Part 1 [HOW TO STUDY SOCIETY AND CULTURE?

********************

As the society starts the new millennium, everyone is filled with

excitement as well as apprehension about the prospects of a new century.
Dramatic changes brought about by social upheavals, rapid population
growth, information technology, increasing globalization, and environmental
degradation are taking place, bringing with them multifarious problems. In the
face of confusion, uncertainties or crisis, we need to understand more than
ever these various phenomena and offer solutions to the different problems.

In humanity’s quest for understanding the world and its concomitant

problems, many approaches and solutions have been tried. Some of the
speculations and attempts at understanding and solving problems are
embodied in myths, legends, folkways and traditions or in the use of common
sense. The philosophers, the moralists, the theologians, statesmen, and
journalists have provided solutions to these problems but they are somehow
insufficient and non-too reliable at times. A more precise and reliable
approach was provided with the advent of science in the sixteenth century.

SocSc 1: Society and Culture

2
 Part 1 [HOW TO STUDY SOCIETY AND CULTURE?]

What is Science?
A clarification of the meaning of science, and of social science in
particular, is fundamental to the understanding of sociology and anthropology.
Some lay persons have the impression that the scientist is a queer-looking,
unsociable genius, but this is very far from reality. They are not aware that the
scientist is dependent upon groups and has increasingly worked in teams with
other scientists. Scientists have tried to lessen or remove the difficulties of
communication that separate the varied scientific disciplines and to present
their findings in a manner that can be understood by the lay person.

Science is a way of learning about the world through disciplined inquiry

which combines systematic theory and observation that provide explanation of
how things work. A theory is a system of ideas or statements held as an
explanation of a group of facts or phenomena. It gives a description and
explanation of matters of everyday life or facts about the world. It summarizes
existing knowledge that suggests guidelines for interpreting new information.
The ordered body of knowledge is arrived at through methodically rigid
observation. As a method of inquiry, science is a way of finding out about the
world through rigorous and disciplined collection of facts and a logical
explanation of them. Science can also be viewed as a way of life when one
imbibes the knowledge, skills, and attitudes necessary in scientific
investigation.

Science may be classified into two:

1. Natural Sciences
 Study phenomena and processes as well as objects in nature
and provide systematic information of the non-human and
physical aspects of the natural world.
 Biology, physics, chemistry, zoology, geology, and astronomy
are some of the natural sciences.

2. Social Sciences
 Involved in the study of society, social relations, and human
behavior.
 The social scientist makes use of the methods and tools used by
the natural scientist in the study of social behavior and social
phenomena and their subjects are human beings who can and
do talk back.
 Hence, social scientists encounter problems such as the ethical
aspects in studying their subjects, something which is not
experienced by the natural scientist. There are ethical limits to

SocSc 1: Society and Culture

3
 Part 1 [HOW TO STUDY SOCIETY AND CULTURE?]

the kinds of experiments that they can perform, like those which
may inflict moral or physical harm on the subjects.
 The social sciences include economics, political science,
psychology, sociology, anthropology, and history.

Science may also be divided into:

1. Pure Science
 Concerned with the pursuit of knowledge and empirical truth and
the development of theory. Its goal is to discover truth.
 The pure scientist derives intellectual pleasure in advancing
knowledge.
 The pure social sciences are economics, political science,
anthropology, and sociology.

2. Applied Science
 Directed toward the use of scientific knowledge and theory for
the solution of practical problems.
 Social work, education, public administration, ethics, and
management may be classified as applied social sciences.

Theoretically, the pure and applied sciences are distinct from each other, but
actually they are interrelated.

Sociologists and Anthropologists are generally concerned with doing

basic research, but at times they are called to use their specialized knowledge
in the evaluation of research, which seeks information on the actual effects of
some existing programs like those on nutrition, family planning, agrarian
reform, or those carried out by NGOs.

The Origins of Sociology and Anthropology

The history of Anthropology goes back to the period of discoveries and

explorations, from the 15th to 18th centuries. Sources of facts are the accounts
of early Western explorers, missionaries, soldiers, and colonial officials
regarding the strange behavior and beliefs as well as exotic appearance of
people they had come in contact with. Discoveries of flint tools and other
artifacts in France and other parts of Europe in the early 19 th century gave
evidence of the existence of human beings a million years ago. These
discoveries happened at a time when advances in physics and chemistry
were made, arousing an interest in scientific inquiry. In the 19 th century
Anthropology began to take shape as a separate field of study which had its
roots in the natural sciences, social sciences, and humanities. Edward Tylor
SocSc 1: Society and Culture
4
 Part 1 [HOW TO STUDY SOCIETY AND CULTURE?]

was the first professor of Anthropology in Oxford, England. In the United

States, it was Franz Boas of Clark University, Massachusetts.
Modern Anthropology in both its physical and cultural aspects started
only around the 20th century. Among its pioneers aside from Edward Tylor
were Lewis Morgan and Herbert Spencer. An evolutionary view of humanity
and human behavior was the dominant theme of the early anthropologists
who were mostly armchair theorists. Structural-functionalism was eventually
used. The turn for a higher level of research through the use of careful and
thorough gathering of data about individual cultures was made by Franz Boas
and Alfred Kroeber, who were followed by Bronislaw Malinowski, A. R.
Radcliffe Brown, Ralph Linton, Ruth Benedict, Margaret Mead, and others.
On the other hand, Sociology, considered as one of the youngest of the
social sciences emerged about the middle of the 19 th century when European
observers began to use scientific methods to test their ideas.

The Development of Sociology and Anthropology in the Philippines

The ideas of sociology and anthropology were diffused in Europe, in
the Americas, and Asia, and one of the receiving countries is the Philippines.
In the Philippines, there is a close tradition of close cooperation between
sociology and social anthropology.
Anthropology began as a practical activity of colonizers in the service
of religion and government. Ethnographic accounts provided by Spanish
chroniclers like Pigafetta, Loarca, Plasencia, and Chirino are now being used
for historical and comparative studies on Philippine society and culture. In the
19th century, archaeological explorations were made by a Frenchman, Alfred
Marche, who did some diggings in Marinduque. Jose Rizal and Trinidad
Pardo de Tavera later contributed to ethnolinguistics and the study of folklore.
During the American period, the American government got interested in
the various ethnic groups of the country out of curiosity and religious,
humanistic, and political reasons. The Bureau of Non-Christian Tribes was
established: it was later replaced by the Ethnological Survey of the Philippines
Office. Field studies were made on a number of hill peoples by such American
anthropologists as H. Otley Beyer, Albert Jenks, and Roy Franklin Barton.
Anthropology was elevated to an academic discipline in the University
of the Philippines in 1914 by Otley Beyer. It was offered as one of the courses
in the department of history; it was merged with sociology in 1921. Patterned
after the American model, the studies included areas in physical ang cultural
anthropology.
From its inception sociology was made part of the academe. It was
introduced by Fr. Valentin Marin as a subject in the curriculum in 1896 at the
University of Santo Tomas, and it was initiated in the University of the
Philippines in 1911 by Pres. Murray Bartlett and A. E. W. Salt. Silliman

SocSc 1: Society and Culture

5
 Part 1 [HOW TO STUDY SOCIETY AND CULTURE?]

University was also one of the first to include it in its curriculum. At its start,
sociology had a social philosophy perspective, which continued up to the
1950’s. in 1920 Serafin Macaraig, the first Filipino to obtain a Ph.D. in
sociology from the University of Wisconsin, introduced the social problem
orientation. Not until the 1950’s did the scientific perspective seep into
sociology with the establishment of educational exchange programs and local
scholarships and the holding of seminars and conferences on social science.
A number of Filipinos studied in the United States and England and imbibed
the theoretical and research orientations of the West, such as structural-
functionalism and symbolic-interactionism.
The training in anthropology was also boosted after World War II. The
number of Filipinos enjoying foreign scholarships or studying in the U. S.
continued to increase in the 1950’s training abroad was mostly in the
University of Chicago and Cornell University. The returning scholars in both
sociology and anthropology ushered into the Philippines the climate of
research in the social sciences. With the arrival of several Fulbright
professors, further interest in social research was started.
In 1952 the Philippine Sociological Society was organized, which
marked an important milestone in the development of Philippine sociology. It
established a journal, the Philippine Sociological Review, which has as
contributors, sociologists and anthropologists.
In 1960 the Research Foundation of Philippine Anthropology and
Archaeology was established giving greater impetus to research. In 1968 the
Philippine Social Science Council (PSSC) was formed to consolidate the
Philippine social science researches. It aimed to promote the quality and
relevance of social science studies, improve teaching skills, train social
science research, and encourage social science publications.
The 1960’s and 1970’s saw the emergence of empirical researches
undertaken in the University of the Philippines, Ateneo de Manila University,
and the University of San Carlos. The Institute of Philippine Culture at the
Ateneo, headed by Dr. Frank Lynch S.J., a social anthropologist, came out
with a number of publications in Philippine society and culture. The
Community Development Center created in 1957 supported the various social
science researches, both pure and applied. At this time, there was also an
advocacy for the indigenization of concepts and tools suited to local
conditions in order to wean social science research from Western pattern and
methodology. Gelia Castillo, a Filipino sociologist, advocated the integration of
the scattered empirical studies into the development problem areas which
policy-makers, researchers, teachers, and students can focus attention on.
The 1970’s brought in ideas of phenomenological sociology and Marxism in
Europe.

SocSc 1: Society and Culture

6
 Part 1 [HOW TO STUDY SOCIETY AND CULTURE?]

The Anthropological Association of the Philippines (UGAT-Ugnayan

pang Agham-Tao) was established in 1978. The organization publishes its
own journal, Agham Tao. Despite this break-away from the Philippine
Sociological Society, the individual and inter-organizational cooperation
between sociology and anthropology is still maintained.
The theoretical and methodological trend of the 70’s continued into the
80’s. This was reflected in the theory courses in the University of the
Philippines and other schools. The period also saw the use of more applied
research. However, such problems as poverty and disparate distribution of
wealth remained in the country despite the numerous researches made for
policy makers. The traditional theory of functionalism was challenged by some
members of the academe. A shift to a new strategy in research where people
concerned were made to participate in the social research process was then
made. This shift to a new methodological framework, participatory research in
sociology was welcomed, despite its being considered by some scientists as
unscientific and subjective.
A major event for the social science community in the 1980’s was the
holding of the first Social Science Congress on November 17-19, 1983. The
theme of the Conference was “Towards Excellence in the Social Science in
the Philippines.” On May 22-23, 1998, the Philippine Social Science Council,
in cooperation with the National Academy of Science and Technology, held
the Fourth National Congress on assessing the role of the social sciences in
the life of a nation celebrating the centennial anniversary of independence.
In the 1990’s the Philippine Sociological Society and the Ungnayan
pang Agham-Tao continued to address the current issues facing the country
through the holding of conventions and seminars and conducting empirical
research on issues like the family and related problems, transnational
migration, social deviance, NGO’s and the like. As the disciplines of sociology
and anthropology start the third millennium they continue to wrestle against
the social, cultural, political, and ecological problems of the country by
providing insights and perspectives which may be useful for policy makers,
program managers, or the people concerned.

SocSc 1: Society and Culture

7
 Part 1 [HOW TO STUDY SOCIETY AND CULTURE?]

********************

Sociology, considered as one of the youngest of the social sciences

emerged about the middle of the 19 th century when European observers
began to use scientific methods to test their ideas. Four factors combined to
lead to the development of sociology:

1. The turmoil of the Industrial Revolution

 By the middle of the 19th century, Europe was changing from
agriculture to factory production. This violently changed people’s
lives. Masses of people were forced off the land. Moving to the
cities in search for work, they found anonymity, crowding, filth,
and poverty. Their ties to the land, to the generations that had
lived there before them and to their way of life were abruptly
broken.
 They also found horrible working conditions: low pay, exhausting
hours, dangerous work, foul smoke, and much noise. To
survive, families had to permit their children to work in these
same conditions; some children were even chained to factory
machines to make certain they could not run away.
 Life no longer looked the same, and tradition, which had
provided the answers, no longer sufficed.

SocSc 1: Society and Culture

8
 Part 1 [HOW TO STUDY SOCIETY AND CULTURE?]

Britain was the birthplace of industrial revolution because of the

following:
1. Increased population that became workers for
factories and mines
2. Large supply of coal in the country that fueled steam
engines used for trains and other transportation
3. The country’s geographical ability gave way for an easy,
cheap and fast transportation of goods that enabled
traders to earn more profit
4. Britain’s political climate was stable, allowing free
trade and related policies that allowed increase of
property to increase income (but at the expense of
children’s and workers’ welfare for child labor and
indiscriminate wage oppression were imposed)
5. Country’s vast colonial empire (North America, South
Africa, Egypt, India and Australia in the 1700s)

Children and minors were employed in factories because they are not entitled to benefits that are given to those of regular
working age groups. When they are harmed while working, the company reserved no financial obligation up on them, while
preserving their income and increasing their financial gains.

A steam boat that easily imports and exports

cargoes that are advanced sources of income and
wealth for the capitalists.

One of the earliest textile companies that employed mass production

and where irregular and commonly oppressive working conditions
were observed.

SocSc 1: Society and Culture

9
 Part 1 [HOW TO STUDY SOCIETY AND CULTURE?]

2. The success of American and French Revolutions.

 The second blow to tradition was the success of the American
and French revolutions. These encouraged people to rethink
social life. New ideas arose, including the conviction that
individuals possess inalienable rights.
 As this new idea caught fire, many traditional Western
monarchies gave way to more democratic forms and to other
manifestations of political change. The ready answers of
tradition, including religion, no longer sufficed.
 When tradition reigns supreme, it provides a ready answer: “We
do this because it has always been done this way.” Such
societies discourage original thinking. Since the answers are
already provided, why search for explanations? Sweeping
change, however, does the opposite: By upsetting the existing
order, it encourages questioning and demands answers.

Voltaire (François-Marie Arouet) Voltaire (real name

François-Marie Arouet) (1694 - 1778) was a
French philosopher and writer of the Age of
Enlightenment. His intelligence, wit and style made
him one of France's greatest writers and
philosophers, despite the controversy he attracted.

SocSc 1: Society and Culture

10
 Part 1 [HOW TO STUDY SOCIETY AND CULTURE?]

3. Imperialism
 This factor also stimulated the
development of sociology. The
Europeans had been
successful in conquering
many parts of the world. Their
new colonial empires,
stretching from Asia through
the North America, exposed
them to radically different
cultures. Startled by these
contrasting ways of life, they began to ask why cultures differed.

4. The success of the natural sciences.

 The fourth impetus for the development of sociology is the
success of the natural sciences. Just as the time when people
were questioning fundamental aspects of their social worlds, the
scientific method—using objective, systematic observations to
test theories—was being tried out in chemistry and physics.
Many secrets that had been concealed in nature were
uncovered. With tradition no longer providing answers to
questions about social life, the logical step was to apply this
method to these questions. The result was the birth of sociology.

SocSc 1: Society and Culture

11
 Part 1 [HOW TO STUDY SOCIETY AND CULTURE?]

Pioneers of Sociology

SocSc 1: Society and Culture

12
Part 1 [HOW TO STUDY SOCIETY AND CULTURE?]

SocSc 1: Society and Culture

13
 Part 1 [HOW TO STUDY SOCIETY AND CULTURE?]

Definition and Areas of Concern of Sociology

Sociology is the science of society and the social interaction taking
place among individuals in a social group. It focuses on all kinds of social
interaction—social acts, social relationships, social organizations and social
processes. It is concerned with the recurrent and repetitive forms of behavior,
attitudes, beliefs, values, and norms, and social institutions which make up
the social order. As Durkheim pointed out, its scope is social facts such as
facts of religion, law, moral ideas, and economics which must be seen in their
relation to each other and the collective milieu in the midst of which they
develop and whose expression they are. Sociologists seek not only the
description but also the explanation of social behavior. They are interested in
knowing the causes of social facts, the function of social institutions, and the
meaning of social action.
The various areas of concern of sociology are as follows:

 This involves the study of social groups, social institutions,

ethnic relations, social stratification, social mobility, and
bureaucracy.
 It includes the sociology of family, economy, work, agriculture,
industry, religion, law, politics, and education.

SocSc 1: Society and Culture

14
 Part 1 [HOW TO STUDY SOCIETY AND CULTURE?]

 This area studies human nature and personality as the product

of group life.
 It also touches on the study of social attitudes and collective
behavior.

 This area is concerned with the change in culture and social

relations and the attendant disruption that may occur. Social
reorganization is also considered.

SocSc 1: Society and Culture

15
 Part 1 [HOW TO STUDY SOCIETY AND CULTURE?]

 This analyzes population number, composition, change, and

quality as they influence and are influenced by the social,
economic, and political orders.

 Studies in this area deal with the human behavior of a given

population in relation to its environment and the emergence of
the spatial relations between the people and the environment.

SocSc 1: Society and Culture

16
 Part 1 [HOW TO STUDY SOCIETY AND CULTURE?]

Survey

Focus-group Discussion

Face-to-face interview

 This includes theory building and testing the applicability of the

principles of group life as the bases for the prediction and
control of the individual’s social environment.

 This makes use of the findings of pure sociological research on

the various aspects and problems of daily life, as in criminology,
community development, family counseling, squatters’
relocation, education, agrarian reform, non-governmental
organizations, labor relations, nutrition and health.

SocSc 1: Society and Culture

17
 Part 1 [HOW TO STUDY SOCIETY AND CULTURE?]

LITERATURE REVIEW. RESEARCH ON STUDIES RELATED TO THE

DIFFERENT AREAS OF CONCERN OF SOCIOLOGY.

How?

1. Look up to the internet for journals or books that contain research

studies on the topics about:
a. Social organization
b. Social psychology
c. Social change and disorganization
d. Population studies
e. Human ecology
f. Sociological theory and methods
g. Applied sociology
2. Provide one (1) research study for each topic.
3. Come up with a total of seven (7) hand-written or printed outputs
containing the following components for each research study
described:
a. Title of the study
b. Methodology employed in the study
c. Key findings of the study, conclusion and recommendations
d. Citation using APA format
e. Answer: How does this research study relate to the areas of
concern of sociology?

SocSc 1: Society and Culture

18
Part 1 [HOW TO STUDY SOCIETY AND CULTURE?]

SocSc 1: Society and Culture

19