Journal of Cleaner Production 112 (2016) 723e730

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Cleaner Production

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jclepro

Durability and mechanical properties of self-compacting concrete

incorporating palm oil fuel ash
Navid Ranjbar*, Arash Behnia, Belal Alsubari, Payam Moradi Birgani,
Mohd Zamin Jumaat**
Department of Civil Engineering, Engineering Faculty, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: As worldwide electricity consumption has increased, so too has the waste of electricity. Palm oil fuel ash
Received 7 January 2015 is a waste material generated in power plant due to burning of palm oil industry waste as a fuel to
Received in revised form generate electricity. Annual production of such a massive amount of waste requires a huge disposal field
29 June 2015
that would be a threat to the environment. Therefore, due to the abundance and high pozzolanic
Accepted 1 July 2015
Available online 15 July 2015
characteristics, palm oil fuel ash has attracted many researchers to evaluate the potential of its use in
constructional materials. In this study, self-compacting concretes were produced by incorporation of
palm oil fuel ash at 10, 15 and 20% by weight of Portland cement and their mechanical and durability
Keywords:
Self-compacting concrete
potential were evaluated under normal, acid and sulfate attack conditions. It was observed that incor-
Palm oil fuel ash poration of palm oil fuel ash in self-compacting concrete enhanced the acid and sulfate resistance,
Durability reduced the dry shrinkage and surface water absorption of the self-compacting concrete without an
Mechanical properties adverse effect in final compressive strength of the products.
Microstructure © 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Shrinkage

1. Introduction Incorporating pozzolanic materials such as fly ash, rice husk ash,

Self-compacting concrete (SCC) is highly flowable concrete that
spreads and flows under its own weight and completely fill form-
works with congested reinforcement without the need of external
consolidation (Khayat, 1999). Segregation resistance and the ability
of SCC to remain homogenous and stable is necessary (EFNARC,
2002). SCC is mainly characterized by its remarkable workability
in the fresh state (Okamura et al., 2000; Ozawa et al., 1990).
Reduction in labor cost and construction time, quality improve-
ment, and a quality finished surface make it superior to conven-
tional concrete (Khayat et al., 1999). However, producing self-
compacting concrete with high fluidity and desirable strength re-
quires more cement content and inclusion of costly chemical ad-
mixtures to reduce water to binder ratio leading to increase the cost
of SCC and higher carbon dioxide emissions compared to conven-
tional concrete. Moreover, the higher consumption of Portland
cement in SCC mix design results in increasing hydration heat and
high autogenous shrinkage (Sabet et al., 2013).
* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ60 107014250.
** Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: navidr@siswa.um.edu.my (N. Ranjbar), zamin@um.edu.my
(M.Z. Jumaat).
silica fume, and palm oil fuel ash in SCC enhances energy and
material conservation, cost efficiency, durability performance,
jobsite productivity, overall construction sustainability other than
reducing heat of hydration, autogenous shrinkage (Hossain and
Lachemi, 2009; Kanadasan and Abdul Razak, 2015; Wu et al.,
2014). In addition, in terms of environmental considerations,
incorporation of the cementitious supplementary material results
in saving energy and resources by substantially reducing green-
house gas emission which is due to obviation of limestone calci-
nation, fuel combustion in the kiln, manufacturing and
transportation processes associated with production of Portland
cement (Cheerarot and Jaturapitakkul, 2004; Dinakar et al., 2008;
Ranjbar et al., 2015; Tangchirapat et al., 2007).
Palm oil fuel ash (POFA) is produced by the palm oil industry as a
result of the burning of empty fruit bunch (EFB), fiber and oil palm
shell (OPS) as fuel to generate electricity at temperatures of about
800e1000
C and the waste, collected as ash, becomes POFA
(Nagaratnam et al., 2015). Malaysia produced about 3 million tons
of POFA in 2007 while 100,000 tons of POFA is being produced
annually in Thailand, and this production rate is likely to increase
due to increased plantation of palm oil trees (Chindaprasirt et al.,
2007; Johari et al., 2012a; Ranjbar et al., 2014b; Tangchirapat
et al., 2007). The POFA produced in the palm oil mills is dumped

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.07.033
0959-6526/© 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
724 N. Ranjbar et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 112 (2016) 723e730

into open fields without any profitable return resulting in massive Table 2
solid disposal which occupies vast fields and causes environmental Chemical analysis of the Portland cement and POFA.

pollution (Chindaprasirt et al., 2007, 2008; Sata et al., 2004). In view
of environmental contamination, palm oil industry has started to
look for an effective solution so that this huge volume of waste can
be utilized. A successful approach to this problem can be linked to
utilizing POFA as an alternative material in concrete and con-
struction material.
Therefore, abundance of POFA concomitant with silica rich
characteristics paves the way for its usage as partial replacement of
Portland cement and the development of sustainable concrete.
Moreover, several studies conducted to investigate the effect of POFA
on the durability performance of concrete reported that incorpora-
tion of POFA improves the durability characteristic of concrete due to
enhancement of the production of CeSeH gel and hydration process
over time (Awal and Hussin, 1999; Chindaprasirt et al., 2007; Ismail
et al., 2010; Tangchirapat et al., 2009). However, to the best of the
authors' knowledge, the utilization of POFA as a pozzolanic material
as partial replacement of Portland cement has not been investigated
extensively in self-consolidating concrete (Rahman et al., 2014).
Considering the particle agglomeration and inherent high water
demand properties of POFA (Ranjbar et al., 2014a), it is expected that
its incorporation into Portland cement based self-consolidation
concrete will reduce slump and consequently will cause an
adverse impacts on the fresh properties of the matrix. Therefore, this
study was conducted to explore the influence of the partial
replacement of POFA in a Portland cement based self-consolidation
concrete with 10, 15 and 20% binder weight in fresh and hardened
state under an applied compression load. Moreover, the matrices
were exposed to acid and sulfate attack for a period of 75 and 180
days, respectively, to investigate POFA incorporation effects on
durability of the Portland cement based self-consolidation concrete.
2. Materials characterization and analysis methods
2.1. Materials
2.1.1. Cement and POFA
Ordinary Portland cement (OPC) type I used in this study was
received from Tasek Corporation Berhad (Malaysia). The POFA used in
this study was obtained from palm oil mill located in Selangor
Malaysia. The as received POFA from the power plant contained large
particles and impurities. Furthermore, since POFA was kept in an
open area after production with an unknown moisture condition,
prior to mixing process POFA was dried at 105
C for 24 h. Next, the
dried POFA was sieved through a 300 mm sieve to remove large par-
ticles and impurities. Finally, a Los Angeles machine was used to grind
the POFA to increase the fineness and consequent reactivity (Kumar
and Kumar, 2011). The physical properties and chemical composi-
tion of the materials are presented in Tables 1 and 2, respectively.
The morphology of the OPC and POFA is shown in Fig. 1. As
observed, both of the materials have an agglomerated particle
shape, while the POFA has a more porous structure compared to the
OPC. As shown in Fig. 2, the particle size distribution of the mate-
rials after processing of the POFA become smaller than that of OPC.
Chemical composition Portland cement (%) POFA (%)
SiO2 17.60% 64.17%
Al2O3 4.02% 3.73%
Fe2O3 4.47% 6.33%
CaO 67.43% 5.80%
MgO 1.33% 4.87%
Na2O 0.03% 0.18%
K2O 0.39% 8.25%
SO3 4.18% 0.72%
SiO2 þ Al2O3 þ Fe2O3 74.24%
2.1.2. Aggregate
Local mining sand with a fineness modulus of 2.88, specific
gravity of 2.56, and water absorption of 1.13% was used as a fine
aggregate. Crushed limestone with a maximum size of 12.5 mm,
specific gravity of 2.62, and water absorption of 0.43% was used as
coarse aggregate. The conducted test procedures and obtained data
were in accordance with ASTM C33 in order to comply with
requirements.
2.2. Mix proportions
Ground POFA was used as partial replacement of Type I Portland
cement at proportions of 10%, 15%, and 20% of binder weight con-
tent. The mix designs of the self-consolidating concretes included
480 kg/m3 of binder and water to binder ratio of 0.35 for all spec-
imens as shown in Table 3. Sika Viscocrete-1600 superplasticizer
(Sika Kimia Sdn Bhd, Malaysia) was used in the self-compacting
concrete mixtures in order to obtain the fresh properties. Sika
Viscocrete-1600 is an extreme water reduction which meets the
requirements for superplasticizers according to ASTM C494 Type G.
To obtain similar workability for the specimens, higher super-
plasticizer was used in mix design of higher POFA content matrices
because of the agglomerated shape of POFA particles leading to the
demand for more energy to roll over one another.
2.3. Specimen preparation and testing methods
The coarse and fine aggregate were mixed first. Then, 10% water
was added. Next, cement and POFA were added to the mixture
followed by addition of 50% more water. The remaining water
proportion was added in to the mixture with superplasticizer so
that a homogenous mixes could be obtained. Generally self-
compacting concrete mixing process requires more time than
conventional concrete mixes. It should be noted that POFA inclu-
sion leads to further level of difficulty in fulfilling the requirements
of tests for SCC, therefore, maximum POFA content chosen in this
study was limited to 20% because of the higher water demand of
the ash (Ranjbar et al., 2014b). Fresh properties of the SCC were
tested in accordance to the specifications of EFNARC (2002) for
filling, passing abilities, and segregation resistance after mixing.
Initially, the mixes were subjected to slump flow and T50 tests
(EFNARC, 2002). If both tests meet the standard requirements, then

Table 1
Physical properties of coarse and fine aggregate, OPC and POFA.

Property Coarse aggregate Fine aggregates OPC POFA

Maximum size (mm) 12.5 4.76

Water absorption (%) 0.43 1.13
Fineness modulus 6.3 2.88
Passed from 45-mm (no. 325) sieve (%) 91 96
Median particle size, d50 (mm) 14.6 10
Specific gravity 2.62 2.56 3.15 1.81
 N. Ranjbar et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 112 (2016) 723e730 725

Fig. 1. FESEM images of a) Portland cement and b) POFA particles.

28 and 56 days in accordance with BS 1881-208. The bulk density of

Fig. 2. Particle size distribution of ground POFA and Portland cement.
mixes would be subjected to V-funnel, L-box, J-ring and segrega-
tion test. The schematic images of the experimental setups are
shown in Fig. 3.
Fresh properties of the SCCs were determined immediately after
mixing. Then the concrete mixes were poured into 100 mm cubes
and 100*100*500 mm prisms in two layers of about 5 cm height.
The material was spread in the molds and filled all the corners by its
self-weight. Next, the top surface of the specimens were smoothed
and leveled manually. After casting, all the specimens were covered
for 24 h in an ambient condition. Afterward, the samples were
demolded and cured in water at 25
C ± 3 until the day of testing.
Drying shrinkage strain of concrete was measured on
100  100  500 mm prisms by using Mitutoyo Absolute Digimatic
(Mitutoyo Corp, Tokyo, Japan). The ASTM C-157 was followed for
drying shrinkage test. The shrinkage specimens were then removed
from the molds 24 h after casting and cured in tap water for 7 days.
After 7 days, the specimens were removed from the water, wiped
and fitted with demec points at the sides. The concrete specimens
were then placed in a room with a temperature of 28 ± 3
C and a
relative humidity of 78 ± 2%. The variation of length for all speci-
mens was recorded by Mitutoyo Absolute Digimatic starting at 28
days and running until day 365.
The initial surface absorption test (ISAT) of the harden speci-
mens was determined on 100 mm cubes pre-cured in water for the
the final green bodies was measured using the Archimedes method.
The X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) patterns were measured on an
Empyrean PANALYTICAL diffractometer before and after exposure
to acid and sulfate attack to investigate the effect of POFA content
on self-compacting concrete durability with monochromated Cu Ka
radiation (l ¼ 1.54056 Å), operated at 45 kV and 40 mA with a step
size of 0.026 deg and a scanning rate of 0.1 deg s1 in the 2q range of
20e40 deg. Field Emission Scan Electron Microscopy (FESEM CARL
ZEISS- AURIGA 60) images were obtained to observe the influence
of the POFA content on the microstructures of the self-compacting
concrete. The compressive strengths of the specimens were ob-
tained from 100 mm cubes at 3, 7, 28, 56, 90 and 180 days; however,
100  100  500 mm prisms were prepared for four point bending
to obtain flexural strength of the specimens with effective span of
400 mm. Mechanical test were performed with ELE Auto
Compressive Testing Machine with capacity of 3000 kN as per BS
EN 12390-3:2002.
The chemical resistance of the concrete specimens was inves-
tigated through chemical attack by immersing 100 mm cubes in
HCl acid solution, prepared over a period of 1800 h (75 days). After
7 days water curing, the specimens were immersed in 3% HCl so-
lution with a pH of about 2. This solution was substituted at regular
intervals of 2 weeks to keep a constant concentration during the
test period. The reduction in compressive strength and the loss of
mass of the concrete specimens were measured after 1800 h.
Moreover, to investigate sulfate attack of concrete, 100 mm
cubes were immersed in 5% MgSO4 (by mass) solution after 7 days
curing in water and the compressive strength was determined after
12 months.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Fresh properties
The test results for fresh properties of SCC were determined by
conducting the filling ability tests (slump flow, T50cm spread time,
and V-funnel flow time), passing ability tests (J-ring flow and L-
box), and segregation resistance test (segregation index) of
different SCC mixtures. The fresh properties test results were given
in Table 4. For filling ability requirements, all the concrete mixes
were designed to have a slump flow of average diameter of

Table 3
Mix design of samples.

Mixes Water/cement Cement (kg/m3) POFA (kg/m3) Fine aggregate (kg/m3) Coarse aggregate (kg/m3) Water (kg/m3) Superplasticizer (% of binder)

SCCP0 0.35 480 0 925 758 168 1.3

SCCP10 0.35 432 48 925 758 168 1.4
SCCP15 0.35 408 72 925 758 168 1.5
SCCP20 0.35 384 96 925 758 168 1.8
726 N. Ranjbar et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 112 (2016) 723e730
Fig. 3. Scheme of a) slump flow and T50 tests, b) V-funnel, c) L-box and d) J-ring (EFNARC, 2002).
680 ± 20 mm which was achieved by using varying amounts of
Viscorete superplasticizer. The increase in POFA content of mix-
tures resulted in the reduction of workability due to higher specific
surface area of the POFA particles which led to more water demand
to ease the movement and rolling of particles over each other. As
stated earlier, POFA particles were ground to become more favor-
able material. However, there are still either some unground or less
ground particles remaining in the POFA. This can be found in Fig. 1
from which it can be inferred that uncrushed and crashed (un-
ground and ground) POFA particles are remarkably porous and
agglomerated, whereas the Portland cement particles were denser
even with crushed shape. As water content increased the porosity
was increased which could result in adverse effects on the fresh
material properties. Therefore, replacement of considerable
amount of water with small amount of superplasticizer was a
beneficial method to minimize the risk of deterioration in hardened
concrete due to high water/binder ratio. The results of V-funnel and
T50s flow times for POFA mixtures were close to the control mixture
and ranged between 5.6e8.75 s and 3e4.57 s, respectively, as
shown in Table 4. Moreover, the obtained data showed all mixtures
fulfill the requirements of passing ability and segregation resistance
as per EFNARC (2002). The higher content of POFA showed increase
in the viscosity of concrete which led to lower slump flow, J-ring,
and L-box, whereas it increased T50 and v-funnel flow time and
Table 4
Fresh properties of SCC.
Mix no. Filling ability
Slump flow (mm) T50cm spread time (s) V-funnel flow time (s)
SCC0 700 3 5.6
SCC10 690 3 6.4
SCC15 680 4.18 8.4
SCC20 660 4.57 8.75
segregation index. To sum up, it can be inferred that up to 20% of
cement could be replaced by ground palm oil fuel ash without
adverse effect on fresh properties of SCC. However, the results of
fresh properties are in good agreement with previous studies re-
ported by Sata et al. (2007).
3.2. Mechanical properties
The bulk density of the specimens was reduced by incorporating
and increasing the percentages of POFA content in the SCC as
presented in Fig. 4. The highest reduction in bulk density was 5.75%
due to inclusion of 20% POFA in SCC. The bulk density for SCC10 and
SCC15 were reduced by 3.68% and 4.96%, respectively, in compar-
ison with the specimens without POFA. The reduction of bulk
density could be explained in several ways. The key reason could be
that POFA has a lesser specific gravity than does cement (Ranjbar
et al., 2014b). Moreover, it is expected that crushed shape of the
POFA particles has potential to trap air bubbles which manifested
themselves in the form of porosity in the final product (Ranjbar
et al., 2014a). The FESEM images in Fig. 5 illustrate self-
compacting concrete without POFA content and with 20% POFA
replacement. From Fig. 5 it can be inferred that the specimen
without POFA content was denser compared to the specimens with
20% POFA content. This can be attributed to the micro-pores which
Passing ability Segregation resistance
Segregation index (%)
J-ring flow (mm) L-box
690 97 6.67
670 93 8.7
650 89 10.8
630 84 13.9
 N. Ranjbar et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 112 (2016) 723e730 727

Fig. 6. Drying shrinkage and reduction rate of drying shrinkage (RRDS) of self-
compacting concretes.
Fig. 4. Bulk density of POFA based self-compacting concrete.

were filled by very fine crystalline structure over time which is

highlighted in Fig. 5.

3.3. Drying shrinkage strain

Drying shrinkage and reduction rate of drying shrinkage (RRDS)

of self-compacting concretes were presented in Fig. 6. Drying
shrinkage takes place when concrete is hardened and dried out at
the early age resulting in the formation of microcracks in matrix.
These cracks provide easy access to harmful agents leading to
adverse effect on durability of the final product. The drying
shrinkage of all self-compacting concrete specimens was increased
during the first 90 days. Fig. 6 showed that the incorporation of
palm oil fuel ash reduced the drying shrinkage strain at any per- Fig. 7. Compressive and flexural strength development of POFA based self-compacting
centage of replacement (up to 20%). After 360 days of drying, the concrete.

drying shrinkage strain of control sample was 395 microstrain

while those of concrete with 10%, and 20% POFA were 291 and 328
microstrain, respectively. RRDS for self-compacting concrete spec-
imens with POFA was also presented in Fig. 6. Two clear trends
were observable: first the highest reduction in drying shrinkage
occurred with incorporation of 10% POFA, whereas the lowest rate
belonged to the specimen with 20% POFA. While there was a similar
trend of RRDS for all samples, the highest effect of POFA inclusion in
drying shrinkage reduction occurred within the first 28 days. The
lowest impact on drying shrinkage reduction due to inclusion of
POFA was in 56 days, thereafter with a slight increase in RRDS, a
constant trend was registered. It is noteworthy that although
incorporating POFA into self-compacting concrete resulted in
higher volume of pores, POFA exhibited a proper pozzolanic reac-
tion suggesting a high pack effect. High packing effect was a proper
arrangement of small particles which fill the voids and contribute
to the increment of compressive strength (Goldman and Bentur,
1993; Johari et al., 2012b). It should be noted that although the
number of pores were increased due to addition of POFA content,
pozzolanic reaction of POFA caused the transformation of large
pores into fine pores. Refining pore size in POFA self-compacting
concrete reduced the loss of water and therefore diminished
shrinkage strain (Tangchirapat and Jaturapitakkul, 2010; Zhang and
Li, 2011).
3.4. Compressive and flexural strength
The compressive and flexural strength development of SCC
concretes containing ground POFA over 180 and 28 days were
shown in Fig. 7, respectively. The specimens containing high vol-
ume of POFA, 15 and 20% gained lower compressive strength in the
early days of curing in comparison with the conventional SCC
without POFA content. The reduction in the early age of compres-
sive strength might be attributed to the dilution effect as part of the

Fig. 5. FESEM images of a) self-compacting concrete without POFA content, b) with 20% POFA content.
728 N. Ranjbar et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 112 (2016) 723e730

cement was replaced by the POFA. Generally, the reaction process

of POFA/Cement concrete can be divided into two major stages.
First stage is mostly attributed to the reaction of cement and water;
second stage is attributed to pozzolanic activity of ground POFA
with liberated portlandite from cement hydration. Reaction of alite
(tricalcium silicate) and water results in CeSeH gel and portlandite.
Since hardening of CeSeH gel is the main strength gain factor of
concrete, decreasing of the Portland cement content resulted in
reduction in strength in concrete at early ages. Silica content in
POFA, meanwhile, is capable of reacting with portlandite and
generates secondary CeSeH gel. The extra CeSeH gel was pro-
duced as a pozzolanic reaction of POFA depending on the genera-
tion of portlandite in reaction of alite and water. Therefore, the
strength gain of this stage will be delayed. On the other hand, the
pozzolanic reaction mainly contributes to increasing the
compressive strength of concrete at later ages by improving the
interfacial bond between paste and aggregate. Also, the fineness of
ground POFA improves the strength of concrete by filling the gaps
between cement particles (Ismail et al., 2010; Tay and Show, 1995).
From Fig. 7 it is learned that the influence of ground POFA on
compressive strength of specimens older than 28 days was com-
parable or higher than the corresponding plain concrete depending
on the replacement percentages. The flexural strength of self-
compacting specimens was also shown in Fig. 7 at 7 and 28 days
of age. The 7 day flexural strengths ranged from 5.12 to 6.19 MPa,
whereas the 28 day flexural strengths ranged from 5.46 to
6.90 MPa. The ratio of the flexural strength to the corresponding
compressive strength at 28 days was ~9.2% and was comparable to
the conventional concrete. Nevertheless, incorporation of POFA in
any volume lowered flexural strength compared to the concrete
Fig. 8. Initial surface water absorption of POFA containing self-compacting concrete a)
specimens without POFA. This might be correlated to the porous after 28 days, b) after 56 days.
structure of self-compacting concrete with POFA which led to stress
concentration and weakening of the bond between aggregate and
paste. The higher resistance to sulfate attack for concrete including POFA
was attributed to the pozzolanic reaction of POFA. The pozzolanic
3.5. Initial surface water absorption test reaction reduced the amount of free calcium Ca(OH)2 produced
from the cement hydration through forming secondary CeSeH
The initial surface absorption test was conducted to obtain the which resulted in pore refinement and denser concrete. In addition,
flow within the concrete surface at intervals of 10, 30 and 60 min the high fineness of POFA reduced the permeability of concrete
for specimens at 28 and 56 days of age. Test results presented in resulting in sulfate attack resistance improvement. The results were
Fig. 8a and b showed that by incorporating POFA in SCC the ISAT in line with previous studies conducted on normally vibrated and
values were decreased. The lowest flow rate was at 20% cement high strength concrete. Previous literature (Tangchirapat et al.,
replacement level at all ages. The initial surface absorption of SCC10 2009, 2012) reported that the use of POFA in concrete increased
and SCC20 for 10 min interval was 16% and 32%, respectively, which the resistance to sulfate attack and the recommended percentage
were lower than control mix (SCC0) at 28 days. Although SCC20 had was also up to 20% replacement.
slightly lower compressive strength than that of SCC0 and SCC10
mixes, SCC20 had lower concrete surface absorption. The observed
reduction in initial surface absorption could be attributed to fine
close porosity of POFA contained matrix which resulted in omitting
pore networks in concrete matrix. Moreover, the POFA with smaller
particle size were placed between cement particles enhancing the
microstructure of the matrix and filling the pores in POFA based
self-compacting concrete.

3.6. Sulfate attack

The reduction in compressive strength for concrete immersed in

5% magnesium sulfate (5% MgSO4 by the weight of water) for 12
months was shown in Fig. 9. The compressive strength losses of
SCC0, SCC10, SCC15, and SCC20 immersed in 5% MgSO4 solution
were approximately 9.6% and 8.3%, 7.8%, and 7.2%, respectively,
compared to the same mixtures cured in water for the same period.
It can be seen that the highest reduction in compressive
strength was in the plain concrete SCC0, while the lowest loss in Fig. 9. Reduction in compressive strength of POFA contained self-compacting concrete
compressive strength was observed in 20% cement replacement. due to sulfate attack.
 N. Ranjbar et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 112 (2016) 723e730 729

3.7. Acid attack

The resistance against acid attack of concrete cube specimens

was evaluated by measuring the reduction in compressive strength
and mass loss of the specimens immersed in a 3% hydrochloric acid
solution (HCl) for 1800 h. The mass loss of the specimens is shown
in Fig. 10. The higher mass loss of the control specimens was mainly
due to the higher deterioration at the corners and edges. The
improvement in acid deterioration resistance in higher POFA con-
tent is attributed to the pozzolanic reaction of the POFA conversion
of calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2) to the additional CeSeH gel.
Therefore, the Ca(OH)2, which reflects the weakest product from
cement hydration was reduced proportionally as POFA content was
increased.
The relationship between the POFA content and the reduction in
compressive strength of concretes was shown in Fig. 11. The test
results showed that SCC concretes with POFA showed better Fig. 11. Reduction in compressive strength of POFA containing self-compacting con-
crete due to HCL attack.
resistance against the acid after 1800 h of immersion. By inclusion
of POFA in the SCC mixture the mass loss of concrete significantly
reduced. The better resistance of the self-compacting concrete loss of concrete strength (ACI Committee, 1990). However, the
containing POFA against acid attack was attributed to the pozzo- specimens subjected to acid attack showed the patterns of calcium
lanic reaction of POFA conversion of calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2 to chlorate and calcium chlorite. Since incorporation of the POFA led
the secondary CeSeH gel leading to denser concrete. Therefore, the to reduction in the long term portlandite of the system, POFA
Ca(OH)2, considered the weakest product from cement hydration containing SCC showed higher stability against sulfate and acid
and highly susceptible to chemical attacks, was reduced. In addi- attack. Moreover, the expected close porosity and low surface water
tion, the better finishing surface and the minimum empty voids on absorption blocked the acid and sulfate penetration; therefore
the concrete surface of the specimens containing POFA led to a smaller volume of the specimens were exposed to chemical attack
lower penetration of acid solution into the interior of concrete, and which led to increase in overall durability of the products.
improved its resistance against acid attack (Budiea et al., 2010).

3.8. XRD analysis

XRD spectra of the SCC with and without 20% of POFA under
normal condition, sulfate and acid attack were presented in Fig. 12.
The main crystalline phases which were identified for the SCC
concrete with and without POFA content are quartz, calcium silicate
hydroxide and portlandite. The detected pure quartz did not
represent one of the hydration products which might be due to the
presence of high SiO2 content in the sand particles. XRD patterns of
POFA content specimens showed small trace of portlandite since
the pozzolanic reaction used the portlandite to produce CeSeH gel.
When SCC was exposed to sulfate attack, sulfate ions and calcium
hydroxide Ca(OH)2 produced from cement hydration reacted and
yielded gypsum. The formation of gypsum caused softening and

Fig. 10. Mass loss of POFA incorporated self-compacting concrete because of acid Fig. 12. XRD patterns of SCC0 and SCC20 under normal condition, sulfate and HCL
attack. attack.
730 N. Ranjbar et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 112 (2016) 723e730
4. Conclusions
In this investigation, the effect of POFA incorporation in self-
compacting concrete under sulfate and chloride attack from the
aspects of mechanical and microstructures were studied. Based on
the tests conducted, the following conclusions were drawn:
 Generally, POFA as a waste material showed great potential to be
used as a replacement of Portland cement in self-compacting
concrete preserving fresh, mechanical and durability proper-
ties in an acceptable range.
 Incorporation of POFA led to reduction in workability of the SCC;
however, by additional superplasticizer the fresh properties of
the SCCs POFA were kept almost the same.
 Increasing the POFA content resulted in reduction in early me-
chanical properties while the final strength of the POFA con-
taining SCC was comparable to the normal specimens. This was
attributed to the pozzolanic mechanism of POFA.
 The specimens which contained higher amount of POFA showed
less surface water absorption and higher durability under acid
and sulfate attack in comparison to the normal SCC excluding
POFA. Incorporation of POFA reduced the amount of portlandite
in the system to produce CeSeH gel leading to densification of
the matrix and blocking of open porosity networks.
Acknowledgment
This research work was funded by the University of Malaya
under High Impact Research Grant (HIRG) No. UM.C/HIR/MOHE/
ENG/36/D0000036-16001 (Strengthening structural elements for
load and fatigue). We would also like to acknowledge the assistance
of Mr. Sreedharan from the concrete laboratory of Department of
Civil Engineering of University of Malaya.
References
ACI Committee, A., 1990. 201. Guide to Durable Concrete. ACI Manual of Concrete
Practice Part I e Materials and General Properties of Concrete. American Con-
crete Institute, Detroit.
Awal, A., Hussin, M., 1999. Durability of high performance concrete containing palm
oil fuel ash. In: Eighth International Conference on Durability of Building Ma-
terials and Components, 8 dbmc, pp. 465e474.
Budiea, A., Hussin, M., Muthusamy, K., Ismail, M., 2010. Performance of high
strength POFA concrete in acidic environment. Concr. Res. Lett. 1, 14e18.
Cheerarot, R., Jaturapitakkul, C., 2004. A study of disposed fly ash from landfill to
replace Portland cement. Waste Manag. 24, 701e709.
Chindaprasirt, P., Homwuttiwong, S., Jaturapitakkul, C., 2007. Strength and water
permeability of concrete containing palm oil fuel ash and rice huskebark ash.
Constr. Build. Mater. 21, 1492e1499.
Chindaprasirt, P., Rukzon, S., Sirivivatnanon, V., 2008. Resistance to chloride pene-
tration of blended Portland cement mortar containing palm oil fuel ash, rice
husk ash and fly ash. Constr. Build. Mater. 22, 932e938.
Dinakar, P., Babu, K., Santhanam, M., 2008. Durability properties of high volume fly
ash self-compacting concretes. Cem. Concr. Compos. 30, 880e886.
EFNARC, S., February 2002. Guidelines for Self-Compacting Concrete.
Goldman, A., Bentur, A., 1993. The influence of microfillers on enhancement of
concrete strength. Cem. Concr. Res. 23, 962e972.
Hossain, K., Lachemi, M., 2009. Fresh, mechanical, and durability characteristics of
self-consolidating concrete incorporating volcanic ash. J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 22,
651e657.
Ismail, M.A., Budiea, A., Hussin, M., Muthusamy, K.B., 2010. Effect of POFA fineness
on durability of high strength concrete.
Johari, M., Zeyad, A., Muhamad Bunnori, N., Ariffin, K., 2012a. Engineering and
transport properties of high-strength green concrete containing high volume of
ultrafine palm oil fuel ash. Constr. Build. Mater. 30, 281e288.
Johari, M.M., Zeyad, A., Bunnori, N.M., Ariffin, K., 2012b. Engineering and transport
properties of high-strength green concrete containing high volume of ultrafine
palm oil fuel ash. Constr. Build. Mater. 30, 281e288.
Kanadasan, J., Abdul Razak, H., 2015. Engineering and sustainability performance of
self-compacting palm oil mill incinerated waste concrete. J. Clean. Prod. 89,
78e86.
Khayat, K., 1999. Workability, testing, and performance of self-consolidating con-
crete. ACI Mater. J. 96, 346e353.
Khayat, K., Hu, C., Monty, H., 1999. Stability of self-consolidating concrete, advan-
tages, and potential applications. In: Proceedings PRO7 of the First International
RILEM Symposium on Self-Compacting Concrete. R1LEM Publications, Stock-
holm, pp. 143e152.
Kumar, S., Kumar, R., 2011. Mechanical activation of fly ash: effect on reaction,
structure and properties of resulting geopolymer. Ceram. Int. 37, 533e541.
Nagaratnam, B.H., Rahman, M.E., Mirasa, A.K., Mannan, M.A., Lame, S.O., 2015.
Workability and heat of hydration of self-compacting concrete incorporating
agro-industrial waste. J. Clean. Prod.
Okamura, H., Ozawa, K., Ouchi, M., 2000. Self-compacting concrete. Struct. Concr. 1,
3e17.
Ozawa, K., Maekawa, K., Okamura, H., 1990. High performance concrete with high
filling capacity. In: Admixtures for Concrete-Improvement of Properties: Pro-
ceedings of the International RILEM Symposium. Taylor & Francis, p. 60.
Rahman, M.E., Boon, A.L., Muntohar, A.S., Hashem Tanim, M.N., Pakrashi, V., 2014.
Performance of masonry blocks incorporating palm oil fuel ash. J. Clean. Prod.
78, 195e201.
Ranjbar, N., Mehrali, M., Alengaram, U.J., Metselaar, H.S.C., Jumaat, M.Z., 2014a.
Compressive strength and microstructural analysis of fly ash/palm oil fuel ash
based geopolymer mortar under elevated temperatures. Constr. Build. Mater.
65, 114e121.
Ranjbar, N., Mehrali, M., Behnia, A., Alengaram, U.J., Jumaat, M.Z., 2014b.
Compressive strength and microstructural analysis of fly ash/palm oil fuel ash
based geopolymer mortar. Mater. Des. 59, 532e539.
Ranjbar, N., Mehrali, M., Mehrali, M., Alengaram, U.J., Jumaat, M.Z., 2015. Graphene
nanoplatelet-fly ash based geopolymer composites. Cem. Concr. Res. 76,
222e231.
Sabet, F.A., Libre, N.A., Shekarchi, M., 2013. Mechanical and durability properties of
self-consolidating high performance concrete incorporating natural zeolite,
silica fume and fly ash. Constr. Build. Mater. 44, 175e184.
Sata, V., Jaturapitakkul, C., Kiattikomol, K., 2004. Utilization of palm oil fuel ash in
high-strength concrete. J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 16, 623e628.
Sata, V., Jaturapitakkul, C., Kiattikomol, K., 2007. Influence of pozzolan from various
by-product materials on mechanical properties of high-strength concrete.
Constr. Build. Mater. 21, 1589e1598.
Tangchirapat, W., Jaturapitakkul, C., 2010. Strength, drying shrinkage, and water
permeability of concrete incorporating ground palm oil fuel ash. Cem. Concr.
Compos. 32, 767e774.
Tangchirapat, W., Jaturapitakkul, C., Chindaprasirt, P., 2009. Use of palm oil fuel ash
as a supplementary cementitious material for producing high-strength con-
crete. Constr. Build. Mater. 23, 2641e2646.
Tangchirapat, W., Khamklai, S., Jaturapitakkul, C., 2012. Use of ground palm oil fuel
ash to improve strength, sulfate resistance, and water permeability of concrete
containing high amount of recycled concrete aggregates. Mater. Des. 41,
150e157.
Tangchirapat, W., Saeting, T., Jaturapitakkul, C., Kiattikomol, K., Siripanichgorn, A.,
2007. Use of waste ash from palm oil industry in concrete. Waste Manag. 27,
81e88.
Tay, J.-H., Show, K.-Y., 1995. Use of ash derived from oil-palm waste incineration as a
cement replacement material. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 13, 27e36.
Wu, Z., Yu, A.T.W., Shen, L., Liu, G., 2014. Quantifying construction and demolition
waste: an analytical review. Waste Manag. 34, 1683e1692.
Zhang, M.-h., Li, H., 2011. Pore structure and chloride permeability of concrete
containing nano-particles for pavement. Constr. Build. Mater. 25, 608e616.