Force

The simplest answer is to say a `push' or a `pull'. If the force is great enough to overcome
friction the object being pushed or pulled will move. We could say a force is something that
makes objects move. Actually forces give rise to accelerations!

The unit of force is the newton (symbol N). It is named after Sir Isaac Newton.

Equilibrium

A particle or body is said to be in equilibrium when all the forces acting on it balance and it
is not in motion. Algebraically, this just means that the vector sum of the forces is zero:

Geometrically, this means that the vectors representing the forces (in both direction and
magnitude) can be joined to form a closed polygon.

Friction and frictional force:

When surfaces of two bodies are in contact whether they are at rest or in relative motion
with respect to one another, they developed a force at plane of their contact which opposes
their

Relative motion. This opposition is known as friction and the force which produced at the
plane of contact between surfaces due to the relative motion of their surface called frictional
force.

Frictional force can be expressed as

Ff = μ N (1)

Where,
Ff = frictional force (N, lb)

μ = static (μs) or kinetic (μk) frictional coefficient

N = normal force (N, lb)

Frictional force mainly depends on :

*Nature of the surface

*Degree of their smoothness

*Presence of foreign materials (Air, oil, water etc.)

*Temperature.

Types of frictional force:

 Kinetic friction
The friction that is generated when a body moves over another body ,the two bodies being in
contact with each other’s ,is called kinetic friction.

If force F is greater than friction Fr (written as F >Fr), then the object will slide or move. The
friction is considered kinetic friction, which means moving friction.

 Static friction
When an object does not slide along a surface on which it rests even though a force is
exerted to make it slide, then the friction between the contact surfaces is called static
friction

If the pushing force F is less than the resistive force of friction Fr (written as F <Fr), there is
no motion and the objects remain static with respect to each other. In this case, the friction
is considered static friction, which means it is not moving.

Coefficient of static and kinetic friction:

When two objects are in contact with each other ,the ratio of limiting static force and the normal
reaction force is call the coefficient of static friction.

It is denoted by µs. and it is written as

 Fl
µs =
R

The ratio of kinetic friction and normal friction is called coefficient of kinetic friction.it is
denoted by µk,and written as

Fk
µk =
R

Torque:

For an object moving about an axis ,the cross product of the position vector of the point
where the force is applied and the force is called torque. In other words ,the quantity in
rotational dynamics that takes into account both the magnitude of the force and the
direction and location at which it is applied is called torque.it is denoted by τ , and it is
expressed as

τ⃗ =r⃗ × ⃗
F

Its unit is N-m.

Angular momentum:
The angular momentum of an object is the product of it moment of inertia about the axis of rotation
and its angular velocity,it is denoted by L.and

L= Iw

Moment of Inertia:

The tendency of a body to resist angular acceleration, expressed as the sum of the products
of the mass of each particle in the body and the square of its perpendicular distance from
the axis of rotation is known as moment of inertia. For a point mass the moment of inertia
is just the mass times from the axis squired. Mathematically, it can be written as,

Calculate the Moment of Inertia of a uniform bar about an axis passing

through the midpoint and normal to the length of the bar:

Solution:
Let us consider L is the length and M is the mass of a bar. So, we can write the mass per
M
unit length, m =
L

The mass dm of an element of the rod with length dx is

M
dm = dx
L

The contribution of this mass to the total moment of inertia of the rod is

M 2
dI = x2 dm = x dx
L

The total moment of inertia of the rod can be determined by integrating over all
parts of the rod:

L
2

dI = ∫ ML x 2 dx
−L
2

L
M x3
I=
L 3 [ ] 2
−L
2

1 M L3 L3
I= ( + )
3 L 8 8

M L2
I=
12

Find the moment of inertia of a thin circular disc about an axis passing
through the center and normal to its plane.
Consider a uniform circular plate of mass M and radius R as shown below in the figure

Fig: Uniform circular disk with radius R and mass M.

Let O be the center of the disk and OX is the axis perpendicular to the plane of the paper.
To find the moment of inertia of the disk about the axis OX, we can consider a ring of
thickness dx at a distance x from the center.

Area of this ring is equal to its circumference multiplied by its width i.e.
Area of the ring dA =2πxdxxdx

m
Unit Mass of the ring would be =
π r2

The mass dm of an element of the ring with length dx is

m
dm = dA
π r2

m
dm = . 2πxdxxdx
π r2

2m
or, dm = x dx
r2

Moment of inertia of this ring about axis OX would be

di= x2 dm

Since whole disc can be supposed to be made up of such like concentric rings of radii
ranging from O to r ,we can find moment of inertia I of the disc by integrating moment of
inertia of the ring for the limits x=0 and x=r

dI = X2 dm
 r
dI= ∫ 2rm2 x3 dx
0

r
2m 3
= 2 ∫ x dx
r 0

2m 4 r
= [ x ]0
4r2

m
= 2
. [ r 4−0 ]
2r

1
= mr2
2