Propeller

DCAM Part 66
MIAT Fundamentals
17.1.1 - HO - 1

17 Propeller

17.1 Fundamentals

17.1.1 Blade Element Theory

17.1.1.1 Basic Principles

Refer to Figure 1.

A propeller is a rotating airfoil that consists of 2 or more blades. These blades are
attached to a central hub which is mounted on an engine crankshaft. The function of
the propeller is to convert engine power into useful thrust.

The blades have a leading edge, a trailing edge, a tip, a shank, a face and a back as
shown in Figure 2, details a) and b).

Blade Angle

Refer to Figure 3.

’Blade angle’ (or: pitch angle) is the angle between the propeller’s plane of rotation
and the chord line of the propeller’s airfoil section (i.e. of the blades). The cord line is
an imaginary line from the leading edge of the blade to its trailing edge.

An increase in blade angle increases the thrust. A reduction of the blade angle
results in less thrust.

Angle of Attack

To produce thrust, the airfoil section of a propeller must be slightly tilted in relation to
the direction of airflow over it. This is known as the ’angle of attack’. It is part of the
blade angle. Both are equal when the propeller is not turning.
Refer to Figure 4.

The angle of attack is a product of the aircraft’s forward speed and the rotational
speed of the propeller. For any given blade angle, as the forward speed of the aircraft
increases, the angle of attack decreases until it finally reduces the amount of thrust
available and limits the aircraft’s forward speed. Efficiency can be regained by
increasing the propeller speed or by increasing the blade angle.

For mechanical and aerodynamic reasons, both propeller rpm (revolutions per
minute) and blade angle are limited.

Refer to Figure 5.

The possible blade angles range from a full reverse, negative blade angle to a fully
streamlined feathered position.

When the turboprop engine is at idle, the engine is at minimum load. At ground idle
(GI), the blade angle will be almost zero and the thrust is at a minimum.
 Propeller
DCAM Part 66
MIAT Fundamentals
17.1.1 - HO - 2

As the power lever is moved toward the take--off position, the propeller blade angle
becomes positive thereby creating a forward thrust in order to move the aircraft.
Under conditions of emergency shut--down in the air, the blade angle is set to its
maximum, i.e. it is set to approx. 90. When the engine is shut down, it is important to
streamline the blade into the direction of flight (to stop windmilling of the engine and
reduce drag).
Refer to Figure 6.
In order to maintain a constant angle of attack at a constant engine power, the blade
angle must be increased when the aircraft speed increases. With the blade angle
being at ’full reverse’ after touch down, the angle of attack will decrease as aircraft
speed decreases.

Propeller Pitch

Refer to Figure 7.
’Pitch’ is the distance in inches (”) that a propeller section moves forward during one
revolution.
’Pitch distribution’ is the gradual twist in the propeller blade from shank to tip.
’Geometric pitch’ of a propeller is based on the blade angle at the 75--% blade
station.

Note: In the example shown in Figure 2, detail a), the 75-- % station is at 42” from the
hub.
Geometric pitch is a theoretical value because it does not take into account any
losses caused by inefficiency.
’Effective pitch’ is the distance the aircraft actually moves forward during one
revolution of the propeller. It may vary from zero (when the aircraft is stationary on
the ground) to approx. 90 % of the geometric pitch during the most efficient flight
conditions. The difference between geometric pitch and effective pitch is called ’slip’.

Example: If a propeller has a pitch of 50” it should (theoretically) move forward 50” during
one revolution. But, if the aircraft actually moves forward only 35” during one
revolution, the effective pitch is 35”, and the propeller has an efficiency of 70 % in
pitch.

17.1.1.2 Production of Thrust

Basically, the propeller produces thrust by giving a momentum to a large mass of air
and accelerating it rearwards. The amount of thrust produced depends largely upon
the amount of air that the propeller can move and on the amount of velocity given to
the moving air.
Refer to Figure 8.
To gain efficiency, the propeller blades have a cross--section of a special airfoil
shape. They must also be set at a certain angle to the direction of motion (the angle
of attack). This ensures that, when the propeller turns, the tilted blades move the air
and force large amounts of it towards the rear. Useful thrust is produced to move the
aircraft forward.
 Propeller
DCAM Part 66
MIAT Fundamentals
17.1.1 - HO - 3

When an aircraft is flying, the blade tips move on a spiral path (see Figure 8,
detail b)). The distance moved forward along the flight path during one propeller
revolution is the same for all sections of the propeller blade.
Refer to Figure 2 again.
The blade sections nearest to the tip travel greater distances through the air than the
sections at or near the blade root. To produce an even thrust along the whole length
of the blade, the blade angle is varied from a large angle at the root to a small angle
at the tip. This variation of the blade angle produces a ’twist’ in the propeller blade
that is called ’blade twist’.

17.1.1.3 Forces Acting on the Propeller

When a propeller rotates, many forces interact and cause tension, twisting and
bending stresses affecting the propeller.

Centrifugal Force

The force which causes the greatest stress on a propeller is the centrifugal force (see
Figure 9, detail a)). Centrifugal force can best be described as the force which tries to
pull the blades out of the hub. The amount of stress created by centrifugal force
may be greater than 7,500 times the weight of the propeller blade.

Torque Bending Force

Torque bending forces try to bend the propeller blade back into the direction opposite
the direction of rotation (see Figure 9, detail b)).

Thrust Bending Force

The thrust bending force attempts to bend the propeller blades forward at the tips. This
occurs because the lift toward the tip of the blade flexes the thin blade sections
forward. The thrust bending force opposes the centrifugal force to a certain degree
(see Figure 9, detail c)).

Aerodynamic Twisting Moment

The aerodynamic twisting moment tries to twist a blade to a higher angle. This force
is produced because the axis of rotation of the blade is at the midpoint of the chord
line, while the center of the lift of the blade is forward of this axis. This force tries to
increase the blade angle. The aerodynamic twisting moment is used in some designs
to help feather the propeller (see Figure 9, detail d)).

Centrifugal Twisting Moment

The centrifugal twisting moment tries to decrease the blade angle, and opposes the
aerodynamic twisting moment (see Figure 9, detail e)). This tendency to decrease the
blade angle is produced because all the parts of a rotating propeller try to move in the
same plane of rotation as the blade’s center line. At operational rpm, this force is
greater than the aerodynamic twisting moment. It is used in some designs to decrease
the blade angle.
 Propeller
DCAM Part 66
MIAT Fundamentals
17.1.1 - HO - 4

Vibrational Force and Critical Range

When a propeller produces thrust, aerodynamic and mechanical forces are present
which cause the blade to vibrate. If this is not allowed for in the design, this vibration
may cause excessive flexing and work--hardening of the metal and may even result
in sections of the propeller blade breaking off in flight.

Aerodynamic forces cause vibrations at the tip of a blade where the effects of
transonic speeds cause buffeting and vibration.

Mechanical vibrations are caused by the power pulses in a piston engine. They are
considered to be more destructive in their effect than aerodynamic vibration. These
power pulses cause a propeller blade to vibrate and set up standing--wave patterns
that cause metal fatigue and failure. The location and number of stress points
change with different rpm settings. But the most critical location for these stress
concentrations is approx. 6” from the tip of the blades.

Most airframe/engine/propeller combinations have eliminated the adverse effects of

these vibrational stresses by careful design. But some combinations are sensitive to
certain propeller speeds. This critical range is indicated on the airspeed indicator by
a red arc. The engine should not be operated in the critical range except as
necessary to pass through it to set a higher or lower rpm. If the engine is operated in
the critical range, a structural failure in the aircraft becomes possible because of the
vibrational stresses set up.
 Propeller
DCAM Part 66
MIAT Fundamentals
17.1.1 - HO - 5

Fabric sheathing Hub assembly

Metal tipping
Laminated wood blade Shank

B 4405
Tip

Figure 1 Typical Wooden Aircraft Propeller

 Propeller
DCAM Part 66
MIAT Fundamentals
17.1.1 - HO - 6

a) Typical cross-- sections of a propeller blade

Tip section

42” station

18” station

12” station
Blade
shank

Center
of hub

Blade butt

b) Designations
Front of
aircraft
Chord
line
Blade
back
Trailing
edge
Blade
angle
Leading
edge
B 4406 A

Blade
face
Axis of rotation

Figure 2 Designations and Blade Cross-- Section

of a Propeller
 Propeller
DCAM Part 66
MIAT Fundamentals
17.1.1 - HO - 7

a) Blade angle
Plane of rotation

Propeller
center-- line

Blade cord line

Blade angle

b) Angle of attack

Plane of rotation

Propeller
center-- line
FB 4407 D

Angle of advance

Angle of attack
Blade angle

Relative airflow

Figure 3 Blade Angle and Angle of Attack

 Propeller
DCAM Part 66
MIAT Fundamentals
17.1.1 - HO - 8

Aircraft speed 180 150 100 50

Chord line
Pitch angle

Angle of attack Relative wind

FB 4408 A

Engine speed

Figure 4 Blade Angle and Angle of Attack

versus Relative Wind
 Propeller
DCAM Part 66
MIAT Fundamentals
17.1.1 - HO - 9

Power lever position in

reverse ground idle take-- off flight idle

B 4436 B
-- +

Pitch angle is
negative zero positive streamlined (90)
(feathered)

Thrust effect is
reverse minimum forward zero

Figure 5 Range of Propeller Blade Angles

 Propeller
DCAM Part 66
MIAT Fundamentals
17.1.1 - HO - 10

Aircraft speed 100 50

Angle of attack
at 100 km/h

Relative wind

Chord line
Pitch
angle
B 4409

Plane of rotation

Figure 6 Blade Angle and Angle of Attack in

’Reverse’ Position
 Propeller
DCAM Part 66
MIAT Fundamentals
17.1.1 - HO - 11

Slip

Effective pitch

B 4437
Geometric pitch

Figure 7 Effective and Geometric Pitch of a

Propeller
 Propeller
DCAM Part 66
MIAT Fundamentals
17.1.1 - HO - 12

a) Airflow by propeller revolution

Airflow
Angle of attack

Flight path
Flight path

Direction of
propeller rotation

b) Propeller revolutions produce a spiral path

Flight path
FB 4410 B

1. revolution 2. revolution 3. revolution

Figure 8 Production of Thrust

 Propeller
DCAM Part 66
MIAT Fundamentals
17.1.1 - HO - 13

a) Centrifugal force b) Torque bending forces

c) Thrust bending forces

Thrust load

d) Aerodynamic twisting moment e) Centrifugal twisting moment

Center of
rotation
FB 4411 C

Center of
pressure

Figure 9 Forces Acting on the Propeller