In this chapter presents the review of related literature and studies, the theoretical framework,

conceptual frame work, and the definition of terms used. Related Literature

Malunggay

The “malunggay” in the Philippines, is “saji” in Indian Subcontinent is a popular tree. Many

Asians use the leaves of Malunggay (Sajina) like spinach and also the fruits it produces as a

vegetable, like asparagus. Both the leaves and the fruits are very nutritious, which contains many

vitamins like Vitamin C and other minerals. For centuries, people in India, Philippines, Malaysia,

and Thailand have been eating these leaves as a part of their food (Pati, 2008).

While it grows best in dry sandy soil, it tolerates poor soil, including coastal areas. It is a fast-

growing, drought-resistant tree that is native to the southern foothills of the Himalayas in

northwestern India. Today it is widely cultivated in the Philippines. It is considered one of the

world’s most useful trees, as almost every part of the Moringa tree can be used for food or has

some other beneficial property. In the tropics, it is used as forage for livestock, and in many

countries, on the other hand Moringa micronutrient liquid, a natural anthelmintic (kills parasites)

and adjuvant (to aid or enhance another drug) is use as a metabolic conditioner to aid endemic

diseases in developing countries (Pati, 2008).

Meanwhile, malunggay grows wildly in hot tropical climate and is a wonderful herb known all

over the world. It may provide the boost in energy, nutrition and health you’ve been seeking.

There are 13 different species of malunggay plant and the best known species and the most

wildly cultivated is the malunggay a species native to the Philippines. Malunggay fruits can be
added to dinengdeng, drum stick stew, or just simply sauté it. The flowers can be cooked in

coconut milk oil extracted from flower can be used as illuminant, ointment base, and absorbent

in the effleurage process of extracting volatile oils from flowers. The oil, applied locally, has also

been helpful for arthritic pains, rheumatic and gouty joints (Pati, 2008). Malunggay is a fast-

growing, drought-resistant tree. It also increase lactation in nursing mothers and address the

problem of malnutrition. And is also an obligatory ingredient in chicken tinola (soup) (Salazar,

2007). There are more health benefits. Vivencio Mamaril 2001, of Bureau of Plant Industry, told

a national daily that in India, malunggay is used in treating various ailments. A 2001 study in

India has found that the fresh root of the young tree can be used to treat a fever. Because of its

nutritional content, malunggay strengthens the immune system, restores skin condition, controls

blood pressure, relieves headaches and migraines, manages the sugar level thereby preventing

diabetes, reduces inflammations and arthritis pains, restricts the growth of tumors, and heals

ulcers. Cashew Nut

Cashew nuts a richly sweet product of the cashew tree, have gained popularity in North America

and Europe not only for their succulent flavor but for health benefits, too. Whether roasted,

salted, sugared or covered in chocolate, the cashew nut, often used as a flavorful complement to

appetizers, main dishes and desserts, packs a mix of nutrients and minerals not found in many

common foods. Cashew nuts is also known by the botanical name Anacardium occidentale, the

cashew is a close relative of mangos, pistachios, poison ivy and poison oak. (Meyers, 2003)

Cashew nuts tree’s leaves and bark as well as the popular cashew apple posses herbal health

benefits that includes that killing bacteria and germs, stopping diarrhea, drying secretion,

increasing the libido, and reducing fever, blood sugar, blood pressure and body temperature. The
cashew nut, a popular treat found on grocery and health food store shelves across the world, is a

jam-packed with nutritional content. research It packs 5grams of protein per...

https://www.studymode.com/essays/Malunggay-827541.html
 CHAPTER TWO.
LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1. Moringa oleifera

Moringa oliefera tree is one of the most underused tropical crops is the Moringa oliefera tree, 
with leaves being a source of useful nutrients (Oduro et al., 2008). Anecdotal proof 
of M. gains. Oleifera has fuelled a recent increase in adoption and exposure to its many healing benefits, 
especially the high nutrient composition of the leaves and seeds of plants (Fahey, 2005). Moringa oleifer
a, native to India , Pakistan, Asia Minor, Africa and Arabia, the western and sub-Himalayan regions (Som
ali et al., 1984; Mughal et al., 1999) is now distributed in the Philippines, Cambodia, Central America,
North and South America and the Caribbean Islands (Morton, 1991).
In many countries , particularly in India , Pakistan, the Philippines, Hawaii and many parts of Africa, the l
eaves, berries, flowers and immature pods of this tree are used as a highly nutritious vegetable.(D’souza
and Kulkarni, 1993; Anwar and Bhanger, 2003; Anwar et al.,
2005).The use of powdered seeds to flocculate chemicals and purify drinking water is one of the best kn
own uses for Moringa in the west.(Gassenschmidt., et al., 1995),
however, green, fried, powdered and steeped seeds are often eaten for tea or used in curries.
(Gassenschmidt et al., 1995).
In recent times, this tree has been promoted as an exceptional indigenous source of highly digestible pro
tein, Ca , Fe, Vitamin C, and carotenoids suitable for use in many of the world's so-called "developing" re
gions where undernourishment is a major concern.

Varieties of Moringa.
Family: Moringacae
Range: Native to the Indian sub-continent and naturalized in tropical and sub-tropical areas
around the world.
Description: Deciduous tree or shrub, fast-growing, drought resistant, average height of 12
meters at maturity.

Other twelve (12) varieties of Moringa species

- Moringa arborea
- Moringa borziana
- Moringa concanensis
- Moringa drouhardii
- Moringa hildebrandtii
- Moringa longituba
- Moringa ovalifolia
- Moringa peregrina
- Moringa pygmaea
- Moringa rivae
- Moringa ruspoliana
- Moringa stenopetala

Common names of Moringa oleifera: Benzolive, Drumstick Tree, Kelor, Marango, Mlonge,
Mulangay, Saijhan and Sajna.

2.1.1. Nutritional value of Moringa leaves.

Moringa leaves have been reported to be a rich source of β-carotene, protein, vitamin C , calcium and p
otassium and to serve as a good source of natural 

antioxidants, thereby enhancing the shelf life of food
containing fats due to the presence of different types of antioxidant compounds such as ascorbic acid , fl
avonoids, phenolics and carotenoids.

(Dillard and German, 2000; Siddhuraju and Becker, 2003). The leaves are cooked and used in soups and 

sauces like spinach and can be ground into powder.

(Joshi and Mehta 2010). Moringa leaves, which were found to be responsible for the blood pressure 

lowering effect, were isolated from nitrile, mustard oil glycosides and thiocarbamate glycosides

(Faizi et al., 1994a; 1994b; 1995).

Most of these compounds are fully acetylated glycosides, bearing thiocarbamate, 

carbamate or nitrile groups, which are very unusual in nature. (Faizi et al., 1995).

2.2. Antibacterial and Antifungal activities

The antibacterial function 

of moringa roots is

(Rao et al., 1996) is known to be 

rich in antimicrobial agents

. These are reported to contain the pterygospermin active 
antibiotic concept, which has strong antibacterial and fungicidal impact.

(Ruckmani et al., 1998). The antibacterial and fungicidal properties of its 

flowers are due to a related compound.

(Das et al., 1957). The fresh leaf juice was found to inhibit the growth of microorganisms (Pseudomonas
aeruginosa and Staphylococcus aureus), pathogenic to man (Caceres et al., 1991).
The root extract also has antimicrobial activity 

due to the existence of benzyl 4-alpha-L-rhamnosyloxy isothiocyanate

(Eilert et al., 1981). It has been shown that the bark extract has antifungal activity (Bhatnagar 

et al., 1961), while the stem bark juice showed an antibacterial impact against

Staphylococcus aureus (Mehta et al., 2003)

Table 2.1. Some common medicinal uses of different parts of Moringa oleifera.
PLANT PART MEDICINAL USES REFERENCES
Root Antilithic, rubefacient, vesicant, The Wealth of India,
carminative, antifertility, 1962; Padmarao
anti-inflammatory, stimulant in et al., 1996;
paralytic afflictions; act as a Dahot, 1988;
cardiac/circulatory tonic, used as a Ruckmani et al., 1998
laxative, abortifacient,
treating rheumatism,
inflammations, articular pains,
lower back or kidney pain and
constipation,
Leaves Purgative, applied as poultice to Morton, 1991; Fuglie,
sores, rubbed on the 2001; Makonnen et al.,
temples for headaches, used for 1997; The Wealth of
piles, fevers, sore throat, India, 1962; Dahot, 1988
bronchitis, eye and ear infections,
scurvy and catarrh; leaf juice is
believed to control glucose levels,
applied to reduce glandular
swelling
Stem Bark Rubefacient, vesicant and used to Bhatnagar et al., 1961;
cure eye diseases and for the Siddhuraju and Becker,
treatment of delirious patients, 2003
prevent enlargement of the spleen
and formation of tuberculous
glands of the neck, to destroy
tumors and to heal ulcers. The
juice from the root bark is put into
ears to relieve earaches and also
placed in a tooth cavity as a pain
killer, and has anti-tubercular
activity
Gum Used for dental caries, and is Fuglie, 2001
astringent and rubefacient;
Gum, mixed with sesame oil, is
used to relieve headaches,
fevers, intestinal complaints,
dysentery, asthma and
sometimes used as an
abortifacient, and to treat syphilis
and
rheumatism
Flower High medicinal value as a Nair and Subramanian,
stimulant, aphrodisiac, 1962; Bhattacharya et
abortifacient, cholagogue; used to al., 1982; Dahot, 1998;
cure inflammations, Siddhuraju and Becker,
muscle diseases, hysteria, tumors, 2003; Mehta et al., 2003
and enlargement of the
spleen; the excretion of faecal
cholesterol
Seed Seed extract exerts its protective Faizi et al., 1998; Lalas
effect by decreasing liver and Tsaknis, 2002
 lipid peroxides, antihypertensive
compounds thiocarbamate
and isothiocyanate glycosids have
been isolated from the
acetate phase of the ethanolic
extract of Moringa pods

2.3. History of Bacteria

Bacteria are one of the very important micro-organisms which live symbiotically with humans.
Bacteria are often maligned as the causes of human and animal disease (like this one, Leptospira,
which causes serious disease in livestock). However, certain bacteria, the actinomycetes, produce
antibiotics such as streptomycin and nocardicin; others live symbiotically in the guts of animals
(including humans) or elsewhere in their bodies, or on the roots of certain plants, converting
nitrogen into a usable form. Bacteria put the tang in yogurt and the sour in sourdough bread;
bacteria help to break down dead organic matter; bacteria make up the base of the food web in
many environments. Bacteria are of such immense importance because of their extreme
flexibility, capacity for rapid growth and reproduction, and great age.

2.3.1. Gram-Positive Bacteria

Gram-positive bacteria are those that are stained dark blue or violet by Gram staining. This is in
contrast to Gram-negative bacteria, which cannot retain the crystal violet stain, instead taking up
the counterstain (safranin or fuchsine) and appearing red or pink. Gram-positive organisms are
able to retain the crystal violet stain because of the high amount of peptidoglycan in the cell wall.
Gram-positive cell walls typically lack the outer membrane found in Gram-negative bacteria.

The following characteristics are generally present in a Gram-positive bacterium (Madigan.,

2005):

1. Cytoplasmic lipid membrane

2. Thick peptidoglycan layer teichoic acids and lipoids are present, forming lipoteichoic
acids, which serve to act as chelating agents, and also for certain types of adherence.
 3. Capsule polysaccharides (only in some species)

4. Flagellum (only in some species) if present, it contains two rings for support as opposed
to four in Gram-negative bacteria because Gram-positive bacteria have only one
membrane layer.
Both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria may have a membrane called an S-layer.  In
Gram-positive bacteria, the S-layer is attached to the peptidoglycan layer. Most pathogens in
humans are Gram-positive organisms. In the classical sense, six Gram-positive genera are
typically pathogenic in humans. Two of these, Streptococcus and Staphylococcus,
are cocci (sphere-shaped bacteria). The remaining organisms are bacilli (rod-shaped bacteria)
and can be subdivided based on their ability to form spores. The non-spore formers
are Corynebacterium and Listeria (coccobacillus),whereas Bacillus and Clostridium produce
spores (Gladwin & Trattler, 2007) The spore-forming bacteria can again be divided based on
their respiration: Bacillus is a facultative anaerobe, while Clostridium is an obligate anaerobe.

2.3.2. Gram-Negative bacteria

Gram-negative bacteria are bacteria that do not retain crystal violet dye in the Gram
staining protocol. In a Gram stain test, a counterstain (safranin) is added after the crystal violet,
coloring all Gram-negative bacteria with a red or pink color. This is because of the existence of
an outer membrane preventing the penetration of the stain.

The following characteristics are displayed for Gram-negative bacteria:

1. Cytoplasmic membrane
2. Thin peptidoglycan layer (which is much thicker in Gram-positive bacteria).

3. Outer membrane containing lipopolysaccharide (LPS, which consists of lipid A, core

polysaccharide, and O antigen) in its outer leaflet and phospholipids in the inner leaflet
4. Porins exist in the outer membrane, which act like pores for particular molecules.

5. There is a space between the layers of peptidoglycan and the secondary cell membrane
called the periplasmic space.
6. The S-layer is directly attached to the outer membrane, rather than the peptidoglycan.

Medically relevant Gram-negative bacilli include a multitude of species. Some of them primarily

cause respiratory problems (Hemophilus influenzae, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Legionella
pneumophila, Pseudomonas aeruginosa), urinary problems (Escherichia coli, Proteus
mirabilis, Enterobacter cloacae, Serratia marcescens), and gastrointestinal problems
(Helicobacter pylori, Salmonella enteritidis, Salmonella typhi).

2.4. History of Fungi

Although often inconspicuous, fungi occur in every environment on Earth and play very
important roles in most ecosystems. Along with bacteria, fungi are the major decomposers in
most terrestrial (and some aquatic) ecosystems, and therefore play a critical role
in biogeochemical cycles (Gadd, 2007) and in many food webs. As decomposers, they play an
essential role in nutrient cycling, especially as saprotrophs and symbionts, degrading organic
matter to inorganic molecules, which can then re-enter anabolic metabolic pathways in plants or
other organisms (Barea et al., 2007).The discipline of biology devoted to the study of fungi is
known as mycology.
Pathogenic fungi are fungi that cause disease in humans or other organisms. The study of
pathogenic fungi is referred to as "medical mycology." Although fungi are eukaryotic organisms,
many pathogenic fungi are also microorganisms (Moore et al., 1980). Most fungi grow
as hyphae, which are cylindrical, thread-like structures 2–10 µm in diameter and up to several
centimeters in length. Hyphae grow at their tips (apices); new hyphae are typically formed by
emergence of new tips along existing hyphae by a process called branching, or occasionally
growing hyphae tips bifurcate (fork) giving rise to two parallel-growing hyphae (Harris., 2008).

Many fungi are parasites on plants, animals (including humans), and other fungi. Serious
pathogens of many cultivated plants causing extensive damage and losses to agriculture and
forestry include the rice blast fungus Magnaporthe oryzae (Talbot, 2003) tree pathogens such
as Ophiostoma ulmi and Ophiostoma novo-ulmi causing Dutch elm disease, (Paoletti et al.,
2006) and Cryphonectria parasitica responsible for chestnut blight, (Gryzenhout et al.,
2008) and plant pathogens in the genera Fusarium, Ustilago, Alternaria, and Cochliobolus
(Paszkowski, 2006). Some carnivorous fungi, like Paecilomyces lilacinus, are predators
of nematodes, which they capture using an array of specialized structures such as constricting
rings or adhesive nets (Yang et al., 2007).

Some fungi can cause serious diseases in humans, several of which may be fatal if untreated. It
includes: aspergilloses, candidoses, coccidioidomycosis, cryptococcosis, histoplasmosis,myceto
mas, and paracoccidioidomycosis. Furthermore, persons with immuno-deficiencies are
particularly susceptible to disease by genera such as Aspergillus, Candida,Cryptoccocus,
(Brakhage, 2005) Histoplasma, (Kauffman, 2007) and Pneumocystis (Cushion et al., 2007).
Other fungi can attack eyes, nails, hair, and especially skin, the so-called dermatophytic and

keratinophilic fungi, and cause local infections such as ringworm and athlete's foot (Cook &
Zumla, 2008). Fungal spores are also a cause of allergies, and fungi from different taxonomic
groups can evoke allergic reactions (Simon-Nobbe et al., 2008).

Fungi are used extensively to produce industrial chemicals like citric, gluconic, lactic,

and malic acids, (Daly & Hearn., 2005) and industrial enzymes, such as lipases used
in biological detergents, (Joseph et al., 2008) cellulases used in making cellulosic ethanol
(Kumar et al., 2008) and stonewashed jeans, and amylases, (Olempska-Beer et al., 2006)
invertases, proteases and xylanases (Polizeli et al., 2005). Several species, most
notably Psilocybin mushrooms (colloquially known as magic mushrooms), are ingested for
their psychedelic properties, both recreationally and religiously.

Many fungi produce biologically active compounds, several of which are toxic to animals or

plants and are therefore called mycotoxins. Of particular relevance to humans are mycotoxins
produced by molds causing food spoilage, and poisonous mushrooms.

2.5. Escherichia coli

Human diarrhea caused by ETEC is the most common disease caused by pathogenic E.
coli strains. It is estimated that there are more than 650 million cases of ETEC infection each
year (Johnson et al., 2009).  The bacteria are gram negative, rod shaped, non-spore forming,
motile with peritrichous flagella or non-motile, and grow on MacConkey agar (colonies are 2 to
3 mm in diameter and red or colorless). They are able to grow under aerobic and anaerobic
conditions, and produce two types of enterotoxin: heat-labile (LT) (oligomeric) and heat-stable
(ST) (monomeric) (Nataro et al., 2007).  ETEC are spread primarily by the fecal-oral route and
are most common in developing countries that lack appropriate sanitation and drinking-water
treatment facilities. The most important mode of transmission is contaminated, improperly
treated drinking water. Fruits and vegetables that are washed with contaminated water and not
cooked also serve as vehicles of transmission.
2.6. Staphylococcus aureus
Staphylococcus aureus is a facultative anaerobic Gram-positive cocci bacterium. It is frequently
found as part of the normal skin flora on the skin and nasal passages. They are approximately
0.5-1.5 µm in diameter, non-motile, non-spore-forming, facultative anaerobes (with the
exception of S. aureus, anaerobius) that usually form in clusters. Many strains produce
staphylococcal enterotoxins, the superantigen toxic shock syndrome toxin (TSST-1), and
exfoliative toxins. Staphylococcus aureus are part of human flora, and are primarily found in the
nose and skin (Kluytumans et al., 1997).
It is estimated that 20% of the human population are long –term carriers of S.aureus
(Kluytumans et al., 1997). Staphylococcus aureus is known to cause illness ranging from
pimples and boils to pneumonia and meningitis, which are not unlikely as corroborated by the
high population of colonies (Brooks et al., 2007).

Staphylococcus aureus is one of the most common causes of skin, soft-tissue, and nosocomial
infection (Fridkin et al., 2005). Staphylococcus aureus is found in humans in the nose, groin,
axillae, perineal area (males), mucous membranes, the mouth, mammary glands, hair, and the
intestinal, genitourinary and upper respiratory tracts (Le Loir et al., 2003). Many animals act as
reservoirs, particularly cows with infected udders (Fitzgerald et al., 2001). Antibiotics such as
cloxacillin and cephalexin are commonly used to treat staph infections; many strains of
Staphylococcus aureus have increasing resistance to multiple antibiotic classes (Eisestein et al.,
2008). Methicillin resistant strains are common causes of nosocomial infection. Increasing
resistance to vancomycin is being documented in many hospitals.

2.7. Pseudomonas aeruginosa

Pseudomonas aeruginosa is a gram negative, aerobic, rod belongs to the family
Pseudomonadaceae, more than half of all clinical isolates produce the blue green pigments
phyocyanin. Pseudomonas has a characteristic sweet odor. These pathogens are widespread in
nature, inhabiting soil, water, plants and animals (including humans). P.aeruginosa has become
an important cause of infection, especially in patients with compromised host defense
mechanisms. It is the most common pathogen isolated from patients who have been hospitalized
longer than one week. It is a frequent cause of nosocomial infections such as pneumonia, urinary
tract infections (UTIs) and bacteremia. Pseudomonal infections are complicated and can be life
threatening.

2.8. Klebsiella spp

The vast majority of Klebsiella infections, however, are associated with hospitalization. As

opportunistic pathogens, Klebsiella spp. primarily attack immunocompromised individuals who
are hospitalized and suffer from severe underlying diseases such as diabetes mellitus or chronic
pulmonary obstruction. Klebsiella spp. are ubiquitous in nature. Klebsiella probably have two
common habitats, one being the environment, where they are found in surface water, sewage,
and soil and on plants (Brown et al., 1973). and the other being the mucosal surfaces of
mammals such as humans, horses, or swine, which they colonize. Klebsiella species are usually
identified and differentiated according to their biochemical reactions. The genus is defined as
containing gram-negative, non-motile, usually encapsulated rod-shaped bacteria of the
family Enterobacteriaceae, which produce lysine decarboxylase but not ornithine decarboxylase
and are generally positive in the Voges-Proskauer test (Edwards et al., 1986). Apart from
medical equipment (contaminated due to faulty hygienic procedures) and blood products (Goetz
et al., 1995) the principal reservoirs for transmission of Klebsiella in the hospital setting are the
gastrointestinal tract of patients and the hands of hospital personnel (Montgomerie et al 1993).
The ability of this organism to spread rapidly often leads to nosocomial outbreaks, especially in
neonatal units (Hartstein et al., 1993).

2.9. Proteus spp

Proteus spp. consists of Gram-negative, motile, aerobic rod-shaped bacilli belonging to the
family Enterobacteriaceae. Members of the Enterobacteriaceae family generally range from 0.3
to 1.0 mm in width and 0.6 to 6.0 mm in length (Coker et al., 2000). They are urease positive and
form swarmer cells which allow for swarming motility on solid media. They are part of normal
flora of human gastrointestinal tract. They are also widespread in the environment, including
animals, soil, and polluted water.  Proteus spp are part of the human intestinal flora (Kim et al.,
2003) and can cause infection upon leaving this location. They may also be transmitted through
contaminated catheters (particularly urinary catheters) or by accidental parenteral inoculation
(Kim et al., 2003). They are important causative agents in community-acquired and
nosocomial UTIs; within Europe and North America, 4 to 6% of Proteus infections are
community-acquired and 3 to 6% are nosocomial (Abbott et al., 2007). Proteus  spp. are
generally considered pathogenic for young individuals and opportunistic pathogens for the
elderly. Proteus spp. are generally susceptible to broad-spectrum cephalosporins,
aminoglycosides, and imipenem (Kim et al., 2003).

2.10. Aspergillus niger

Aspergillus niger is a haploid filamentous fungi and is a very essential microorganism in the
field of biology. In addition to producing extracellular enzymes and citric acid, A. niger is used
for waste management and biotransformations. The fungi is most commonly found in mesophilic
environments such as decaying vegetation or soil and plants (Schuster et al., 2002).

Genome sequencing of A. niger is important because of its involvement in producing citric acid
as well as industrial enzymes, such as amylases, proteases, and lipases. The use of these enzymes
is essential because of its importance for transformation to food enzymes. Other properties of
this species include pathogens that cause the spoilage of food and production of secondary
metabolites, such as aflatoxin, that are toxic.

The most common pathogenic species are Aspergillus fumigatus and Aspergillus flavus.

Aspergillus flavus produces aflatoxin which is both a toxin and a carcinogen and which can
potentially contaminate foods such as nuts. Aspergillus fumigatus and Aspergillus clavatus can
cause allergic disease. Some Aspergillus species cause disease on grain crops, especially maize,
and synthesize mycotoxins including aflatoxin. Aspergillosis is the group of diseases caused
by Aspergillus. The symptoms include fever, cough, chest pain or breathlessness. Usually, only
patients with weakened immune systems or with other lung conditions are susceptible (Machida
& Gomi., 2010). A. niger produce colonies that are composed of white or yellow felt that is
covered by dark asexually produced fungal spores. Mycelial, or threadlike, hyphae are divided
by a septum and transparent.
A. niger is usually found in common mesophilic environments such as soil, plants, and enclosed
air environments. A. niger is not only a xerophilic fungi (mold that doesn’t require free water for
growth, can grow in humid environments), but is also a thermo tolerant organism (capable of
growing at high temperatures). Because of this property, the filamentous fungi exhibits a high
tolerance to freezing temperatures (Schuster et al., 2002).The productioin of ochratoxin A
from A. niger, is liable to cause immunotoxcitiy in animals. (May et al., 1997).