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Difference Between Sale and Agreement To Sale
Difference Between Sale and Agreement To Sale
This means that the seller has the right to sell a good only if he is the true
owner and holds the title of the goods or is an agent of the title holder.
When a good is sold the implied condition for the good is its title, i.e. the
ownership of the good. If the seller does not own the title of the said good
himself and sells it to the buyer, it is a breach of condition. In such a
situation the buyer can return the goods to the seller and claim his money
back or refuse to accept the good before delivery or whenever he learns
about the false title of the seller.
When the article can be used only for one particular purpose, the buyer
need not inform the seller the purpose for which the goods are required.
Example: A purchased a hot water bottle from a chemist. While the bottle
was being used by A’s wife, it burst and injured A’s wife. Held, the seller
was liable for damages as the bottle was not fit for the purpose for which
it was meant – Priest vs Last.
4. Caveat Emptor and its exceptions.
The doctrine of Caveat Emptor is an integral part of the Sale of Goods Act. It
translates to “let the buyer beware”. This means it lays the responsibility of their
choice on the buyer themselves.
The doctrine attempts to make the buyer more conscious of his choices. It is the
duty of the buyer to check the quality and the usefulness of the product he/she is
purchasing. If the product turns out to be defective or does not live up to its
potential the seller will not be responsible for this.
Exceptions: -
Fitness of Product for the Buyer’s Purpose
When the buyer informs the seller of his purpose of buying the goods, it is
implied that he is relying on the seller’s judgment. It is the duty of the seller
then to ensure the goods match their desired usage.
Sale by Sample
If the buyer buys his goods after examining a sample then the rule of
Doctrine of Caveat Emptor will not apply. If the rest of the goods do not
resemble the sample, the buyer cannot be held responsible. In this case, the
seller will be the one responsible.
For example, A places an order for 50 toy cars with B. He checks one
sample where the car is red. The rest of the cars turn out orange. Here the
doctrine will not apply and B will be responsible.
Usage of Trade
There is an implied condition or warranty about the quality or the fitness of
goods/products. But if a seller deviated from this then the rules of caveat
emptor cease to apply.
To simplify, it means that one party will compensate the other in case it suffers
some losses.
For example, A promises to deliver certain goods to B for Rs. 2,000 every month.
C comes in and promises to indemnify B’s losses if A fails to so deliver the goods.
This is how B and C will enter into contractual obligations of indemnity.
Contract of Guarantee-
Apart from indemnity contracts, the Contract Act also governs contracts of
guarantee. These contracts might appear similar to indemnity contracts but there are
some differences between them.
Contract of Guarantee has been defined under Section 126 of the Indian Contract
Act, 1872- “A contract of guarantee is a contract to perform the promise, or
discharge the liability, of a third person in case of his default. The person who gives
the guarantee is called the surety, the person in respect of whose default the
guarantee is given is called the principal debtor, and the person to whom the
guarantee is given is called the creditor.
Essentials of Bailment
There shall be a contract between the parties for the delivery of goods,
The goods shall be delivered for a special purpose only,
Bailment can only be done for movable goods and not for immovable
goods or money,
There shall be a transfer of possession of goods,
Ownership is not transferred to Bailee; therefore, Bailor remains the
owner,
Bailee is duty bound to deliver the same goods back and not any other
goods.
Pledge-
Essentials of Pledge
Since Pledge is a special kind of bailment, therefore all the essentials of bailment
are also the essentials of the pledge. Apart from that, the other essentials of the
pledge are:
In Hyman v Nye & Sons, the plaintiff took a carriage on hire from the defendant
but the carriage was not fit for the journey and subsequently, the plaintiff suffered
injuries. The court held that even though the defendant was aware of such defect
or not he shall be liable.
Bailor Rights-
Bailee has to fulfil several obligations as per Indian Contract Act, 1872. That is:
Duty to take reasonable care: It is the duty of the Bailee to take care
of goods as his own goods. He shall ensure all safety measures that are
necessary to protect the goods. The standard of care should be such as
taken care by a prudent man. The goods shall be taken care of equally
whether they are gratuitous or non-gratuitous. The Bailee shall be held
liable for payment of compensation if he fails to take due care. But if
the Bailee has taken due care and instead of that the goods are damaged
then in such a situation Bailee will not be liable to pay compensation.
The Bailee is not liable for the loss of goods due to destruction by fire.
(Section 151-152)
Duty not to make unauthorized use of the goods: Bailee is duty bound
to use the goods for a specific purpose only and not otherwise. If he uses
the goods for any other purpose than what is agreed for then the bailor
has the right to terminate such bailment or is entitled with compensation
for damage caused due to unauthorized use. (Section 153-154)
Duty not to mix bailor’s goods with his own goods: It is the duty of
the Bailee not to mix bailor’s goods with his own. But if he wants to do
the same then he shall seek consent from the bailor for mixing of goods.
If the bailor agrees for the mixing of the goods then the interest in the
mixed goods shall be shared in proportion. In case, Bailee without the
consent of bailor mixes the goods with his own then two situations arise:
goods can be separated and goods can’t be separated. In the former case
the Bailee has to bear the cost of separation and in the latter case since
there is the loss of the goods, therefore, bailor shall be entitled with
damages of such loss. (Section 155-157)
Duty to return the goods on the fulfilment of purpose: Bailee is duty
bound to return the goods once the purpose is achieved or on the expiry
of the time period for which the goods were bailed. But if the Bailee
makes default in returning the goods on proper time then he will be
responsible with the loss, destruction or deterioration of the goods if
any. (Section 160-161). In the case of Bank of India v. Grains & Gunny
Agencies the court held that if the goods are lost or destroyed due to the
negligence of servant of Bailee, then in such case as well Bailee shall be
liable.
Duty to deliver to the bailor increase or profit if any on the goods
bailed: The Bailee has a duty to return the goods along with increase
or profit subject to contract to the contrary. Accretion that has accrued
from the bailed goods is the part of the bailed goods and therefore bailor
has the right over such accretions if any. And such accretions shall be
handed over to the bailor along with the goods bailed. For instance, A
leaves a cow in the custody of B and cow gives birth to the calf. Then B
is duty bound to hand over the bailed goods along with accretion to the
bailor. (Section 163)
Rights of Bailee-
Right to suit against a wrongdoer: After the goods have been bailed
and any third party deprives the Bailee of use of such goods, then the
Bailee or bailor can bring an action against the third party. (Section 180)
11. Define Agency & Essentials of Agency
Section of 182 of the Contract Act,1872 defines the term Agent and Principal as;
“An agent is a person employed to do any act for another or to represent another
in dealings with third persons. The person for whom such act is completed, or
who is so represented, is known the Principal.”
In a contract of agency, the principal employs agent on his own behalf to represent
him before a third person with or without the consideration to the agent. It is also
important that the agent shall act as per the directions of the principal. The act
done by the agent against the directions and instruction of the principal, the
principal shall not be responsible for such an act.
The Special Contract of Agency has been defined under Chapter 10 (section 182-
238) of the Indian Contract Act, 1872; where beyond the general essentials
(section 10) provided for a contract, the Act also lays down certain specific
principles and essentials for the Special Contract of Agency.
The requirement for the competency of the principal has been repeated (as Sec.10
of the “act” also requires for “parties competent to contract”) and laid down in
the Indian Contract Act under sec. 183, where the requirements for a competent
principal have been listed down to;
Majority, i.e. the principal must have attained the age of majority, under
the relevant laws.
Sound mind, i.e. the principal must be of sound mind, at least at the
moment of appointing the agent.
The basic rule of thumb here is that the principal should be capable of performing
the tasks (in law), which he wants his agent to do for him.
The requirements regarding the competency of the agent have been listed down
in Sec. 184 of ICA, 1872, where it has been explicitly mentioned that anyone
between the principal and the third party may become an agent, regardless of its
age or soundness of his mind. It prescribes that any person, including a minor and
an unsound person, may become an agent. However, they (the agent) may not be
liable to the principal unless they have attained the age of majority and are of
sound mind.
From the general description provided under the section, it can be interpreted that,
any person, including ones who themselves might not be competent enough to
contract (minors and persons of unsound mind included), have the capacity to
represent and bind their principals into direct and valid contractual relationships.
As per the view of the Indian Contract Act, even consideration is not an essential
element for the creation of an Agency; hence no consideration is required to be
presented while the formation of an agency.
However, these provisions do not deprive the agent of his legal and justified
remunerations unless proven to be specified otherwise in the contract.
These principles of the contract act are based upon the ideologies of Common
Law, which specify that no consideration is required to give an individual the
authority of an agent, neither does it bar any one of the parties from suing each
other, either it be for the negligence on part of the agent or for the recovery of due
compensation from the principal.
12. Rights and Duties of Pawnor and Pawnee.
RIGHTS OF PAWNEE
(a) Where the Pawnee lends money to the Pawnor subsequently, after the
date of pledge, it shall be presumed that the he has a right of retainer over
the goods already pledged in respect of the subsequent lending also.
(a) Suit: Pawnee may institute a suit against Pawnor when there is a default
in payment of debt or performance of promise at the stipulated time.
(d) No Notice: Where the Pawnee does not give a reasonable notice to the
Pawnor, the sale is valid, but Pawnee is liable to pay damages to Pawnor.
DUTIES OF PAWNEE
Not to use the goods
• The pawnee has no right to use the goods
• However, he may use the goods, if he has been so authorised by the
pawnor.
RIGHTS OF A PAWNOR
Redeem the goods pledged
Meaning of redemption Right to recover back the goods by making
payment of the debt or performance of promise. Time for redemption
Where time of redemption is fixed, the pawnor may exercise redemption –
(a) within the time so fixed; or
(b) even after expiry of time so fixed, provided –
• the pawnee has not sold the good; and
• the pawnee pays the pawnee all expenses arising on account of his
default.
Enforce pawnee’s duties
The pawnor has the right to enforce the duties of pawnee, if the pawnee
fails to fulfil his duties.
DUTIES OF A PAWNOR
Pay the debt
The pawnor is liable to pay the debt or perform his promise as the case may
be.