ENGLISH FOR ACADEMIC AND PROFESSIONAL PURPOSES

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Lesson 3
Understanding Academic Text
Knowing the author’s purpose and perspective in writing is another way
of understanding the context of academic text. In reading, not only one
receives the message of the writer, but one can also adopt skills in writing.
Employing strategies in reading develops ability in writing. However, identifying
an author’s purpose and perspective in writing can be a tricky skill for some
students. This lesson will provide ideas to identify the difference between writing
to inform, entertain, and persuade, author’s purpose and perspectives in
writing.

“Reading is a means of thinking with another person’s mind;

it forces you to stretch your mind.”— Charles Scribner, Jr

Author’s Purpose
When we talk of the author’s purpose, we are referring to the why behind
their writing. What motivated the author to produce their work? What is their
intent and what do they hope to achieve?
The author’s purpose is the reason they decided to write about
something in the first place.
There are many reasons a writer puts pen to paper. It’s important that
our students possess the necessary tools for identifying these various reasons
and intents.
Being able to identify the author’s purpose accurately is absolutely
essential if the student is to effectively evaluate a piece of writing.
WHAT ARE THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF AUTHOR’S PURPOSE?
Depending who you talk to, when the question is raised about how
many types of author’s purpose there are, you’ll generally be quoted a
number ranging from around 3 to about 7.
A good starting point for students beginning to learn more about the
different types of author’s purpose is to begin with the main 3: to persuade, to
inform, and to entertain. These can easily be remembered with the PIE
acronym.
However, these 3 represent only an introduction. In the interests of
covering the topic a little more comprehensively, we will define 5 different
types of author’s purpose, look at some examples of each in use, and give a
few pointers helpful in identifying them.

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1. Persuasive
This is a very common purpose of writing, particularly in nonfiction
writing. When a text is written to persuade it will aim to convince the reader
of the merits of a certain point of view. With this type of writing the author will
attempt to persuade the reader to agree with this point of view and/or
subsequently take a particular course of action.
This purpose can be found in all kinds of writing. It can even be in fiction
writing when the author has an agenda, whether consciously or
unconsciously. However, it is most commonly the motivation behind essays,
advertisements, and political writing such as speeches and propaganda.
To identify when the author’s purpose is to persuade, students should
ask themselves if they feel the writer is trying to get them to believe something
or take a specific action. They should learn to identify the various tactics and
strategies used in persuasive writing such as repetition, various types of
supporting evidence, hyperbole, attacking opposing viewpoints, forceful
phrases, emotive imagery and photographs etc.

Example:
We need to act now to save our community garden. It's ten years in the
making, with enough organic vegetables to feed every mouth in this
neighborhood. Hud & Co. has no right to come into our town and pave a
parking lot over one of our most prominent food sources. Come rally with me
this Friday night. Together, we will stand in their way and protect our beloved
town.

2. Informative (Expository)
When an author’s purpose is to inform, they usually wish to enlighten
their readership about a real-world topic. Often, they will do this by providing
lots of facts. Informational texts are geared toward imparting information to
the reader with the purpose of educating them on a given topic.
Many types of school books are written with the express purpose of
informing the reader. Added to textbooks, we also have encyclopedias,
recipe books, and newspapers.
In the process of informing the reader, the author will make use of facts
and this is one surefire way to spot the intent to inform.
However, when the author’s purpose is persuasion they will also be
likely to provide the reader with some facts in an attempt to convince the
reader of the merits of their particular case. The main difference between
the two differing ways facts are employed is that, when the intention is to
inform, facts are presented only to teach the reader. When the author’s
purpose is to persuade, they will commonly mask their opinions amid the
facts.
Students must become adept at recognizing ‘hidden’ opinions
through practice. Teach your students to beware persuasion masquerading
as information!

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Example:

Ireland is a country steeped in history. In fact, its history dates beyond

3,000 B.C, when the megalithic tombs were constructed in Newgrange.
Throughout the country's expansive evolution, the Irish fought time and again
to maintain their independence as a sovereign nation. Evidence of the rich
history is clearly visible through its many castles, including Leighlinbridge Castle
and Carlow Castle, two of Ireland's oldest establishments.

3. Entertaining
When an author’s chief purpose is to entertain the reader they will
endeavor to keep things as interesting as possible. Things happen in books
that are written to entertain, whether in the form of an action packed plot,
inventive characterizations, or sharp dialogue.
Not surprisingly, a great deal of fiction is written with the aim of
entertaining, especially genre fiction. For example, we find entertaining
examples in science fiction, romance, and fantasy - to name but a few.
When a writer is attempting to entertain or amuse the reader they will
use a variety of techniques to engage their attention. They may employ
cliffhangers at the end of a chapter, for example. They may weave humor
into their story, or even have characters tell jokes. In the case of a thriller,
action-packed scene may follow on action-packed scene as the drama
builds to a crescendo. Think of the melodrama of a soap opera here, rather
than the subtle touch of an art house masterpiece.

Example:

Joe had been fishing for over two hours without a single bite. Suddenly
there was a nibble at the end of his fishing line. He stood up on the boat and
leaned out too far. Just then there was a sharp yank on the line. Joe fell
overboard and landed head first into the water. Joe and his friends laughed
and laughed.

Author’s Perspective and Point of View

Point of View
Personal writing, such as for a reflective essay, or a "personal response"
discussion posting, can be written in the first person (using "I" and "me"), and
may use personal opinions and anecdotes as evidence for the point you are
trying to make.
Most academic papers (Exposition, Persuasion, and Research Papers)
should generally be written in third person, referring to other authors and
researchers from credible and academic sources to support your argument
rather than stating your own personal experiences.

Perspective
Perspective is the way the author looks at a topic or the ideas being
described or presented in the text. The author’s perspective includes the
content of the text and the language used to present the data. Thoughtful
readers are able to discern an author’s perspective, opinions, hypotheses,

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assumptions, and possible bias. Understanding the author’s perspective

helps you read analytically in order to identify the validity of information
contained in the text. Try to identify words and phrases that show an author’s
strong feelings for or against a person, group, or issue.
The following guide questions will help you understand the author’s
perspective:
 What opinions or belief statements are evident in the article?
 Why do you think the author has this particular opinion or point of
view?
 What background information about the author does the reader have
that may help understand the writer’s perspective?
 Would another author have a different perspective depending on
his/her background experiences?

Points to remember…
 Understanding the author’s tone – his or her attitude towards the subject and
audience – will help you understand the purpose and the author’s
perspective.
 The author’s purpose could be to persuade, to inform, to entertain.
 Author conveys purpose and perspective through their choice of words and
the impression those words create.
 Author’s purpose often incorporates the following vocabulary words:
analyze, compare, contrast, critique, evaluate, examine, characterize,
define, depict, describe, explain, identify, introduce, narrate, recount,
summarize, acknowledge, advocate, assert, promote, propose, support,
condemn, criticize.
 For academic writing, it is a must that the author write in the third person point
of view for formality.

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Lesson 4
The Structures of Academic Text
Structure should be considered on all levels of texts so you will also find
information in organizing paragraphs. As well-written text follows an established
structure. It is the most important feature of academic writing.

The structure of the text refers to the organization of the whole text.
Writers plan how they would present their article of essay. This involves
presenting information and ideas that can easily be followed by the readers.
To analyze a text’s structure, one needs to think critically about the reading
passage and try to discover the organizational plan the writer is using. From
paragraph to a longer text, structure is very important in any form of academic
writing.

Academic writing follows different structure depending on the author’s

purpose and perspective. Knowledge on these various structures is a vital tool
that equips learners effectively in communication.

“The true alchemists do not change lead into gold,

they change the world into words.”— William H. Grass

Like reading, writing is a skill significant in a communicative process. Thus,

it provides learners with the opportunity to use the language with accuracy
and content organization. Writing an essay, literary text, or any academic text
requires expanding one’s ideas, correct sentence construction and coherent
paragraph assembly.

A sentence is a grammatically independent unit. A paragraph is a group

of sentences dealing with one idea. A standard paragraph consists of a topic
sentence, supporting details, and concluding sentences that relate to one
main idea. A topic sentence stresses the main idea of the paragraph.
Topic Sentence – expresses the main idea.
Supporting Sentence – explains the main idea.
Concluding Sentence – summarizes the main idea.

The Thesis Statement Structure

A thesis statement is one of the most important elements of any
successful essay. A thesis statement controls the subject matter of the essay
and states something significant to the reader. It is the one statement that
summarizes the main point of the essay and states why the essay is important
and worth reading. An essay that lacks a strong thesis will be inadequate and
often lacking in focus.

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Qualities of a well-crafted Thesis Statement:

 A thesis statement should identify a specific purpose, a specific way to

accomplish the purpose, and oftentimes a specific audience
(depending on the type of essay).
 A thesis statement should assert something about the essay.
 A thesis statement should be easily identifiable by a reader and should
be clear and not ambiguous.
 A thesis statement generally comes toward the end of the introduction.

Sample
"In order to succeed in the classroom, college students need to utilize the
resources available to them throughout their academic careers."

[Notice how this thesis statement includes a specific audience (college students), a
specific purpose (success in the classroom) and the specific way this can be
accomplished (utilizing available resources).]

Just as the contents of the essay may change during the writing process,
so, too, may the thesis statement. It is important to create a thesis statement
before writing the paper, but this type of thesis is generally referred to as a
working thesis and may change along with the contents of the essay. It is
important that a writer uses the thesis to direct the creation of the essay, but it
is also important that the writer is open to changing the thesis as necessary.
A reader should be able to easily identify the thesis in any essay. If someone
reads your essay and cannot identify where the thesis statement is located,
take this as a sign that the thesis is not clear and/or is not as specific or strong
as it can be. Make sure that the thesis stands out and can be easily interpreted.

Components of a Thesis Structure:

1. Introduction
The introduction is the entry point to your paper and serves several important
purposes:
 Attracts the reader’s attention
 Provides the background/context for your topic to allow the reader to
transition into the topic you are discussing
 Clearly indicates the point of your paper through the thesis
statement/research question
 Provides the reader with an idea of how your paper will support your thesis or
answer your research question

The introduction should definitely attract the attention of the readers

because if not, no reader would go on reading the text. After making the attention-
grabber, the writer indicates the thesis that will guide hem in writing the next part.
Here are some strategies to employ in making the introduction:

 Quotations  Anecdote/Narrative  Cause-Effect

 Concession  Facts/Statistics  Analogy
 Paradox  Question/s  Definition

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Example:

Man's best friend has historically been considered a dog. But dogs are
not the only animal friend whose camaraderie people enjoy. For many people,
a cat is their best friend. Despite what dog lovers may believe, cats make
excellent house pets because they are good companions, they are civilized
members of the household, and they are easy to care for. Let me tell you why.

2. Discussion (Body)
Body paragraphs help you prove your thesis and move you along a
compelling trajectory from your introduction to your conclusion. If your thesis is a
simple one, you might not need a lot of body paragraphs to prove it. If it’s more
complicated, you’ll need more body paragraphs. An easy way to remember the
parts of a body paragraph is to think of them as containing the MEAT of your essay:
Main Idea - the part of a topic sentence that states the main idea of the body
paragraph. All of the sentence in the paragraph cone to it. Keep in mind that main
ideas are…
 like labels. They appear in the first sentence of the paragraph and tell your
reader what’s inside the paragraph.
 arguable. They’re not statements of fact; they’re debatable points that you
prove with evidence.
 focused. Make a specific point in each paragraph and then prove that
point.

Evidence - The parts of a paragraph that prove the main idea. You might include
different types of evidence in different sentences. Keep in mind that different
disciplines have different ideas about what counts as evidence and they adhere to
different citation styles. Examples of evidence include…
 quotations and/or paraphrases from sources.
 facts, e.g. statistics or findings from studies you’ve conducted.
 narratives and/or descriptions, e.g. of your own experiences.

Analysis - The parts of a paragraph that explain the evidence. Make sure you tie
the evidence you provide back to the paragraph’s main idea. In other words,
discuss the evidence.

Transition - The part of a paragraph that helps you move fluidly from the last
paragraph. Transitions

Example:

Cats are good companions. They will snuggle up and ask to be petted
or scratched under the chin, and who can resist a purring cat? If they're not
feeling affectionate, cats are generally quite playful; they love to chase balls
and feathers — or just about anything dangling from a string. And when they’re
tired from chasing laser pointers, cats will curl up in your lap to nap. Cats are
loyal housemates.

Cats are also civilized housemates. Unlike dogs, cats don’t bark or make
other loud noises; most cats don't even meow that often. Cats don't usually
have accidents; mother cats train their kittens to use the litter box, and most

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cats will use it without fail from that time on. Cats do have claws, but a tall
scratching post in a favorite cat area of the house will often keep the cat
content to leave the furniture alone. Compared with other pets, cats are
actually quite polite.
Cats are easy to care for. They don’t have to be walked because they
get plenty of exercise in the house as they play. Even cleaning their litter box
can be a quick, painless procedure. Cats also take care of their own grooming;
bathing a cat is almost never necessary because under ordinary
circumstances cats clean themselves. Cats are so easy to care for they can
be left home alone for a few hours without fear.

3. Conclusions
The conclusion is also about 5-10% of the length of your paper, and it
accomplishes the following:
 Synthesizes your thoughts on the topic, brings closure, and describes
the “so what”?
 Provides perspective on the topic by linking the findings/evidence to
the broader context
 Comments on the significance and implications of the
findings/evidence and provides a bridge back to the reader’s life

A conclusion is not the place to introduce new information, but rather it is an

opportunity to comment on the information that was discussed in the body
of the paper. In addition, a conclusion is not simply a re-statement of your
thesis, nor is it a summary of what you said in the paper. A conclusion should
conclude something.

Example:

Cats are low maintenance, civilized companions. People who have

small living quarters appreciate having a cat. People who have less time for
pet care appreciate having a cat. However, even people who have plenty of
space and time still opt to have a cat because they love the cat personality.
In many ways, cats are an ideal house pet.

NOTE: In writing the discussion part of the essay, the writer should remember
to use appropriate transitional devices to ensure a coherently flow of ideas
in the entire essay. Below are some examples of transitions:
Addition Contrast Example Sequence Comparison Result
Additionally However For example First Likewise Accordingly
Also Nevertheless For instance Second Similarly As a result
Besides Nonetheless In fact Third Consequently
Furthermore Otherwise Specifically Next Therefore
In addition Yet Then Thus
Moreover In contrast Finally For that reason

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The Problem-Solution Structure

Similar to the thesis structure, the problem-solution structure also
proposes an argument but presents it in a different pattern. The author presents
the over-all solution as the main argument or the thesis statement.
However, the author also presents this structure in several ways. One
pattern is by providing an over-all solution to the problem at the introductory
part before presenting the problems as the supporting details. Another way is
by presenting one or more problems at the beginning and present the solution
at the end. The body of the essay or text expalins a series of problems, also
providing possible solutions until finally arriving at the conclusion, an overall
solution of the problem.
The easiest way to go about writing with this structure is writing four
paragraphs. In th introduction, the writer presents the topic by paraphrasing
the question. After that, two main body paragraphs are written: one that
speaks about the problems and another that proposes solutions. In the end,
the conclusion is written by reiterating previous statements.
Whatever the writer chooses, the important thing is to ensure the
problem is presented together with solutions.

Components of Problem-Solution Structure:

1. Introduction:
Introduction: Identify the problem in a nutshell. Explain why this is a problem,
and mention who should be concerned about it.
In the introduction, writers need to describe the problem and explain why it
needs to be solved and then give the thesis solution. Remember:
 If it is an unknown problem, writers will need to explain in detail.
 If it is a familiar problem, then writers need to paint a vivid picture.
 In both situations, writers will need to convince the reader that it is an
important problem.
Creative Introduction Ideas
1. Tell a true-life story about the problem.
2. Give a personal experience story.
3. Use a scenario or imagined story illustrating why this needs to be solved.
4. Give statistics and facts about the problem which makes it vivid for the
reader.
5. Do a detailed explanation of the problem with facts that show why it needs
to be dealt with.
6. Give the history of the situation and explain how this problem developed.
7. Use a frame story that gives an example of the problem in the introduction
and then a return to the problem being solved in the conclusion.
8. Use a vivid description with sensory details that make the reader see the
situation.
9. Use a movie, book, T.V. story, or news story to show the problem and why it is
important.

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Example:
Consumption of processed and convenience foods and our dependence on
the car have led to an increase in obesity and reduction in the fitness level of the adult
population. In some countries, especially industrialized ones, the number of obese
people can amount to one third of the population. This is significant as obesity and
poor fitness lead to a decrease in life expectancy, and it is therefore important
for individuals and governments to work together to tackle this issue and improve their
citizens' diet and fitness.

2. Discussion:
Problem Paragraph(s): Explain the problem clearly and specifically.
Demonstrate that this is not just a personal complaint, but a genuine problem
that affects many people.

"Solution Paragraph(s): Offer a concrete solution to the problem, and explain

why this is the best one available. The writers may want to point out why other
possible solutions are inferior to the one presented. If the solution calls for a
series of steps or actions to be followed, present these steps in a logical order.

The discussion part will be two or more paragraphs and must:

1. Explain the solution clearly.
2. Give details about how this solution will solve the problem.
3. Explain who will be in charge and how it will be funded.
4. Give evidence that the solution will work (expert opinion, examples of
when it has worked before, statistics, studies, or logical argument).

The discussion will also seek to argue that your solution:

1. Will solve the problem.
2. Is cost-effective.
3. Is feasible to implement.
4. Is a reasonable solution to the problem.
5. Can stand up to possible objections.
6. Is better than other solutions.
In order to make a convincing argument, the writer will need to
consider objections to the plan carefully and refute them logically with
argument and/or evidence.
Example:
Obesity and poor fitness decrease life expectancy. Overweight people are
more likely to have serious illnesses such as diabetes and heart disease, which can
result in premature death. It is well known that regular exercise can reduce the risk of
heart disease and stroke, which means that those with poor fitness levels are at an
increased risk of suffering from those problems.
Changes by individuals to their diet and their physical activity can increase life
expectancy. There is a reliance today on the consumption of processed foods, which
have a high fat and sugar content. By preparing their own foods, and consuming
more fruit and vegetables, people could ensure that their diets are healthier and more
balanced, which could lead to a reduction in obesity levels. In order to improve fitness
levels, people could choose to walk or cycle to work or to the shops rather than taking
the car. They could also choose to walk up stairs instead of taking the lift. These simple
changes could lead to a significant improvement in fitness levels.

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Governments could also implement initiatives to improve their citizens' eating

and exercise habits. This could be done through education, for example by adding
classes to the curriculum about healthy diet and lifestyles. Governments could also do
more to encourage their citizens to walk or cycle instead of taking the car, for instance
by building more cycle lanes or increasing vehicle taxes. While some might argue that
increased taxes are a negative way to solve the problem, it is no different from the
high taxes imposed on cigarettes to reduce cigarette consumption.

3. Conclusion:
Conclusion: Reemphasize the importance of the problem and the value of
the given solution. Choose a problem that the writer had personally
experienced and thought about—one that the writer has solved or are in the
process of solving. Then, in the essay itself, you may use own experience
to illustrate the problem. However, don't focus all the attention on yourself
and on your troubles. Instead, direct the essay at others who are
experiencing a similar problem. In other words, don't write an I essay ('How I
Cure the Blues'); write a you essay ('How You Can Cure the Blues')."
Your conclusion will be one or more paragraphs. For an excellent
ending, you want to clinch your argument and convince your reader that
your solution is the best. Here are some effective ideas:
1. Tell the reader what should happen.
2. Describe how the situation will change if your plan is adopted.
3. Use the end of the frame story to show how the solution is needed or
how it will work.
4. Give a real-life example or scenario showing the adoption of your plan
and how it works.
5. Cite convincing facts, statistics, or expert testimony on the solution or
the problem.

Example:
In short, obesity and poor fitness are a significant problem in modern life,
leading to lower life expectancy. Individuals and governments can work together
to tackle this problem and so improve diet and fitness. Of the solutions suggested,
those made by individuals themselves are likely to have more impact, though it is clear
that a concerted effort with the government is essential for success. With obesity levels
in industrialized and industrializing countries continuing to rise, it is essential that we
take action now to deal with this problem.

On Academic Writing…
The two presented structures were some of the many structures to be
followed in academic writing. These are only applicable to essays and
compositions. Other forms of academic texts (announcements,
memorandums, business letters) require a completely different structure.
As such, as a writer, one must be equipped with these knowledge so as
to successfully produce a well-written academic text. Violating one of the rules
in structure would greatly affect the effectiveness of the text. The purpose of
the text and the clarity of message are the ones that will be greatly affected.

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Points to remember…
 Academic texts differ on how they are written. Each form has to follow a set
of rules in order to produce the text effectively.
 For essays and compositions, the general format includes the introduction,
discussion, and conclusion. The content varies on the structure (thesis
statement or problem-solution) however, the parts remain the same.
Introduction grabs the attention of the readers and introduces the topic.
Discussion elaborates the topic and the conclusion closes the article.
 For other forms of academic text, like memorandums and business letters,
they have a different format but the idea remains the same. There should be
an introduction, discussion, and conclusion.

Lesson 4: The Structures of Academic Text 12

Lesson 5
The Argumentative Text
An argument paper presents a strong claim to an issue. This kind of
discourse is commonly used in writing and speaking. As students learn the
language for academic and professional purposes, exposure to varied writing
activities will prepare them for a more advanced academic writing.

“Discussion is always better than argument. Argument is finding out who is

right. Discussion is finding what is right.”— Anonymous

Argumentative style is not just a matter of linguistic ability; on the

contrary, it means to defend personal point of views about an issue, being
aware of the social issues which enables one to carry out every everyday tasks.
In terms of communicative function, the term argumentation refers to
the operation of justifying an opinion or thesis through reasoning or argument
with the aim of changing the views of other people.

The Argumentative Text

Argumentative Text is defined as type of discourse concerned with
presentation and evaluation of arguments to persuade an convince the
audience. Argument essays seek to state a position on an issue and give
several reasons, supported by evidence, for agreeing with that position.

5 Types of Argument Claims

1. Fact: Is is true or not?
2. Definition: What does it really mean?
3. Value: How much is it?
4. Cause & Effect: What is the cause? What are the effects?
5. Policy: What should we do about it?

Arguments can be both positive and negative. Positive arguments

reinforce the truth of the thesis based on relevant authors, personal
experiences, or analogy. Negative arguments refute the arguments or ideas
against the main thesis to be developed.
They can also be classified into either subjective or objective. Subjective
arguments are those ideas aimed to provoke the audience. The writer starts y
presenting arguments either explicitly or implicitly before arriving at a
conclusion. These are usually found in speeches, articles and letters.

Objective arguments are those derived from bibliographic references of

relevant authors. It involves exposition, explanation, definition, or interpretation
of a given issue. These are usually found in research documents, experiments,
direct observation.
Three Ways to Write a Thesis Statement (With Examples)

13
1. Question/Answer Format: The easiest way to write a thesis statement is to
turn the topic or prompt into a question, and then answer that question. In
order to write a clear answer, you need to understand the kind of question you
are asking. Most types of questions fall into one of 5 categories: fact, definition,
cause, value, or proposing a solution. Most topics can actually create
questions in all of these categories, for example:
 Does divorce cause serious problems for the children? (Fact)
 What is "domestic violence?" (Definition)
 What are the causes of divorce? (Cause)
 How important is it for couples to avoid divorce? (Value)
 What can you do to make your marriage divorce-proof? (Proposal)

Answer: Your question often can be the title of your paper, or it can be the first
line of the introduction. Your answer to this question is your thesis.

Example: Question (used for title): What is the best way to make your
marriage divorce-proof?

Answer: The most important way to make your marriage divorce-proof is to

make sure you have carefully prepared for that commitment.

In answering the question, you can also tell the reader the focus of your paper,
in this example, you let the reader know you are focusing on the preparation
for marriage in order to prevent divorce.

2. Refute Objections: Another way to craft a thesis statement is to state one

side of the argument and present a refuting statement.

Example: While some people think there is no way to divorce-proof your

marriage, studies have shown that there are fewer divorces when people
carefully prepare for that commitment.

In this example, you state one side of the argument—"there is no way to

divorce-proof your marriage"—and refute it by saying "there are fewer divorces
when people carefully prepare for that commitment." What makes this
statement stronger (and more appealing) is the reference to studies that will
back up your argument.

3. Roadmap: An additional way to make a strong thesis is to do a "Roadmap"

which tells in just a few words the three or more main points you will cover.

Example: While some people think there is no way to divorce-proof your

marriage, studies have shown that there are fewer divorces when people
carefully prepare for that commitment by taking the time to get to know the
other person before becoming engaged; by spending time with one
another's family and friends; by talking about hot-button issues like finances;
and by getting extensive premarital counseling.

This is an example of a really strong thesis statement in which you state a claim,
your stance on the claim, and the main points that will back up your stance.
Although it is a little long-winded, it thoroughly outlines what the essay will
discuss. Not only is this helpful for the reader, but it will help you when crafting
your essay by keeping you focused on these specific points.

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 Three Types of Argument

1. Classical Argument Strategy

This is the most popular argument strategy and is the one outlined in this
article. In this strategy, you present the problem, state your solution, and try
to convince the reader that your solution is the best solution. Your audience
may be uninformed, or they may not have a strong opinion. Your job is to
make them care about the topic and agree with your position.
Here is the basic outline of a classical argument paper:
1. Introduction: Get readers interest and attention, state the problem,
and explain why they should care.
2. Background: Provide some context and key facts surrounding the
problem.
3. Thesis: State your position or claim and outline your main arguments.
4. Argument: Discuss the reasons for your position and present evidence
to support it (largest section of paper—the main body).
5. Refutation: Convince the reader why opposing arguments are not true
or valid.
6. Conclusion: Summarize your main points, discuss their implications, and
state why your position is the best position.

2. Rogerian Argument Strategy

Rogerian argument strategy attempts to persuade by finding points of agreement.
It is an appropriate technique to use in highly polarized debates—those debates in
which neither side seems to be listening to each other. This strategy tells the reader
that you are listening to opposing ideas and that those ideas are valid. You are
essentially trying to argue for the middle ground.
Here's the basic outline of a Rogerian argument:
1. Present the issue. Introduce the problem and explain why it should be
addressed.
2. Summarize the opposing arguments. State their points and discuss situations
in which their points can be valid. This shows that you understand the
opposing points of view and that you are open-minded. Hopefully, this will
make the opposition more willing to hear you out.
3. State your points. You won't be making an argument for why you're correct—
just that there are also situations in which your points can be valid.
4. State the benefits of adopting your points. Here, you'll appeal to the
opposition's self-interest by convincing them of how adopting your points will
benefit them.

3. Toulmin Model of Argument

Toulmin is another strategy to use in a highly charged debate. Instead of
attempting to appeal to commonalities, however, this strategy attempts to
use clear logic and careful qualifiers to limit the argument to things that can
be agreed upon. It uses this format:
 Claim: The thesis the author hopes to prove. Example: Government
should regulate Internet pornography.
 Evidence: Supports the claim. Example: Pornography on the Internet is
bad for kids.
 Warrant: Explains how the data backs up the claim. Example:
Government regulation works in other instances.
 Backing: Additional logic and reasoning that supports the
warrant. Example: We have lots of other government regulations on
media.

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  Rebuttal: Potential arguments against the claim: Example:
Government regulations would encroach on personal liberties.
 Qualifier: The short phrase (usually uses “typically,” “usually,” or “on the
whole”) which limits the scope of the claim. Example: In most cases,
the government should regulate pornography.
 Exceptions: This further limits the claim by describing situations the
writer would exclude. Example: Where children are not involved in
pornography, regulation may not be urgent.

How to Start an Argumentative Essay

Your introductory paragraph should be crafted around your thesis statement,
providing background information needed to understand your argument and
presenting pieces of evidence that back up that argument.
Start with an Enticing Hook. Lead with an interesting fact or statistic, a
quote, a personal anecdote, or a thought-provoking question. Your first
sentence should draw the reader in and get them interested about the
topic you're writing about.
Provide Some Background and Context. What's the situation? What are
the events that lead you to your argument? Why should people care?
Give enough background on the topic so that the reader can
understand your argument—nothing more, nothing less.
State Your Thesis. The background should transition smoothly into your
main argument.
Introduce Your Evidence. The keyword is "introduce." State the main
points that back up your argument and end it there. Leave the actual
argument and analysis for the body paragraphs.
Outlining Your Paper
Argument essays are fairly straightforward in their organization. In your paper,
you will need to do the following:

1. Interest the reader in the situation. Make them want to learn more about
it.
2. Explain the controversy or problem clearly.
3. Explain the different sides of the debate.
4. Tell them your side.
5. Convince them that your side is the best one to take.
6. Refute any objections they may be thinking about as they read.
7. Urge the reader to adopt your point of view.
Components of an Argumentative Essay:

Introduction
Explain the subject, the controversy, and end with your thesis. Here are some
tips:
 Use the title to present your point of view. The title is often your thesis
statement or the question you are trying to answer.
 Be concise. You're only introducing your argument, not debating it.
 Think about your audience—what aspects of this issue would most
interest or convince them?
 Appeal to the reader's emotions. Readers are more easily persuaded
if they can empathize with your point of view.

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  Present undeniable facts from highly regarded sources. This builds a lot
of trust and generally indicates a solid argument.
 Make sure you have a clear thesis that answers the question. The thesis
should state your position and is usually the last sentence of your
introduction.
Body
The body usually consists of three or more paragraphs, each presenting a
separate piece of evidence that supports your thesis. Those reasons are
the topic sentences for each paragraph of your body. You should explain
why your audience should agree with you. Make your argument even
stronger by stating opposing points of view and refuting those points.
1. Reasons and support
 Usually, you will have three or more reasons why the reader should
accept your position. These will be your topic sentences.
 Support each of these reasons with logic, examples, statistics,
authorities, or anecdotes.
 To make your reasons seem plausible, connect them back to your
position by using “if…then” reasoning.
2. Anticipate opposing positions and arguments.
 What objections will your readers have? Answer them with argument
or evidence.
 What other positions do people take on this subject? What is your
reason for rejecting these positions?
Conclusion
The conclusion in many ways mirrors the introduction. It summarizes your
thesis statement and main arguments and tries to convince the reader that
your argument is the best. It ties the whole piece together. Avoid presenting
new facts or arguments.
Here are some conclusion ideas:
 Think "big picture." If you are arguing for policy changes, what are the
implications of adopting (or not adopting) your ideas? How will they
affect the reader (or the relevant group of people)?
 Present hypotheticals. Show what will happen if the reader adopts
your ideas. Use real-life examples of how your ideas will work.
 Include a call to action. Inspire the reader to agree with your
argument. Tell them what they need to think, do, feel, or believe.
 Appeal to the reader's emotions, morals, character, or logic.

Points to remember…
 Argumentative texts, like all other text structures, follows the same flow of
having an introduction, discussion, and conclusion.
 For this type of discourse, the use of facts and information is highly needed.
These facts are further supported by the personal viewpoints of the author.
Both sides of the coin are presented, emphasizing on the one that the writer
supports or believes in.
 The main point in making an argumentative text is to convince the readers
that what you believe in is acceptable and that they should agree with it.

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ASSESSMENT (Major Output):
As a class, look for sample academic texts with topics related to your strand
or specialization. Provide at least two articles for the following and do not
forget to cite where you have taken the articles:

A. Persuasive Text
B. Informative Text
C. Entertaining Text
D. Argumentative Text
E. Thesis-structured Text
F. Problem Solution Structured Text

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