02/15/19

BS Psychology 201A ZOOLOGY

An organ system is a group of anatomical structures that work together to perform a specific function or task.
Although we learn about each organ system as a distinct entity, the functions of the body's organ systems
overlap considerably, and your body could not function without the cooperation of all of its organ systems. In
fact, the failure of even one organ system could lead to severe disability or even death.

The human body is composed of 11 different organ systems. These include the following:

ORGAN SYSTEMS FUNCTIONS AND THEIR PARTS

Respiration is the process of inhaling (breathing in) and exhaling

Respiratory System (breathing out) air—allows the blood to absorb the oxygen it
needs to produce energy, and to eliminate carbon dioxide and
water, the waste products of that process. Respiration involves
the ribcage, diaphragm (the sheets of muscle between the chest
and abdomen) and the respiratory tract which includes the
lungs and tubes (bronchi and bronchioles) through which air
passes on its way to and from the lungs. Air is breathed in
through the nose and mouth and passes down the trachea
(windpipe) and through a branching tree of tubes—the bronchi
and bronchioles to the lungs.

The respiratory system will maintain its good health unless

damaged by repeated exposure to tobacco smoke, pollutants in
the environment, car exhaust or by infections.
Circulatory System The circulatory system
carries blood to and from
every part of the body.
The centre of the system
is the heart. The heart is a
muscular pump with four
chambers into which
enter the major blood
vessels carrying blood to
and from the rest of the
body. As it rhythmically
squeezes the chambers,
making them expand and
contract, blood flows in the correct direction.
Blood transport oxygen and carries away waste products. It
circulates via the arteries which carry oxygenated blood, and the
veins which return “used” blood to the heart.

NERVOUS SYTEM
The nervous system includes the brain, spinal cord, autonomic
and somatic nerves (i.e., involuntary and voluntary nerves) and
all sensory organs, including those that serve vision, smell,
sensation, balance, hearing and taste. Your nervous system
coordinates your movements and controls your responses to
both external and internal stimuli. It serves as the storehouse
and processing center for memories, it regulates mood and it
provides the mechanisms for social interaction and
development.

The brain and nerve tracts of the spinal cord acting together
make up the central nervous system, with the spinal cord
serving as the nervous link between the brain and the rest of the
body. Motor pathways which carry stimuli from the brain to
various organs of the body descend through the spinal cord,
while sensory pathways from the skin and other sensory organs
ascend through the spinal cord carrying the messages to the
brain. A network of peripheral nerves links the central system
with other parts of the body and manages the conscious control
muscle and the unconscious control of organ function.
 DIGESTIVE /Excretory system
*Endoscopic view of normal stomach
LYMPHATIC /
Immune system
This is where food is taken in and digested and then eliminated.
The series of organs responsible for carrying out the digestive
process are known collectively as the digestive tract. This is a
tube that extends from the mouth to the anus, which food is
broken down so that the minerals, vitamins, carbohydrates, fats
and proteins it contains can be absorbed into the body.
The Mouth
Digestion begins in the mouth when you chewed food, enzymes
in the saliva break down certain carbohydrates. The tongue and
the muscles of the pharynx propel the mixture of food and
saliva, known as the bolus, into the oesophagus and it then
travels down into the stomach.
The stomach and duodenum
Food may spend several hours in the stomach, being chummed
and partially digested by acid and enzymes, until it becomesa
semi- liquid consistency (chime) which then passes into the
duodenum.
The small intestine
The final stage of digestion is completed in small intestine,
where the nutrients are split into chemical units small enough to
pass through the wall of the intestine into the network of blood
vessels and lymphatic.
The large intestine
Undigested food in liquid form flows from the small intestine
into large intestine, where most of the water content is
absorbed back in the body. The semi- liquid waste that remains
moves down into the rectum where waste is stored until it is
released through the anus as a bowel movement.
The liver
It is the single largest internal organ in the body. The nutrients
extracted from food by the digestive system are carried straight
to the liver in the portal vein. It plays a vital role in regulating
composition of the blood and other essential chemical reaction
in the body.
*ENDOSCOPIC VIEW
The lymphatic system is responsible for carrying nutrients and
oxygen from the blood to every cell in the body. This consists of
the lymph glands, found mainly in the neck, armpits, and groin,
and the small vessels that connect them-- the lymphatic. The
lymph glands produce lymphocytes, a type of white blood cell
and antibodies that defend the body against infection. The
glands and spleen act as barriers to the spread of infection by
trapping any infection- carrying microbes that travel along the
lymphatic vessels, so preventing them from reaching vital
 organs.

Endocrine glands manufacture hormones and distribute them to

all parts of the body via the bloodstream. These hormones help
to regulate the body’s internal chemistry, its responses to
hunger, stress, infection and disease, and its preparation for
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM physical activity.

The pituitary gland

It is a peanut- sized organ situated just beneath the brain. It Is
responsible to stimulate and coordinate the function of other
endocrine glands, so that they produce their own hormones.

The thyroid gland

This gland is located at the front of the throat, just below the
Adam’s apple. It is responsible for producing hormones that
control the body’s metabolism and regulates the body’s internal
thermostat.

The parathyroid glands

These four glands are situated behind the thyroid. The hormone
that they produce controls the levels of calcium and
phosphorous which are essential for healthy bones, and for the
efficient functioning of nerves and muscles.

The adrenal glands

It lies directly above the kidneys. Each adrenal consists two parts
—the adrenal cortex produce steroid and hormones which help
to regulate the amount of sugar, salt and water in the body and
influences the shape and distribution of body hair. The adrenal
medulla produces adrenalin and nonadrenalin, the hormones
that increase the flow of blood to the muscles, heart and lungs
so that they are prepared to deal with excitement or physical
and/ or mental stress.

The pancreas
It lies at the back of the abdomen behind the stomach. It makes
enzymes that pass down into the duodenum which they help to
digest food and produce the hormone insulin and glycogen.

The ovaries
The ovaries are two endocrine glands which produce sex
hormones and ova (eggs).

The testes
These hang in the pouch of skin known as the scrotum. The
hormone they produce testosterone which is responsible for the
onset of puberty and determines the development of male
characteristics.
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
The Male Reproductive System is responsible for the
manufacture and delivery of sperm. They are partly external, the
scrotum containing the testes, commonly known as testicles
where they form sperm and responsible for the development of
male characteristics and the penis—the organ through which
the greater part of the urethra passes. Sexual desire leads to
erection of the penis.

The Female reproductive system is designed to carry out

several functions. It produces the female egg cells necessary for
reproduction, called the ova. The system is designed
to transport the ova to the site of fertilization

The major organs of the female reproductive system include:

 Vagina: This muscular tube receives the penis during
intercourse and through it a baby leaves the uterus
during childbirth.
 Uterus: This organ holds and nourishes a developing
fetus, if an egg was properly fertilized.
 Ovaries: The female gonads, the ovaries produce ova.
When one matures, it is released down into a fallopian
tube.
 Fallopian tubes: These small tubes transport ova from
the ovaries to the uterus. This is where an egg waits to
be fertilized

Renal/ URINARY SYSTEM

The urinary system is responsible for filtering the blood and
expelling the resulting waste fluid from the body. The organs of
the urinary system consist of two kidneys—responsible for
filtering waste substances from the blood to keep it constantly
purified, two ureters—These narrow tubes carry urine from the
kidneys to the bladder. Muscles in the ureter walls continually
tighten and relax forcing urine downward, away from the
kidneys. The bladder — This triangle-shaped, hollow organ is
located in the lower abdomen. It is held in place by ligaments
that are attached to other organs and the pelvic bones. The
bladder's walls relax and expand to store urine, and contract
and flatten to empty urine through the urethra. And the urethra
—the tube through which urine passes out of the body.

The skeletal system is the body system composed of bones,

SKELETAL SYSTEM cartilages, ligaments and other tissues that perform essential
functions for the human body. Bone tissue, or osseous tissue, is
 a hard, dense connective tissue that forms most of the adult
skeleton, the internal support structure of the body. In the areas
of the skeleton where whole bones move against each other (for
example, joints like the shoulder or between the bones of the
spine), cartilages, a semi-rigid form of connective tissue, provide
flexibility and smooth surfaces for movement. Additionally,
ligaments composed of dense connective tissue surround these
joints; tying skeletal elements together (a ligament is the dense
connective tissue that connects bones to other bones).

Together, they perform the following functions such as

support, movement, protection, blood cell production, calcium
storage and endocrine regulation that enable us to survive.

The integumentary system consists of the skin, hair, nails,

glands, and nerves. Its main function is to act as a barrier to
protect the body from the outside world. It also functions to
Integumentary System
retain body fluids, protect against disease, eliminate waste
products, and regulate body temperature. In order to do these
things, the integumentary system works with all the other
systems of your body, each of which has a role to play in
maintaining the internal conditions that a human body needs to
function properly.
The epidermis is the most superficial layer of the skin that covers
almost the entire body surface. The epidermis rests upon and
protects the deeper and thicker dermis layer of the skin.
The dermis is the deep layer of the skin found under the
epidermis. The dermis is much thicker than the epidermis and
gives the skin its strength and elasticity. 
The hypodermis serves as the flexible connection between the
skin and the underlying muscles and bones as well as a fat
storage area.
Hair is an accessory organ of the skin made of columns of tightly
packed dead keratinocytes found in most regions of the body. 
Hair helps to protect the body from UV radiation by preventing
sunlight from striking the skin.  Hair also insulates the body by
trapping warm air around the skin.
Nails are accessory organs of the skin made of sheets of
hardened keratinocytes and found on the distal ends of the
fingers and toes. Fingernails and toenails reinforce and protect
the end of the digits and are used for scraping and manipulating
small objects. 

Muscular System The muscular system is a set of tissues in the body with the
ability to change shape. Muscle cells contain a variety of
proteins which help them contract in size. The proteins form
fibers, which connect various parts of the cells. The main
proteins used are actin and myosin. As seen in the graphic
below, the muscular system contracts when energy from ATP is
applied to the myosin heads of the myosin protein filament. The
head releases the actin, reaches forward, and reattaches to the
actin. This moves the protein filaments and contracts the fiber.
Depending on the muscle cell, different formation of actin and
myosin can be used, and in some organisms completely
different proteins are used.
There are three types of muscle tissue: Visceral, cardiac, and
skeletal:
 Visceral Muscle – Muscle surrounding or attached to
the circulatory and digestive systems, which helps
circulate fluid and food through the body.
 Striated Muscle – Muscles with distinct stripped cause
by bands of actin and myosin, which are often part of the
voluntary or somatic nervous system.
 Cardiac Muscle – Specialized muscle tissue of the heart,
which is striated and connected to adjacent cells.