeder 2 has maximum demand 12 MW at 7:00 pm and
 Feeder 3 has maximum demand 15 MW at 9:00 pm,

While the maximum demand of all three feeders is 33 MW at 8:00 pm. Here, the sum of the
maximum demand of the individual sub-systems (feeders) is 10 + 12 + 15 = 37 MW, while the
system maximum demand is 33 MW. The diversity factor is 37/33 = 1.12. The diversity factor
is usually greater than 1; its value also can be 1 which indicates the maximum demand of the
individual subsystem occurs simultaneously.

In normal operating conditions the power consumption of a load is sometimes less than
that indicated as its nominal power rating, a fairly common occurrence that justifies the
application of an utilization factor (ku) in the estimation of realistic values.

Utilization Factor = The time that a equipment is in use/ The total time that it could be in
use

This factor must be applied to each individual load, with particular attention to electric
motors, which are very rarely operated at full load. In an industrial installation this factor
may be estimated on an average at 0.75 for motors. For incandescent-lighting loads, the
factor always equals 1. For socket-outlet circuits, the factors depend entirely on the type of
appliances being supplied from the sockets concerned.

31
Example: A motor may only be used for eight hours a day, 50 weeks a year. The hours of
operation would then be 2000 hours, and the motor Utilization factor for a base of 8760 hours
per year would be 2000/8760 = 22.83%. With a base of 2000 hours per year, the motor
Utilization factor would be 100%. The bottom line is that the use factor is applied to get the
correct number of hours that the motor is in use.

The base load on a distribution substation is unvarying load which occurs almost the
whole day on the substation. The peak load on distribution substation is the various peak
demand of the load over and above base load of the station. See Fig. 23.

Fig. 23: Base, and peak load

When the load elements of a load curve are arranged in the order of descending
magnitudes, the curve thus obtained is called a load duration curve. It gives the data in more
presentable form. Fig. 24 represents: i) Daily load curve. ii) Daily load duration curve. Note
that the area under daily load curve = Area under daily load duration curve = Total energy
generated (KWh) on the day.

Fig. 24: Load curve, and its corresponding load duration curve

32
 The sizing various components comprising distributions systems starts with the load
analysis. For example, Suppose We have four individual feeder-circuits with connected loads
of 250 kVA, 200 kVA, 150 kVA and 400 kVA and demand factors of 90%, 80%, 75% and 85%
respectively. Use a diversity factor of 1.5 to find the kVA rating of the main distribution
feeder and transformer. Solution:

Calculating demand for feeder-circuits

 250 kVA x 90% = 225 kVA

 200 kVA x 80% = 160 kVA
 150 kVA x 75% = 112.5 kVA
 400 kVA x 85% = 340 kVA

Hence, the sum of the individual demands = 837.5 kVA.

 If the main feeder-circuit were sized at unity diversity: kVA = 837.5 kVA / 1.00 = 837.5
kVA. The main feeder-circuit would have to be supplied by an 850 kVA transformer.
 However, using the diversity factor of 1.5, the main feeder kVA = 837.5 kVA / 1.5 = 558
kVA for the main feeder. For diversity factor of 1.5, a 600 kVA transformer could be
used.

As another example, consider a conveyor belt made up of six sections, each driven by a 2 kW
motor. As material is transported along this belt and its equivalent load is 1 kW, it is first
carried by section 1, and then each section in succession until the final section is reached. In
this simple example only one section of conveyor is carrying material at any point in time.
Therefore five motors are only handling no-load mechanical losses (about 0.1 kW) keeping the
belts moving whilst one motor is handling the load. The demand presented by each motor
when it is carrying its load is 1 kW, the sum of the demand loads is 6 kW but the maximum
load presented by the system at any time is only 1.5 kW. Therefore,

 Diversity factor = Sum of Individual Max. Demand / Max. Demand = 6 kW / 1.5 kW = 4

 Demand Factor = Maximum demand / Total connected load = 1.5 kW / 12 kW = 0.125

33
 Chapter 3
Reliability and Power Quality

Objectives
This chapter provides:
 The basic definitions of reliability and power quality for use in power distribution
systems.
 Models for estimating of the distribution reliability indices.
 Classification of power quality disturbances, and identification of power quality
problems.

Definitions
Generally, the reliability is the probability of a device or a system performing its
function adequately, for the period of time intended, under the operating conditions
intended. (IEEE PES definition). The reliability of power systems is defined as a measure of
the ability of a system, generally given as numerical indices, to deliver power to all points of
utilization within acceptable standards and in amounts desired. Power system reliability
(comprising generation and transmission & distribution facilities) can be described by two
basic functional attributes: adequacy and security. (Cigré definition).
The critical issue in the reliability identification of any system is to correctly define its
intended functions, and correct operation. For this purpose, the well knowledge of the
system’s hardware is insufficient to define its functions, and healthy state(s). For this
purpose, deep understanding of the applications of the component or the system should be
made with the help of manufacturer manual, and users should be performed. It is also
important to note that the environment has a fundamental role in reliability. This is also true
for the operating conditions. Operation and maintenance crews should keep the equipment
under acceptable environment, and operating conditions for ensuring the satisfactory
reliability level and performance.
On the other hand, the system adequacy is a measure of the ability of the power
system to supply the aggregate electric power and energy requirements of the customers
within components ratings and voltage limits, taking into account planned and unplanned
outages of system components. Adequacy measures the capability of the power system to
supply the load in all the steady states in which the power system may exist considering
standards conditions. (Cigré definition)
At a given point in time, a component or system is either functioning or it has failed,
and that the component or system operating state changes as time evolves. A working

34
component or system will eventually fail. The failed state will continue forever, if the
component or system is non-repairable. A repairable component or system will remain in
the failed state for a period of time while it is being repaired and then transcends back to
the functioning state when the repair is completed. This transition is assumed to be
instantaneous as the repair durations are assumed to be very small in comparison with healthy
operation durations.
The change from a functioning to a failed state is failure while the change from a
failure to a functioning state is referred to as repair. It is also assumed that repairs bring the
component or system back to an “as good as new” condition. This cycle continues with the
repair-to-failure and the failure-to-repair process; and then, repeats over and over for a
repairable system.
The availability of a device is the probability that this device be in such a state so as to
perform the function for which it was designed under given conditions and at a given time
t, under the assumption that external conditions needed are assured. We will use the symbol
A(t).To illustrate the concept of availability consider the case of an automobile. A
vehicle must start and run upon demand. Its past history may be of little relevance. The
availability is a measure of its aptitude to run properly at a given instant.
Many designers seek top performance for their products, sometimes neglecting to
consider the possibility of failure. When all the effort has been concentrated on having a
functioning system, it is difficult to consider what would happen in case of failure. Still, this is
a fundamental question to ask. If a system is to have high availability, it should very
rarely fail but it should also be possible to quickly repair it. In this context, the repair
activity must encompass all the actions leading to system restoration, including logistics.
The aptitude of a system to be repaired is therefore measured by its maintainability. The
maintainability of an item is the probability that a given active maintenance operation can be
accomplished in a given time interval [t1, t2].
Mean Time Between Failure (MTBF) is a reliability term used to provide the amount of
failures per year for a product. This is the most common inquiry about a product’s life span,
and is important in the decision-making process of the end user. MTBF is more important for
industries and integrators than for consumers. Most consumers are price driven and will not
take MTBF into consideration, nor is the data often readily available. On the other hand,
when equipment such as media converters or switches must be installed into mission critical
medical applications as an example, MTBF becomes very important.
Mean Time To Repair (MTTR) is the time needed to repair a failed hardware. In an
operational system, repair generally means replacing a failed hardware part if it is
unrepairable. Thus, hardware MTTR could be viewed as mean time to replace or to maintain
a failed hardware module. Taking too long to repair a product drives up the cost of the
installation in the long run, due to down time until the new necessary part(s) arrives and the
possible window of time required to schedule the installation. To avoid MTTR, many
companies purchase spare products so that a replacement can be installed quickly. Generally,
however, customers will inquire about the turn-around time of repairing a product, and
indirectly, that can fall into the MTTR category.
Mean Time To Failure (MTTF) is a basic measure of reliability for non-repairable
systems. It is the mean time expected until the failure of a piece of equipment. MTTF is a
statistical value and is meant to be the mean over a long period of time and a large number
of units. Technically, MTBF should be used only in reference to a repairable item, while MTTF

35
should be used for non-repairable items. However, MTBF is commonly used for both repairable
and non-repairable items.

Fig. 25: State transition of a reparable system. (a) Actual state transition diagram; (b) Average state
transition diagram

Load Power Interruptions

The majority of customer reliability problems stem from distribution systems. For a
typical residential customer with 90 min of interrupted power per year, between 70 and 80
minutes will be attributable to problems occurring on the distribution system that it is
connected to. This is largely due to radial nature of most distribution systems, the large
number of components involved, the sparsity of protection devices and sectionalizing
switches, and the proximity of the distribution system to end-use customers. Since reliability
means different things to different people, it is necessary to address the definition of
“distribution system reliability” in more detail. In distribution systems, reliability primarily
relates to equipment outages and customer interruptions:

 Outage — when a piece of equipment is deenergized.

 Momentary interruption — when a customer is deenergized for less than a few
minutes.
 Sustained interruption — when a customer is deenergized for more than a few
minutes.

Customers do not, in the strictest sense, experience power outages. Customers experience
power interruptions. If power is restored within a few minutes, it is considered a momentary
interruption. If not, it is considered a sustained interruption. The precise meaning of “a few
minutes” varies from utility to utility, but is typically between 1 and 5 min. The IEEE defines a
momentary interruption based on 5 min. (Note: some references classify interruptions into
four categories rather than two. Instantaneous interruptions last a few seconds, momentary
interruptions last a few minutes, temporary interruptions last a few hours, and sustained
interruptions last many hours.)

36
 On a historical note, momentary interruptions used to be considered a “power quality
issue” rather than a “reliability issue.” It is now generally agreed that momentary
interruptions are an aspect of reliability since (1) momentary interruptions can cause
substantial problems to all types of customers, and (2) many trade-offs must be made
between momentary interruptions and sustained interruptions during system planning,
operation, and control. It can also be observed that customer voltage sags, typically
considered a power quality issue, are slowly becoming a reliability issue for similar reasons.
Distribution system reliability is not dependent solely upon component failure
characteristics. It is also dependent upon how the system responds to component failures. To
understand this, it is necessary to understand the sequence of events that occurs after a
distribution system fault.

Sequence of Events after an Overhead Distribution Fault

The typical sequence events after a fault on an overhead distribution line are:
1. The fault causes high currents to flow from the source to the fault location. These high
currents may result in voltage sags for certain customers. These sags can occur on all
feeders that have a common coupling at the distribution substation.
2. An instantaneous relay trips open the feeder circuit breaker at the substation. This
causes the entire feeder to be deenergized. A pause allows the air around the fault to
deionize, and then a reclosing relay will close the circuit breaker. If no fault current is
detected, the fault has cleared itself and all customers on the feeder have experienced
a momentary interruption.
3. If the fault persists, time overcurrent protection devices are allowed to clear the fault.
If the fault is on a fused lateral, the fuse will blow and customers on the lateral will be
interrupted. If the feeder breaker trips again, the reclosing relay will repeat the
reclosing process a preset number of times before locking out. After the feeder breaker
locks out, all customers on the feeder will be interrupted.
4. The electric utility will receive trouble calls from customers with interrupted power. It
will dispatch a crew to locate the fault and isolate it by opening up surrounding
sectionalizing switches. It may also attempt to reconfigure the distribution system in an
attempt to restore power to as many customers as possible while the fault is being
repaired. Fault isolation can be very fast if switches are motor operated and remotely
controlled, but switching usually takes between 15 and 60 min.
5. The crew repairs the faulted equipment and returns the distribution system to its
normal operating state.

As can be seen, a fault on the distribution system will impact many different customers in
many different ways. In general, the same fault will result in voltage sags for some
customers, momentary interruptions for other customers, and varying lengths of sustained
interruptions for other customers, depending on how the system is switched and how long the
fault takes to repair.
Distribution system reliability assessment methods are able to predict distribution system
reliability based on system configuration, system operation, and component reliability data.
This ability is becoming increasingly important as the electric industry becomes more
competitive, as regulatory agencies begin to regulate reliability, and as customers begin to
demand performance guarantees.

37
Distribution Reliability Indices1
Utilities, and power providers typically keep track of customer reliability by using
reliability indices. These are average customer reliability values for a specific area. This area
can be the utility’s entire service area, a particular geographic region, a substation service
area, a feeder service area, and so on.
The most commonly used reliability indices give each customer equal weight. This
means that a large industrial customer and a small residential customer will each have an
equal impact on computed indices. The most common of these customer reliability indices
are: System Average Interruption Frequency Index (SAIFI), System Average Interruption
Duration Index (SAIDI), Customer Average Interruption Duration Index (CAIDI), and Average
System Availability Index (ASAI) (IEEE Working Group, 1998). Notice that these indices are
redundant. If SAIFI and SAIDI are known, both CAIDI and ASAI can be calculated.

System Average Interruption Duration Index (SAIDI)

The System Average Interruption Duration Index (SAIDI) measures the average of the
total long duration of interruptions affecting the average delivery point for a given year. Long
interruptions are those that last longer than 5 minutes. This indicator is defined as the total
time that customers were interrupted divided by the total number of customers.

Example: Consider a utility system supplying a total of 50,000 customers. The outage records
over a whole year are shown in Table 1. The SAIDI is then equals to 0.42816 min/year.

Table 1: Outage records in a year

1
The most common reliability assessment methods utilize the following process: (1) they simulate a system’s
response to a contingency, (2) they compute the reliability impact that this contingency has on each customer,
(3) the reliability impact is weighted by the probability of the contingency occurring, and (4) steps 1–3 are
repeated for all contingencies. Since this process results in the reliability that each customer can expect, new
designs can be compared, existing systems can be analyzed, and reliability improvement options can be
explored.

38
System Average Interruption Frequency Index (SAIFI)
The System Average Interruption Frequency Index (SAIFI) measures the average number
of long interruptions experienced per customer. The System Average Interruption Frequency
Index (SAIFI) indicates how often the average customer experiences a sustained interruption
over a predefined period of time. Long interruptions are those that last longer than 5
minutes. This indicator is defined as the total number of customer interruptions divided by
the total number of customers.

In the previous example, SAIFI = 0.02028 sustained interruptions/customer.

Customer Average Interruption Duration Index (CAIDI)

The Customer Average Interruption Duration Index (CAIDI) measures the average time
of long interruptions. This indicator is defined as the total time that customers were
interrupted divided by the total number of customer interruptions.

Alternatively this indicator can be defined as SAIDI divided by SAIFI.

39
In the previous example, CAIDI = 21.1124 min/sustained interruption

Average System Availability Index (ASAI)

The Average System Availability Index (ASAI) is determined using

Some less commonly used reliability indices are not based on the total number of
customers served. The Customer Average Interruption Frequency Index (CAIFI) and the
Customer Total Average Interruption Duration Index (CTAIDI) are based upon the number of
customers that have experienced one or more interruptions in the relevant year. The Average
System Interruption Frequency Index (ASIFI) and the Average System Interruption Duration
Index (ASIDI) are based upon the connected kVA of customers (these are sometimes referred
to as load-based indices). Formulae for these indices are:

As momentary interruptions become more important, it becomes necessary to keep

track of indices related to momentary interruptions. Since the duration of momentary
interruptions is of little consequence, a single frequency related index, the Momentary
Average Interruption Frequency Index (MAIFI), is all that is needed. MAIFI, like SAIFI, weights
each customer equally (there is currently no load-based index for momentary interruptions).
The formula for MAIFI is:

40
The precise application of MAIFI varies. This variation is best illustrated by an example.
Assume that a customer experiences three recloser operations followed by a recloser lockout,
all within a period of one minute. Some utilities would not count this event as a momentary
interruption since the customer experiences a sustained interruption. Other utilities would
count this event as three momentary interruptions and one sustained interruption. Similarly,
if a customer experiences three recloser operations within a period of one minute with power
being restored after the last recloser, some utilities would count the event as three
momentary interruptions and other utilities would could the event as a single momentary
interruption.

Power Quality
The design of electrical power supply systems is a compromise between the interests of
consumers - reliability and quality of supply - and those of the supply industry - realistic
investment levels and operating costs. The flexibility allowed to deviate from ‘perfect’ power
quality should be used to allow cheaper and simpler supply systems; it should not be wasted
by permitting poor maintenance and operating procedures to compromise reliability.
Consider electric energy as a product: It is generated, transmitted, distributed, and
sold to customers. The end user converts the electric energy into other forms such as
mechanical, thermal, and light energy. The users of electric energy expect a reasonable
degree of reliability and quality of service. In technical terms, the following conditions are
required to insure customer satisfaction:

1. The electric energy must be continuously available (reliable supply).

2. The voltage supply must alternate at a constant frequency with a sinusoidal waveform
and a constant magnitude.
3. The voltage magnitude must be within the range recommended by the equipment
manufacturer.
4. In three-phase systems, there must be perfect symmetry: The three voltages must be
identical sinusoids shifted 120o with respect to each other.

In a broad sense, power quality can be defined as: the adequate availability of voltage,
current, and frequency at the load terminals for proper operation of the load equipment, such
that the techno-economic feasibility is preserved.
Electrical equipment are designed to operate optimally under normal conditions, i.e.
with a supply voltage that is within rated voltage and frequency tolerances with low voltage
distortion and good phase balance and within the manufacturer’s specified environmental
conditions. Operation outside these limits can result in increased losses, poor efficiency and
unpredictable operation. Large deviations can cause disruption due to the false operation of
protection devices. Voltage quality has a decisive influence on the operation of equipment.
The voltage quality at the origin of the installation (the point of common coupling) is reduced
further by the effects of other loads in the installation and the resistance of the cabling, so
the voltage quality at the equipment terminals is much poorer. This is especially true in cases
where loads with non-linear voltage-current characteristics are present.
Disruption caused by power interruption or poor voltage quality is always inconvenient
and can be serious. In hospitals there is an obvious risk to patients undergoing operations or

41
in intensive care. Public buildings, such as cinemas, theatres, exhibition halls, etc, where
people are concentrated in relatively confined and unfamiliar areas, pose a particular risk
during a power failure. Manufacturing industries, especially continuous process manufacturing
(paper, steel) or high technology manufacturing (semiconductors), suffer long recovery cycles
following any loss of power.

Cause and Effect

The subject of power quality is one of cause and effect. Power quality is the cause, and
the ability of the electrical equipment to function in the power quality environment is the
effect. The ability of the equipment to perform in the installed environment is an indicator of
its immunity. Consider Fig. 26. Figures 26, A and B show power quality and equipment
immunity in two forms.

(A) (B)

(C)
Fig. 26: Cause and effect. (A) Criteria for equipment susceptibility; (B)
Criteria for equipment immunity; (C) example: Volts–hertz immunity contour
for 460-VAC motor

If the equipment immunity contour is within the power quality boundary, as shown in
Figure A, then problems can be expected. If the equipment immunity contour is outside the
power quality boundary, then the equipment should function satisfactorily. The objective of
any power quality study or solution is to ensure that the immunity contour (e.g. Figure C) is
outside the boundaries of the power quality contour. Two methods for solving a power quality

42
problem are to either make the power quality contour smaller so that it falls within the
immunity contour or make the immunity contour larger than the power quality contour.

Interdependence
Power quality interdependence means that two or more machines that could operate
satisfactorily by themselves do not function properly when operating together in a power
system. Several causes contribute to this occurrence. Some of the common causes are voltage
fluctuations, waveform notching, ground loops, conducted or radiated electromagnetic
interference, and transient impulses. In such a situation, each piece of equipment in question
was likely tested at the factory for proper performance, but, when the pieces are installed
together, power quality aberrations are produced that can render the total system
inoperative. In some cases, the relative positions of the machines in the electrical system can
make a difference. General guidelines for minimizing power quality interdependence include
separating equipment that produces power quality problems from equipment that is
susceptible. The offending machines should be located as close to the power source as
possible.
The power source may be viewed as a large pool of water. A disturbance in a large pool
(like dropping a rock) sets out ripples, but these are small and quickly absorbed. As we move
downstream from the power source, each location may be viewed as a smaller pool where any
disturbance produces larger and longer-lasting ripples. At points farthest downstream from
the source, even a small disturbance will have significant effects. Fig. 27 illustrates this
principle.

Fig. 27: Power quality source dependence

Classification of Power Quality Disturbances

PQ phenomena classification and characterization according to IEEE-1159 are shown in
the chart of Fig. 28.

43
 Fig. 28: PQ disturbances according to the IEEE-1159

1. TRANSIENT PQ DISTURBANCE
Transient PQ disturbances are momentary in nature. Transient disturbances are classified to:
1. Impulsive transient PQ disturbances Fig. 29: which are sudden, non-power
frequency changes in the steady-state voltage or current waveforms with
unidirectional polarities characterized by rise and decay times. Mainly caused by
lightning.
2. Oscillatory transient PQ disturbances Fig. 30: which is a sudden, non power
frequency changes in the steady-state condition of voltage, current, or both,
including positive and negative values. Characterized by its spectral contents,
duration, and magnitude. Based on spectral contents, oscillatory transients can
be classified into high-, medium-, and low-frequency oscillatory transients.
Oscillatory transient may be caused by: power electronic commutation (several
kHz), capacitor bank energization on distribution system (low-frequency).

44
 Fig. 29: Impulsive transient PQ disturbance

Fig. 30: Oscillatory transient PQ disturbance

2. SHORT-DURATION VOLTAGE VARIATIONS

Depending on duration of voltage variations, short-duration voltage disturbances, Fig. 31, can
be classified into three categories:
1. Voltage sag: which is a drop in voltage (between 10% and 90%) for few cycles (1
to 30). This caused by a fault on the power system in remote locations. Voltage
sag can also be the result of a lightening strike that operates a circuit breaker or
a reclosure, which recloses instantaneously (3 to 10 cycles). Also, motors – both
constant-speed and ASD may cause voltage sag (for about 65% voltage).
2. Voltage Swells: which is an increase in the voltage between 1.1 and 1.8 p.u at
the power frequency for a short period of time (1 to 30 cycles). The cause can
be changes in system loading (a large load is dropped), switching on of a
capacitor bank, … etc. The lights blink as indication of swells.
3. Interruptions: which are temporary and momentary interruptions that occur
when the supply voltage decrease less than 10% of its nominal value up to a
period of time not larger than 1 minute.

45
 Fig. 31: Short-duration voltage disturbances

3. LONG-DURATION VOLTAGE VARIATIONS

Duration of long-duration voltage disturbances are generally larger than one minute. These PQ
disturbances can be classified to:
1. Undervoltage: is a drop in voltage below the standard voltage tolerance (5%).
Most equipment will operate in the range of 10% for short period of time
without damage. Starting large motors may cause voltage to drop close to 10%.
2. Overvoltage: is an increase in voltage above the standard voltage tolerance
(5%). Overvoltages can be a result of erroneous system operation, line-to-
ground faults, or switching of major system components.
3. Sustained interruptions: which are interruptions that occur when the supply
voltage decrease less than 10% of its nominal value for a period of time larger
than 1 minute

4. VOLTAGE IMBALANCE
Voltage imbalance is defined as the ratio of negative sequence voltage (and/or the zero
sequence voltage) to the positive sequence voltage. Voltage imbalance can result from
unbalanced loads.

46
5. WAVEFORM DISTORTION
The steady-state deviation of voltage and/or current waveforms from the pure sinusoidal
power frequency waveforms is referred to waveform distortion phenomena Fig. 32. Waveform
distortion PQ problem can be classified to:

Fig. 32: Waveform Distortion

a) DC Offset: is defined by the presence of a DC bias in the voltage and/or

current waveforms. DC offset results from operation of rectification
equipment such as half wave rectifiers. DC offset can cause saturation
problems in transformers and machines.
b) Harmonics: are sinusoidal voltages and/or currents of frequencies that
multiples of the fundamental system frequencies. The use of converters,
nonlinear loads, etc is the major sources of harmonics.
c) Interharmonics: which are harmonics with frequencies that are not integer
multiples of the fundamental frequency. Interharmonics can be caused by
static frequency converters, cycloconverters, and arcing devices.
d) Notching: is a periodic voltage disturbance caused by the normal operation of
power electronic devices as the current is commutated from one phase to
another Fig. 33.

Fig. 33: Commutation notches

47
 e) Electrical Noise: is the distortion (not necessary periodic) with broadband
spectral contents lower than 200 kHz superimposed on the power system
voltage and/or current waveforms. Switching radio transmitter and arcing
industrial equipment can cause electrical noise.

6. FLICKER
Flicker is the term used to define the fluctuations of voltage, Fig 34, caused by loads that
vary in frequency. Flicker is the perceptible change in the output of a source of light when
there is a sudden change in the supply voltage (a sag or swell). The voltage fluctuations cause
light pulsations. If such disturbances are recurrent and the incremental change in the
luminous flux is large enough, the flicker becomes annoying. The eye-brain perception system
has maximum sensitivity at about nine fluctuations per second (9 Hz). At this critical
V as small as 0.5% is sufficient to cause end-user
objections.

Fig. 34: Voltage fluctuations

7. FREQUENCY VARIATIONS
Power frequency variations are defined as the deviation of the power system fundamental
frequency from its nominal value. Large load shedding or disconnection of large generators
can cause frequency variations. Frequency deviation can affect the performance of electronic
timers; also can reduce measuring equipment accuracy.

48
 Chapter 4
Standby and Alternative Power Supply Options and
Their Applications
Objectives

This chapter presents various alternative and standby power supply options for securing
reliable power supply with high quality for supplying essential and critical loads in various
important facilities. The proper solutions considering load power, and energy as well as safety
time are evaluated. In this text, the safety time is defined as the duration secured by the
alternative power source in cases of mains outage. This chapter focuses on interruptible
power supply options considering static, rotary, and hybrid static/rotary options.

Definitions

 Mains electricity or normal power supply or default power supply is the general-
purpose alternating-current (AC) electric power supply. It is the form of electrical
power that is delivered to homes and businesses, and it is the form of electrical power
that consumers use in their normal activities.
 Emergency generator or standby generator is an independent source of electrical
power that supports important electrical systems on loss of normal power supply. The
standby generators are a subcategory of the emergency generators. The emergency
generators operate either manually or automatically, while standby generators usually
operate automatically.
 Standby generator is a back-up electrical system that operates automatically within
seconds of a utility outage an automatic transfer switch senses the power loss,
commands the generator to start and then transfers the electrical load to the
generator. The standby generator begins supplying power to the circuits. Upon the
restoration of utility power or the mains, the automatic transfer switch transfers the
electrical load back to the utility and signals the standby generator to shut-off. It then
returns to standby mode where it awaits the next outage. To ensure a proper response
to an outage, a standby generator runs weekly self-tests. Most units run on diesel,
natural gas, or liquid propane gas. Automatic standby generator systems may be
required by building codes for critical safety systems such as elevators in high-rise
buildings, fire protection systems, standby lighting, or medical and life support
equipment. Residential standby generators are increasingly common, providing backup
electrical power to HVAC systems, security systems, and household appliances such as
refrigerators, stoves, and water heaters.

49
 Standby power system or emergency power system may include a standby generator
or emergency generator, batteries and other apparatus. Emergency power systems are
installed to protect life and property from the consequences of loss of primary electric
power supply. It is a form of a continual power system.
 Transfer switch is an electrical switch that switches a load between two sources.
Some transfer switches are manual, in that an operator affects the transfer by throwing
a switch, while others are automatic and trigger when they sense one of the sources
has lost or gained power.
 Automatic Transfer Switch (ATS) is often installed where a backup generator is
located, so that the generator may provide temporary electrical power if the utility
source fails.
 Automatic Static transfer switch (ASTS) is a static transfer switch uses power
semiconductors such as Silicon-controlled rectifiers (SCRs) or thyristors to transfer a
load between two sources. Because there are no mechanical moving parts, the transfer
can be completed rapidly, perhaps within a quarter-cycle of the power frequency.
Static transfer switches can be used where reliable and independent sources of power
are available, and it is necessary to protect the load from even a few power frequency
cycles interruption time, or from any surges or sags in the prime power source
 Uninterruptible Power Supply or Uninterruptible Power Source (UPS) is an electrical
apparatus that provides emergency power to a load when the input power source or
mains power fails. A UPS should provide near-instantaneous protection from input
power interruptions, by supplying energy stored in devices such as batteries, super
capacitors, or flywheels.
 Static UPS is a type of UPS that relies on static components without the need of
moving mechanical parts except the mechanical transfer switch. This type of UPS
secure the load power for short durations that depend on the battery capacity. Zero
power transfer time can be achieved with static UPS.
 Rotary UPS is an alternative power source that is based on the energy production using
rotating machines. This UPS type can secure the load power for long durations (hours,
or even days). The power transfer time is generally short and it depends on the start-
up and load picking capability of the generator. Zero power transfer can also be
achieved with the use of additional devices such as flywheel.
 Hybrid static/rotary UPS is a type of UPSs that provide zero power transfer using
static UPS, and can also provide power for extended durations using rotary generators.
 Off-line or standby UPS (SPS) offers only the most basic features, providing surge
protection and battery backup. The protected equipment is normally connected
directly to incoming utility power. When the incoming voltage falls below or rises
above a predetermined level the SPS turns on its internal DC-AC inverter circuitry,
which is powered from an internal storage battery. The UPS then mechanically switches
the connected equipment on to its DC-AC inverter output. The switchover time can be
as long as 25 milliseconds depending on the amount of time it takes the standby UPS to
detect the lost utility voltage. The UPS will be designed to power certain equipment,
such as a personal computer, without any objectionable dip or brownout to that
device.
 Brownout is an intentional or unintentional drop in voltage in an electrical power
supply system. Intentional brownouts are used for load reduction in an emergency

50
 condition. The reduction lasts for minutes or hours, as opposed to short-term voltage
sag (or dip). The term brownout comes from the dimming experienced by incandescent
lighting when the voltage sags. A voltage reduction may be an effect of disruption of an
electrical grid, or may occasionally be imposed in an effort to reduce load and prevent
a power outage, known as a blackout. In some media reports the term brownout refers
to an intentional or unintentional power outage or blackout of some areas rather than
to a drop in voltage.
 Line-interactive UPS is similar in operation to a standby UPS, but with the addition of
a multi-tap variable-voltage autotransformer. This is a special type of transformer that
can add or subtract powered coils of wire, thereby increasing or decreasing the
magnetic field and the output voltage of the transformer.
 Auto-transformer (sometimes called auto-step down transformer) is an electrical
transformer with only one winding. The "auto" (Greek for "self") prefix refers to the
single coil acting alone and not to any kind of automatic mechanism. In an
autotransformer, portions of the same winding act as both the primary and secondary
sides of the transformer. In contrast, an ordinary transformer has separate primary and
secondary windings which are not electrically connected.
 On-line UPS is an class of UPS that continuously supply the load under normal and
abnormal conditions of the mains. Therefore, no power transfer switching is needed.
 Non-essential loads are the class of loads that can be interrupted without hazardous,
significant economic losses, and risk consequences.
 Essential loads are a class of loads that may be interrupted for short durations (< 5
min).
 Critical loads are the loads that should not be interrupted at any instant of each
operation.

Types of Reserve and Alternative Power Supplies

In this chapter, the main three categories of the UPS systems (i.e. static, rotary, and
hybrid) will be explained. Other options such as distribution system designs for insignificant
power interruptions will be also explained. The important characteristics of a reserve power
supply are:

 Power capacity and stored energy

 Transfer time
 Maximum duration of generation
 Efficiency
 Cost of installation and maintenance.

The ideal reserve power device would have infinite power capacity and infinite stored
energy as well as a zero transfer time, infinite duration of generation and low cost. Since such
a device does not exist, various compromise approaches must be used.
The choice of device depends on the application and requirement that is being supported.
IT equipment, for example, demands a really continuous supply, i.e. zero transfer time in
order to ensure data is not lost. Following the transfer, the equipment may be required to be

51
supported for just long enough for an orderly shutdown (say 20 minutes), or may require to be
supported continuously so that work can continue. In the first case a UPS would be sufficient
but in the second case an additional power source, such as a diesel generator would be
required as a long-term source as well as a UPS to cover the generator start-up time.
Alternatively, a paper making plant that has a large motor load could not be supported by a
UPS for any reasonable time, so here a duplicated grid connection might be justified.

Table 2 - Application features of reserve power supply methods and devices

This section focuses on the standby power supply methods and devices. The grouping of
these methods is shown in Table 2 and in Fig. 35. They can be characterized by various
parameters given in Table 2. Each of the options shown in Fig. 35 will be explained in the rest
of this section.

Duplicate Feeder from the Grid

In some areas, usually metropolitan centers, two utility company power drops can be
brought into a facility as a means of providing a source of standby power. As shown in Figure
3, two separate utility service drops—from separate power-distribution systems—are brought
into the plant, and an automatic transfer switch changes the load to the backup line in the
event of a main-line failure. The dual feeder system provides an advantage over the auxiliary
diesel arrangement in that power transfer from main to standby can be made in a fraction of
a second if a static transfer switch is used. Time delays are involved in the diesel generator
system that limits its usefulness to power failures lasting more than several minutes.
The dual feeder system of protection is based on the assumption that each of the
service drops brought into the facility is routed via different paths. This being the case, the
likelihood of a failure on both power lines simultaneously is remote. The dual feeder system
will not, however, protect against area-wide power failures, which can occur from time to
time.

52
 (a)

(b)
Fig. 35: Types of reserve power supply devices. (a) Distribution system configurations for
reducing load interruption durations; (b) UPS systems

The dual feeder system is limited primarily to urban areas. Rural or mountainous
regions generally are not equipped for dual redundant utility company operation. Even in
urban areas, the cost of bringing a second power line into a facility can be high, particularly if
special lines must be installed for the feed. If two separate utility services are available at or
near the site, redundant feeds generally will be less expensive than engine-driven generators
of equivalent capacity.

53
 Figure 35 illustrates a dual feeder system that utilizes both utility inputs
simultaneously at the facility. Notice that during normal operation, both ac lines feed loads
and the “tie” circuit breaker is open. In the event of a loss of either line, the circuit-breaker
switches reconfigure the load to place the entire facility on the single remaining ac feed.
Switching is performed automatically; manual control is provided in the event of a planned
shutdown on one of the lines.

Rotary UPS: Engine generating sets (EGS)

Engine generating sets usually consist of one or more internal combustion diesel
engines as the source of mechanical energy, a generator to convert mechanical to electric
energy, accelerators, control and regulation systems and switchgear. This type of equipment
may be designed for relatively long-term operation, say up to several hours or days, or may be
designed for continuous operation. EGSs are available in a wide range of power ratings,
usually from a few tens of kW up to few MW. Gas turbines are often used where large powers,
in the range of a few MW or more, are required, e.g. for peak lopping or co-generation plants.
EGSs are also used for special applications where no power network is available, such
as marine applications, or where a short-term, high demand requirement exists, such as major
televised sports events. These applications are not covered in this section of the Guide. EGSs
can operate in two different ways, distinguished here as group I and group II.
Group I EGSs start-up at the time of power failure (Fig. 36 a, b). The starting of the
diesel engine is performed using the energy from secondary batteries. In this arrangement
there is clearly a delay between power failure and the time when the generator can support
the load. In the simplest arrangement the EGS is switched manually (Fig. 36a). However,
usually the sets are switched on automatically (Fig. 36b), with typical delay times in the
range of 6-15 seconds for small units and up to about 180 seconds for large ones. In order to
reduce start-up and transfer times, some EGS engines are continuously heated to operation
temperature while stationary.
Group II EGSs have shorter transfer times of less than about 2 seconds (Fig. 36c) or zero
transfer time (Fig. 36d). These arrangements are equipped with a high inertia flywheel
mechanically connected to the generator. While power is available, the flywheel and
generator are driven at the correct speed by an electric motor. In the arrangement of Figure
4c, when an outage occurs, the electromagnetic clutch connects the rotating flywheel with
the engine, which starts and drives the generator. Start-up of the engine and taking up of the
load is done automatically within 0.5 - 2 seconds.
In the arrangement shown in Fig. 36d, during the normal system operation, power is
supplied not from the distribution network but from the generator, which is driven by an
electric motor supplied from the network. In the case of power failure the inertia of the
flywheel provides the energy to start the engine via an electromagnetic clutch. Thus, the
combustion engine drives the generator, which delivers electrical power with zero transfer
time.
Appropriately designed EGSs can meet most requirements for reserve power sources as
well as continuous power supply. Zero transfer times can be achieved and power quality can
be high if the generator is suitable for the intended load (i.e. the source impedance is
sufficiently low).
On the other hand EGSs, especially high power units, have some disadvantages. They
are noisy (the average noise level is from 70 – 95 dB), large and heavy, and they require large
fuel storage, air intake and exhaust systems. Consequently, these generators are usually
installed in separate buildings, relatively distant from occupied buildings.

54
 (I)

(II)

Fig. 36: Engine generator sets. (I) Group I EGSs start-up at the time of power failure manually
(a) or automatically (b); (II) Group II EGSs have shorter transfer times of less than about 2
seconds (a) or zero (d)

55
Fig. 37, and 38 show rotary UPS configurations for zero transfer rotary UPS systems

Fig. 37: Block diagram of a typical automatic rotary motor/generator UPS for zero power
transfer time

Fig. 38: Engine-generator sets equipped with flywheels for zero power transfer. (a) With the
generator operating under normal supply conditions as a motor; (b) with the generator
continuously driven by a motor; (c) with the generator driven in normal supply conditions by
motor/generator such that Load 1 is supplied without interruptions, while Load 2 is supplied
with a short interruption during switching-on of the reserve supply from the motor/generator
or during return to the utility mains.

Battery storage

Secondary batteries are used in electronic UPS systems and, as described above, in
some types of diesel electric generator sets to start the diesel engine and supply control
circuits. They are also widely used in self-contained units such as emergency lighting, safety

56
equipment and computer and telecommunications equipment. Batteries are mainly used for
supplying DC loads or loads that can operate on DC as well as AC circuits, e.g. lighting.
Batteries used for supplying AC loads are equipped with DC/AC converters.
Large capacity self-contained battery units can be used as energy stores to cover peak
energy demand in the MV supply network. However, this application is not discussed here.
There are two basic design philosophies of battery storage solutions. In the first, the
load may be powered by the main supply until it fails, after which the load is switched on to
the battery supply (Figure 39a). In the second solution the load is always supplied by the
battery, which is constantly charged by the main supply whenever it is available (Figure 39b).

In Figure 6a the DC load is normally supplied from the main supply via the main rectifier while
the battery is charged continuously via a second, separate rectifier. When the main supply
fails, or the voltage is out of tolerance, the load is switched to the battery by a switch with a
short, but not zero, transfer time. This type of system is suitable for emergency and
evacuation lighting.

The arrangements in Figure 6b show a DC load being supplied directly from the main rectifier
in parallel with the battery. When the main supply is available it is used to power the load
and charge the battery. When the main supply is not available, the battery supports the load.
Transfer time is zero, making this arrangement suitable for the support of volatile memory in
computer based equipment. In fact this arrangement is also commonly used for functional and
convenience reasons in consumer equipment, e.g. to preserve time keeping in video recorders
and radio alarm clocks. The zero transfer time is an evident advantage of this solution.
However, the reliability of the set shown in Figure 6a is higher than that from Figure 6b
because, in the first case, the battery is supplied through an independent rectifier. The
efficiency of secondary battery chargers is estimated in the range 90-97%.

Fig. 39: Different options of standby power supply of DC loads using

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 AC/DC converters and accumulator battery

The battery capacity must be sufficient to supply power either until the main power
supply is again available or the required function - evacuation, safety shutdown - has been
completed. Generally, battery charging times greatly exceed discharge times, so the duty
cycle of these systems is low. The system should be designed such that a fully discharged
battery is recharged in a maximum of 6 hours.
Emergency lighting is particularly important in public buildings such as exhibition and
sports halls, theatres, cinemas, large office buildings, etc. Fittings designed for emergency
lighting normally have a built-in reserve supply. Hospital operating theatres have similar but
more stringent requirements. Light sources can often be supplied with either alternating
current or direct current with continuity of supply being more important than quality. An
example of this power supply system is shown in Fig. 40.

Fig. 40: Supplying system of loads which can operate on AC as well as DC; the accumulator
battery is used as standby power source; switching occurs with a short interruption

Static Uninterruptible power supply (UPS) systems: UPS classification

Various types of UPSs and their attributes often cause confusion. For example, it is
widely believed that there are only two types of UPS systems, namely standby UPS and online
UPS. These two commonly used terms do not correctly describe many of the UPS systems
available. Many misunderstandings about UPS systems are cleared up when the different types
of UPS topologies are properly identified. Common design approaches are reviewed here,
including brief explanations about how each topology works. This will help you to properly
identify and compare systems.
A variety of design approaches are used to implement UPS systems, each with distinct
performance characteristics. The most common design approaches are as follows:

 Standby
 Line Interactive
 Standby on-line hybrid
 Standby-Ferro
 Double Conversion On-Line
 Delta Conversion On-Line

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The Standby UPS

The Standby UPS is the most common type used for Personal Computers. In the block
diagram illustrated in Fig. 41, the transfer switch is set to choose the filtered AC input as the
primary power source (solid line path), and switches to the battery / inverter as the backup
source should the primary source fail. When that happens, the transfer switch must operate
to switch the load over to the battery/inverter backup power source (dashed path). The
inverter only starts when the power fails, hence the name "Standby”. High efficiency, small
size, and low cost are the main benefits of this design. With proper filter and surge circuitry,
these systems can also provide adequate noise filtration and surge suppression.

Fig. 41: Standby UPS

The Line Interactive UPS

The Line Interactive UPS, illustrated in Fig. 42, is the most common design used for
small business, Web, and departmental servers. In this design, the battery-to-AC power
converter (inverter) is always connected to the output of the UPS. Operating the inverter in
reverse during times when the input AC power is normal provides battery charging.
When the input power fails, the transfer switch opens and the power flows from the
battery to the UPS output. With the inverter always on and connected to the output, this
design provides additional filtering and yields reduced switching transients when compared
with the Standby UPS topology. In addition, the Line Interactive design usually incorporates a
tap-changing transformer. This adds voltage regulation by adjusting transformer taps as the
input voltage varies.
Voltage regulation is an important feature when low voltage conditions exist, otherwise
the UPS would transfer to battery and then eventually down the load. This more frequent
battery usage can cause premature battery failure. However, the inverter can also be
designed such that its failure will still permit power flow from the AC input to the output,
which eliminates the potential of single point failure and effectively provides for two
independent power paths. This topology is inherently very efficient which leads to high

59
reliability while at the same time providing superior power protection.
High efficiency, low cost, high reliability coupled with the ability to correct low or high
line voltage conditions make this the dominant type of UPS in the 0.5-5kVA power range.

Fig. 42: Line Interactive

Standby On-Line Hybrid UPS

The Standby On-Line Hybrid is the topology used for many of the UPS under 10kVA
which are labeled "online.” The standby DC to DC converter from the battery is switched on
when an AC power failure is detected, just like in a standby UPS. The battery charger is also
small, as in the standby UPS. Due to capacitors in the DC combiner, the UPS will exhibit no
transfer time during an AC power failure. This design is sometimes fitted with an additional
transfer switch for bypass during a malfunction or overload. Fig. 43 illustrates this topology.

Fig. 43: Standby On-Line Hybrid

The most misunderstood part of this topology is the belief that the primary power path
is always "on-line," when in fact, the power path from the battery to the output is only half
"on-line" (the inverter), while the other half (the dc-dc converter) is operated in the standby
mode.

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The Standby-Ferro UPS

The Standby-Ferro UPS (Fig. 44) was once the dominant form of UPS in the 3-15kVA
range. This design depends on a special saturating transformer that has three windings (power
connections). The primary power path is from AC input, through a transfer switch, through
the transformer, and to the output. In the case of a power failure, the transfer switch is
opened, and the inverter picks up the output load.

Fig. 44: Standby-Ferro

High reliability and excellent line filtering are this design’s strengths. However, the
design has very low efficiency combined with instability when used with some generators and
newer power-factor corrected computers, causing the popularity of this design to decrease
significantly.
In the Standby-Ferro design, the inverter is in the standby mode, and is energized when
the input power fails and the transfer switch is opened. The transformer has a special "Ferro-
resonant" capability, which provides limited voltage regulation and output waveform
"shaping". The isolation from AC power transients provided by the Ferro transformer is as good
or better than any filter available. But the Ferro transformer itself creates severe output
voltage distortion and transients, which can be worse than a poor AC connection. Even though
it is a standby UPS by design, the Standby-Ferro generates a great deal of heat because the
Ferro-resonant transformer is inherently inefficient. These transformers are also large relative
to regular isolation transformers; so standby-Ferro UPS are generally quite large and heavy.
Standby-Ferro UPS systems are frequently represented as On-Line units, even though
they have a transfer switch, the inverter operates in the standby mode, and they exhibit a
transfer characteristic during an AC power failure. Figure 44 illustrates this Standby- Ferro
topology.
The principal reason why Standby-Ferro UPS systems are no longer commonly used is
that they can be fundamentally unstable when operating a modern computer power supply
load. All large servers and routers use “Power Factor Corrected” power supplies which
present a negative input resistance over some frequency range; when coupled with the
relatively high and resonant impedance of the Ferro transformer, this can give rise to
spontaneous and damaging oscillations.

The Double Conversion On-Line UPS

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 This is the most common type of UPS above 10kVA. The block diagram of the Double
Conversion On-Line UPS, illustrated in Figure 45, is the same as the Standby, except that the
primary power path is the inverter instead of the AC main.

Fig. 45: Double Conversion On-Line

This UPS provides nearly ideal electrical output performance. But the constant wear on
the power components reduces reliability over other designs and the energy consumed by the
electrical power inefficiency is a significant part of the life-cycle cost of the UPS. Also, the
input power drawn by the large battery charger is often non-linear and can interfere with
building power wiring or cause problems with standby generators.
In the Double Conversion On-Line design, failure of the input AC does not cause
activation of the transfer switch, because the input AC is NOT the primary source, but is
rather the backup source. Therefore, during an input AC power failure, on-line operation
results in no transfer time.
The on-line mode of operation exhibits a transfer time when the power from the
primary battery charger/battery /inverter power path fails. This can occur when any of the
blocks in this power path fail. The inverter power can also drop out briefly, causing a
transfer, if the inverter is subjected to sudden load changes or internal control problems.
Double Conversion On-Line UPS systems do exhibit a transfer time, but under different
conditions than a standby or line interactive UPS. While a Standby and Line Interactive UPS
will exhibit a transfer time when a blackout occurs, a double conversion on-line UPS will
exhibit a transfer time when there is a large load step or inrush current. This transfer time is
the result of transferring the load from the UPS inverter to the bypass line. Generally, this
bypass line is built with dual Silicon Controlled Rectifiers (SCRs). These solid state switches
are very fast, so similar to the Standby and Line Interactive UPS, the transfer time is very
brief, usually 4-6 milliseconds.
Both the battery charger and the inverter convert the entire load power flow in this
design, which causes reduced efficiency and increased heat generation.

The Delta Conversion On-Line UPS

This UPS design, illustrated in Figure 46, is a new technology introduced to eliminate
the drawbacks of the Double Conversion On-Line design and is available in the range of 5kVA
to 1 MW. Similar to the Double Conversion On-Line design, the Delta Conversion On-Line UPS
always has the inverter supplying the load voltage. However, the additional Delta Converter
also contributes power to the inverter output. Under conditions of AC failure or disturbances,

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this design exhibits behavior identical to the Double Conversion On-Line. During steady state
conditions the Delta Converter allows the UPS to deliver power to the load with much greater
efficiency than the Double Conversion design.

Fig. 46: Delta Conversion On-Line

Fig. 47: Analogy of Double Conversion vs. Delta Conversion

A simple way to understand the energy efficiency of the delta conversion topology is to
consider the energy required to deliver a package from the 4th floor to the 5th floor of a
building as shown in Figure 47. Delta Conversion technology saves energy by carrying the
package only the difference (delta) between the starting and ending points. The Double
Conversion On-Line UPS converts the power to the battery and back again whereas the Delta
Converter moves components of the power from input to the output.
In the Delta Conversion On-Line design, the Delta Converter acts with dual purposes.
The first is to control the input power characteristics. This active front end draws power in a
sinusoidal manner, minimizing harmonics reflected onto the utility. This ensures optimal
conditions for utility lines and generator systems and reduces heating and system wear in the
power distribution system. The second function of the Delta Converter is to charge the
battery of the UPS by drawing power and converting it to the appropriate DC charging
voltage.
The Delta Conversion On-Line UPS provides the same output characteristics as the
Double Conversion On-Line design. However, the input characteristics are extremely
different. With full Power Factor
Correction, the delta conversion on-line design provides both input power control and output
power control. The most important benefit is a significant reduction in energy losses. The
input power control also makes the UPS compatible with all generator sets and reduces the

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need for wiring and generator oversizing. Delta Conversion On-Line technology is the only core
UPS technology today protected by patents and is therefore not likely to be available from a
broad range of UPS suppliers.

Summary of UPS types

Table 3 shows some of the characteristics of the various UPS types. Some attributes of
a UPS, like efficiency, are dictated by the choice of UPS type. Since implementation and
manufactured quality more strongly impact characteristics such as reliability, these factors
must be evaluated in addition to these design attributes.

Table 3: Salient characteristics of the various UPS types

Application considerations of static UPS systems

The current UPS industry product offering has evolved over time to include many of
these designs. The different UPS types have attributes that make them more or less suitable
for different applications and the APC product line reflects this diversity as shown in Table 4.

Table 4: Application considerations

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 Different UPS types are appropriate for different applications, and that there is no
single UPS type that is ideal for all applications. With the variety of UPS topologies on the
market today, these guidelines will help clear confusion about how each topology operates
and the advantages and disadvantages of each.
There are significant differences in UPS design between available products on the
market, with theoretical and practical advantages for different approaches. Nevertheless, the
basic quality of design implementation and manufactured quality are often dominant in
determining the ultimate performance achieved in the customer application.

Hybrid UPS systems

Hybrid static/rotary UPS systems (Fig. 48) combine the main features of both
static and rotary UPS systems. They have low output impedance, high reliability,
excellent frequency stability, and low maintenance requirements. In the figure below, a
typical hybrid static/rotary UPS is depicted. It consists of a bi-directional AC/DC
converter, an AC motor, an AC generator, a battery bank, and a static switch. Hybrid
UPS systems are usually used in high power applications.

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 Fig. 48: Hybrid UPS system blockdiagram

Energy Storage Sources

According to the statistical data, about 97 percent of all power outages in the MV-supply
network last less than 3 seconds. These power failures are caused mainly by atmospheric
discharges, auto-reclosing taking place after 0.3 to 3 seconds. Outages longer than 3 seconds
occur only in about 3% of all power failures, and are usually caused by a fault in equipment in
the network. The time duration of such events is significantly longer, in the range of minutes,
hours or days. There are therefore two distinct requirements for energy sources. The first is
for long duration – maybe up to several hours – with moderate energy, while the second is for
very short time – up to a few minutes – at very high energy levels. Both types of energy store
should also meet the following additional requirements:

 High energy storage

 Low self discharge rate
 Fast charge rate
 Low maintenance requirement
 High reliability
 Fast energy release rate.

For combustion engines the energy source is clearly some form of fossil fuel, which has the
advantages of having high energy density, instant ‘recharge’ by refueling and a practically
infinite supply.
For static UPS systems the usual energy store is the secondary battery. However, in the
last few years, new energy storage systems, such as flywheels, super capacitors and
superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES) have been developed to the point of
commercial viability. The main difference between secondary batteries and new systems is
the time period over which the stored energy can be delivered.
Secondary batteries are able to deliver energy in short time periods, say tens of seconds or
few minutes, as well as for long time periods, say few hours or tens of hours. However, the

66
new storage systems are designed mainly for short time periods, say seconds to tens of
seconds, to cover very short outages or to reduce the impact of voltage dips.
The energy storage system is maintained in a fully charged state while main power is
available and then discharged when the supply fails. Ideally, the storage system must be
capable of being recharged very quickly after main power is restored so that it is again
available.
The main characteristics of energy storage systems are discussed in the following sub-
sections.

Secondary batteries (accumulators)

The choice of battery type is usually made by the equipment supplier, but users must
be aware of the type of battery used and the maintenance procedures required – these
parameters may influence the choice of equipment. The main types of secondary batteries
and their basic properties are shown in Table 5.

Table 5: The main types of secondary batteries and some of their generic characteristics

Stationary batteries, where the weight is unimportant, are usually of the lead acid type
because of their lower cost.

Flywheels

Flywheels are used in some conventional motor-generator sets to store the mechanical
energy required to start a combustion engine in the event of main power failure. In that case,
only about 5% of the energy of the flywheel can be used to produce electrical energy directly
because the change in speed, and therefore frequency, is too great.
When used as the energy source, the flywheel concept is totally different. The flywheel
is ‘charged’ – by maintaining its rotational speed – by the main supply. When the supply fails
energy from the flywheel is used to generate electrical energy at variable frequency and
voltage, which is converted to standard frequency and voltage by an electronic inverter.
Because the stored energy is proportional to the square of the rotational speed, about 50% of
the speed range can be used. Flywheel constructions are characterized as high or low speed.

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 High speed flywheels are constructed from glass or carbon fiber materials, which are
about 5 times heavier than steel. Due to thermal reasons and high centrifugal forces, the
flywheel/rotor of generator is a permanent magnet. The flywheel/rotor rotates in a vacuum
and is equipped with magnetic bearings in order to avoid the mechanical friction forces. High-
speed flywheels operate in the range of rotational speed from 10,000 up to 100,000
revolutions per minute. They are currently being built with outputs up 250 kW with a stored
energy of 8 MW.
Low speed flywheels operate in the range of up to 6,000 rpm. Because of a lower
rotational speed in comparison with high speed flywheels, a considerably larger moment of
inertia is necessary in these constructions, which results in heavier weights. The flywheel is
made from steel and it is not necessary to operate in vacuum, but a partial vacuum or a low
density gas can be used in order to reduce frictional losses. The motor/generator is a
synchronous machine with exciter windings on the rotor.
These windings create losses and heat, but the advantage over the high speed flywheel
generator is the possibility of regulation of the excitation. Low speed flywheel systems can be
manufactured in ratings up to 2 MVA and they are able to deliver energy for 1-30 seconds.
The flywheel provides power during the period between the loss of utility supplied
power and either the return of utility power, or the start of a sufficient back-up power system
(i.e. engine generator set). Flywheels provide 1-30 seconds of ride-through time, and engine
generator sets are typically online within 5-20 seconds.

Super-capacitors

Super-capacitors (also known as ultra-capacitors) have extremely high capacitance

achieved by the use of active carbon, activated carbon fibers or ruthenium oxide (RuO2) as
electrode materials. Electrodes made of these materials have a much larger active electrical
surface compared to classical metal films. Super capacitors serve in the system as DC energy
sources, providing power during short duration interruptions and voltage sags. By combining a
super-capacitor with a battery-based UPS, the cycling of the batteries is reduced because
they provide power only during the longer interruptions and their life time extended.

Small super-capacitors are commonly used to extend battery life - effectively by peak
lopping-in electronic equipment, but large super-capacitors are still in development. They are
expected to become viable for energy storage in the very near future.

Superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES)

Superconducting storage systems store energy in the magnetic field of a large coil
carrying direct current which can be converted back to AC as required. Low temperature
SMES, cooled by liquid helium, is commercially available. High temperature SMES, cooled by
liquid nitrogen, is still in the development stage and may become viable as a commercial
energy store in the future.
In the SMES device, a magnetic field is created by circulating a DC current in a closed
coil of superconducting wire. Electrical losses are negligible. To extract power, the path of
the circulating current is repeatedly opened and closed by a solid-state switch. Due to its high
inductance, the coil behaves as a current source that can be used to charge a capacitor that
provides a DC voltage input to an inverter that produces the required AC voltage. SMES
systems are large and can have power capacities from 1 up to 100 MW, but they are generally
used for very short times, in the range 0.1 – 1 second.

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Compressed air energy storage (CAES)

In CAES the energy stored in compressed air is used to drive air turbine-electric
generator systems. Depending on power and quantity of stored energy the CAES systems can
be used for standby supply and ‘peak lopping’. The philosophy of such devices is similar to
that of engine generator sets. The air storage system is maintained at pressure by a
compressor that runs intermittently while power is available. The power range available is
from a few tens to some hundreds of kVA.
CAES systems used as standby supply are equipped with air tanks, while for ‘peak
lopping’ applications natural cavities such as aquifers, or man-made cavities such as mines in
hard rock or hydraulically mined salt caverns are often used. However, this kind of CAES is not
discussed further in this Guide.

Comparison of various energy storage systems

Energy storage systems can be used in UPS systems in various combinations. As

mentioned above, super-capacitors can be used together with the secondary batteries to
cover short-term energy demand and extend the life-time of the battery. Each energy source
is characterized by the stored energy capacity and electrical power available, from which the
time in which the energy can be delivered is derived. Fig. 49 below summarizes these
parameters for various energy storage systems.

Fig. 49: Power vs. energy characteristics of different energy storage systems

The efficiency of energy storage systems used in UPS depends not only on the charging
and discharging operation, but also on the idling losses. In practice, idling losses are dominant
because the UPS system operates for the majority of the time in standby mode. Thus, the
specific losses per Watt-hour of the storage devices are the significant factor of energy
storage systems’ efficiency. At present, the losses of short-term energy sources are very high
in comparison with losses of traditional storage systems. Only super-capacitors are
comparable with secondary batteries in terms of specific loss. Specific losses of various

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energy storage systems are shown in Table 6.

Table 6: Specific losses of different energy storage devices

Example of a practical emergency supplying solution

In practice, in order to ensure a required availability level, it is often necessary to use a

combination of devices such as is shown in the figure below. Loads are divided into two
groups according to their priority level. For example, IT equipment should have the highest
priority (category IV) and should be supplied by a UPS system. Loads that can tolerate a
certain transfer time could be supplied by the engine generator set. The switching operations
in circuits such as that shown in this example are done by automatic source-change over
systems (ASCS). See Fig. 50

Fig. 50: Example of a high availability supply

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 Chapter 5
UPS Configurations For 7 X 24 Continuous Power
Facilities and Power Plants

Objectives
This chapter is concerned with a number of matters that have to be considered before an
installation can be designed. The main objectives of this chapter are
 Presenting and explaining distribution system reconfigurations for hosting standby and
emergency power supplies.
 Classification of load types according to the allowable interruption durations.
 Practical considerations are the layout of LV systems supplying critical for
minimizations or eliminations of interruption times using UPS systems.

Separating the Essential and Nonessential Loads

Before planning can proceed it is necessary to identify the essential loads (which
receive a supply from the standby generator) and nonessential loads which are disconnected,
and to devise a distribution system which will achieve the desired operation. Problems can
arise and there are various methods of overcoming them.
If the standby supply is to be included in a new installation the simplest procedure is
for the main switchboard to have two busbar sections, one supplied from the normal supply
and feeding the nonessential load, the other supplied from the standby supply and feeding the
essential load. The two sections of busbar are connected through a bus section circuit breaker
which is electrically interlocked with the standby supply circuit breaker and acts as the load
shedding device when the standby supply is in use. When it is necessary to run on the standby
supply the set is started and when it is ready to accept load, the bus section breaker is
tripped and, after a short delay, the standby supply breaker is closed. Figure 2 indicates such
a system; for small installations interlocked changeover contactors may be used in the manner
indicated in Fig. 51.
For a large installation where there are several major distribution boards, it may be
expedient to equip other boards with busbars and circuit breakers as described above, and to
provide a feed from the standby supply. This would involve the addition of a standby supply
distribution board.
If a number of individual loads distributed within a building are classified as essential
and have to be supplied from the standby supply, the simplest procedure is to install a supply
changeover contactor for each of the loads. It is usually convenient to install the contactors
near to their loads but such a decision depends on where the normal and standby supplies are
available. The contactor control circuits may be autonomous or may receive signals from the
generator control panel. If they are autonomous they should be biased to use the normal
supply whenever it is available, the standby supply being used only when the normal supply is

71
not available. For autonomous controls there should be two timers, one to delay the closing of
the standby supply contactor so that the loads may be applied to the generating set in stages,
and another to delay the return to the normal supply for sufficient time to prove its
reliability.

Fig. 51: Single-line diagram showing a typical method of connecting a small single set using
changeover contactors

Fig. 52: Single-line diagram and switching status table showing a typical method of connecting
a single set using electrically interlocked circuit breakers.

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Fig. 53: Single-line diagram and switching status table showing a typical method of connecting
two sets with two stages of load shedding

Another consideration that sometimes arises is the geographical nature of the site. If the
installation is “compact,” such as a single building, the foregoing considerations will be
applicable but if it is, for instance, an airfield, it is “spread out” and other considerations
arise. In addition to using split bus distribution boards, a large, spread-out site may use a
signal distributed over the site by, for example, a telephone-type cable network, the final
shedding of the nonessential load being achieved by using various devices such as:

 Circuit breakers with shunt trips. These are applicable to both low voltage and high-
voltage installations and will usually incorporate a facility enabling them to be closed
automatically or manually from a remote control point.
 Ring main units with shunt trips. These are applicable to high-voltage installations
only. A remote closing facility may not be available on ring main units and in such cases
reclosing involves an operator visiting the location of each ring main unit.
 Outdoor-type fuse-pillars having duplicate busbars (the nonessential bars being
supplied through a contactor). These are applicable to low voltage circuits only. The
contactor coil is supplied through a normally closed contact of a load shedding relay.
Aload shedding signal energizes the relay thus releasing the contactor which remains
open until the load shedding signal is removed. A circuit breaker may be used in place
of the contactor. For a large site using many load shedding relays and long runs of
telephone type cable, consideration must be given to the relay operating current and
the volt drop in the telephone-type cable.

Figures 51 and 52 show typical methods of connecting single generating sets, Fig. 51
applies to a small set using electrically and mechanically interlocked changeover contactors

73
or circuit breakers, and Fig. 52 applies to a set using electrically interlocked circuit breakers.
Where two generating sets are installed and run in parallel, two stages of load shedding
may be provided; the essential load is divided into two parts which may be termed essential
load 1 and essential load 2. On failure of the normal supply, the nonessential load is shed and
essential loads 1 and 2 are fed from the standby supply, and if either of the sets fails essential
load 2 is shed leaving essential load 1 to be supplied from the healthy set. Figure 53 indicates
a typical electrical arrangement.

Special equipment to support continuous operation2

There are several special pieces of equipment specifically designed to support the
continuous power requirement of electronic equipment. The most common is a UPS. In the
critical facility environment, the majority of UPS is “double conversion,” where ac power is
converted to dc with a rectifier, and then back to ac by an inverter. Batteries provide backup
power to the inverter, on loss of power to the rectifier.
There are other UPS designs than double conversion, such as standby (line interactive)
and off-line. In a standby (line interactive) UPS, the inverter is operating but not carrying load
unless utility power is lost. For an off-line UPS, the inverter does not start until the utility
power is lost. There are also rotary UPS systems that employ synchronous generators instead
of inverters for the output power.
Another very common piece of equipment is a static bypass switch. This is an electronic
switch capable of shunting power around the UPS on loss of inverter output. Many static
bypass switches detect the loss of power and operate within a 1/4 cycle. They can be built
into the UPS module itself, or as a separate part the control cabinet for multi-module UPS
configurations. In Figure 54, the static bypass switch is internal to the UPS module.
In recent years, the same technology used for a static bypass switch has been applied
to other transfer switches. An automatic static transfer switch (ASTS), shown in Figure 55,
operates in a similar way to two static bypass switches supplying a common load. Typically,
power is brought to each side of the ASTS from a different UPS. For a voltage deviation
outside the specified limits on the “primary” side, it switches to the “alternate,” often within
a 1/4 cycle.
There is a significant difference between the control of the static bypass switch and
the static switch of an ASTS. The static bypass switch is fired so that it “makes” (provides a
closed transition) before the UPS inverter is shut down. The ASTS does the opposite. It opens
one static switch as it transfers and then closes the other static switch (open transition). It is
very important that the ASTS operate as an open transition, as one of the worst failure modes
of an ASTS is a “cross-connection” in which both static switches are closed at the same time
and thus both power sources are connected together.
ASTSs can be relatively large, such as 600 A, in which they supply power to the entire
power distribution unit (PDU). They are also made in smaller sizes to be mounted right on the
rack with the information technology (IT) equipment itself.
The ASTS can also be used on the primary (480 V) or secondary side (120/208 V) of the
PDU transformer (Fig. 55). To install the ASTS on the secondary side, two transformers are
required.

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Fig. 54: Double conversion UPS module with internal static bypass switch

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 (a)

(b)
Fig. 55: Automatic static transfer switch. (a) Layout; (b) connection to the external system

Though it has a higher initial cost, it is the preferred method for two reasons.

 The first reason is it eliminates the significant problem of transformer inrush current
during an out-of-phase transfer. The transformer is already energized by the alternate
source and therefore does not have to be reenergized while it still has a residual
magnetic field from the first source (as it does in the case of a transformer with the
ASTS on the primary side).
 The second reason is it is more reliable, since the transformer has been eliminated as a
single point of failure (SPOF).

The PDU shown in Fig. 56 consists of a transformer, distribution panel(s) with circuit

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breakers to supply the critical loads, and usually some form of built-in power monitoring. The
transformer may be shielded, a K-factor transformer, or both. Some manufacturers of PDUs
also provide surge protection in the unit.
One of the most significant advances, from a reliability standpoint, is the development of
dual-corded IT equipment. Dual-corded IT equipment has two power supplies built into it,
with two separate power cords, each capable of powering the equipment. This provides the
opportunity to eliminate single points of failure from the power source all the way to the
piece of IT equipment itself. For many designs, the availability improves by an order of
magnitude (factor of 10) in comparisons between single- and dual-corded equipment.
However, for IT equipment with dual-cord powers to actually achieve the predicted
availability and reliability, it is very important that the IT equipment provide notification
when one of the power supplies fails. Otherwise, the latent failure of the power supply will
only be discovered when the power supply is needed and the equipment goes down.

Fig. 56: Power distribution unit

Dual-cord power supplies come in two basic types, one type that utilizes regulated
power supplies where one side takes 100% power and the other that uses unregulated power
supplies with current sharing onto a common dc bus. The unregulated power supplies each
take 50% of the load.
There is also IT equipment designs in which more than two power supplies are used,
such as three out of four or four out of five designs. For these equipment designs, the
manufacturer usually provides an option that powers the multiple power supplies from two
power cords, with some form of internal switching.

Defining failure in a 7 × 24 facility

Defining a failure mode, and root causes of failures are among the main challenges of
operators, and maintenance crews. The first step of any probability analysis for failure
definition and identification is to define the system to be analyzed. This includes determining
what constitutes a failure.
While it may seem obvious for simple systems, as the systems become interconnected,
the line blurs. Take for example, a UPS with an internal static bypass switch.

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  If the UPS module shuts down, but the static bypass switch carries the load, is that a
failure?
o The UPS manufacturer will tell you, “No, the system worked exactly as it was
designed to.” However the load is now exposed to the sags, etc., of utility
power, which is exactly what the UPS was installed to protect against!

Another significant issue is what constitutes a failure at the individual critical load
itself, usually some piece of computer or IT equipment. In a large data center there will be
thousands of individual loads. There is usually redundancy for the computers or other IT
equipment, and they often work in conjunction with each other. A majority of the time the
interactions are so complex that it is not possible to determine with any degree of accuracy
exactly which of the machines will take care of a specific application or data communication.

 Should the loss of one load constitute a failure? It may have no impact whatsoever to
the overall mission of the facility.

Another aspect of this same issue is that in most critical facilities, there are multiple PDUs or
UPS distribution panels in the facility. In each panel there are multiple branch circuits. If a
failure was defined as the loss of an individual circuit, several factors would immediately be
apparent. First of all, the type of system upstream of the panel would be relatively
insignificant in the calculations, compared to the number and failure rate of the individual
branch circuits. Secondly, the bigger the data center the worse the availability and reliability
would be regardless of the design. Therefore, it does not make sense to go to the individual
branch circuit level, as it skews the results based on size.

A third aspect of defining failure is, “What is the data to be used for?” There is no
point in collecting vast quantities of data that is insignificant and obscures data that is
significant. So it may be easier to “reverse engineer” the definition of failure, by looking at
what would be significant data.
At this point in the chapter we are going to recommend definitions for failure of the
various components, systems, and subsystems in a 7 × 24 facility. As the chapter progresses
we will discuss why these particular definitions were selected, and also recommend what
failure data to capture for the various components and subsystems.

Failure of components
This section provides clear definitions of failures of various components comprising
static UPS systems.

Automatic static transfer switch—Failure to transfer or loss of power at the load terminals for
any reason except no input power to either side of the switch.

Automatic transfer switches (mechanical)—Failure to transfer or loss of power at the load

terminals for any reason except no input power to both inputs of the switch.

UPS battery—Loss of power to the inverter it is supplying, whether due to discharge,

connections or internal cell failure.

Circuit breaker—Loss of power to the load it is feeding, regardless of where in the system it is

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located, except when a fault in the cables or equipment it is feeding caused the circuit
breaker to open. It would also be a failure if the circuit breaker closed when it was not
supposed to due to a defective control or part.

Generator—No output power when required. It is important to capture whether the generator
failed to start, or whether it failed while operating.

Static bypass switch (for UPS module)—Failure to transfer or loss of power at the output
terminals for any reason except no input power to input of the switch (when called upon to be
operated by either UPS module failure or manual switching operation).

UPS module rectifier—Failure to provide power at the dc bus, regardless of whether the
battery is charged and providing power to the inverter, except when there is no power at the
input of the rectifier, due to a failure upstream.

UPS module inverter—Loss of output power at the inverter in any failure mode except for loss
of dc input (which is a battery or rectifier failure, not a UPS inverter failure).

Failure of the subsystem

UPS system (UPS module with static bypass switch, for single or multi-module system)—
Loss of power to the load it is feeding, including momentary sags where the voltage
disturbance is outside the specified limits, as the purpose of the UPS module was to protect
against this in the first place. Therefore, it is a failure of the subsystem if there is a voltage
disturbance outside the specified limits while the load is on the static bypass switch.

Critical system

At this point there has to be some discussion of what reliability and availability
calculations will be used for to fully define a “failure” for the critical systems. The loss of
power to a PDU (or UPS distribution panel) is the recommended definition of failure for most
types of system calculations. In most data centers, the loss of an entire PDU would impact the
overall mission of the facility. If the facility has dual-cord loads (computer or other IT
equipment in which there are two power supplies internal to the equipment itself, and only
one is required to power the equipment), it would be the loss of power to both PDUs (or
distribution panels). This will be discussed in more detail in the following sub-clauses.

References and Recommended Readings

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Main References
[1] Gonen T. Electrical power transmission system engineering: analysis and design. CRC
press; 2015.
[2] Roe E, Schulman PR. High reliability management: Operating on the edge. Stanford
University Press; 2008.
[3] Bollen MH, Bollen MH. Understanding power quality problems: voltage sags and
interruptions. New York: IEEE press; 2000

Recommended Readings
[1] Kundur P, Balu NJ, Lauby MG. Power system stability and control. New York: McGraw-
hill; 1994.
[2] Anders GJ. Probability concepts in electric power system; OSTI; 1989.
[3] Kusko A, Thompson MT. Power quality in electrical systems. McGraw-Hill; 2007.
[4] King A, Knight W. Uninterruptible Power Supplies. McGraw-Hill; 2003.

 Book Coordinator ; Mostafa Fathallah

 General Directorate of Technical Education for Health

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