Engineering Failure Analysis 112 (2020) 104382

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Engineering Failure Analysis

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/engfailanal

Analysis of water coolant pressure fluctuation induced by piston

T
slap
⁎
Xiaoyu Wanga, , Zheng Zhangb, Yinglong Lic
a
School of Mechanical Engineering and Automation, Northeastern University, Shenyang 110819, PR China
b
School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing 210096, PR China
c
School of Materials Science and Engineering, Northeastern University, Shenyang 110819, PR China

A R T IC LE I N F O ABS TRA CT

Keywords: Liner cavitation is caused by water pressure fluctuation in water coolant passage. When the
Cavitation erosion negative pressure falls below the saturated vapor pressure, the impulsive pressure following the
Engine vibration implosion of cavitation bubbles causes cavitation erosion on wet cylinder liner surface.
Vibro-acoustic Prediction of coolant pressure fluctuation is crucial to relieve liner cavitation erosion. Vibration
Water coolant passage
of internal combustion engine especially liner vibration is thought of as the primary cause of liner
Modal analysis
cavitation. Piston slap is deemed as the major factor of engine vibration. The present work es-
tablishes a coupled system between entire engine structure and water coolant passage acoustic
2010 MSC:
00-01 field considering their vibration characteristics by finite element method and boundary element
99-00 method. Mechanism of piston slap is proposed and the resulting slap forces are applied on cy-
linder to predict water coolant pressure fluctuation. The influence of sound speed variation of
acoustic field on pressure fluctuation is discussed. The contributions of natural modes of engine
and water acoustic field to largest negative pressure are analyzed.

1. Introduction

The formation of vapor bubbles due to considerable local low pressure is called cavitation, which usually causes vibration, noise
and most importantly erosion on the solid boundary. Cavitation often happens at the contact area between solid and liquid and brings
damages on the component surface manifested by pitting holes, which may reduce the machine efficiency and service life [1,2].
Cavitation has continuously plagued engineers in a variety of disciplines ranging from rocket pump to IC engines covering a large
variety of equipments [3]. Euler was probably the first person to conjecture that cavitation might be a problem in his theory of
hydraulic machines. Reynolds then carried out a fundamental study of cavitation using tubular constrictions [4]. Pioneers such as
Benjamin and Plesset recognized the existence of micro-jet of bubble collapse near solid wall experimentally and theoretically, which
is considered as the primary cause of cavitation erosion [5–7]. The cavitation loads could be several tens of hundreds of Newtons,
which result in pressure pulse of several Gpa and exceed the conventional yield stress of material [8–10]. Some previous works
revealed further aspects of cavitation such as the inception of cavitation, complex cavitation patterns, the formation of bubble clouds
and incubation period that precedes material removal [11–14]. The size, depth and shape of erosion pits also contain abundant
information. Through ultrasonic vibration platform and SEM technology, the formation and evolution of erosion pits on different
materials can be studied [15,16]. However there is still mismatch between the ultrasonic test results and actual working conditions
due to the complex environment which is hard to be simulated by ultrasonic experiment.

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: wangxy@me.neu.edu.cn (X. Wang).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engfailanal.2020.104382
Received 23 July 2019; Received in revised form 9 November 2019; Accepted 7 January 2020
Available online 13 March 2020
1350-6307/ © 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
X. Wang, et al. Engineering Failure Analysis 112 (2020) 104382

Engine cavitation erosion usually happens at injector nozzle and water surface of cylinder liners and cylinder block. The former is
a kind of cavitating flow and the latter is induced by acoustic cavitation. As high intensity sound pressure passing through, inertial
liquid cannot follow the oscillations of sound field and result in low pressure regions. When low pressure falls below the saturated
pressure, cavitation bubbles arise and then collapse with pressure rebounding. The micro jets following the asymmetrically collapse
of bubbles may impact and cause deformation and fatigue on solid surface. Liner cavitation is featured by local concentrated hon-
eycombed pits, which often appears on the thrust side and anti thrust side of liners. The erosion on the thrust side is more serious than
anti side in general due to higher vibration level. Liner caivtaiton erosion may destroy the sealing of combustion chamber and require
engine overhaul and liner replacement more frequently. Liner cavitation becomes severe with the demand of higher power output
and lighter component weight, which has become a key factor of the reliability and life expectance of engine. Liner cavitation erosion
is a complex process which combines mechanical, thermal and electrochemical effect. The major factor is the high frequency pressure
waves induced by engine vibration. Liner cavitaion is initiated and exaggerated by piston slap induced vibration which is crucial to
this problem. Endo and Ikenouchi examined the dynamical deformation of a cylinder sleeve in running conditions [17]. It was found
that the pitting damage distribution on the cylinder surface of cooling water side favorably corresponded to the cylindrical mode of
vibration with two nodal points in its circumference which was excited by piston slap force. Yonezawa et al. studied the mechanism
of liner cavitation of diesel engine and indicated that the pressure fluctuation induced by piston slap force was the main reason of
liner cavitation [18]. They investigated the mechanism of piston slap by introducing oil film between piston and liner and tracked
transient response of liner. In order to study the relationship between liner vibration and the generation of bubbles, test equipment
was established to simulate piston slap process of diesel engine. The behavior of cavitation bubbles was observed continuously under
different rotating speed. As the vibration increased, vaporous bubbles were generated, which would bring impingement during the
transient collapsing [19]. Cavitation resistance depends on the vibration characteristics and also material features of cylinder liners
and block. The corrosion resistance and strength of material affect the performance of pitting. The ultimate resilience of materials has
been found in bench tests to relate closely with cavitation resistance [20,21]. Because of the versatility and high performance price
ratio, cast irons are widely used in the manufacture of hydraulic machinery. Particularly, diesel engine cylinder liners are manu-
factured from flake graphite grey irons. The erosion of flake graphite cast irons is relatively severe because of large volume matrix
intersected by the weak graphite flakes which act as stress concentrators and cut through the matrix. Small amounts of silicon
increase the cavitation erosion resistance [22], while small amounts of chromium or molybdenum decrease the resistance [23]. Laser
surface melting is found to increase the cavitation erosion resistance of cast irons by eliminating graphite flakes and refining the
microstructure. Materials with higher young modulus have potentials to avoid liner cavitation.
In practical engineering applications, supplemental coolant additives (SCAs) are used to control liner pitting. It was found cy-
linder liner cavitation pitting could be controlled through proper addition of chromate into engine coolant. Chromate was then
displaced by nitrites for its toxicity. Later, more environment friendly antifreeze containing nitrite was invented, which used che-
micals to plate sleeves with a thin protective layer [24]. R.D. Hercamp and R.D. Hudgens reported a cavitation erosion bench test
which was used for evaluating the performance of coolant in protecting cast iron cylinder liners against cavitation erosion. The bench
test showed that extensive pitting appeared on cylinders with coolant of mixture of antifreeze and tap water. While under the same
engine test procedure but using mixture of antifreeze, tap water and SCAs, the degree of liner pitting was declined [25].
The pitting on liners is caused by the formation and collapse of cavitation bubbles. Temperature and pressure of coolant directly
determine the environment of creation and implosion of bubble. Nonlinear effects of temperature and pressure are examined by
laboratory tests using a vibrating cast iron specimen in coolant [26]. The judgment of the occurrence of cavitation bubbles can be
expressed mathematically by the equation.

Pw − Pv
K=
2ρv 2g (1)

where K is cavitation number, Pw is pressure at the cylinder wall, Pv is vapor pressure of the coolant, ρ is fluid density, v is fluid
velocity and g is gravitational constant. When the cavitation number becomes zero or less, cavitation occurs. In order to prevent the
formation of cavitation bubbles, we should maximize the pressure of coolant near cylinder wall and minimize vapor pressure. The
higher the temperature, the higher the vapor pressure will be, therefore lowering Pv can be achieved by lowering the coolant tem-
perature. Pw can be increased by directly raising the head pressure, The summation of coolant pressure, vibration pressure Pw and
vapor pressure Pv should always be greater than zero to prevent generation of cavitation. An engine operating at atmospheric pressure
will be much more prone to cavitation than a cooling system with a pressure cap [27].
Pressure fluctuation condition of water coolant is crucial to investigate liner cavitation, which is obviously affected by the
vibration characteristics of engine structure and water coolant passage acoustic field. The vibration of engine is mainly induced by
piston slap force and transmitted from engine structure to water coolant. In this study, in order to evaluate the pressure fluctuation
induced by piston slap forces, mechanism of piston slap is studied and piston slap forces are simulated. The numerical models of
entire engine structure and water coolant passage are established respectively. Equation of motion of engine structure containing
water coolant passage is formulated using FEM-BEM coupled method. The high frequency water coolant pressure fluctuation is
calculated under the action of piston slap forces. The natural frequencies and modes of acoustic field can be altered by changing
sound speed. The water coolant pressure induced by piston slap forces is thus evaluated at different sound speed in order to in-
vestigate the contribution of different modes of engine structure and acoustic field to coolant pressure fluctuation, which could be
controlled to eliminate the vibration and water pressure fluctuation in future.

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X. Wang, et al. Engineering Failure Analysis 112 (2020) 104382

Fig. 1. Sketch of geometric relation between piston and conrod.

2. Mechanism of piston slap

Piston slap of IC engines represents the impact phenomenon between piston and liner when the sign of side force of reciprocating
piston changes. Piston slap is inevitable and essentially important for engine noise and liner cavitation. Therefore the estimation of
piston slap forces is necessary to predict and eliminate liner cavitation. The dynamic characteristics of liner and piston are considered
in the modeling of piston slap. Firstly, the rigid motion of piston is derived. Fig. 1 shows the coordinate system and geometry
restrictions of piston and con-rod. Origin of coordinate is set at top dead center. The relationship between velocities of piston gravity
center (XĠ , YĠ , θĠ ) and piston pin (XṖ , YṖ , θṖ ) holds as below

XĠ = XṖ + LY θṖ YĠ = YṖ − LX θṖ θṖ = θĠ (2)

where LX and LY are the horizontal and vertical components of distance between piston gravity center and piston pin. The vertical
coordinate of piston pin YP is derived with constant angular velocity (α = ωt ) .

YP = l 2 − [r sin(α − γ0) + XC 0 − XP − XP 0 ]2 + r cos(α − γ0) − l 0 (3)

where l is the length of con-rod, l 0 is the vertical distance between top dead center and con-rod rotation center, γ0 is the angle between
vertical direction and connection of piston pin and con-rod center.
The kinetic energy of piston which includes piston ring and small end of con-rod is given as follows,

1 1 1 1
mP ⎡ (XṖ + LY θṖ ) + (YṖ − LX θṖ ) ⎤ + IG θĠ + mr ⎡ ⎜⎛XṖ 2 + YṖ ⎟⎞ + mrg YṖ
2 2 2 2 2
T=
2 ⎢ ⎥ 2 2 ⎢ 2 (4)
⎣ ⎦ ⎣⎝ ⎠
where mP is the mass of piston, IG is the inertial moment of piston around gravity center, mr is the mass of piston pin and small end of
con-rod and mrg is the mass of piston ring. The transverse and vertical components of inertial force of piston Q X , QY and rotational
inertial moment around piston pin Qθ are obtained through Largrange equations as follows.

d ⎛ ∂T ⎞ ∂T
QX = ⎜ ⎟ − = mP (X¨P + LY θ¨P ) + mr X¨P
dt ⎝ ∂XṖ ⎠ ∂XP (5)

d ⎛ ∂T ⎞ ∂T
QY = ⎜ ⎟ − = mP (Y¨P − LX θ¨P ) + mr Y¨P + mrg Y¨P
dt ⎝ ∂YṖ ⎠ ∂YP (6)

d ⎛ ∂T ⎞ ∂T
Qθ = ⎜ ⎟ − = mP (LY X¨P − LX Y¨P ) + [IG + (LX 2 + LY2 ) mP ] θ¨P
dt ⎝ ∂θṖ ⎠ ∂θP (7)
As shown in Fig. 2, the forces acting on the piston are gas force FG , reaction force from con-rod Fl , friction moment of piston pin Tp ,
vertical friction force between piston ring and liner Fq , transverse friction force between piston ring and ring groove Fr , vertical
friction force between piston and liner Ff 1 and Ff 2 , recovering force of piston ring Fk , impact force between piston and liner FAi and

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X. Wang, et al. Engineering Failure Analysis 112 (2020) 104382

Fig. 2. Forces acting on piston.

FEi . The details of the calculation methods of the forces acting on piston are referred from pervious work [3]. Through force and
moment equilibrium of piston, the following equations hold.

QY = Fl cosβ + Ff 1 + Ff 2 + Fq − FG (8)

QX = ∑ FAi − ∑ FEi − Flsinβ + Fr + Fkr − FG (9)

D D
Qθ = ∑ FEi HEi − ∑ FAi HAi + Ff 2 ⎛ 2 − XP 0 ⎞ − Ff 1 ⎛ + XP 0 ⎞ + TP + ∑ Fri Hri + Fkr Hkr (10)
⎝ ⎠ ⎝2 ⎠

where HEi and HAi are vertical distance between impact point and piston pin, XP0 is piston pin offset, D is diameter of piston, Hri is
vertical distance between ring groove and piston pin, Hkr is vertical distance between ring groove and piston pin. Considering the
dynamic characteristics of liner and piston, the equations of motion of elastic vibration of piston and liner are derived as follows,

̃ a¨n + 2ζ pn ωpn ∼
⎧ Mpn
∼ 2
Mpn aṅ + MPn ωpn an = fpñ
⎨ Mlñ b¨n + 2ζ ωln ∼ ∼
Mln bṅ + MLn ωln bn = flñ
2
⎩ ln (11)

where Mpñ and Mlñ are the n-th effective mass of piston and liner, ζ pn and ζln are the n-th effective damping ratios of piston and liner,
ωpn and ωln are the n-th circular frequencies of piston and liner, an and bn are the n-th modal responses of piston and liner. The
parameters mentioned above are acquired from FEM calculation of liner system and piston model. fpñ and flñ are the n-th effective
forces acting on piston and liner, which are modulated by the mode shapes of liner system and piston.
The coupled equation of motion of piston and liner system can be derived combining the equation of piston rigid motion Eq.
(5)–(10) equation of elastic vibration of piston and liner Eq. (11). The vibration amplitudes of piston x p and liner xl are expressed as
summation of corresponding eigen modes ϕn and ψn .

xp = ∑ ϕn an xl = ∑ ψn bb (12)

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X. Wang, et al. Engineering Failure Analysis 112 (2020) 104382

3. Theoretical formulations for vibroacoustic analysis

The pressure fluctuation of water coolant is generated by engine vibration and which in turn is perturbed by pressure exerted. The
engine structure and water coolant acoustic field compose a vibroacoustic system. The model of acoustic field of water coolant
passage is created and then coupled with equation of motion of engine structure. The acoustic response of a fluid within a closed
cavity can be formulated by BEM method. The sound field generated by a harmonically vibrating surface can be derived by
homogeneous Helmholtz equation.
∇2 p + k 2p = 0 (13)
where p is the sound pressure field that imposed by the boundary conditions and k is wave number. The fluid momentum equation
relates the normal particle velocity to the normal gradient of sound pressure so that on the boundary surface the link between normal
component of fluid particle velocity and gradient of sound pressure normal to the surface is given as
1 ⎛ ∂p ⎞
v=−
jωρ ⎝ ∂n ⎠ (14)
The acoustic Greens function G satisfies Helmholtz equation in bounded acoustic domain with unit excitation.
exp−jkr
G=
4πr (15)
Greens second identity is used to derive the Helmholtz integral equation for radiated pressure field of cavity with irregular shapes.

∫S ⎛⎝Q ∂∂Rn −R
∂Q ⎞
∂n ⎠
dS = ∫V (Q∇2R − R∇2Q) dV (16)
Replacing Q and R by sound pressure p and Greens function G, moreover substituting Eq. (14), the following integral equation is
obtained

∫S ⎛⎜p ∂G + vωρ G ⎟⎞ dSa = − 1 p

a
⎝ ∂n j ⎠ 2 (17)
where Sa is the closed surface of sound field. By dividing the surface into small elements Sj , the integration over Sa is carried out by
the following expression.
[H]{p} = −jωρ [G]{v} (18)

1 ∂G
Hij =
2
+ ∫S j ∂n
ds Gij = ∫S Gds
j

where {p} and {v} are the sound pressure and normal velocity of node of element mesh.
Two kinds of boundary conditions around acoustic field are considered, one is interacting boundary between structure and
acoustic field (acceleration boundary) represented by index O, the other is non-interacting boundary which is acoustic only (im-
pedance boundary p = Zv ) represented by index B.
Considering the boundary conditions, Eq. (18) can be rewritten as below.
p
⎡ HBB HBO ⎤ ⎛ B ⎞ = −jρω ⎡ GBB GBO ⎤ vB
⎢
⎣ H OB H OO ⎥ p
⎦⎝ O⎠ ⎣ GOB GOO ⎥
⎢ v
⎦ O
( ) (19)
A coupled vibro-acoustic model is formulated considering the coupling effect between structure vibration and acoustic field. The
acoustic loading over the structure surface [S] is defined by [S]{p} . The differential equation for structure is derived as below
− ω2 Mx¨ + jωCẋ + Kx + Sp = f (20)
The equation governing the structural-acoustic coupled system is derived by combining Eq. (19) and Eq. (20). Supposing the
pressure and displacement are expressed as linear combination of mode shapes, the following matrix formulation holds.

⎡ (K ̃ + jωC ̃ − ω M̃ ) Φ SΨ
2 t 0 ⎤ ⎛ a ⎞ ⎛ f ⎞̃
⎢ 2
− ρω GBB Φ HBB Ψ HBO Z + jρωGBO ⎥ ⎜ b1 ⎟ = ⎜ 0 ⎟.
⎢ ⎥ ẋ
− ρω2GOB Φ 0
⎦⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
⎢ HOB Ψ HOO Z + jρωGOO ⎥ o
⎣ (21)
where M̃ , C ̃ and K ̃ are the effective mass, damping and stiffness, a and b are the modal responses of structure and acoustic pressure, Φ
and Ψ are the mode shapes of structure and acoustic field, ẋ o is the velocity of impedance boundary. Through Eq. (21), the vibration
and pressure response of engine-coolant coupled system can be obtained under the action of piston slap forces.

4. Coolant pressure calculation and discussion

The engine model is based on a 3.5L 4 cylinder 4 stroke lift truck use engine prototype. The water coolant passage model is

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X. Wang, et al. Engineering Failure Analysis 112 (2020) 104382

Fig. 3. Whole engine model coupled with WCP.

formulated according to its sand module. Fig. 3 shows the numerical model of engine structure and water coolant passage coupled
system. Water coolant pressure is calculated as linear summation of the corresponding mode shapes. The dynamic characteristics of
engine cylinders and WCP acoustic field are crucial to evaluation of water coolant pressure fluctuation, which should be examined.
Figs. 4 and 5 show the typical mode shapes of water coolant passage and cross section of engine cylinders, which are thought to be
influential to acoustic pressure fluctuation.
We are going to evaluate water pressure induced by piston slap forces which are calculated based on the mechanism proposed
above. The slap forces are mainly affected by clearance, gas pressure, piston thermal condition and engine rotation speed. The
thermal condition of piston is expressed by the piston profile which changes at different temperature and working load. Piston
profiles of thrust side and anti-thrust side after thermal deformation are approximated by sequence of points. In this paper, the profile
of Barrel is used, which works at warm condition. Based on the assumptions shown in Table 1, piston slap forces are calculated as

Fig. 4. Modes of WCP acoustic field.

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X. Wang, et al. Engineering Failure Analysis 112 (2020) 104382

Fig. 5. Cross section of modes of engine cylinders.

Table 1
Parameters of calculation of piston slap forces
Item Value

Rotation speed 2200 RPM

Piston skirt profile Barrel shape
Clearance 0.1 mm
Gas pressure 104 atm

shown in Fig. 6. Crank angle 0 degree is the combustion top dead center of No.1 cylinder and the large impact force is observed at the
vicinity of the combustion top dead center.
Example of calculation of pressure fluctuation induced by piston slap forces is implemented. The piston slap forces of No.1
cylinder are calculated for one working circle of engine and applied at the center of No.1 cylinder as shown in Fig. 7. The natural
frequencies of water acoustic field model vary with sound speed. If the natural frequencies of water acoustic field change, the water
acoustic modes that couple with certain engine mode also change. By varying sound speed, the influence of characteristics of water
acoustic field and engine structure on pressure fluctuation can be investigated. The natural frequencies of water coolant passage
acoustic field increase with sound speed. When the natural frequencies of engine structure and water acoustic field are set within
4000 Hz, the corresponding mode number of engine is 40, while the mode number of water coolant model used in the calculation
decreases with sound speed, which are 20, 10 and 7 for sound speed of 700 m/s, 1100 m/s and 1500 m/s respectively. The water
pressure induced by piston slap forces at different sound speed is calculated as shown in Fig. 8. The pressure fluctuation changes
dramatically with different sound speeds. With the increase of sound speed, the impulse signature of pressure waveform becomes
increasingly apparent.
Negative pressure is evaluated for the initiation of cavitation. The negative pressure peak Px as shown in Fig. 8 are compared at
different sound speed. Fig. 9 indicates that the largest negative pressure peak appears at 1100 m/s, which is − 0.7 × 105Pa, and
exceeds the vapor pressure − 0.5512 × 105 Pa with head pressure of 2.067 × 105 Pa and cavitation is very likely to happen. In order to
suppress cavitation, we need to eliminate largest negative pressure. It is thus necessary to investigate the factors which lead to
negative pressure peak. The amplitude of negative pressure is mainly determined by the dynamic characteristics of engine structure

Fig. 6. Piston slap forces.

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X. Wang, et al. Engineering Failure Analysis 112 (2020) 104382

Fig. 7. Piston slap forces applied on cylinder No.1.

Fig. 8. Coolant pressure fluctuation at different sound speed.

and water coolant acoustic field. Different engine and acoustic modes have different influence on the largest negative pressure.
Therefore the influence of dynamic characteristics of engine structure and acoustic field should be examined. After identifying most
influential modes to pressure fluctuation, we can control those modes through new designing in order to suppress largest negative
pressure.
From spectrum domain, the contributions of different modes of engine and acoustic to the frequency peak can be analyzed at the
frequency peak and get the mode which is dominant to the largest negative pressure. We can obtain the distribution of mode
amplitude at each frequency point, which represent the contribution of modes at certain frequency point. The amplitude of mode
coordinates represent the contribution rate of the corresponding modes. Fig. 10 shows the frequency spectrums of pressure waveform
at 1100 m/s, the frequency peaks are 1221 Hz and 1376 Hz. The mode with largest amplitude corresponding these frequency peaks
can be deemed as the dominant mode contributing to the pressure fluctuation.
Fig. 11 shows the mode coordinate distribution of natural modes as to the frequency peaks of 1221 Hz and 1376 Hz. As can be
seen, the 20th, 21st engine modes and 1st, 2nd acoustic modes contribute mostly to the frequency peak 1211 Hz and the 24th engine

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X. Wang, et al. Engineering Failure Analysis 112 (2020) 104382

Fig. 9. Peak of negative pressure at different sound speed.

Fig. 10. Spectrum and waveform of pressure of No.1 cylinder with piston slap force acting on No.1 cylinder of assembled engine.

mode and 2nd acoustic mode contribute mostly to the frequency peak 1376 Hz, which might be restricted to eliminate pressure
fluctuation.
Another factor that affects pressure fluctuation is the natural frequency approximation between engine structure and water
coolant passage acoustic field. When the natural frequencies of water acoustic field and engine approach to each other, larger
pressure fluctuation is anticipated, just as the case of 1st water coolant passage mode at sound speed 1100 m/s (1216 Hz) coupled
with 20th engine mode (1221 Hz), as shown in Fig. 12. The natural frequency of 1st water coolant passage at sound speed 1100 m/s is
closest to the natural frequency of 20th engine mode comparing with other sound speeds as shown in Table 2, which results in larger
pressure fluctuation.
We discussed some dynamic parameters which may affect the water coolant pressure fluctuation under the action of piston slap
forces from structural-acoustic point of view. Liner cavitation is an complex phenomenon which involves fluid, chemical, thermal and
electrochemical effects. Beside engine vibration, the flow dynamics of coolant circling in water coolant passage also affects the
coolant pressure fluctuation. Later we should explore the cavitation erosion issue from bubble-material interaction which directly
results in the mass loss of material boundary surface and consider the flow effect of coolant together with vibratory effect.

5. Conclusion

Liner cavitation seriously affects the reliability of water cooled internal combustion engine. Engine vibration is regarded as the

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X. Wang, et al. Engineering Failure Analysis 112 (2020) 104382

Fig. 11. Mode contributions respond to 1211 Hz and 1376 Hz peaks at sound speed 1100 m/s.

Fig. 12. The contribution of each uncoupled modes of Assembled Engine and WCP respond to coupled mode of 1205 Hz in frequency domain.

Table 2
Natural frequencies of WCP model at different sound speed
Mode\Frequency\Sound speed 700 m/s 1000 m/s 1100 m/s 1500 m/s

No.1 774 Hz 1106 Hz 1216 Hz 1658 Hz

No.2 939 Hz 1342 Hz 1476 Hz 2013 Hz
No.3 1163 Hz 1595 Hz 2392 Hz 2392 Hz
No.4 1365 Hz 1950 Hz 2925 Hz 2925 Hz

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X. Wang, et al. Engineering Failure Analysis 112 (2020) 104382

primary cause of liner cavitation. The final target of the research is to find a way to predict and prevent the risk of liner cavitation
during engine design stage. This paper thus proposed a method to predict the water coolant pressure fluctuation during engine
working conditions. The influence of engine structure and WCP acoustic field coupled system on coolant pressure fluctuation was
evaluated. The numerical method was deduced by combining the equation of motion of engine system with the equation of motion of
WCP acoustic field. A rectangular tank model filled with water was used to investigate the characteristics of structural-acoustic
coupled system by changing water depth and sound speed, which has confirmed that the proximity of natural frequencies between
structure and acoustic field would amplify the pressure magnitude. The coolant pressure fluctuation and liner acceleration were
calculated under different circumstances. The pressure fluctuation changes with sound speed, which indicates acoustic characteristics
of WCP has large impact on coolant pressure. Piston slap forces has also been proved to play a major role in pressure fluctuation.The
effect of dynamic flow of coolant on pressure fluctuation and bubble-material interaction will be discussed later.

Declaration of Competing Interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to
influence the work reported in this paper.

Acknowledgement

This work was supported by “the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities” (N2003018, N170303011) and the
National Natural Science Foundation of China (U1760105).

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