Discuss the Causes of Sedimentation in Reservoirs and

possible Remedies
Introduction:
Sedimentation is a natural process in all water bodies. Sedimentation is relatively higher in
reservoirs than in other water bodies because reservoirs impound a large volume relative to the
area of their watershed. Sediment accumulation is accelerated by inadequate land-use practices
that liberate soils, by the conversion of land into urban and suburban development that hastens
runoff, or both. The rivers and streams deposit their sediment loads in the calmer waters of
reservoirs, where sediment accumulation can have negative effects. Infilling with sediment can
decrease water storage capacity and reduce the benefits of storing water in reservoirs. Shallower
waters also may decrease the recreational value of a reservoir and the loss of access to parts of
the upper reaches and embayment. Sedimentation also can result in the loss of habitat for fish,
and sediment can carry pollutants    including   nutrients, which may act as catalysts for
eutrophication.

Reservoir sedimentation can change physical, chemical, and biological components of the
ecosystem, which results in the degradation of beneficial uses such as drinking water supplies,
navigation, electricity production, flood control, and recreation. Eventually the reservoir may
have to be abandoned. In the USA more than 3,000 such dams have been retired (Marsh 2005).

Sedimentation:
Sedimentation occurs when eroded material that is being transported by water, settles out of the
water column onto the surface, as the water flow slows. The sediments that form a waterway's
bed, banks and floodplain have been transported from higher in the catchment and deposited
there by the flow of water.

What is the process of reservoir sedimentation?

All rivers naturally transport sediment. However, when the flow velocity and energy of the water
is reduced as the river enters a reservoir, most of this sediment settles along the bottom of the
reservoir where it becomes trapped, rather than continuing downstream. Over a period of years

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and without sustainable management, the sediment deposits will gradually displace the volume
that was previously used for water storage, until eventually the reservoir becomes filled with
sediment. As water storage volume is lost, the beneficial uses that depend on storage – such as
water supply and flood control – also decline and will eventually be lost.

Causes of Sedimentation in Reservoir:

Reservoir sedimentation begins with soil erosion caused by rain and wind and with runoff that
transports sediment particles into streams. Depending on composition, various types of land
cover produce different runoff characteristics. Determining sediment sources is essential for
designing cost-effective sediment management strategies that will achieve meaningful reductions
in sediment loads and yields.

The sediment entering reservoirs originates from erosion of four general sources:

1. soil from overland flow, including farmed areas in the watershed.

2. streambank and channel erosion, including channel migration, bank widening, and avulsion.

3. remobilization of stored sediment through channel processes acting on floodplains or other

storage sites.

4. erosion of shorelines and shallow-water areas by wave action.

 One is agricultural areas used for farming that are located in downstream watersheds and
which produce a very poor type of agriculture that leads to much soil loss.
 The other cause of sedimentation is the forests and the different areas of access for
development located in the lower areas of the rivers, such as forestry, street construction,
buildings and mining. With this type of activity, trees are cut down excessively and
reforestation does not take place, causing runoff to get out of control in the steepest
terrain.

Managing Sedimentation:

Reservoir sedimentation management strategies can include one or more of the following
techniques: reducing sediment inflows, managing sediment once in the reservoir, and removing
sediment accumulated in the reservoir.

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Remedies of Sedimentation in Reservoir:

Techniques for removing sediment once it has accumulated in a reservoir include mechanical
removal (e.g., excavation, dredging, and hydro suction), consolidation, flushing, and aeration.
The best-suited application will depend on the ability to manage reservoir water levels. In many
situations, lowering water levels to remove sediment is desirable because removal options are
usually less expensive, sediment can be removed in a manner that creates habitat features that are
beneficial for fish habitat, and sediment can be placed at specific spoil locations. 

1.Excavation:

Excavation requires temporarily lowering the reservoir water levels, working within seasonal
drawdowns, or working when reduced river flows can be controlled adequately without
interfering with excavation work. Large- scale removal of sediment is possible with commonly
used earth-moving equipment and in a manner that benefits fish habitat through the creation of
ledges, trenches, and drop-offs. These irregularities in a reservoir's basin attract and concentrate
fish. In Nebraska, excavation of sediment averaged US$4–5/yd3 in 2014, although the cost went
as high as $8. Excavation and disposal costs can add up depending on the amount of sediment
requiring excavation; therefore, this technique generally is used in relatively small reservoirs or
in key embayment of large reservoirs.

2.Dredging:

The process of excavating deposited sediment from under water is termed dredging. This is a
highly specialized activity used mostly for clearing navigation channels in ports, rivers, and
estuaries. Dredging also can be used to reclaim reservoir storage capacity lost to sediment
deposition and to open channels to restore connectivity with backwaters. However, dredging is
often more expensive than excavation because of the amount of extra handling needed to move
similar amounts of material. According to Hargrove et al. (2010) the cost of dredging ranges
from $2.50 to $14.00/yd3. There are two basic types of dredging equipment, mechanical and
hydraulic. Mechanical dredges typically include backhoes, clamshells, and draglines (Figure
3.11). Mechanical dredges are capable of dredging soft and hard-packed material and also have
the ability to remove debris. 

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3.Small-Scale Removal:

Mini dredges are available in the market for small sediment removal jobs. These dredges are
effective in removing sand, silt, and organic sediment accumulated next to shore, around docks
or boat slips, or from small but critical aquatic habitats in backwaters. The excavation capability
of these units is about 350–1,500 ft3/h depending upon the nature of the sediment, depth
operated, and distance pumped.

4.Hydrosuction:

A hydro suction removal system is a variation of traditional hydraulic dredging. Traditional

dredging uses pumps powered by electricity or diesel. Hydro suction uses energy from the
hydraulic head available at the dam (Hotchkiss and Huang 1995). One end of a pipeline is
situated over sediment at the bottom of the reservoir. The pipeline then extends through the dam
to a discharge point downstream. Hydro suction dredging does not rely on external power pumps
to transport sediment (but may for mobility) and therefore avoids various problems associated
with those operations. Where enough head is available, operating costs for hydro suction are
substantially lower than for other types of dredging.

5.Consolidation:

Sediment consolidation offers a cheaper alternative to excavation or dredging and can alleviate
some of the environmental obstacles associated with excavation and dredging. Nevertheless, the
effectiveness of consolidation is highly dependent on reservoir and sediment characteristics
(Smith et al. 1972). Consolidation refers to a gradual decrease in the water content of water-
saturated soils, with an associated rearrangement of the soil structure and a reduction in volume.
In the case of reservoir sediment, the most practical method of consolidation is lowering the
water level and consequently the water table below the sediment surface. Exposure and
desiccation of sediment for purposes of consolidation can increase depth, temporarily arrest
resuspension potential, and reduce turbidity after the water level returns to normal. The water
content of the organic-rich sediment in eutrophic lakes frequently exceeds 90% on a volume
basis; complete dewatering could decrease sediment thickness by a corresponding amount.

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6.Flushing:

Flushing is potentially a tool if water operations can be controlled and manipulated. Flushing
increases flow velocities in a reservoir to the extent that deposited sediment is eroded and
resuspended and transported through low-level outlets in the dam. Flushing occurs in two ways:
complete drawdown flushing and partial drawdown flushing (Morris and Fan 1998). Complete
drawdown flushing occurs if the reservoir is emptied during flood season; this creates river- like
flow conditions in the reservoir. Deposited sediment may be remobilized and transported through
low-level gates to the river reach downstream from the dam. Low-level gates are closed toward
the end of flood season to capture clearer water for use during the dry season. Partial drawdown
flushing occurs when the reservoir level is partially reduced. Sediment transport capacity in the
reservoir increases only enough to allow sediment from upstream locations to move farther
downstream, closer to the dam. Partial drawdown flushing can remove sediment from shallow
portions of embayment and transport them to a deeper location, where future complete
drawdown flushing may remove them from the reservoir. A flushing operation is enhanced if
there is access to additional water stored in reservoirs upstream and if timed with major rain
events.

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 Explain the Process and Mechanism of Soil Erosion

Soil:

The soil is the top layer of the earth’s surface. It is made up of dirt and rock. It is filled with air and
life. A variety of organisms, like insects, earthworm, live in soil. For plants, soil serves as a
storehouse of water and minerals needed for their growth. It also provides shelter to many animals
that live on or in the soil. Without soil, there would be no grass, no crops, no trees, no food for us and
other animals.

Soil Erosion:

It is a process in which the top fertile layer of soil is lost. Due to soil erosion, the soil becomes less
fertile. The top layer of soil is very light which is easily carried away by wind and water. The
removal of topsoil by the natural forces is known as soil erosion.

Factors Determining Soil Erosion:

There are various factors determining soil erodibility of which the following are the most
important:

 Slope:
The steeper the slope, the greater the erosion, as a result of the increased velocity
(swiftness) of water-flow. The length of the slope is very important, because the greater
the size of the sloping area, the greater the concentration of the flooding water.
 Soil Texture:
Soil texture is the size distribution of soil particles. The size of particles never changes. A
sandy soil, therefore, remains sandy and a clayey soil remains clayey. The three main
particles are sand, silt and clay. The more sandy a soil the easier it will erode.
 Soil Structure:
The term soil structure means the grouping or arrangement of soil particles.
Overcultivation and compaction cause the soil to lose its structure and cohesion (ability
to stick together) and it erodes more easily.

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Process of Soil Erosion:

The process of soil erosion is made up of three parts:

1.Detechment:

This is when the topsoil is actually “detached” from the rest of the ground. Detachment occurs
when the forces holding a soil particle in place are overcome by the forces of raindrop impact,
moving water, or wind. 

2.Movement:

 This is when the topsoil is relocated to another area. A portion of the energy from raindrop
impact is first spent to deform peds (i.e., aggregates of soil particles) and detach soil particles
from the surface. Remaining energy activates the second step of the erosion process,
particle transport.

3.Deposition:

 Where the topsoil ends up after this process. Deposition is the third and final step in the erosion
process and occurs simultaneously with the first two steps. When the sediment load of moving
water is greater than its transport capacity, deposition occurs. Recently deposited soil is more
vulnerable for re‐detachment and transport than residual soil because the original bonding forces
have been broken. However, a layer of recently deposited loose soil can help prevent detachment
of underlying soil. Individual soil particles can be detached, transported, and deposited several
times during a single storm event.

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Mechanism of Soil Erosion:

Soil erosion is the process of detachment and transportation of soil by wind or surface water,
because of insufficient or improper vegetative cover. Detachment and transportation are part of
the same process in the case of erosion by wind, whereas in soil erosion by water detachment is
done by rain splash and transport is accomplished by surface flow. During the rainy season, the
stream of rainwater takes away soil particles from the surface of the earth. The kinetic energy of
rain and transfer by surface flow occur when the capacity of the soil to retain water is exceeded
by rainfall.

There are four mechanisms of soil erosion by water:

1.Detachment of soil particles by rain splash

2.Detachment of soil particles by a surface stream of water

3.Transport of soil particles by rain splash

4.Transport of soil particles by a surface stream of water

The detachment of soil is a function of erodibility, which is natural energy from rainfall or wind.
Erodibility depends on factors such as soil characteristics, vegetation and land topography
(Thomson, 1988). These factors become more dangerous as the land slope increases. Erosion
rates are highest on steep slopes, sites where protective vegetation has been removed or simply
where the forces of rainfall and wind exceed the soil's resistance to detachment and movement.

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