ENGHNEEREN6

GEOL©GY
ELSEVIER Engineering Geology47 (1997) 175-187

Engineering geological properties and durability assessment of the

Cappadocian tuff
T. Topal *, V. Doyuran
Department of Geological Engineering, Middle East Technical University, 06531, Ankara, Turkey
Received 25 June 1996; accepted 1 February 1997

Abstract

Some of the unique landforms, the so-called "fairy chimneys", which were formed within the Cappadocian tuff of
central Turkey, were used as dwellings in the past and contain culturally valuable wall paintings. However, these
structures are undergoing chemical and physical deterioration due to atmospheric effects. For conservation studies,
an understanding of the engineering geological properties of the tuff is essential. In this study, emphasis is placed on
both material and mass properties of the tuff. These properties are evaluated for the assessment of rock durability.
This study shows that the Cappadocian tuff is almost fresh, with local discoloration, is moderately weak to very
weak, and has low unit weight, very high porosity, and high deformability. Discontinuity surveys revealed two
dominant joint sets, which not only controlled the formation but also control the structural stability of the fairy
chimneys. Various methods used for the durability assessment of the Cappadocian tuff indicate poor to very poor
durability. Due consideration must be given to strength reduction due to moisture, poor to very poor durability, and
the adverse effects of joints on the structural stability of the fairy chimneys. © 1997 Elsevier Science B.V.

Keywords: Cappadocia; Durability; Engineering geology; Tuff

1. Introduction such dwellings contain invaluable wall paint-

The Cappadocia region comprising Nev~ehir,
Kayseri, and Ni~de provinces of Central Anatolia
(Fig. 1), is one of the attractive tourist sites of
Turkey due to its spectacular and unique land-
forms, fairy chimneys, and historical heritages.
The fairy chimneys developed within the tufts are
the results of weathering and differential erosion.
Some of the fairy chimneys were dwellings and
were inhabited during the Byzantine times. Some
* Correspondingauthor. Fax: +90 312 2101263;
e-mail: topal@rorqual.cc.metu.edu.tr
ings, which also provide historical attraction.
Weathering and erosion, however, are still active
and these natural processes, along with human
activities, threaten the stability of the chimneys.
Studies towards conservation of these valuable
historical and touristic phenomena necessitate the
determination of the engineering geological (mate-
rial and mass) properties and the durability of
the tufts.
In this study, material and mass properties of
the tuff are determined. The average pore diameter,
saturation coefficient, wet-to-dry strength ratio,
static rock durability index, index of rock durabil-
ity, and slake-durability index of the tuff are used

0013-7952/97/$17.00© 1997ElsevierScienceB.V. All fights reserved.

PII S0013-7952 (97) 00017-3
176 T. Topal. ['~ Doyuran / Engineering Geology 47 (1997) 175 187

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Mustafapasa 3917
&
Erciyes da~,

AKSARAY

0 I0~ 3O
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i

MeLcndiz d(:l~u h I

,~ N i GDE

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Fig. I. Location map of the study area.

for the durability assessment of the rock, and of
the fairy chimneys. Engineering geological proper-
ties and the assessed durability of the tuff are
re-evaluated for the purpose of conservation of
the fairy chimneys. The study is carried out within
the Urgtip-G6reme region (Fig. 1) due to the
occurrences of typical fairy chimneys in this area
(Fig. 2).
2. Site geology
The Cappadocia region is generally underlain
by thick and extensive deposits of the volcano-
sedimentary sequence (Miocene-Pliocene) of the
Orgtip formation (Pasquare, 1968). Although the
formation comprises a number of well-distin-
guished members, in the study area only the Kavak
and Tahar members contain the fairy chimneys.
Both members are characterized by non-welded
tufts. Since most of the dwellings and wall paint-
ings are found within the fairy chimneys of the
Kayak member, our study is focused on this
member.
The Kavak member represents the product of
the first intermittent volcanic activity which pro-
duced the LlrgOp formation. Thus, this member
constitutes the basal portion of the volcano-
sedimentary sequence. The chaotic arrangement of
pumice fragments within the unit suggests that it
is an ash flow tuff deposited in a lacustrine environ-
ment. It is dirty white to pink, and contains
phenocrysts of plagioclase, quartz, biotite and
opaque minerals. Various rock fragments and
pumice are also commonly observed. In the matrix,
volcanic glass shards are rather common (Topal
 T. Topal, F. Doyuran / Engineering Geology 47 (1997) 175-187
Fig. 2. Typical view of fairy chimneys with cap rocks.
and Doyuran, 1994; METU, 1987). The volcanic
glass shards are partly altered to smectite. In this
paper, the term "Cappadocian tuff" is used to
denote the Kavak member.
3. Engineering geological properties of the
Cappadocian tuff
Evaluation of the engineering geological charac-
teristics of the Cappadocian tuff is based on field
observations and laboratory studies. Since the fairy
chimneys are essentially formed within ignimbritic
levels of the Cappadocian tuff, the material and
mass properties of these levels will be considered
in the following sections. For the laboratory
studies, core samples extruded from 22 oriented
block samples are used. Although the Cappadocian
tuff does not show distinct layering within ignim-
britic levels, cores from the oriented block samples
are taken in the vertical and horizontal directions
177
to assess anisotropy. These directions are expected
to represent the material characteristics of the tuff
perpendicular and parallel to layering. The labora-
tory tests, performed according to ISRM (1981),
RILEM (1980) and TSE (1978), included
determination of the index and some mechanical
properties of the intact rock specimens. The field
observations involved assessment of the rock mass
properties, such as discontinuity characteristics
and weathering grade. The description of rock
material and mass characteristics is based on Anon
(1977), BSI (1981), and ISRM (1981).
3.1. Material properties of the Cappadocian tuff
The Cappadocian tuff is dirty white to pink,
consisting mostly of lapilli size (2-64 mm) phe-
nocrysts and rock fragments embedded within
tuffaceous matrix. The tuff is almost fresh with
very local discoloration around biotites and some
rock fragments. The results of index and mechan-
ical tests conducted by the authors and those of
other authors are given in Table 1.
3.2. Mass properties of the Cappadocian tuff
Within the thickly bedded and almost horizon-
tally layered Cappadocian tuff, the joints constitute
the major discontinuities. In the study area, the
joints are locally well-developed and can easily be
traced for a considerable distance. Some, however,
can only be traced due to the alignment of vegeta-
tion supported by moisture along the persistent
joints.
A number of scan line surveys, spot measure-
ments, and field observations were carried out in
the field to determine the orientation, spacing,
aperture, persistence, infilling, surface roughness,
water seepage and weathering state of the joints.
The orientation of the joints (i.e., strike and dip)
were determined using geological compass. In the
field, 1905 joint orientation measurements were
taken at 150 locations (Fig. 3).
In order to determine the dominant sets, the
joint orientation measurements were evaluated
using a computer program called "Rockware"
(Rockware, 1993). For the pole plots, a Schmidt
diagram with lower hemisphere projection was
178 T. Topal, IL Doyuran / Engineering Geology 47 (1997) 175 187

Table 1
Correlation table for the material properties of the Cappadocian tuff

Material properties This study Erguvanll and Erdogan METU De Witte et al. Erguvanh et al.
Y~zer (1977) (1986) (1987) (1988) (1989)
No. of Mean_+ SD
samples

Unit weight (kN m 3)

dry 10 13.60+0.11 11.50 15.10 13.90 14.02 15.90
saturated 10 17.75_+0.08 19.20 -- 19.20
Effective porosity (%) 10 38.29_+0.38 28 28.76 32.72 42 28.76
Water absorption by weight (%)
under atmospheric pressure 10 21.60_+0.27 25 27.50 -- 27.50
by weight (%)
under pressure by weight (%) 10 28.08 _+0.46
Saturation coefficient 10 0.78_+0.01 0.64
Uniaxial compressive strength
(MPa)
dry-vertical (MPa) 10 6.53_+0.67 5.5 6.5 6.07 6.5
dry-horizontal (MPa) 10 4.87 _+0.43
saturated-vertical (MPa) 5 2.16+0.34 3.0 -- 3.0
saturated-horizontal (MPa) 5 0.93 -+0.29
Point load strength, I,~5o (MPa)
dry 20 0.48_+0.10 0.40 --
saturated 20 0.13_+0.04
Schmidt rebound hardnessa: dry 20 27_+3.3 40-48 -- 20 b
Indirect (Brazilian) tensile 10 0.69 -+0.08 0.60 0.7 0.83 0.70
strength: dry (MPa)
Slake Durability (%): 2nd cycle 2 84_+0.17
P-wave velocityc (m s 1)
dry-vertical I0 2082.46 _+84.10 2058
dry-horizontal 5 1973.86_+41.60
saturated-vertical 10 1388.87_+85.00
saturated-horizontal 5 1264.20 _+38.90
S-wave velocityd (m s ~)
dry-vertical 10 1124.67 _+77.30
dry-horizontal 5 1046.06_+47.60
saturated-vertical 10 759.43 _+41.20
saturated-horizontal ) 5 724.18_+68.70
Modulus of elasticity, E (GPa)
dry-vertical 10 3.08 _+0.49 1.40 2.4 2.40
dry-horizontal 10 3.26 _+0.45
Poisson's ratio, v
dry-vertical 10 0.20+0.02
dry-horizontal 10 0.19_+0.01
Dynamic modulus of elasticity
(GPa)
dry-vertical 10 4.47+0.53 4.2 3.9
dry-horizontal 5 3.90+0.29
saturated-vertical 10 2.64+0.27
saturated -horizontal 5 2.33+0.34
Dynamic Poisson's ratio
dry-vertical 10 0.29 _+0.03
dry-horizontal 5 0.30+0.02
saturated-vertical 10 0.28 + 0.02
saturated-horizontal 5 0.25 _+0.06
Internal friction angle% ~ (°) 10 28 + 2.95 40 49 13 19
 T. Topal, V. Doyuran / Engineering Geology47 (1997) 175-187 179

Table 1 (Continued)

Material properties This study Erguvanh and Erdo~an METU De Witteet al. E r g u v a n h et al.
Yiizer (1977) (1986) (1987) (1988) (1989)
No. of M e a n 4- SD
samples

Cohesion e, C ( M P a ) 10 2.28 4-0.15 1.20 0.9 1.8 1.9

Linear strain ( m m m - 1)
vertical 7 0.55 4-0.03 -- -- m

horizontal 7 0.51 +0.07 0.07 -- m

Average pore diameter (inn) 4 0.11 4-0.01 -- --

Permeability (m s -1) -- -- -- 0.00 0.00
T h e r m a l conductivity coefficient -- -- 0.32 0.43 0.43
(kcal/hm°C)
T h e r m a l expansion coefficient -- -- -- 6.3 6.3
(× 10 -6 I/°C)
Capillary water a b s o r p t i o n . . . . 187
coefficient ( g / m 2. min °'s)
Drying rate at 20°C and 40% . . . . 444
R H ( g / m 2. h °'5)
Water retention at 20°C (%) . . . . 4.85
"L-type Schmidt h a m m m e r is used.
bField measurement.
°For P-wave measurements, 63-kHz transducers are used ( N e w Sonicviwer, 5217A-OYO).
dFor S-wave measurements, 100-kHz transducers and high voltage generators are used.
~ and C values are obtained f r o m triaxial compression tests, using strength envelope.

adopted. The contour diagram was then obtained
from the pole plots (Fig. 4). The diagrams yield
two dominant joint sets: N78°E/85-90°NW and
N-S/90 °.
The spacing of the joints generally ranges
between 0.1 and 20m (moderately wide to
extremely wide) (Anon, 1977) and their persistence
exceeds 10m (high to very high persistence)
(ISRM, 1981 ). Studies performed on 1:35 000 scale
aerial photographs have shown that some of the
joints may be traced for a distance of 800 m. The
apertures of most joints fall within narrow to tight
(0-20mm) categories (Anon, 1977). The joint
surfaces are generally rough planar. Some narrow
joints contain clayey infilling, but most are free of
infilling material. During field inspections no
groundwater seepage was noted through the joints.
The tufts are faintly to slightly weathered. Due
to the steep topography, slope wash, and lack of
vegetation the weathering products are soon
removed. Along the persistent joints, discoloration
and/or surface staining is commonly observed.
Spalling of exposed surfaces due to alternate
freezing-thawing, and wetting-drying is rather
common.
4. Durability assessment of the Cappadocian tuff
The durability of a stone is a measure of its
ability to resist weathering and so retain its original
size, shape, strength, and appearance over an
extensive period of time (Bell, 1980, 1993; Sims,
1991). There are several means of assessing the
durability of a stone. In this study, average
pore diameter, saturation coefficient, wet-to-dry
strength ratio, static rock durability index, index
of rock durability, and slake-durability index are
used.
4.1. Average pore diameter
Average pore diameter is considered to be an
important parameter for the freeze-thaw durability
of stones. Larsen and Cady (1969) stated that the
critical pore size is 5 prn, below which pore water
180 T Topal, K Doyuran / Engineering Geology 47 (1997) 175 187

Fig. 3. Map showing the distribution of joints in the Cappadocian tuff (after Topal and Doyuran, 1995).

cannot be drained out of the stone. Therefore, 4.2. Saturation coefficient

stones having an average pore size less than 5 ~tm
are susceptible to frost damage.
The average pore diameter of the Cappadocian
tuff was calculated from intrusion data of the
mercury porosimeter. The test results yielded a
value of 0.11 ~tm (Topal, 1995), which suggests
that the Cappadocian tuff is susceptible to frost
damage.
Saturation coefficient (S) of a stone is the ratio
between the natural capacity of a stone to absorb
water after complete immersion under atmospheric
pressure for a definite time, and the total pore
volume that is accessible to water, i.e.,
S = (water absorption)/(effective porosity)
 T. Topal, V. Doyuran / Engineering Geology 47 (1997) 175-187 181

o
~l o °o °~

o
o
e | eP oo
_ u IJ m

(A)

? O,Zto 10~
lOto 20
i 20to
•l O t o
4,01
80Z
tB) 8 0 to l ~ O I t
160 ~o 2,10Z
Fig. 4. The pole plot (A) and the contour (B) diagrams of the joints in the Cappadocian tuff.

It is a dimensionless coefficient, mostly given as a
percentage. A stone with a very high saturation
coefficient may be deteriorated by freeze-thaw
activity (Schaffer, 1972; RILEM, 1980). Therefore,
this test can be useful for giving information on
the freeze-thaw durability of a stone.
The value of the saturation coefficient can mostly
vary between 0.4 and 0.95 (BRE, 1983). A satura-
tion coefficient greater than 0.8 indicates low dura-
bility (susceptible to frost activity) (Hirschwald,
1912; TSE, 1977). However, many stones have
saturation coefficients in the range of 0.66-0.77.
In this range, the saturation coefficient gives an
unreliable guide (Anon, 1975; BRE, 1983).
The saturation coefficient of the Cappadocian
tuff is found to be 0.78. Although this value is
182 T Topal, V. Doyuran / Engineering Geology 47 (1997) 175 187
close to the upper bound of the unreliable range
mentioned above, it is also very near to the frost
susceptibility boundary, which is 0.8. Adopting a
conservative approach, the Cappadocian tuff may
be considered to be frost susceptible based on the
saturation coefficient.
4.3. Wet-to-dry strength ratio
Swelling and non-swelling clays tend to attract
water when exposed to moisture and this moisture
significantly reduces the strength of a stone.
Winkler (1986, 1993) suggested that the wet-to-
dry strength ratio based on the modulus of rupture,
or the uniaxial compressive strength, or the tensile
strength, is a good and rapid method of testing
the durability of a stone for use as a durability
index. The general stone qualities using wet-to-dry
strength ratios are presented by Winkler (1993) as
follows: 80-90 good and safe; 70-80 further testing
required; 60-70 unsafe, for frost and hygric forces;
< 60 very poor quality, clay present.
In this study, the durability index of the
Cappadocian tuff is evaluated based on the satu-
rated and dry uniaxial compressive strength of the
rock. The wet-to-dry strength ratio of the tuff is
determined as 33 and 19% in the vertical and
horizontal directions, respectively. These ratios
reveal that the Cappadocian tuff has very poor
durability.
4. 4. Static rock durability index
Fookes et al. (1988) suggested the use of static
and dynamic rock durability indicators for the
durability assessment of stone. Since the dynamic
one is applicable only where dynamic loading
conditions exist, in this study only the static rock
durability is considered.
The static durability indicator (RDI~) requires
four engineering tests expressed as follows:
RDIs = (I~5o), - 0.1 ( SST + 5WA))/(SG~d)
where I~tso),=average dry and saturated point-
load index (ISRM, 1985); SST=magnesium sul-
phate soundness test (weight loss (%), at the fifth
cycle) (Hosking and Tubey, 1969); WA=water
absorption by weight under atmospheric pressure
(BSI, 1975); SGssd=saturated and surface dried
relative density (BSI, 1975; CIRIA/CUR, 1991).
The water absorption test result is multiplied by
an arbitrary factor of 5 in the above equation to
bring the magnitudes of the variables into equiva-
lent terms, and to emphasize its importance in
assessing the durability of rock. The point load
strength is used to give an assessment of the static
strength of the material, and is especially useful
where material is not subject to dynamic loading.
The magnesium sulphate soundness test is included
to assess the ability of the material to resist some
of the cyclic physical weathering processes, such
as salt crystallization, heating-cooling, and possi-
bly freezing-thawing (Fookes et al., 1988).
A tentative estimation of the potential durabilit-
ies of rocks based on the static rock quality
indicators is given in Table 2. For the calculation
of the rock durability index of the Cappadocian
tuff, Is~50~, is taken as 0.3 MPa (see Table 1). The
magnesium sulphate soundness test is not per-
formed on the Cappadocian tuff. However, the
sodium sulphate soundness test performed on the
tuff indicates complete collapse of the tuff (100%
weight loss) after four cycles (Topal and Doyuran,
1996). Considering the fact that the magnesium
sulphate soundness test is much more severe than
the sodium sulphate soundness test (ASTM, 1990),
a value of 100% is taken for SST values in the
calculations. The water absorption (WA) of the
tuff is 21.60%. The relative density of the tuff is
17.75 kN m -3. Use of these values in the formula
given above reveals that the static durability indica-
tor of the Cappadocian tuff is around - 12, which
corresponds to poor rock class.
Table 2
T e n t a t i v e static d u r a b i l i t y e s t i m a t i o n o f r o c k s (after F o o k e s
et al., 1988)
RDI~ Potential durability
> 2.5 Excellent
2.5 to 1 Good
- 1 to - 3 Fair
< - 3 Poor
 T. Topal, 11. Doyuran / Engineering Geology 47 (1997) 175-187
4.5. Index of rock durability
Assessment of rock durability through index
properties is suggested by Rodrigues and Jeremias
(1990). Swelling strain (linear strain), porosity,
and compressive strength are used in the durability
evaluation. The index of rock durability equation
has the strength factor in the numerator and the
summation of swelling strain and porosity in the
denominator. Its mathematical expression is as
follows:
IRD = (R/R,)/(n + 2a)
where IRD = index of rock durability; R = ultimate
compressive strength of the rock (MPa);
R,= 1 MPa (to turn the index adimensional); n =
porosity (%); a = the mantissa of the swelling strain
(e) when expressed as a x 10 -4.
According to Rodrigues and Jeremias (1990)
and Rodrigues (1993), an IRD of less than 2
indicates low durability, while values greater than
10 signify materials having good to excellent dura-
bility. They indicated that values between 2 and
10 need a large number of results to clarify this
zone.
Considering the compressive strength, effective
porosity, and linear strain of the Cappadocian
tuff, the index of rock durability is found to be
0.13 in the vertical direction and 0.10 in the
horizontal direction. These values reveal that the
Cappadocian tuff has low durability.
4.6. Slake-durability index
The slake-durability index test is generally used
to assess the resistance offered by a rock sample
to weakening and disintegration when subjected
to two standard cycles of wetting and drying
(ISRM, 1981). The slake-durability index (Id2) is
calculated using the following formula:
/dE = [(C-- D)/(A - D)] × 100%
where A = mass of dry drum plus dry sample; C =
mass of dry drum plus retained portion of the dry
sample after the second cycle of the test; D = mass
of dry drum.
In this study, the test is performed in accordance
with ISRM (1981). Based on the test results on
183
two sets of samples, the slake-durability index of
the Cappadocian tuff is found to be 84%. The
durability classification given in ISRM (1981) and
Goodman (1989) reveals that the Cappadocian
tuff has medium durability.
5. G e n e r a l e v a l u a t i o n
5.1. Material characteristics
In this section, the field observations and labora-
tory test results will be evaluated to better
uncle rstand the engineering geological properties
of theCappadocian tuff and its durability. The
Cappadocian tuff has a very low unit weight and
a very high porosity (Anon, 1979). The uniaxial
compressive strength of the tuff in the vertical
direction is slightly higher than that in the hori-
zontal direction. Although the definitions for rock
strength, especially at lower values are significantly
different in various standards (Hencher, 1993),
based on Anon (1977) and BSI (1981) recommen-
dations, the Cappadocian tuff is moderately weak
to weak when dry and weak to very weak when
saturated.
The point load strength index (Is~5o~) values of
the Cappadocian tuff do not significantly change
for the axial and diarnetral tests. It is customary
to convert Is{5o~to an equivalent unconfined com-
pressive strength by multiplying by a correlation
factor, k. A wide scatter of k ranging between 8
and 54 is observed in the literature (Anon, 1972,
1977; Broch and Franklin, 1972; Bieniawski, 1975;
Beawis et al., 1982; Foster, 1983; ISRM, 1985),
although there is a preponderance of values
between 16 and 24 (Norbury, 1986). In general,
weak rocks like shale and siltstone give low k
values, whereas strong rocks give high k values.
In this study, however, a correlation factor of 13.6
is obtained if average I~5o} values are considered
for the dry Cappadocian tuff in a vertical direction.
This low figure is in good agreement with the
correlation factor of the weaker rocks given in the
literature.
The sonic velocity, elastic constants, and linear
strain values of the Cappadocian tuff do not show
184 T. Topal. V. Doyuran / Engineering Geology 47 (1997) 175-187
significant changes in the vertical and horizontal
directions. This suggests that the tufts show no
distinct anisotropy. However, a slight change of
the strength of the tuff is noted in vertical
(6.53 MPa) and horizontal (4.87 MPa) directions.
The durability assessments of the Cappadocian
tuff are summarized in Table 3. The average pore
diameter, the wet-to-dry strength ratio, the static
rock durability index, and the index of rock dura-
bility indicate a poor to very poor durability and
a frost-susceptible rock for the Cappadocian tuff.
The saturation coefficient also roughly indicates
frost-susceptible rock. On the other hand, the
slake-durability index yields medium durability.
Comparison of the various durability classification
methods reveals that, except for the slake-durabil-
ity index, all the other methods generally indicate
poor to very poor durability. In the case of the
slake-durability classification, 16% weight loss is
considered to be medium durability. It is the
authors' idea that such a reduction in weight
cannot be tolerated for the purpose of conservation
since a few millimetres of surface erosion may
cause loss of some valuable historical phenomena
(e.g., inscription, carving, painting, etc.) on the
stone surfaces. Therefore, the slake durability clas-
sification needs to be revised for the conservation
studies.
Based on the measurements of De Witte (1995),
the field performance of the tuff may also be
considered to be of poor durability. The rate of
erosion of the fairy chimneys due to natural and
artificial deterioration was measured by graduated
stainless steel reference pins (10 mm in diameter
and 100 mm long) driven into the tuff. The rate
of erosion is found to be 4 mm year-1 between
Table 3
Durability assessment of the Cappadocian tuff using various methods
Durability method
Average pore diameter (Larsen and Cady, 1969)
Saturation coefficient(TSE, 1977)
Wet-to-dry strength ratio (Winkler, 1986)
Static rock durability index (Fookes et al., 1988)
Index of rock durability (Rodrigues and Jereimas, 1990)
Slake-durability Index (ISRM, 1981)
1987 and 1992. The salt crystallization and
freeze thaw tests performed on the tuff also reveal
very low durability (Topal and Doyuran, 1996).
Therefore, except for the slake-durability index,
all the above mentioned durability assessment
methods may be considered to be good indicators
for the durability assessment of tufts.
5.2. Influence of structural features on fairy
chimneys
The joints do not only control the formation of
the fairy chimneys but also their structural stability
(Topal, 1995; Topal and Doyuran, 1995). This
problem is particularly important for churches
hewn within the fairy chimneys, such as the
churches in the GOreme Open Air Museum.
Steeply dipping joint sets are the main causes of
rockfalls. Such joints are especially critical for
churches located adjacent to a valley. In the case
of the G/Sreme Open Air Museum, the joints run
both parallel and nearly perpendicular to the adja-
cent valley. Those running parallel to the valley
are generally widened due to atmospheric phen-
omena and loss of lateral support. The problem
of structural instability is further complicated by
the presence of artificial cracks formed due to
the man-made excavations (rock-hewn) (Fig. 5).
Considering the fact that the engineering properties
of the discontinuities are adversely affected by
water, the stable block may become potentially
unstable during winter and spring seasons since
moisture reduces the shear strength parameters
along the discontinuities. The joints and artificial
cracks are also places where rainwater seeps and
causes discoloration of the wall paintings of the
Durability of the Remarks
Cappadocian tuff
frost susceptible mercury intrusion data is used
frost susceptible very close to frost susceptiblerange
very poor durability uniaxial compressivestrength is used
poor durability magnesium sulphate soundness value is estimated
low (poor) durability
medium durability weight loss after 2nd cycleof the test is used
 1". Topal, K Doyuran / Engineering Geology 47 (1997) 175-187
Fig. 5. Structural collapse in a rock-hewn dwelling. Note
collapsed section (upper left) and exposed living chamber
(foreground).
churches by chemically altering the biotites and
the rock fragments present within the Cappadocian
tuff. The water also significantly reduces the uniax-
ial compressive strength of the tuff. This reduction
ranges between 67% in vertical and 81% in hori-
zontal directions. Such strength reduction will
obviously create structural instability problems.
The erosion of the exposed outer surface of the
tuff (about 4 mm year-l; De Witte, 1995) grad-
ually reduces the wall thickness of the rock-hewn
churches. The reduced wall thickness together with
reduced strength due to saturation make rock-
hewn churches more susceptible to structural col-
lapse. The significant reduction in the strength of
the tuff due to moisture, poor to very poor
durability, and the adverse effects of joints on the
structural stability need to be considered during
185
conservation studies. Thus, moisture of any kind
should be avoided in and around the rock-hewn
churches. The joints and the artificial cracks may
be sealed by proper mixture of tilling materials
having properties similar to that of the tuff. The
unstable blocks at the fairy chimneys and adjacent
to the valley walls must be identified and stabilized
by non-corrosive type rock bolts.
6. Conclusions
The investigation of the engineering geological
properties of the Cappadocian tuff reveals that the
tuff is almost fresh with local discoloration, and is
moderately weak to very weak. It has a low unit
weight, very high porosity, and high deformability.
The engineering properties of the tuff do not show
significant changes in vertical and horizontal direc-
tions. The uniaxial compressive strength of the tuff
is significantly reduced due to saturation. The
durability assessment methods suggest that the tuff
has poor to very poor durability. The joints and/or
the artificial cracks are the main causes of struc-
tural instability for the rock-hewn churches.
Deterioration of tufts may be reduced by avoiding
moisture and sealing of discontinuities. For struc-
tural stability of the churches, application of non-
corrosive type rock bolts to secure unstable blocks
is recommended.
Acknowledgment
This study is financially supported by METU
Research Fund Project (AFP). Thanks are due to
Dr. Eddy De Witte from the Royal Institute for
Cultural Heritage (Belgium), for the measurement
of the average pore diameter of the tuff by mercury
porosity measurements.
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