THEORETICAL RESERVOIR MODELS

TIME AREA OF MODELS

INTEREST
• Wellbore storage and Skin
• Infinite conductivity vertical fracture
EARLY TIME NEAR
• Finite conductivity vertical fracture
WELLBORE
• Partial penetrating (limited entry) well
• Horizontal well
• Homogeneous
• Double porosity
MIDDLE TIME RESERVOIR • Double permeability
• Radial composite
• Linear composite
• Infinite lateral extent

• Single boundary ! Sealing

• Wedge (two intersecting boundaries) ! Constant pressure
• Channel (two parallel boundaries)
RESERVOIR
LATE TIME ! Sealing
BOUNDARIES • Circular boundary ! Constant pressure

! Sealing
• Composite rectangle ! Constant pressure
! No boundary
 Early Time Models

(1) Wellbore storage and Skin

(2) Infinite conductivity

vertical fracture

Area of Interest:
(3) Finite conductivity
NEAR WELLBORE vertical fracture

(4) Partial penetrating

(limited entry) well

(5) Horizontal well

 Early Time Models
(1) Wellbore storage and Skin

Assumptions
A well is generally characterized by a constant W.B.S. which governs the
production due to wellbore fluid decompression/compression when the well
is opened or closed in.

Log - log response

Both the pressure and the derivative curves follow a straight line of unit
slope (n=1) until the pressure disturbance is in the wellbore (pure wellbore
storage). Afterwards, the derivative passes through a hump until the
wellbore effects become negligible.

Parameter: C, wellbore storage constant;

S, formation permeability damage (skin)

• In case of multiphase flow at the wellbore it is possible to have a changing

WBS option
• The magnitude depends upon the type of completion (surface/downhole
shut-in)
 Early Time Models
q q surface flowrate
surface flowrate

drawdown build-up

sandface flowrate sandface flowrate

time time

log ∆p
log ∆p'

log ∆t
 Early Time Models
(2) Infinite conductivity vertical fracture

Assumptions
The well intercepts a single vertical fracture plane. The flowlines pattern is
orthogonal to the fracture and the transient pressure response defines a
linear flow in the reservoir. The well is at the center of the fracture and
there are no ∆p losses along the fracture length.

Log - log response

The pressure and the derivative curves are parallel and they both follow a
straight line with slope equal to n = 0.5.
0.5 The derivative pressure values
are half of the pressure values.

Parameter: xf, fracture half length

Specialized plot
The linear flow has no particular shape on a semi-log plot. It is only
detected on the specialized plot ∆p - vs- (∆t) 0.5
 Early Time Models

no ∆p losses along the fracture length

Xf

log ∆p
log ∆p'

Linear
flow

1/2

log ∆t
 Early Time Models
(3) Finite conductivity vertical fracture

Assumptions
The well intercepts a single vertical fracture plane. The flowlines pattern is
orthogonal to the fracture and along the fracture length. The transient
pressure response defines bilinear flow in the reservoir. The well is at
the center of the fracture and there are ∆p losses along the fracture
length.

Log - log response

The pressure and the derivative curves are parallel and they both follow a
straight line with slope equal to n = 0.25.
0.25 Afterwards, the response starts
to be linear with slope n = 0.5.
0.5 Bilinear flow is a very early time feature
and it is often masked by WBS effects.

Parameter: xf, fracture half length ;

xfx w, fracture conductivity

Specialized plot
The linear flow has no particular shape on a semi-log plot. It is only
detected on the specialized plot ∆p - vs- (∆t) 0.25
 Early Time Models

∆p losses along the fracture length

Xf

Linear
log ∆p flow
log ∆p'

Bilinear
flow

log ∆t
 Early Time Models
(4) Partial penetrating well
Assumptions
The well produces from a perforated interval smaller than the total
producing interval. This produces spherical or hemispherical flow
depending on the position of the opened interval with respect to the upper
and lower boundaries.

Log - log response

At very early times a first radial flow,
flow relative to the perforated interval,
may establish. This is often masked by WBS effects. Then spherical flow
develops and, correspondingly, the derivative curve exhibits a n =- 0.5
slope. Eventually, later on, the radial flow in the full formation is
achieved.

Parameter: kz/kr, vertical to radial permeability ratio;

S, permeability damage (skin) relative to the perforated
interval

Specialized plot
The spherical flow has no particular shape on a semi-log plot. It is only
detected on the specialized plot ∆p - vs- (∆t) 0.5
 Early Time Models

log ∆p
log ∆p'

Spherical
flow

-1/2

log ∆t
 Early Time Models
Impact of anisotropy on spherical flow

log ∆p
log ∆p'

log ∆t
 Early Time Models
(5) Horizontal well

Assumptions
The well is strictly horizontal and the vertical or slanted section is not
perforated. There is no flow parallel to the horizontal well. Both the top and
the bottom of the formation are sealing.

Log - log response

At first radial flow may establish in a plane orthogonal to the horizontal
well with an anisotropic permeability k = (kzkr)0.5. When the top/bottom
boundaries are reached, linear flow with a n = 0.5 slope is achieved.
Later on, horizontal radial flow develops in the formation.

Parameter: kz/kr, vertical to radial permeability ratio;

L, producing horizontal well length;
S, formation permeability damage (skin);
formation kr h

Specialized plot
The radial flow regimes can be analyzed on a semi-log plot. The linear flow
regime is only detected on the specialized plot ∆p - vs - (∆t) 0.5.
 Early Time Models

log ∆p
log ∆p'

LINEAR FLOW
RADIAL FLOW
(1/2 slope)
(Horizontal line)

EARLY RADIAL FLOW

(Horizontal line)

log ∆t
 Middle Time Models

(1) Homogeneous

(2) Double porosity

Area of Interest:
RESERVOIR (3) Double permeability

(4) Radial composite

(5) Linear composite

 Middle Time Models
(1) Homogeneous

Assumptions
The reservoir is homogeneous, isotropic and has constant thickness.

Log - log response

At early times the pressure response is under the influence of WBS effects
(n=1). When infinite acting radial flow (I.A.R.F) is established in the
formation, the pressure derivative stabilizes and follows a horizontal line.

Parameters: formation kh;

S, formation permeability damage (skin)

Specialized plot
On a semi-log plot (Horner plot) the points corresponding to the horizontal
trend of the derivative follow a straight line of slope m.
 Middle Time Models
log ∆p
log ∆p'

I.A.R.F.

log ∆t
Pressure

I.A.R.F.

Horner time
 Middle Time Models
(2) Double porosity

Assumptions
Two distinct porous media are interacting in the reservoir: the “matrix
blocks“ , with high storativity and low permeability and the “fissures
system“, with low storativity and high permeability.

Main points:

The “fissures system“ is assumed to be uniformly

distributed throughout the reservoir

The matrix is not producing directly into the wellbore, but

only into the fissures

Only the fissure system provides the total mobility, but

the matrix blocks supply most of the storage capacity.
 Middle Time Models

Parameters definition

• porosity φt :
Total porosity, φt = φf + φm (0.01 < φf < 1%)

• Total kh : kh = (kh)f (fissure system only)

• ratio ω:
Storativity ratio, defines the contribution of the fissure system to the
total system
ω = [φVCt]f / [(φVCt)f + (φVCt)m ]
(0.001< ω <0.1)

• flow λ:
Interporosity flow, defines the ability of the matrix to flow into the
fissures
λ = α rw2 (Km / Kf ) ( 10-4 < λ < 10-9 )

where α is related to the geometry of the fissure network

 Middle Time Models

A double porosity response depends upon:

contrast between the parameters of the matrix and fissures (φ, k)

communication degree between matrix and fissures (interface skin)

Two types of flow regimes from matrix to fissures are considered:

a) Restricted flow conditions (pseudo steady state regime: Skin > 0)

The matrix response is slower

b) Unrestricted flow conditions (transient regime: Skin = 0)

The matrix response is faster
 Middle Time Models
Double porosity: restricted flow conditions (S>0)

In this model, also called “pseudo steady interporosity flow“, it is

assumed that the fissures are partially plugged and that the flow from
the matrix is restricted by a skin damage at the surface of the blocks.

Log - Log response

Three different regimes can be observed during welltest:

1) At early times only the fissures flow into the well. The contribution of the
matrix is negligible. This corresponds to the homogeneous behavior of
the fissure system.

2) At intermediate times the matrix starts to produce into the fissures until
the pressure tends to stabilize. This corresponds to a transition flow
regime.

3) Later, the matrix pressure equalizes the pressure of the surrounding

fissures. This corresponds to the homogeneous behavior of the total
system (matrix and fissures).
 Middle Time Models

Pressure
FISSURES
Horner time

FEEDING MATRIX

log ∆p
log ∆p'

log ∆t
 Middle Time Models
Wellbore storage effect on fissure flow identification

log ∆p
log ∆p'

log ∆t
 Middle Time Models

Double porosity: unrestricted flow conditions (S=0)

In this model, also called “transient interporosity flow“, it is assumed that

there is no skin damage at the surface of the matrix blocks. The matrix
reacts immediately to any change in pressure in the fissure system and
the first fissure homogeneous regime is often not seen.

Log - Log response

Only two different regimes can be observed during the welltest:

1) At early times, both the matrix and the fissure are producing, but
pressure change is faster in the fissures than in the matrix.This
corresponds to a transition flow regime.

2) Later, the matrix pressure equalizes the pressure of the surrounding

fissures.
This corresponds to the homogeneous behavior of the total system
(matrix and fissures).
 Middle Time Models

log ∆p
log ∆p'

(kh)2 = 1/2 (kh)1 (kh)1

slabs

log ∆t
 Middle Time Models
(3) Double permeability

Assumptions
Stratified reservoirs, where layers with different characteristics can be
identified and grouped as two distinct porous media, are interacting with
their own permeability and porosity. The double - permeability behavior is
observed when crossflow establishes in the reservoir between the two
porous media (main layers).

Main points :
In each homogeneous layer the flow is radial.

In multilayer reservoirs the high k layers are grouped by

convention into “Layer 1“ while “Layer 2“ describes the
low k or tighter zones.

The two layers can produce either simultaneously or

separately into the well.

Crossflow always goes from the lower K layer to the higher K

layer.
 Middle Time Models

Parameters definition

• Total Kh : (kh) tot = (kh)1 + (kh)2

• Mobility ratio κ : defines the contribution of the high K layer to the total Kh
κ = (kh)1 / [(kh)1 + (kh)2 ]
if κ = 1 there is double φ

• ratio ϖ:
Storativity ratio, defines the contribution of the high K layer to the
total storativity ω = [φhCt]1 / [(φhCt)1+ (φhCt)2]

• Interlayer crossflow, λ : defines the effect of vertical crossflow between layers

λ = A rw2/[(kh)1 + (kh)2]
if λ =0 there is no crossflow

where A defines the vertical resistance to flow and is

function of the vertical permeability, kz between
layers.
 Middle Time Models

Double permeability with interlayer crossflow

Anywhere in the reservoir, the interlayer crossfIow is proportional to the

pressure difference between the two layers.

Log - Log response

Three different regimes can be observed during the welltest:

1) At early times, the layers are producing independently and the behavior
corresponds to two layers without crossflow.

2) At intermediate times, when the fluid flow between the layers is

activated, the pressure response follows a transition flow regime.

3) Later, the pressure equalizes in the two layers. This corresponds to the
homogeneous behavior of the total system.
 Middle Time Models

LAYER 1 (kh)1
(kh)1 > (kh)2
LAYER 2 (kh)2

log ∆p
No crossflow if λ = 0
log ∆p'

log ∆t
 Middle Time Models
(4) Radial composite (lnt/2)

Assumptions
The well is at the center of a circular homogeneous zone of radius ri (inner
region), communicating with an infinite homogeneous reservoir (outer
region). The inner and the outer zones have different reservoir and/or fluid
properties. There is no pressure loss at the radial interface ri.
This R.C. model is characterized by a change in mobility and storativity in
the radial direction.

Parameters definition
" Mobility Ratio, M : M = (kh/µ)1/(kh/µ)2
" Storativity Ratio, D : D = (φhCt )1/(φhCt )2
Log - log response
The two reservoir regions are seen in sequence:
1) The pressure behavior describes the homogeneous regime in the
inner region (kh/µ)1
2) After a transition, a second homogeneous regime is achieved in the
outer region (kh/µ)2
 Middle Time Models

log ∆p
log ∆p'

(kh)1

log ∆t
 Middle Time Models
(5) Linear composite (no lnt/2)

Assumptions
The well is in a homogeneous infinite reservoir, but in one direction there is
a change in reservoir and/or fluid properties. There is no pressure loss at
the linear interface L1
This L.C. model is characterized by a change in mobility and storativity in
the linear direction.

Parameters definition
# Mobility Ratio, M : M = (kh/µ)1/(kh/µ)2
# Storativity Ratio, D : D = (φhCt )1/(φhCt)2

Log - log response

The two reservoir regions are seen in sequence:

1) The pressure behavior describes the homogeneous regime in the inner

region (Kh/µ)1
2) After a transition, a second homogeneous regime is achieved in the
outer region. The average mobility of the two zones is defined as:
[(kh/µ)1+(kh/µ)2]/2
 Middle Time Models

log ∆p
log ∆p'

(kh)1

-1

log ∆t
 Late Time Models
(1)
(1) Infinite
Infinite lateral
lateral extent
extent

(2)
(2) Single
Single boundary
boundary

(3)
(3) Wedge
Wedge
Area of Interest: (intersecting
(intersectingboundaries)
boundaries)
RESERVOIR
BOUNDARIES
(4)
(4) Channel
Channel
(parallel
(parallelboundaries)
boundaries)

(5)
(5) Circular
Circular boundary
boundary

(6)
(6) Composite
Composite rectangle
rectangle
 Late Time Models
Single
Single boundary
boundary
Assumptions
One linear fault, located at some distance from the producing well, limits the
reservoir extension in one direction (sealing), or provides a pressure
support in one direction (water drive constant pressure).

Parameters
Boundary distance from the well, d

Log - log response

Before the boundary is reached the reservoir response shows infinite
homogeneous behavior (I.A.R.F.). Two possible cases may exist:
1) sealing fault : after the boundary is felt the reservoir behavior is
equivalent to an infinite system with a permeability half of the initial
response permeability. On the Horner plot, the presence of a sealing
boundary is shown by the doubled straight line slope : m2 = 2m1
2) constant pressure : the water drive support produces a constant well
pressure response. After the first radial flow regime, the derivative drops
with slope n = -1.
 Late Time Models

m2 = 2 m 1

Pressure
m2 = 0 m1

Horner time

log ∆p
log ∆p'
(kh)2 = 1/2 (kh)1

(kh)1

-1
log ∆t
 Late Time Models
Intersecting
Intersecting boundaries
boundaries (Wedge)
(Wedge)
Assumptions
Two intersecting boundaries, sealing or constant pressure, located at some
distance from the producing well, limit the reservoir extension in two
directions. The intersection angle θ is always less then 180°. The well is
in any position between the two barriers.

Parameters: Distances from well to boundaries, d1 and d2

Intersection angle: θ = 2π
π [m
[ 1/ m2]

Log - log response

Before the boundaries are reached the reservoir response shows the
first infinite homogeneous behavior (I.A.R.F.) with a permeability of k1.
The radial flow duration is a function of the location of the well between
the two boundaries. Two cases may exist:
1) two sealing faults: when both the boundaries are reached, the
reservoir behavior is equivalent to an infinite system with a
permeability: k2 = (θ /2π) k1
2) constant pressure: If one (or both) of the boundaries is water drive,
the pressure stabilizes and the derivative drops.
 Late Time Models

d1 1 WELL CENTERED
2
θ 1
2 WELL OFF-CENTERED
d2

log ∆p
log ∆p'

(kh)3=θ/2π(kh)1

(kh)2=1/2(kh)1
(kh)1

log ∆t
 Late Time Models

Parallel
Parallel boundaries
boundaries (Channel)
(Channel)
Assumptions
Two parallel boundaries, sealing or constant pressure, located at some
distance from the producing well, limit the reservoir extension in two
opposite directions. In the other directions the reservoir is of infinite
extent. The well is in any position between the two boundaries.

Parameters: Boundary distances from the well, d1 and d2

Log - log response

Before the boundaries are reached the reservoir response shows infinite
homogeneous behavior (I.A.R.F.). The radial flow duration is a
function of the location of the well in the channel. Two possible cases
may exist:
1) two sealing fault: when the boundaries are reached, a linear flow
regime (n = 0.5) establishes. The linear flow is detected on the
specialized plot ∆p - vs- (∆t) 0.5
2) constant pressure: If one (or both) of the boundaries is water
drive, the pressure stabilizes and the derivative drops.
 Late Time Models

1 WELL CENTERED 2 WELL OFF-CENTERED

log ∆p
log ∆p'

1/2
(kh)2 = 1/2 (kh)1
(kh)1

log ∆t
 Late Time Models
Closed reservoir (composite boundaries)

Assumptions
The closed system behavior is characteristic of bounded reservoirs. Only
the rectangular reservoir shape is here considered and each side can be
either a sealing barrier, a constant pressure boundary or at infinity (i.e.:
no boundary).

Parameters : Boundaries distances from the well d1, d2, d3, d4

Log - log response

Before the boundaries are reached the reservoir response first shows the
infinite homogeneous behavior (I.A.R.F.). The radial flow duration is a
function of the location of the well inside the rectangular area. Depending
upon the type of the existing barriers, boundaries can be:

1) sealing faults : The effect of each sealing fault is seen according to

its distance from the well. If all the sealing boundaries are reached, a
closed system is then defined and pseudo steady-state conditions apply
(i.e.: the flowing pressure is linearly proportional to time ).
 Late Time Models
A closed system is characterized by a loss of pressure (depletion) in the
reservoir, expressed as :

∆p = pi - pavg

The pressure behavior of closed systems is totally different during

drawdown and build-up periods:

drawdown derivative : when all the sealing boundaries are reached

both the pressure and the derivative curve
follow a unit slope (n = 1) straight line.
On the specialized Cartesian plot p-vs-time,
the flowing pressure is a linear function of
time.

build-up derivative : when all the sealing boundaries are reached

the reservoir pressure tends to stabilize at the
average reservoir pressure pavg and, as a
consequence, the derivative curve drops.
 Late Time Models

re

log ∆p
log ∆p'

log ∆t
 Late Time Models
2) Constant pressure : If any of the sides acts as a constant pressure
boundary, due to water drive support, the log-
log pressure curve tends to stabilize and the
derivative drops.

Only the sealing faults closer to the well may be

felt but, when the effect of pressure support
start to act, any other sealing boundary is
masked.

Because no depletion is present in this case, the

pressure derivative trend is the same for both
the build-up and drawdown periods.
 Late Time Models
3

1 4

log ∆p
log ∆p'

log ∆t
 Late Time Models
1

4 2

log ∆p
log ∆p'

SEALING

CONSTANT PRESSURE

log ∆t