Sensors and Actuators B 212 (2015) 344–352

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Sensors and Actuators B: Chemical

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/snb

Aerosol sampling using an electrostatic precipitator integrated with a

microfluidic interface
Gaspard Pardon 1 , Laila Ladhani 1 , Niklas Sandström, Maxime Ettori, Gleb Lobov,
Wouter van der Wijngaart ∗
Micro and Nanosystems, KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Osquldas väg 10, 100 44 Stockholm, Sweden

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: In this work, the development of a point-of-care (PoC) system to capture aerosol from litres of air directly
Received 28 August 2014 onto a microfluidic lab-on-chip for subsequent analysis is addressed. The system involves an electrostatic
Received in revised form 26 January 2015 precipitator that uses corona charging and electrophoretic transport to capture aerosol droplets onto a
Accepted 3 February 2015
microfluidic air-to-liquid interface for downstream analysis. A theoretical study of the governing geo-
Available online 9 February 2015
metric and operational parameters for optimal electrostatic precipitation is presented. The fabrication
of an electrostatic precipitator prototype and its experimental validation using a laboratory-generated
Keywords:
aerosolized dye is described. Collection efficiencies were comparable to those of a state-of-the-art
Exhaled breath analysis
Electrostatic precipitator
Biosampler impinger, with the significant advantage of providing samples that are at least 10 times
Microfluidics more concentrated. Finally, we discuss the potential of such a system for breath-based diagnostics.
Lab-on-a-chip © 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Diagnostics
Aerosol sampling

1. Introduction chromatographic, or mass spectroscopic techniques, which are

The field of in vitro point-of-care (PoC) diagnostic tests has
rapidly grown during the past decade. It promises robust systems
capable of delivering precise and rapid results about the condi-
tion of an individual, which can lead to an improved quality of
healthcare at a reduced cost. Urine, blood, and oral or nasal swabs
have been extensively investigated as diagnostic samples in the
healthcare setting. Here we present a detection method aimed at
diagnosis using breath sampling.
Much effort has been made in the past to link volatile organic
compounds (VOCs) in exhaled air, to a patient’s state of health
[1], specifically with respect to identifying biomarkers for cancer
[2–6]. Exhaled breath contains both gases, and aerosol droplets,
however, the main focus of breath analysis thus far, has been
on gas detection, which can contain: inorganic gases, i.e. NO [7]
CO [8]; hydrocarbons, i.e. isoprene [9] ethane or pentane [10];
and volatile and non-volatile substances, such as isoprostane,
cytokines, leukotrienes [11], proteins, nucleic acids, or polypep-
tides [12,13], bacteria or viruses. VOCs appear in gaseous form
in breath, typically analyzed using ion mobility spectroscopy,
∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +46 8 7906613; mobile: +46 733 254021.
E-mail address: wouter@kth.se (W. van der Wijngaart).
1
First authors.
reviewed by Buszewski et al. [14]. However, non-volatile sub-
stances in breath are transported via aerosol droplets, such as
the Torque Teno virus [15], or Influenza [16]. These aerosolized
droplets, are thought to be generated from the lung lining fluid via
film rupturing following contraction of the bronchioles [17–19].
There has been a lot of emphasis on detection of VOCs using gas
analysis or condensates [20–22], however few studies have been
aimed at the capture detection of microorganisms in exhaled
breath. Specifically, aerosols with droplet size >1 ␮m are formed
through coughing [23–27] and are targeted in our work.
Integrating a capture system for these aerosol droplets in a
PoC device could form a completely non-invasive alternative to
traditional lung sampling methods, such as the very invasive
and uncomfortable bronchoscopy procedure. Nonetheless, there
are difficulties that are inherent to sampling breath including:
variances in aerosol droplet size, number concentration, compo-
sition, and low concentration of analytes present in the sample
[24,25,28–31]. Such a complex and diverse aerosol is difficult to
simulate in the laboratory, thus a mock breath aerosol of specified
composition, droplet size, and concentration is generated and used
for characterization. The challenge of the low amount of sample
present in breath means it is crucial for a point-of-care test to have
both: a high collection efficiency, and the ability to up-concentrate
collected samples for very sensitive detection of analytes. There
also exists a lack of standard methodology for breath sampling,

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.snb.2015.02.008
0925-4005/© 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
 G. Pardon et al. / Sensors and Actuators B 212 (2015) 344–352 345

and appropriate and standardized breathing protocols remain to prototype are reported and compared with those of a commercial
be established. Biosampler impinger.
Traditionally, sampling of aerosol droplets is achieved using
inertial impaction, e.g. using impingers [32–34], which was used for 2. PoC concept for integrated aerosol sampling and analysis
comparison in this work, or via direct impaction [35,36]. In 1955,
the use of electrostatic precipitators (ESPs) was introduced as a The concept of the proposed PoC device arises from the unique
potential alternative, when Kraemer and Johnstone [37] explained, combination of two elements: an ESP to capture aerosol droplets,
theoretically, the charging and capture of aerosol droplets in the and a microfluidic lab-on-a-chip containing an air–liquid interface
presence of electrostatic fields. Since then, ESPs have been used and an on-chip biosensor. All of this can potentially be incorpo-
extensively by industry, e.g. in air purifiers, but only recently have rated into one portable instrument with a mouthpiece for sampling
they been considered as a potential method for the capture of patients’ breath (Fig. 1).
exhaled bioaerosols. Miller et al. [38] demonstrated a hand-held The aerosol droplets enter the ESP through a mouthpiece, are
ESP device for breath sampling relying on transmission electron electrically charged, transported, and captured onto the microflu-
microscopy (TEM) for sample analysis, which is not a suitable detec- idic air–liquid interface of the lab-on-a-chip cartridge. In the ESP,
tion method for PoC applications. Alternatively, Kettleson et al. a two-electrode multi-point-to-plane corona discharge cell is used
[39] demonstrated inactivation of aerosolized viruses using an ESP. to charge and capture aerosol droplets. Metal needles are used as
Christensen et al. [40] utilized a commercial, chip-based ESP to corona discharge electrodes, and the air–liquid interface consti-
analyze breath from cattle for detection of foot-and-mouth dis- tutes the planar capture electrode. The collected sample can then be
ease. The drawback with their method is the indirect collection, subsequently analyzed for biomarkers or other biological entities
i.e. not directly from the cattle’s mouth but from ambient air in using a relevant assay and on-chip transducer.
the farmhouse, leading to lower collected amounts of exhaled Contrary to the analysis of VOCs, which can be performed
aerosol when compared with direct breath. Similarly, Han and utilizing optical equipment, the analysis of complex biomolecules
Mainelis [41] introduced an ESP sampler for bioaerosols, mainly such as nucleic acids, proteins or even entire pathogens present
targeting airborne pathogens and microorganisms, by collecting in aerosol, requires collection of the dispersed aerosol droplets
rolling water droplets off the collection electrode. Tan et al. [42] into a continuous liquid phase suited for subsequent sample
proposed an airborne bacteria sampler using a semi-spherical preparation and analyte detection. Microfluidic devices are ideal
electrostatic precipitator, and reported varying relative collection for handling and analysis of such liquid samples [46] and have
efficiencies,  ESPon/ESPoff , from 50% to 100%, where the total cap- the advantage of allowing integration with an ESP. A previous
ture was compared with that when no voltages were applied to the
ESP electrodes. The collection was dependent on applied voltages,
flow rates, particle sizes and geometrical design parameters. All
the above ESP devices, although successful in capturing their tar-
get aerosol, are solely focused on capturing airborne droplets from
ambient air, and do not provide the possibility for uncomplicated
downstream integration of biosensors with the instrument.
For integration of breath aerosol sampling in a PoC diagnostic
device, one of the most challenging aspects is the direct interfacing
of breath with a lab-on-a-chip (LoC) cartridge [43]. In particular,
a robust air–liquid interface is required to allow capture of the
aerosol droplets and dispersion of the captured sample in a liq-
uid medium, in which direct initiation of specific ligand–receptor
biochemical reactions can occur. We have previously presented
microsystem-based components for air–liquid interfacing in com-
bination with downstream analysis, for quartz crystal microbalance
(QCM) sensing of airborne narcotics [44,45]. Two examples of such
surface tension-based air–liquid interfacing include: pillar forests
and perforated diaphragms. They allow for use of a liquid flow in
the chip while simultaneously offering a large and robust air–liquid
interface area. Moreover, a perforated diaphragm allows for place-
ment of a biosensor in close proximity to the air–liquid interface,
which potentially simplifies the overall LoC design and reduce the
risk for sample-to-channel surface interactions inherent to fluidic
transport in microfluidics.
This paper considers an integrated aerosol sampling and
analysis system, designed for future use in point-of-care breath
based diagnostics. We first introduce the combination of ESP with
lab-on-chip technologies, the former for aerosol collection and the
latter for integrated sample handling and biomarker detection. The
remainder of the paper details the design, governing parameters
and experimental investigation of an aerosol-to-chip ESP based
sampler. First we review the major physical phenomena involved
in electrostatic aerosol capture and investigate the governing Fig. 1. Conceptual design of the proposed PoC device using exhaled-breath aerosol
geometric and operational parameters using finite elements (FE) as diagnostic sample. A cross-section of the PoC ESP sampler shows needles as corona
discharge electrodes, while the lab-on-chip cartridge acts as the collection electrode.
simulations. Thereafter we describe the building and experimental
Exhaled breath aerosol enters in the centre, and a sheath flow is implemented to
testing of the prototype. We used laboratory generated aerosol to increase flow control. The lab-on-chip cartridge includes an air–liquid interface, and
derive the prototype characteristics. Sampling efficiencies of the a biosensor.
346 G. Pardon et al. / Sensors and Actuators B 212 (2015) 344–352

Fig. 2. (A) SEM image of a perforated Si diaphragm with, in inset, a biosensor lab-on-chip integrated below the diaphragm. The second inset shows a magnified view of a
diaphragm with 45 ␮m wide pores. (B) A smoke source and the corona needle of an ESP device (not visible in the photograph) are positioned at the bottom of a Y-shaped
breathing tube and the collector chip is positioned at the top-right outlet. In the left image, both the smoke and the ESP are off. In the centre image, the ESP is off and no
smoke is generated, exiting through both the left and right outlets. In the right image, the ESP is on and the generated smoke is successfully guided towards the collector
chip at the right outlet of the Y-shaped tube.

preliminary investigation, by Sandström et al. [47], demonstrated
a prototype microfluidic air–liquid interface for integration with
ESP (Fig. 2A). This air–liquid interface, featuring a perforated Si
diaphragm for stabilizing the interface position, was combined
with a geometrically non-optimized ESP system, and was shown
to successfully capture airborne smoke particles to a microfluidic
device. Hydrophobic smoke particles were shown to mostly collect
on the surface of the air–liquid interface, while hydrophilic smoke
particles absorbed into the liquid on-chip. Further, previously
unpublished experiments on a similar system demonstrate inte-
gration of the smoke capture system with components from a
breathing apparatus, see Fig. 2B. The ESP system is shown to
successfully guide smoke particles through one of the branches of
a symmetric Y-shaped junction to a collector chip.
3. Design and modelling of ESP
We built an experimental device to investigate the capture effi-
ciency of aerosol droplets using an ESP integrated with an open
air–liquid interface. We optimized the design of this ESP sam-
pler for an efficient and localized aerosol capture. A two-electrode,
multi-point-to-plane configuration is used (Fig. 1), in which sev-
eral needles constitute the corona discharge electrodes, and the
air–liquid interface, a 10 mm diameter open well, constitutes the
collection electrode. To better assess the capture efficiency of the
ESP design, we forego the perforated Si diaphragm, to avoid the
risk of sample loss due to adsorption of aerosol droplets to the
diaphragm. Next we describe the underlying physics, the parame-
ters, and the FE model of the ESP sampler.
3.1. Physical mechanism of ESP
An ESP consists of a discharge and a collection electrode with
a voltage difference that results in a strong electric field. This
field induces a corona discharge that leads to ionization of the
air molecules near the electrode tip. Incoming aerosol droplets
collide with the ionized air molecules, thus becoming electrically
charged, and are transported by the electrostatic force towards
the collector electrode. Aerosol droplets acquire positive charges
in a positive corona, and negative charges in a negative corona.
Initiation of a corona depends strongly on the electrode configura-
tion, i.e. point-to-plane, or wire-to-plane; and the electric potential
gradient around the discharge electrode, which is determined by
the electrode curvature. Exceedingly high field strength can cause
an electrical breakdown of the corona, leading to arcing, and to
unwanted production of ozone molecules. Inhalation of ozone, has
been linked to reduced lung function [48] and increased suscepti-
bility to respiratory infections [49] therefore limitations to the field
strength must be enforced.
Aerosol droplets acquire charges by either active field charging
or diffusion charging, with both effects often occurring simulta-
neously but with varying intensity depending on the conditions.
Field charging is the active collision of corona-generated ions with
an aerosol droplet and is predominantly governed by ion concen-
tration, electric field strength (Eq. (1)), and time. Diffusion charging
 G. Pardon et al. / Sensors and Actuators B 212 (2015) 344–352
is the process by which aerosol droplets acquire charge from ran-
dom collisions with ions, due to Brownian motion, and is dependent
on the number of ions available, as well as the duration of exposure
(Eq. (2)).
 3ε   Ed2   K eZ N t 
E i i
nfield charging (t) =
ε+2 4KE e 1 + KE eZi Ni t
 
dp kT KE dp c̄i e2 Ni t
ndiffusion (t) = ln 1 +
2KE e2 2kT
where n(t), number of charges acquired by an aerosol droplet; dp ,
aerosol droplet diameter; k, Boltzmann’s constant; T, temperature;
KE , constant of proportionality; e, elementary charge; C̄i , mean ther-
mal speed of ions; Ni , concentration of ions; E, electric field; ε,
relative permittivity; t, charging time; Zi , mobility of ions (Hinds,
1999).
After acquiring charges, electrohydrodynamic (EHD) transport
of the droplet in the ESP occurs by a combination of diffusion,
migration, and convection. More detailed information about the
physics of electrostatic precipitators can be found in Hinds’ Aerosol
Technology (1999).
3.2. Geometric and electrical parameters
Three types of parameters govern the ESP: electrical parameters,
geometrical design, and aerosol characteristics. Firstly, the number
of electrodes and their potentials dominate the electrical parame-
ters. Secondly, physical geometrical parameters are governed by:
a. the axial inter-electrode distance, D, i.e. distance between the
axial centric of the plane created by the tips of the needles and
the plane of the collection vessel
b. the number of the coronizing electrodes, three, and their radial
position, Rn , placed at an angular distribution of 120◦
c. the flow rates, for the supplementary clean air sheath flow which
surrounds the aerosol influx (Fig. 1).
Thirdly, the aerosol characteristics are governed by flow rate,
droplet size distribution, and droplet concentration.
3.3. Finite elements modelling
The ESP parameters considered are: the axial electrode distance,
D, the corona current, I, and the device geometry, i.e. the diam-
eter of the ESP, inlet tube, collector vessel, as well as the radial
position of the needles, and their tip radius, Rtip . The coronizing
electrodes’ position and number are chosen to maximize ion gener-
ation, whereas the amount of electrodes used was limited to keep
the device complexity low. Aerosol characteristics are modelled
after the nebulizer used in the experiment. The ESP geometry and
operational parameters were first studied using finite element (FE)
modelling. The interplay between the electric field, charge trans-
port, and aerosol flow was studied by implementing a model in
COMSOL Multiphysics 4.2b. The ESP geometry, shown in Fig. 1, can
be simplified for modelling using cylindrical and planar symmetry
(Fig. 3E). A 60◦ slice of the cylindrical ESP is used during compu-
tation. The geometry that is presented here corresponds to that of
the experimental prototype, the size ratio between the cylindrical
chamber and the aerosol inlet tube was chosen to approach isoki-
netic conditions for both the sheath and aerosol flows. The outer
domain of the ESP was given a dimension of 0.4 m in height and
radius for two reasons: to account for the electric field extension
outside of the ESP; and for investigating the influence of electri-
cally grounded objects at close distance to the ESP, on the overall
electrostatic field distribution.
347
Physical phenomena addressed in this model include the bi-
directional couplings between: the electrostatic potential and the
transport of charged species, via the charge density and electric
field; the transport of charged species and the fluidic flow, via
the charge density and electric force; and unidirectional coupling
between: the electrostatic potential and the fluidic flow, via the
(1)
electric force.
The electrostatic potential and field are described using the
Poisson equation; the transport of charged species is described by
(2)
the Nernst–Plank equations; the fluidic flow is described by the
Navier–Stokes equations; and particle tracing is achieved using
Newton’s second law with drag and electric force using a specific
module in the FE software. Part of the model is based on the work
of [50,51], using the Kaptzov’s hypothesis for the corona onset, i.e.
with electric field density at the outer ionization zone of the nega-
tive corona discharge at a constant value of Epeek = 3.6 × 106 V m−1 .
The unipolar zone is defined as the region in space where mostly
only co-ions, those of same sign as the electrode potential, subsist
and travel towards the collection electrode. The radius of the outer
ionization zone can be estimated as
Etip
Rionization = Rtip · (3)
Epeek
  1/2
−2 1
Etip = Epeek · 1 + 2.62 · 10 · . (4)
Rtip
As boundary conditions, the electric potential was set at given
values, Vdischarge and Vcollector , on the corona and collector elec-
trodes, respectively. In previous publications, the electric field at
the outer ionization zone was manually iteratively adjusted by
adapting the surface charge density,  ion , at the outer ionization
zone until the electric field EPeek was obtained, which corresponds
to the Kaptzov’s hypothesis. Our model features an automatic
adjustment of the ion density to respect the following function:
Epeek − E = 0 V m−1 . The ion density at the collector electrode was set
to zero, assuming no ion accumulation at the surface, i.e. no limiting
current density, which is justified by the very low current induced
by the corona discharge and the large electrode surface. The zero
ion density condition was also applied at the flow inlets and out-
let, which is equivalent to an outlet connected to an infinitely large
reservoir free of ions. The other surfaces were insulating. The flow
rates, Qsheath flow and Qaerosol flow , were fixed at the sheath flow and
aerosol inlets, while non-turbulent flow at atmospheric pressure
was imposed at the outlet.
For particle tracing, 50 water droplets of diameters 1 and 2.7 ␮m,
corresponding to the size of droplets generated by the medical neb-
ulizer used in the experimental work, were released at the entrance
of the aerosol inlet tube with a uniform distribution. The particle
charge, qparticle , was approximated to increase linearly with expo-
sure duration and was increased linearly after passing near the
corona electrode until reaching a maximum value. The saturation
charge value was computed by taking the limit as time approaches
infinity, of the equations for field and diffusion charging (Eqs. (1)
and (2)).
The flow profile, electric field lines, and particle flow trajectory
were computed for different values of the needle voltage, flow rates,
charges, and distances. Some results are presented in Fig. 3, where
the electric potential distribution, the anion volume density distri-
bution, the anion flux stream lines, the gas flow and the particle
trajectories are shown for D = 3 cm and an electrode potential dif-
ference of 6 kV. The total electric current was computed as 1.22 ␮A.
For these conditions and for a particle size of 2.7 ␮m, 37 out of the
50 particles released were collected; while the remaining parti-
cles entered flow vortexes induced by the EHD flow, and did not
reach the collector within the computed time. For 1 ␮m particles,
348 G. Pardon et al. / Sensors and Actuators B 212 (2015) 344–352
Fig. 3. Simulation results. From left to right: (A) the electrical potential distribution in colour; (B) the anion volume density in colour and the anion flux stream line in white
lines; (C) the air flow velocity distribution in colour and with white arrows, and the particle trajectories tracing in white lines; and (D) the location of impact for the particles
onto the liquid collector; and above, (E) the geometry used for the simulations.
29 out of 50 were collected. The decrease in capture efficiency with
particle size is expected considering the decrease of accumulated
charge, electric force, and inertia for decreasing particle size. For
increasing values of D, the collection efficiency was considerably
decreasing, but limited computing power prevented quantification
of the collection efficiency. One must note that it is difficult to obtain
exact quantitative data for the aerosol transport through modelling,
due to approximations made by setting: the Peek value, the coro-
nizing volume at the needle electrode, and the particle charging.
However, the FE model allows us to determine a number of design
features and to simulate relevant configurations, from which two
main points can be concluded. First, the corona discharge can pro-
duce strong EHD jet (wind), depending on the geometrical and
electrical configurations. This can cause flow vortexes that severely
reduce the particle capture efficiency. The following design fea-
tures reduce the occurrence of vortices and increase the trapping
of aerosol droplets:
i. several corona needle electrodes placed concentrically, instead
of one that is centrally positioned
ii. the smallest radial distance of the needles, with respect to the
aerosol inlet
iii. an increased sheath flow rate and reduced aerosol flow rate
iv. a distance, D, tuned for optimal electrical charging of the parti-
cles, and reduced EHD flow jetting through a lower electric field.
4. Experimental setup
4.1. Aerosol sampler prototype
The experimental ESP sampler, Fig. 4, consists of a 100 mm
diameter polycarbonate cylindrical tube encasing three corona dis-
charge needle electrodes and a collector electrode, with inlets
placed on top of the tube for aerosol and sheath flow input and
one outlet placed at the bottom. The cylindrical geometry of the ESP
was chosen for its axial symmetry, with the aim to allow for smooth
and controlled air stream with minimum turbulence to avoid dis-
turbing the aerosol collection. Three, 5 ␮m tip Tungsten needles
(American Probe Inc., USA) optimally positioned, according to the
FE simulations, radially at 2 cm from the centre line, and axially
aligned such that the needle tips are 1 cm below the aerosol inlet.
The collection electrode is a shallow well milled in polycarbonate
plastic.
The remaining setup includes the ESP aerosol inlet connected
to an Albatross 009H-40-A nebulizer (AIOLOS Medical, Sweden)
working at a nebulization rate of 0.8 ml/min and airflow rate of
8 l/m, providing aerosol droplets with a mass median diameter
(MMD) of 2.7 ␮m at a pressure of 2 bar. To prevent contamination of
the needles from incoming aerosol droplets, or from stray particles
from the outside environment, two sheath flow inlets (connected
to Inlet 2 in Fig. 4) are connected via a HEPA filter (HMEF 750, GE
Healthcare, Finland) to a humidifier, ensuring an input of clean,
controlled 85% RH air. The ESP outlet is connected to an impinger,
SKC BioSampler (SKC Inc., USA), which in turn, is connected to a
vacuum pump.
A power supply module, based on the negative C60 component
(EMCO High Voltage Corporation, USA), supplied a high poten-
tial difference (1–5.5 kV) over the electrodes. Varying the needle
potential between −3 and −5.5 kV provides a tuneable corona
current, I, which varies in the range 0–20 ␮A depending on D.
Currents were monitored with a 8Z True RMS multimeter (Fluke
Corporation, USA), and a 34401A multimeter (Hewlett Packard,
USA).
The Biosampler impinger, a gold standard, operates at a fixed
flow rate of 12.5 l/min at a minimum working pressure drop of
0.5 bar as compared with atmospheric pressure. The flow and pres-
sure over the impinger were monitored with a MPX5100D mass
flow sensor (Motorola, USA) and a differential pressure sensor,
respectively.
 G. Pardon et al. / Sensors and Actuators B 212 (2015) 344–352 349

Fig. 4. Schematics of the ESP and of the experimental setup. A compressor supplies air to a nebulizer. The aerosol droplets flow towards the ESP device, where the ions
generated by the corona discharge electrically charge the particles. The particles are transported and captured onto the open-air liquid surface. Particles that are not captured
on the collector continue to flow towards the reference Biosampler impinger. The air stream continues towards the exhaust via HEPA filters, regulated by flow and pressure
sensors. The light grey shaded area represents the breath sampler, whereas the dark grey shaded area simulates a patient breathing into the device.

4.2. Measurement protocol
The ESP sampler efficiency and performance were evaluated by
measuring the transport of dye solution from the nebulizer to the
collector and to the impinger. The evaluation was performed for
D = 0, 3, 5, and 7 cm.
Experiment preparation included: placing 4 ml of 300 mg/l dye
solution Alphazurine A (Sigma–Aldrich, Sweden) dissolved in 0.5 M
KCl (Sigma–Aldrich, Sweden), in the nebulizer, 2 ml of 0.5 M KCl
in the impinger (SKC BioSampler), and 200 ␮l of the same 0.5 M
KCL solution placed inside the collector. In this study a laboratory-
generated aerosolized dye is used to be able to characterize the ESP
rather than real breath samples, since it provides a simple method
of quantification using absorption of light through the samples. This
synthetic dye aerosol is a well-controlled sample, which is ideal for
characterizing the ESP since it eliminates all the unknowns that are
present in a human breath sample.
The ESP cylinder was sealed to create a closed system and the
vacuum was turned on. Thereafter, the electrode potential was
switched on to induce a corona current, which was measured. Once
a stable current was achieved, the nebulizer was switched on for
30 s. Following this, the nebulizer was turned off, while the vac-
uum and electrode potential conditions were left on for one extra
minute to purge the system of any remaining aerosol. Subsequently
the liquids from the collector, and the impinger, were extracted by
pipetting the volume into an Eppendorf tube, and weighed, in order
to calculate their volumes. Optical absorption values of all sam-
ples were measured using a Genesys 20 visible spectrophotometer
(ThermoScientific, USA) at a path length of 10 mm, and Eppen-
dorf UV-specific cuvettes (VWR, Sweden). The absorption data and
corresponding sample volumes allow calculation of the respective
molar dye concentrations and the amount of dye particles collected
using the Beer–Lambert law.
Additionally, experiments were conducted to quantify the out-
put flow of the nebulizer, as well as the flow split after the
T-junction in order to characterize the aerosol input entering the
ESP. Nebulization rate of the AIOLOS was determined by measuring
the volume of liquid before and after 4 min of nebulization. The neb-
ulization rate was found to be 0.256 ml per 30 s. An AWM5102VN
flow sensor (Honeywell, USA) was used to measure the flow output
350 G. Pardon et al. / Sensors and Actuators B 212 (2015) 344–352
Fig. 5. (Left) Current–voltage relationship for the ESP, plotted for D = 3 (circle), 5 (square), and 7 (diamond) cm. (Right) Capture Efficiency of the ESP as a percentage of the
estimated input aerosol, ndye input for D = 0 (triangle, inset), 3 (circle), 5 (square), 7 (diamond) cm. The shaded ellipses allow for ease of visualization of the data points for each
inter-electrode distance. The error bars indicate measurements made in triplicates. The efficiency of the state-of-the-art reference impinger was measurement consistent
and is also indicated.
at the nebulizer to be 7.17 l/min, and the flow at the entrance of the
ESP to be 1.36 l/min, 20% of the output flow of the nebulizer. There-
fore, assuming the air flow rate is directly related to the number of
particles, and at a nebulization rate of 0.256 ml/30 s using a dye con-
centration of 300 mg/l, the total amount of aerosolized dye entering
the ESP, ndye input , is calculated to be 21 nmol for the duration of the
experiment.
5. Experimental results and discussion
This section describes and discusses the electrical characteris-
tics and experimental collection efficiency of the ESP sampler for
varying inter-electrode distances and corona currents.
The current–voltage relationship of the ESP is plotted in Fig. 5
(left) for D = 3, 5 and 7 cm. Similar to findings from Vega (1999) and
Gallo (1977), no corona is produced at an electrode potential dif-
ference of <3 kV. Gallo presents a voltage–current relationship for a
point-to-plane configuration for air around atmospheric pressure,
which displays a stable quasi-linear region (for 3–7 kV) where a
self-sustained corona can be maintained. This is also observed in
our ESP, confirming the presence of a corona. Values of corona cur-
rent for our ESP are lower than the findings from Gallo, since their
configuration involved needle-to-plane electrodes with a larger
distance between needle and plane electrodes, while ours is a
multi-needle-to-plane system with a small inter-electrode dis-
tance.
Successful aerosol capture was achieved with the ESP sam-
pler and the absolute collection efficiency is plotted in Fig. 5
(right). The efficiency can be calculated as the ratio of dye cap-
tured in the collector, to the amount of dye entering the ESP,
 absolute = ndye collector /ndye input . A maximum efficiency of >20% is
achieved for D = 3 cm, and I = 4 ␮A. For larger inter-electrode dis-
tances, decreased collection efficiency was observed, and confirms
results from the FE modelling. For shorter distances, i.e. D = 0 cm,
a decreased collection efficiency was also observed, which is
attributed to shorter charging time and, hence, less-efficient elec-
trophoretic capture.
When the ESP was turned off, meaning no voltage was applied
and no corona occurs, the collection efficiency of aerosol droplets
was consistently <1%, confirming the success of electrostatic pre-
cipitation as mechanism for aerosol capture.
The absolute losses in the system can be estimated from
the consistent collection efficiency of the impinger to be
nlosses = 1 −  impinger = 1 − (ndye impinger /ndye input) = 81% of ndye input
and are attributed for the most part to the tube bends and junctions.
In comparison with the state-of-the-art Biosampler impinger,
the performance of our ESP sampler is on par, with maximum
collection efficiencies 21% for our ESP sampler and a consistent
efficiency 19% for the impinger.
In addition to a comparable efficiency, our ESP sampler has spe-
cific advantages over the impinger. The microfluidic interface at the
collection site enables integration with lab-on-a-chip technologies,
by allowing for robust sample handling and for the possible integra-
tion of a biosensor in very close proximity to the interface. The small
collection volume used in our ESP sampler, 300 ␮l, is in stark con-
trast with the large volume, 4 ml, used in the impinger, and provides
collected sample solutions with higher concentrations, at least 10-
fold in our experiments, than when sampled using the impinger.
Furthermore, the collection volume in the proposed ESP sampler,
Fig. 1, has the potential to be further miniaturized, allowing sample
volumes as little as 3.5 ␮l, as previously shown (Frisk et al. [45]).
Hence, the concentrated solutions achieved using our ESP sampler
potentially allows for highly sensitive and rapid detection of ana-
lytes when integrated with a biosensor. Additional advantages of
the ESP sampler as a method of aerosol capture include: flow rates
of the ESP sampler not being fixed, as with impingers, and can be
dictated by the breath patterns of the patient.
In comparison with results from Tan et al. [42], the rela-
tive collection efficiency of our ESP sampler was consistently
 relative = (1 − nESPoff /nESPon ) ≈ 100%, without the large variations,
 relative = 70–90%, seen from their sampler.
For translating the technology from our lab setting to clinical
breath aerosol sampling, the following challenges need addressing.
There is a need to further investigate the effect on the sampling
efficiency of both the large range of aerosol droplet sizes and
 G. Pardon et al. / Sensors and Actuators B 212 (2015) 344–352
number concentration occurring in patient breath samples, and
the patient breathing pattern. Also, further research is needed
on the integration of downstream sensing of the biomarkers of
interest, and the adaptation to the clinical end-user setting in
terms of power supply and form factor.
6. Conclusion
In conclusion, we present a concept device for ESP-based
aerosol sampling for the potential capture of human exhaled-
breath aerosols, in particular generated by coughing, for PoC
diagnostics. This device would directly interface aerosol droplets
with a microfluidic lab-on-chip platform by using a microfluidic
air–liquid interface. The capture of the aerosol droplets relies on
an ESP, using a multi-point-to-plane corona discharge mechanism.
To design this system, a finite elements model was implemented
for qualitative prediction of the behaviour of aerosol droplets in
the ESP sampler. This design was used to build an experimen-
tal prototype, which was characterized for its capture efficiency
using an aerosolized dye sample simulating breath aerosol. Vary-
ing inter-electrode distances and corona currents allowed finding
optimal operational parameters, and an open air–liquid microflu-
idic interface was used, which can be used advantageously towards
integration in a point-of-care test. The ESP sampler proved suc-
cessful in capturing >20% of the total aerosol generated by
the nebulizer, and was as efficient as a gold standard aerosol
sampler, an impinger, with the additional benefit of providing
highly concentrated samples. These advantages make the proposed
electrostatic precipitator-based prototype potentially suitable
for point-of-care diagnostics based on human exhaled-breath
aerosol.
Acknowledgements
This work was partly supported by the Innovative Medicines Ini-
tiative, a public–private partnership between the European Union,
and the European Federation of Pharmaceutical Industries and
Associations (RAPP-ID project, grant agreement, no. 115153).
It was also partly supported by the Swedish Governmental
Agency for Innovation Systems, the Swedish Foundation for Strate-
gic Research, and the Swedish Research Council as part of the Rapid
Pathogen Analyzer (RPA) project.
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Biographies
Gaspard Pardon obtained his BSc and MSc degrees in Micromechanical Engineer-
ing at EPFL Swiss Institute of Technology in Lausanne, Switzerland in 2008. During
his master, he specialized in Micro and Nanosystems engineering. He obtained his
PhD degree in Electrical Engineering at KTH Royal Institute of Technology in Stock-
holm, Sweden, in 2014. He is a member of the Micro and Nanosystem department
as post-doctoral researcher and his research interest includes design and fabrica-
tion of micro and nanosystems for biomedical and energy applications, as well as
theoretical studies of electrokinetic transport in fluidics systems.
Laila Ladhani studied Astrophysics at Western University in London, Canada, and
graduated with a Bachelor’s in 2008. She then went on to study in the field of nano-
technology receiving her Master’s in Nanobiophysics from TU Dresden in Dresden,
Germany. She currently works with Professor Wouter van der Wijngaart at the
Micro and Nanosystems department at KTH. She is involved in the EU-based RAPP-
ID project focusing on the development of integrated, rapid, PoC breath sampling
devices. Specifically, diagnosis platforms for infectious diseases, integration of flui-
dic devices into compact, lab-on-chip devices, ESP-based breath sampling, as well
as QCM-based biosensors
Niklas Sandström was born in Nynäshamn, Sweden. In 2007, he graduated with a
master’s degree in Engineering Biology, an inter-disciplinary education with a spe-
cial emphasis on Biosensors and Microsystems, at Linköping University, Sweden.
He is now a PhD-student in the department of Micro and Nanosystems, School of
Electrical Engineering, KTH, Sweden, under the supervision of prof. W. van der Wijn-
gaart. Niklas’ main research focus is on technology for future medical applications,
in particular point-of-care and rapid diagnostics. His work includes development of
novel manufacturing techniques, biosensor and instrument integration, bioassays,
microfluidic designs and aerosol/liquid sample handling.
Maxime Ettori received his Master’s from EPFL in Lausanne. He completed his thesis
project at the Micro and Nanosystems department at KTH.
Gleb Lobov received his MSc degree in Robotic engineering in 2008 at Bauman
Moscow State University, continued his education and received another MSc degree
in Nanotechnology at Royal Institute of Technology in 2011. His current research,
as a part of his PhD project, lies in the branch of the electro-optical polymers which
takes place at the department of optics and nanophotonics at KTH.
Wouter van der Wijngaart (www.kth.se/profile/wouter) was born in Belgium
in 1973. Wouter received the MSc degree in Electrotechnical Engineering at the
Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Belgium, in 1996. Wouter received the PhD degree
in microsystem technology at the KTH Royal Institute of Technology in 2002, where
in 2005 he promoted to Associate Professor and in 2010 to full Professor. Wouter
is currently leading the research in micro- and nanofluidic systems at KTH, with a
research focus on both lab-on-chip diagnostic systems and microsystems for energy
and pneumatic applications. Wouter is co-founder of the companies Easypark, a
mobile parking payment system provider, MyFuelCell, developing and selling micro
fuel cells for mobile applications, and Mercene Labs, developing and selling novel
polymer systems for labs-on-chip.