Hydraulic Engineering (CIVN4010)

School of Civil and Environmental Engineering

University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg

T. Tanyimboh, February 2020

2. Uniform Flow

Objectives
 Introduction

 Resistance equation for uniform flow

 Chezy equation

 Manning equation

 Uniform flow computations

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2.1 Introduction: Open Channel Flow
Open channel flow:

Refers to flow with a free water surface

 Streams and rivers

 Canals

 Artificial channels

 Partially full flow in pipes (e.g. sewers, storm water pipes)

 Culverts

 Etc.

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Some applications of open channel hydraulics:

 Local flow conditions (changes in depth and velocity) (e.g. effects of

hydraulic structures, lateral contractions, etc.)

 Forces on structures (e.g. sluice gates, etc.)

 Etc.

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2.2 Classifications of Open Channel Flow

Steady uniform flow:

 Depth does not change with time and distance (in the flow direction)
 Gravity forces in equilibrium with resistance forces

Steady non-uniform flow:

 Depth does not change with time; but changes with distance (in the
flow direction)
 Two possibilities: either (a) gradually varied or (b) rapidly varied
(in the flow direction)

Unsteady (non-uniform) flow:

 Depth changes with time and distance (in the flow direction)
 May be gradually varied (e.g. flood waves in rivers); or
 Rapidly varied (e.g. surges in rivers and canals)
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nonuniform

uniform RV
GV RV GV RV
Q

uniform

Different types of steady uniform and non-uniform flow

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2.3 Resistance Equation for Uniform Flow

Consider free body in uniform flow.

Sf P
V2/2g
L H
Sw
yo FW HGL
FH1
FR x
FH2
So
θ
W
1 2

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Sf P
V2/2g
L H
Sw
yo FW HGL
FH1
FR x
FH2
So
θ
W
1 2

 Constant depth (and thus velocity) in the flow direction (uniform flow)

 Hence constant velocity head (v2/2g)

 Therefore:
So  S w  S f
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 H = total head; or TEL (total energy line)

 HGL = hydraulic grade line

 So = bed slope

 Sw = slope of HGL or water surface

 Sf = slope of the total energy line

 yo = uniform flow depth; also called normal depth

 v = velocity

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 W = weight

 FW = weight component in the flow direction

 FR = resisting force due to shear stress at boundary (sides and bottom)

 FH1 and FH2 are upstream and downstream hydrostatic forces,

respectively

 θ = angle between bed and horizontal

 A = cross-sectional area

 P = wetted perimeter

 L = length

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Apply F = ma (Newton’s second law) with a = 0

 velocity constant in the flow direction (i.e. no

acceleration)

a = acceleration; F = force; m = mass

 m = ρ(AL)

 W = mg = (ρAL)g

 FW = Wsinθ = (ρALg)sinθ

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 FW = Wsinθ = (ρgAL)sinθ

Generally, channel slopes are very small

 Hence sinθ ≈ tanθ = So = bed slope

 Hence FW = Wsinθ = (ρgAL)sinθ = (ρgAL)So

 FR = τoPL; τo = boundary shear stress

Newton’s second law (F = ma with a = 0) gives

F  F H1  FW  FR  FH 2  0

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Newton’s second law (F = ma with a = 0) gives:
F  F H1  FW  FR  FH 2  0

 gALSo   0 LP  0

 gSo   0 P A  0  
o
 gSo   0   o   gRSo   gRS f   gRS
R
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2.4 The Chezy Equation (Antoine Chezy, 1768)

Dimensional analysis yields:

 o  a U 2

 a = dimensionless coefficient (may depend on channel characteristics)

 τo = boundary shear stress
 ρ = density
 U = mean velocity

Recall:

 o   gRS

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Hence:

a U 2   gRS
g
U  RS
a
Therefore:

U  C RS

This is the Chezy equation.

 C = Chezy resistance coefficient

 C may be obtained using Moody diagram or equivalent

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2.5 Comparison of Chezy and Darcy-Weisbach Equations

Recall:
hf
S  Sf 
L
 hf = head loss over distance L

Therefore re-write Chezy equation as:

hf
U 2  C2R
L
 1   LU 
2
 hf   2   
 C  R 

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Recall Darcy-Weisbach formula:

 LU 2  LU 2
hf   ; RD L = length
2 gD 8 gR 4 λ = friction factor
    LU 2  D = diameter
 hf      R = hydraulic radius = A/P
 8 g  R  A = cross-sectional area
Therefore: P = wetted perimeter

 1   LU      LU 
2 2
hf   2    Chezy and Darcy-Weisbach Eqs.
   
 C   R   8g   R 
 The equations are equivalent.
1 
 2   The Chezy equation is used
C 8g for open channels for
historical reasons.
This gives: 1
 8g 
2
 C may include resistance
C  
   effects other than surface
resistance.

2.6 The Manning Equation

The Chezy equation (Chezy, 1768) predates the experimental results for the
friction factor λ (1930-1940).

Recall resistance coefficient: C = (8g/λ)1/2

Therefore: C = f(λ) = f(k/4R, Re)

Hence, C depends on surface roughness and flow rate (i.e. velocity);

 But velocity depends on C.

Manning’s equation aimed to introduce a coefficient based on the surface

roughness only (i.e. mostly without the flow rate).

The relationship incorporates:

(a) the surface roughness (k); and
(b) the size and shape of the channel (R = A/P)

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The following formula covers surface roughness and the channel’s size
and shape:
1
R6
C
n
 n is Manning’s resistance coefficient;
 It depends essentially on surface roughness only

Substituting this result in the Chezy equation gives:

1 2 3 12
U R S
n
This is Manning’s equation (in SI units).
 The equation is not dimensionally consistent;
 n has dimensions of T/L1/3;
 Values of n for common surfaces are available in textbooks.
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2.7 Uniform Flow Computations

Manning’s equation is used widely in engineering practice
 It is practical
 n varies less (cf. C and λ) with flow conditions

From the continuity equation:

Q  UA;
1 2 1
U  R 3S 2
n  Relates the discharge to the depth
2 1 5 1
AR 3 S 2 A 3 S 2 of flow given the channel properties
Q  2
n nP 3  Iterative solution may be required

Examples:
See course notes and Examples 5.1 and 5.2, Chadwick et al., pages 145-7.

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2.8 Channel Conveyance
Consider the discharge based on Manning’s equation:

Q  KS
1
2
2 1
AR 3 S

2

Q AR
2
3

n K
n

3 1.5 m 2
1 4.0 m

 K = channel conveyance, i.e. a measure of flow carrying capacity of a channel

 Useful for some computations on compound channels
 E.g. calculation of α and β

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For a compound channel:

N N  α and β are kinetic energy and

U i3 Ai U i
2
Ai momentum correction coefficients
 i 1
N
;  i 1
N
 i refers to the ith (vertical) subsection

A A
3 2
U U  Qtotal i.e. overall mean
i i U
Atotal
i 1 i 1

It can be shown that (Chadwick et al.):

2
 N   N  Therefore, possible to
  Ai  N  K 3    Ai  N
K  2 compute α and β without
   i 1  3   i2 ;    i 1 2  A 
i computing Q (for a given
 N  i 1  Ai   N  i 1  i  depth)
  Ki    Ki 
 i 1   i 1 

 N = number of subsections

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2.9 Compound Channels

3 1.5 m 2
1 4.0 m

Schematic diagram

 It is difficult to analyse the flow.

 Differences in depth lead to different velocities.
 Shear tresses develop at the interfaces between the sections due to
velocity differences.

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3 1.5 m 2
1 4.0 m

Schematic diagram

 Obtain estimates by considering:

(a) Entire channel – underestimates the flow (lower bound)
(b) Sub-channels individually -- overestimates the flow (upper bound)

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Example (based on Chadwick et al., Example 5.3)

3 1.5 m 2
1 4.0 m

Schematic diagram

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3 1.5 m 2
1 4.0 m

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 3 1.5 m 2
1 4.0 m

This gives a discharge between 201 m3/s and 222 m3/s.

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