17 FRACTIONATION AND ABSORPTION FUNDAMENTALS the comprehensive design of fractionators and absorbers is a specialty area that involves details out- side the scope of this book. Many references discuss the particulars of fractionation design. In ad- dition, tray and packing vendors can provide detailed information regarding tower internals. This chapter is an overview of the basic factors governing performance for those who specify, buy and oper- ate such units, . ‘An absorber is any device where a liquid (absorbent) flows counter-current to a gas stream for the purpose of removing one or more constituents (absorbate) from that gas. Most absorbers are verti- cal with the liquid entering at the top and the gas at the bottom. The amount of contact that must be provided in this absorber tower depends on the system, the relative flowrate of liquid and gas, and the concentrations involved. A stripper is any device where a gas flows counter-current to a liquid stream for the purpose of removing one or more components from the liquid. A fractionator is a device for separating a mixture into two or more parts, at least one of which will have a controlled composition or vapor pressure. In crude oil or condensate systems such a fractionator is often called a stabilizer and is an alternative to stage separation. ‘The fractionator is es- sentially a constant pressure device that uses heat, absorption and stripping to separate components based on the difference in their boiling points. Each of the above are mass transfer devices that must operate according to the rate criteria out- lined in Chapter 12. Qm = Kg A(C1 -€2) a7.ty Where Qm = mass transfer rate between phases kg = mass transfer coefficient (empirical) A. = area of contact between vapor and liquid cy = concentration (high) c= concentration (low) (In using Equation 17.1 one never truly knows a value of “A.” Consequently, the mass transfer coeffi- cient often is written kga, found by dividing measured mass rate by the concentration difference.) CHAPTER 17 267FRACTIONATION AND ABSORPTION FUNDAMENTALS Mass always flows from high concentration to low concentration. In an absorber the concen- tration of the absorbate must be higher in the vapor than in the liquid for absorption to occur. In strip- ping, the opposite of absorption, the liquid concentration must be the higher of the two. Concentration is the driving force. The term “concentration” as used in this paragraph means concentration relative to equilibrium, The resistance to transfer is the reciprocal of area. ‘The empirical mass transfer coefficient in- cludes the effect of all variables except concentration. For a given system operating at specified condi- tions with required characteristics of the effluent streams, the efficiency of mass transfer depends on area of contact between vapor and liquid, and also on those factors (e.g. viscosity, surface tension, rela- tive volatility, etc.) which affect diffusion of molecules across the vapor-liquid interface. Mass transfer area, temperature gradient, and vapor-liquid ratios, are the primary variables available to the designer to meet the processing objective economically. For a fractionator with a given feed composition and phase condition, at a fixed pressure, the basic variables available to the designer are control of the temperatures at top and bottom, feed loca- tion and the amount of vapor-liquid contact. In an absorber the basic variables are absorbent rate and composition, and the amount of vapor-liquid contact. ‘There are three basic ways to maximize the amount (area) of vapor-liquid contact per unit volume of tower: 1. Bubble the gas through liquid. : 2. Spray the liquid as droplets into the gas stream. 3. Flow the liquid as a thin film over a surface with a high area. Many different mechanical configurations have been developed to accomplish these. Suppliers contin- ually search for new ways to obtain advantage by increasing contact efficiency. In fractionation and absorption, (1) and (3) are the primary methods employed. TRAY (PLATE) TYPE TOWERS This is a verticdl vessel containing a series of trays. Liquid on the top tray is provided by the absorbent or from partial or total condensing of the vapor leaving the tower. The liquid flows across the tray and then by gravity to the next tray below, using what is called a downcomer. The liquid flows across the second tray and repeats the same path until it emerges from the bottom of the tower. On each tray a mechanism is provided for the upward flowing gas to bubble through the liquid cross- ing the tray. The left portion of Figure 17.1 shows the basic patter, using two different types of downcomers. Weirs are used to help maintain the proper level of liquid on the trays. As the tower diameter increases and/or high liquid rates are involved, it may be impractical to flow the liquid across the entire tower diameter because of the liquid gradient involved. In these cases the tray is split so that more than one path is used, as shown in the right part of Figure 17.1. This shortens the flow path and reduces liquid gradient per tray. The liquid gradient is the difference in liq- uid height from the side of the tray where the liquid enters to the side where liquid leaves and flows into the downcomer. Large liquid gradients cause maldistribution of gas flow and increase tray pres- sure drop. As a general rule, the liquid gradient should not exceed 40-50 mm [1 1/2-2 in]. 268 VOLUME 2: THE EQUIPMENT MODULES‘TRAY (PLATE) TYPE TOWERS Outlet Weir 7 be ‘Bubble Area- Free Area — Oc int Aes | lJ DC Clearance \ (b) (0) ‘One Pass Two Pass DC Inlet Area | | \ DC Clearance \ (b) (b) Four Pass (a) Sloped Downcomer Three Pass Figure 17.1 Basic Layout of Tray Type Towers Figure 17.2 shows three common types of trays used. Bubble caps have a riser in the middle of the cap through which the gas passes. This gas hits the top and flows out through the slots. The riser keeps the liquid from flowing through the gas opening, which is called weeping. As the name im- plies, sieve trays are nothing but a series of holes drilled in flat metal. Gas bubbles through the holes. The size, number and spacing of holes must be proper to obtain good gas-liquid contact and prevent weeping. The valve tray is a generic description of a tray containing devices where the opening for gas flow device varies with gas rate. There are many types and configuration which are proprietary to a given manufacturer. The “valve” rests on the tray deck in the closed position until the rising gas flow is sufficient to cause it to open. It is, in effect, a variable orifice whose opening depends on gas rate up to the limit imposed by the mechanism which holds it in place. Both sieve and valve trays are less expensive than and can be more efficient than bubble caps, but weeping can present a problem at low gas or liquid rates. Factors governing choice and design will _ be discussed in later sections of this chapter. CHAPTER 17 8FRACTIONATION AND ABSORPTION FUNDAMENTALS Bubble Cap Sieve Valve Figure 17.2 Three Common Types of Contact Trays (Courtesy Glitch, Inc.) PACKED TOWERS These are basic alternatives to tray-type units. The packing may be structured or random. Whatever the type, said packing must be capable of producing a thin liquid film and a long, tortuous flow path even at low flowrates. It also should exhibit a low pressure drop and liquid holdup. Struc- turally, it should not degrade thermally, it should be chemically impervious to the fluids involved and not crush or powder mechanically. There has been a substantial evolution in packing in recent years. 270 VOLUME 2: THE EQUIPMENT MODULESPACKED TOWERS The right-hand portion of Figure 17.3 shows some common types of random packing, Random packing can be made from plastics like fiberglass reinforced polypropylene and corrosion-resistant metals. Random packing consists of individual pieces, varying in size from 10-15 mm up to 75-80 mm (4% in up to 3-3 % in]. These are typically “dumped” into the vessel and come to rest in a random manner. Structured packing comes in sections made for placement in the unit. It is made from knitted mesh and all sorts of metal plate and tubing which is crimped, twisted, wound, stamped or somehow arranged to present a large area per unit volume. Each is described by a name which is a registered trademark of its owner. Names like Mellapak, Gempack, Flexipac, Montz, and Flexigrid are just a few of the structured packings available. The left side of Figure 17.3 shows all of the elements that may exist in a packed tower.” Shown are various types of liquid distributors and support plates. Liquid distribution can be a prob- Jem. The type of distributor chosen and the number used may be critical to obtain satisfactory tower performance. In some service there is a tendency to retrofit some tray contactors with modem packing. This may expand tower capacity and efficiency. However, packed towers have some inherent limitations. It is more difficult to predict the performance of packed towers. In some applications their flexibility is limited. A later section discusses further packing details. The table below summarizes some of the advantages and disadvantages of trays and packing. Packing le ___ Trays | Advantages Disadvantages Advantages Disadvantages | Lower pressure drop | Turndown ratio limited Higher turndown Higher pressure drop Good for low pressure | Fouling and plugging in | Less subject to fouling | Greater tendency for and vacuum operation _| dirty fluid service | ondiny Mids foaming Can be manufactured | More difficult to handle | Easier to handle side | Limited materials in cor- from a number of materi- | side draws and side feed draws and side feeds _| rosive service | als ~ metallic, ceramic, | streams | Plastic ~ more adaptable | iquid redistribution re-_| ments ’ Less subject to foaming Less liquid holdup in | to corrosive enviton- | quired in tall towers | tower I | CHAPTER 17 anFRACTIONATION AND ABSORPTION FUNDAMENTALS ceo eons

of} € a Liquid Distributor — Raschig Ring Lessing Ring Hold-down Grid = ‘Structured Packing = ‘Support Grid Liquid Collector Ringed Channe! reed, wav ( Manway Berl Saddle Intalox Saddle Liquid Distributor’ - - 4 Rodistibutor Hola-down Grid — Random Packing — Support Plate ~ ot wer Structured Grid - - Skit Circulation Pipe = = =~ ~~ ta 1s ee soto roe Figure 17.3 Towers Using Structured and/or Random Packing 272 VOLUME 2: THE EQUIPMENT MODULESFRACTIONATION FRACTIONATION Regardless of how fluids are extracted from natural gas, fractionation is often necessary to pro- duce saleable products meeting market specifications. Fractionation produces a sharper separation than a series of separator flashes (see Figure 5.6 in Volume 1). The number of fractionating columns re- quired depends on the number of products to be sold and the character of the feed. The single tower system shown in Figure 17.4(a) ordinarily produces one specification product (the bottom stream), with all other components in the feed passing overhead to the distillate product. This type of fractionator (stabilizer) is ordinarily used where a Cs+ condensate stream with an atmospheric vapor pressure is be- ing produced for sale or storage. . The two-tower system shown in Figure 17.4(b) is most commonly used to produce an LPG (Cs-Cy mixture) distillate product and a Cs+ natural gasoline bottoms product. In this system, the deethanizer must remove all methane, ethane, and other constituents not saleable in the two product streams from the second tower. Any component that enters the second tower must necessarily leave in one of the product streams. The three-tower system shown in Figure 17.4(c) commonly produces commercial propane (C3), commercial butane (iC and nC4) and natural gasoline (Cs+) as products. In this system also, the decthanizer must remove the volatile constituents that cannot be sold in one of the three products. The sequence of fractionation following the deethanizer may be varied. In the second tower, an LPG mix- ture could be produced overhead with natural gasoline produced as bottoms, The third tower would then split the LPG into commercial propane overhead and commercial butane as bottoms. This > oveheaa -_ ary (Cy and C,) a 4) 5 ’ Lost Lg Natural L-» sotoms oe (a) Single-Tower System (b) Two-Tower System — Propane (3) —>-putanes (69 Feed & g . 5 18 g 3 & a : 2 Co oy > Natura Gasetine (se) (c) Three-Tower System Figure 17.4 Typical Fractionation Systems CHAPTER 17 273FRACTIONATION AND ABSORPTION FUNDAMENTALS, sequence is favored sometimes where the market situation is variable and a market for LPG only exists during a portion of the year. During this period, the third tower would be shut down and not operated. If ethane product was saleable, the decthanizer would be proceeded by a demethanizer which would remove methane and lighter components from the NGL. Due to the difficulty in condensing re- flux for a demethanizer, this column is often a stabilizer with a top tray feed (Figure 17.4) rather than a conventional fractionator. Figure 17.5 shows an example distribution of hydrocarbon components for four separation schemes — single stage flash, three stage flash, stabilizer, and three tower fractionator systems. Note the much sharper separation between components in the stabilizer/fractionation system compared to stage separation. Equilibrium Concept Fractionation or distillation refers generally to those processes used to separate components based on differences in their boiling points. Binary distillation involves separation where only two components are present. Multicomponent distillation, on the other hand, refers to systems where many components are present in the feed, even though the separation point is between two components. These components are often referred to as key components — the more volatile component is called the “light key” and the less volatile, the “heavy key.” So, even in multicomponent distillations, the pri- mary separation parameters are set by the key components. . The design of fractionators (and absorbers and strippers) is based on the assumption of equilib- rium stages. In the final design this assumption is corrected by the use of tray efficiencies and packing heights equivalent to an equilibrium stage, but the primary factor affecting distillation design is the equilibrium behavior of the components being separated. The phase behavior of binary systems is very important to the understanding of fractionation. Even though most of our separations involve multicomponent systems, the actual separation occurs be- ‘tween two pure components. For example, in a depropanizer, there are several components present in the feed ... Cz, C3, iCq, nC, and Cs+; but the actual separation occurs between C3 and iCs. So, if one has a clear understanding of the phase behavior of the binary C3-iC, system, one can predict (with rea- sonable accuracy) the fractionation system required to make this separation. The T-x diagram is very useful in visualizing what happens in the distillation process. It is the plot of the phase behavior of a binary system at constant pressure. It shows the bubblepoint and dew- point temperature for all possible binary compositions. To gain a better appreciation of how a T-x diagram is developed, refer to Figure 4.5 (Volume 1) which shows the T-P-x diagram for the Cz-nC; system. Now, imagine that we enter Figure 4.5 at a pressure of say 2068 kPa [300 psia] and "slice off" the tops of the phase envelopes. The remaining three-dimensional diagram would appear as a large mesa or plateau. When we view this "mesa" from above, we see the "football" shaped envelope shown in Figure 17.6. This is the T-x diagram at 2068 kPa [300 psia} for the C-nC; binary system. The top of the envelope is the locus of all the dewpoints at 2068 kPa (300 psia] for all possible combinations of C3 and nC;. Likewise, the bottom of the envelope is the locus of all the bubblepoints. Any point inside the envelope will be in the two phase region. Any point above will be all vapor; any point below, all liquid. 274 VOLUME 2: THE EQUIPMENT MODULESFRACTIONATION Single Stage Flash Stabilization : Unstabilzed Condensate ™| Three Stage Flash Stabilization a Unstabi >| L Field Stabilization Unstabilized Condensate i Fractionation * Unstabitized ‘Condensate > Natural Heating Heating Gasoline CHAPTER 17 Figure 17.5 Comparison of Stage Separation to Fractionation-Type Separation Typ 8 | Typical Product Spt. mois | Cr] [|e [cr| mos z012| 575] 759 | 1042] 2112] 7400 78 |2498|_ 2600 7128] 4600] 1000.0 cu | Gos [2a] 15 | zo 768 | 197| 133| 73 | 29 | 1200 127/216 | 505) 708 | 1064) 2700 | o4 | 08 | 57 | 236| 40.1) 3796 22.0| 68.0 | 760 [1120] 4600) 1000.9 ‘Typical Pro : ical Prosvet Spi. mo | ota C4 | est | mols 205 | 210| 4750 | 25 |4s90| 5250 1120] 460.0] 1000.0 7 uct Spt, | TypicalProduet Spit mois | ay e Cy | Cot 2920| 556 | 00 | 00 | 00 | ours oo | 24 | 750| 08 | oo | 7a2 00 | 00 | 30) a80| 10 | 1000 | oo | 00 | 00 | 152| 4500) 4742 [2820 58.0 | 780 | 1120/4600) 10600 275FRACTIONATION AND ABSORPTION FUNDAMENTALS. Temperature, °F ° - 0.0 02 04 06 08 10 Ethane, mol Fraction Figure 17.6 T-x Diagram for Ethane, n-Heptane at 2068 kPa [300 psia} Imagine an equimolar mixture of C2 and nCz (50% C3, 50% nC;) at 2068 kPa [300 psid] and 10°C [50°F]. The phase condition for this mixture is a compressed liquid. Say we heat this mixture to 121°C [250°F], and feed it to the separator in Figure 17.7. As you can see from Figure 17.6, the phase condition of the feed is two phase. The composition of the vapor leaving the separator is about 87% Cy and 13% nC;; the composition of the liquid is 20% C2 and 80% nC;. The vapor is at its dewpoint and the liquid at its bubblepoint. This is an example of equilibrium separation and is identical to what happens in one equilibrium stage in a fractionation column. 50% Cz _ 100 mols 1068 kPa [300 psia] 50% nC; 121°C [250°F] S52mos 20% Cp 80% nC, Figure 17.7 Single Stage Separation System If we perform a material balance around this equilibrium separator we can determine the flowrate of the liquid and vapor streams. Let: V = mols of vapor L = mols of liquid Cy balance: 50 = 0.87 V+ 0.2L nC; balance: 50 = 0.13 V+ 0.8L Solving simultaneously, V = 44.8 mols L = 55.2 mols 276 VOLUME 2: THE EQUIPMENT MODULESFRACTIONATION Relative Volatility A significant amount of separation between C2 and nC; occurred in the single-stage equilib rium separator shown in Figure 17.7. This is because C2 is significantly more volatile than nC;. The volatility ratio of two components is called the relative volatility and is calculated from Equation 17.3 below. 17.3) Where: 4, = telative volatility of component “i” to component “j K, = K value for component “i” at a specified T and P K; = K value for component “j” at a specified T and P Relative volatility is perhaps the single most important parameter in fractionator design. Example 17.1: Calculate the relative volatility of C2 to nC; at the conditions in Figure 17.7. The K values for C; and nC; in our separator example are: y _ 087 . =435 = 020 y_ 0.13 ° Kyo, = 2=5-= =0.162 "x 08 — 0.162 In other words, at 121°C (250°F] and 2068 kPa [300 psia] we can say that C is about 27 times more volatile than Cy. The greater the relative volatility the easier the separation. The relatfve volatility of two components varies with pressure, temperature, and composition For example, at 177°C [350°F] and 2068 kPa [300 psia] the relative volatility of C; to nC; is only 10.5. Significant changes in the relative volatility within a fractionation tower can have a profound ef= fect on the difficulty of the separation and column design and operation. The degree of separation which takes place in any equilibrium stage depends on the width of the envelope in the T-x diagram. Wide envelopes indicate larger relative volatilities, narrow envelopes indicate smaller relative volatilities. The smaller the relative volatility, the smaller the composition change that will occur in any equilibrium separator. In most of the hydrocarbon fractionation systems, the relative volatility is less than 3; in some cases it is less than 1.5. Figure 17.8 shows the T-x diagram for the C3-iC system which represents the separation made in a depropanizer, and the iC,-nC, system which represents the separation made in a deisobutanizer, or as it is sometimes called, a butane splitter. At normal operating conditions the average relative volatil- ity of C3 to iC, is about 1.8. The average relative volatility of iC, to nC, is about 1.3 CHAPTER 17 a7FRACTIONATION AND ABSORPTION FUNDAMENTALS 190 180) 170) 160 Temperature, °F 150 Temperature, °C 140 190 a) 129 00 02 04 068 Propane, mol Fraction 150) — T NS ee | | | SS | | , Temperature, °F Temperature, °C 125 | — od 06 ‘Butane, mol Fraction b) Some binary mixtures exhibit a relative volatility of 1.0 at certain compositions. These sys- tems are called aezeotropes. An aczeotrope boils like a pure component, i.e. the vapor phase composi- tion is identical to the liquid phase composition. Aezeotropes are not common in the gas processing industry, but they do occur. A T-x diagram for the CO2-C2 system at three different pressures is shown in Figure 17.9, Note that at the aezeotrope point (approximately 65% CO, 35% C;), the vapor and liquid compositions are the same. 278 VOLUME 2: THE EQUIPMENT MODULESFRACTIONATION Temperature, °F ° 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Oz Concentration, mol% Figure 17.9 T-x Diagram for CO,-C, System at 400, 440, and 480 psia‘"”?’ A fractionator consists of a series of equilibrium separa- tors in series. Vapor and liquid flow counter-current to each other, theoretically reaching equilibrium in each separator. The composi- tions achieved in any separator can be estimated from a T-x dia- gram. One fractionator design method for binary systems which uses this approach is the McCabe-Thiele method summarized in Appendix 17. Figure 17.10 is a schematic view of a typical fractionator. The bottom product (bottoms) leaves the tower, or in some cases the reboiler, at its bubblepoint. The overhead product (distillate) leaves the refldx accumulator as a bubblepoint liquid in the case of a total condenser and a dewpoint vapor in the case of a partial condenser. Although not common, the distillate product can also be a mixed phase stream. With a total condenser, the reflux and distillate product will have the same composition. In the case of a partial condenser the reflux will be a bubblepoint liquid in equilib- rium with the distillate vapor product. The partial condenser acts as an equilibrium separation stage. The total condenser does not. Heat input at the reboiler is usually provided by a high temperature heating medium such as hot oil, steam, or by direct heat transfer in a fired heater. A process fluid, e.g. hot compressor discharge vapor may also be used. The reboiler provides hot strip- ping vapor in the bottom portion of the tower, and the section of the tower between the reboiler and feed tray is referred to as the “stripping section.” CHAPTER 17 Temperature, °C 279FRACTIONATION AND ABSORPTION FUNDAMENTALS Condenser e Reflux, L Distilate Product, O Reflux ‘Accumulator Feed, F Figure 17.10 Schematic of a Fractionation Column Heat is removed from the tower at the condenser. A portion of the condensed liquid is re- tumed to the tower as reflux, Reflux provides cooling in the top portion of the tower. This section is often called the “rectifying” or “enriching” section. The ratio of the reflux to the distillate rate, L/D, is referred to as the reflux ratio. The operating pressure of a fractionation tower is ordinarily fixed by the condensing tempera- ture of the distillate product. In turn, the condensing temperature is controlled by the cooling medium. The condenser temperature is fixed by the designer by allowing for practical temperature difference be- tween the cooling medium and the overhead product. In the case of a liquid distillate, the bubblepoint pressure is then calculated; for a vapor distillate product the dewpoint pressure would be calculated. This pressure is the minimum pressure at which the tower can operate at the chosen condenser temper- ature and still meet product specifications. The choice between a total and partial condenser for a tower is a practical matter involving condensation temperature and disposition of the distillate product. As a practical matter, if the distil- late product is subsequently processed, stored, or transported as a liquid, the condenser will usually be a total condenser. If not, a partial condenser is used. 280 VOLUME 2: THE EQUIPMENT MODULESFRACTIONATOR DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FRACTIONATOR DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS The design of a fractionation column involves the following steps. These steps can also rein- force fractionator operating and control principles. An example exercise, a depropanizer, is included to illustrate concepts and calculations. 1. Establish the Design Basis + Feed rate, composition, condition (T&P) + Product specifications: recovery, purity, vapor pressure, etc. + Available utilities: heating medium — steam, hot oil, process fluid, fired heater cooling medium — air, water, refrigerant, process fluid Example 17.2 1.0 46.0 10.0 21.0 Cot 22.0 The feed rate is 1000 kmol/h [2200 Ibmol/hr]. The feed condition is 1724 kPa [250 psia] and the feed is at its bubblepoint. The product specifications require 99% of the propane to be recovered in the distillate product and the composition of propane in the distillate must be a minimum of 95%, Hot oil is available at a temperature of 204°C [400°F] for reboiler heat. The condensing medium is air (aerial cooler) at 35°C [95°F]. The design condensing temperature is 49°C [120°F] and is based on an approach of 14°C [25°F]. 2. Perform a Material Balance Around the Column to Establish the Distillate and Bottom Product Rates and Compositions This requires the assumption that only the key components distribute, ie. appear in both the distillate and bottom product streams. This means that any component lighter than the light key will appear only in the distillate product. Likewise any component heavier than the heavy key will appear only in the bottoms product. Selection of the light and heavy key components is not usually a difficult task; they will be de- fined by the product specifications, i.e., deethanizing, depropanizing, etc. The light and heavy key components are usually adjacent components, e.g., ethane/propane, propane/isobutane, etc. However, in unusual circumstances, e.g. when the composition of one of the “normal” keys is significantly smaller than the two adjacent components or an azeotropic mixture is encountered, split keys may be used. An example of split keys would be propane (light key) and n-butane (heavy key). CHAPTER 17 a1FRACTIONATION AND ABSORPTION FUNDAMENTALS The total fractionation system must be considered when establishing the product specifications. It is common to design as close to specification limits as practical. For example, one way to reduce column cost may be to reduce the percentage recovery of the light key component in the distillate. However, if there is a second column downstream of the first, too much of the light key component may remain in the bottoms of the first column making it impossible (or impractical) to meet the distillate purity specification in the second column. Consequently, the entire fractionation system must be considered. Example 17.3: Using the feed composition and product specifications from Example 17.2, deter- mine the distillate and bottom product rates and compositions. Product Specifications: Percentage recovery of C; in the distillate is 99% Purity specification for C3 in the distillate product is 95% Assume that non-key components do not distribute, e.g. all of the Cp goes to the distillate, all of the nCy+ goes to the bottoms. Distillate Bottoms _ Component Feed mols mols mol % mols mol Cy 10 10.0 2.09 0.0 0.00 CG 460 4554 95.00 46 0.88 iCy 100 14.0 2.91 86 | 16.52 a nCy 20 «| (00 0.00 | 210 4034 | _ Cs 20 0.0 0.00 | 220 42.26 1000 479.4 | 100.00 | 520.6 | 100.00 mols of C; in distillate = (460)(0.99) = 455.4 mols iC, in distillate is calculated by difference as follows, total distillate mols = (455.4/0.95) = 479.4 mols iCy = 479.4 — 455.4 - 10.0 = 14.0 Other product specifications yield a different calculation approach but the principle is the same. ‘Once the feed composition, feed rate, and product specifications are known, the column material bal- ance is fixed. The equations below are useful for performing material balance calculations when both specifi- cations are purity specifications. The equations are valid for a fractionator operating at steady state. 2 xp-x DlXr—%e ggg BL Xe —XD (17.4) FP xp-Xp F xp-Xp Where: D = distillate rate, mols B = bottoms rate, mols F = feed rate, mols mol fraction of a component in the distillate mol fraction of a component in the bottoms mol fraction of a component in the feed 282 VOLUME 2: THE EQUIPMENT MODULESFRACTIONATOR DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS The product specifications are usually set by contractual requirements, e.g. 95% C3 in the dis- tillate, 1% Cs in the bottoms, C}/C) ratio = 0.02, etc. It is obvious from Equation 17.4 that at a given feed composition, the distillate and bottoms product specification set the overall material balance for the column, In other words, in order to exactly meet the distillate and bottoms specifications there is one (and only one) distillate or bottoms rate which can be drawn from the tower. From a control standpoint, this is very difficult (if not impossible) to achieve, on a continuous basis so some flexibility is often allowed in the composition of one of the products. This will be discussed in more detail in a later section, For both design and operation of a fractionator two independent specifications are required. For non-refluxed distillation only one specification is required. Vapor pressure is sometimes used as a specification in place of composition. If this is the case, the material balance can be made using the procedure outlined in Chapter 5. In some cases, particularly in existing towers, one of the specifications or constraints can be re- flux rate, reboiler or condenser duty. In other words, an equipment limitation constrains the operation of the tower. When this happens, one (or both) of the product specifications is no longer a controlling parameter. 3. Determine Tower Pressure The tower pressure is determined from a bubblepoint or dewpoint calculation on he distillate product at the condensing temperature. This will fix the pressure at the reflux accumulator. For a total condenser a bubblepoint calculation is performed. Condenser, Reflux Accumulator Tower Retox __ Distillate, D, Reflux Pump For a partial condenser a dewpoint calculation is performed v Qeon Condenser} Distillate, D fatten Toot Refiux v Reflux Pump CHAPTER 17 283FRACTIONATION AND ABSORPTION FUNDAMENTALS The actual tower pressure will typically be 35-100 kPa [5-15 psi] higher than the calculated ac- cumulator pressure to account for pressure drop through the condenser and piping. The condensing temperature will depend upon the cooling medium. Typical approaches are shown below. Refrigeration Cooling Water Pressurized Fluid Air Example 17. Approach Estimate the tower pressure using distillate product composition from Example 17.3. From step (1) the condenser is a total condenser using air. The condensing temperature is 49°C [120°F]. Perform bubblepoint calculation at 49°C [120°F] to determine the accumulator pressure — from SRK EOS. ‘Component Xy mol q | 2.09 | 95.00 iC, 291 100.00 Accumulator pressure is 1737 kPa [252 psia], assume a tower pressure of 1793 kPa [260 psia]. K, @ 49°C [120°F] & 1737 kPa [252 psia] 2.33 0.985 0.520 1 mol% 4.88 93.61 ‘ 1st 100.00 It is useful at this point to also determine the top tray temperature. This will be needed to esti- mate average relative volatilities is well as to calculate condenser duty. This cannot be done for a par- tial condenser until the reflux rate has been established. For a total condenser, however, the top tray vapor and the distillate product composition are the same. Since the tower operating pressure is known, one can estimate the top tray temperature by performing a dewpoint calculation on the distillate product at the tower pressure. wk, mol% 0.90 93.76 5.34 100.00 Example 17.5: Estimate the top tray temperature for Example 17.4 using a tower pressure of 1793 kPa [260 psia] Perform dewpoint calculation at 1793 kPa (260 psia] to determine top tray temper- ature. K, @ 52°C [126°F] ‘Component x, mol% | & 1793 kPa [260 psial GQ 2.09 2.34 GQ 95.00 1.013 _ its 291 0.545 [ 100.00 I Top tray temperature is 52°C [126°F]. 284 VOLUME 2: THE EQUIPMENT MODULESFRACTIONATOR DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS 4. Calculate the Reboiler Temperature The reboiler temperature can be estimated once the tower pressure has been established, Since pressure drop exists across the tower, it is common practice to assume that the reboiler pressure is 20-35 kPa (3-5 psi] higher than the top tray pressure. The reboiler temperature is calculated by performing a bubblepoint calculation on the bottoms product at the reboiler pressure. Example 17.6: Estimate the reboiler temperature for the conditions in Example 17.5. Assume a 20 kPa [3 psi] pressure drop across the tower. Perform a bubblepoint calculation at 1813 kPa [263 psia] on the bottoms product to determine the reboiler temperature. | Kj @ 134°C [273°R] Kay Component Xp mol% | & 1813 kPa [263 psia] mol% G 0.88 231 2.03 iC 16.52 152 25.19 nC, 40.34 132 53.33, i+ | 42.206 | 0.460_ _ 19.44 Z |_G@ssume ns) | 100.00 | 100.00 Reboiler temperature is 134°C [273°F]. 5. Determine the Reflux Ratio and Number of Theoretical Stages Required to Make the Separation This step involves stage-to-stage calculations inside the column, These calculations are most frequently performed by computer using a rigorous computer tray-to-tray simulation. Manual shortcut calculations may be used as well. There are infinite combinations of these two variables that will give the desired separation, as illustratéd in Figure 17.11. The curve is essentially a hyperbola. At one asymptote, it approaches the mini- mum reflux rate and at the other it ap- proaches the minimum number of trays. The ‘minimum reflux rate occurs at that value of reflux with an infinite number of trays in the column to produce the desired separation. The minimum number of trays occurs at an infinite reflux ratio, often referred to as total reflux, when the separation per stage in the tower is a maximum. ‘Number of Theoretical Stages or NTU Neither of these two limits of opera- tion in the column has practical value in it- self. However, they do serve as useful correlation tools for predicting the relation- Figure 17.11 Relationship between Theoretical Stages (S) and Reflux Ratio (L/D) (UD)n Reflux Ratio CHAPTER 17 285FRACTIONATION AND ABSORPTION FUNDAMENTALS ship between the operating reflux ratio and actual number of theoretical plates. Most hydrocarbon fractionators operate at an actual reflux from 1.05 to 1.25 times the minimum. This is based on eco- nomic criteria. Operation is typically near the minimum reflux rate to minimize heating and cooling costs. Condenser heat load is a direct function of reflux rate; as this increases, the reboiler load also has to increase to maintain the energy balance around the tower. Short-cut calculations Short-cut calculations are often used to establish the variables in Figure 17.11. Short-cut meth- ods are suitable for the evaluation of most hydrocarbon fractionation systems. Those which follow have been found useful and reliable for the types of fractionation systems discussed in this book. They calculate minimum reflux (Lq:), minimum theoretical stages (Sp), the relationship between reflux ratio and theoretical stages (Figure 17.11). A multicomponent system is treated as a pseudo-binary consist- ing only of the light key and heavy key components. ‘Appendix 17A reviews the McCabe-Thiele method for binary mixtures, which can be used also for multicomponent mixtures. It is not widely used commercially, but it contributes visually to an un- derstanding of fractionator performance. Shortcut calculations are useful for: 1. Scoping studies suitable for preliminary costs 2. Parametric evaluation of operating variables 3. Separations having coarse purity requirements (i.e., contaminants > 0.5 mol%) 4. Detailed designs for ideal and close-to-ideal systems _ 5. Designs for systems for which equilibrium data are unavailable 6. Evaluation or reality check of computer simulations On the other hand, rigorous design procedures should be applied for the following 1. The separation is for a multicomponent system, requiring high product purity. 2. The system is highly nonideal, but good equilibrium data are available. 3. The relative volatility between key components is less than 1. 4, One or more of the components is near the critical pressure. Fenske’s Method for Minimum Theoretical Plates The Fenske Equation is a convenient and very useful technique for calculating the minimum number of theoretical plates required for most multicomponent separations. When properly used, it can be applied between the top and bottom of the distillation column and give an accurate estimate of the minimum number of theoretical plates. With a total condenser, it is applied between the top stage of the tower and the reboiler; for a partial condenser, it is applied between the reboiler and the distillate product, The Fenske Equation can be written in several forms. A convenient form is: w(x), (22),] (17.5) log avg 286 VOLUME 2: THE EQUIPMENT MODULESFRACTIONATOR DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS Where: Sm = minimum number of theoretical plates ‘mol fraction of light key component ‘mol fraction of heavy key component = relative volatility at average tower temperature (top tray temperature + bottom tray temperature)/2 (see Equation 17.3) Subscripts: D = distillate product bottom product Oayg w f Example 17.7: Applying Fenske’s Equation for the example depropanizer, Calculate Sq, mini- mum theoretical stages, Ty = 52°C (top tray temperature) + Tz = 134°C (reboiler temperature) Tayg = (Ti + Ta)/2 = (52 + 134)/2 = 93°C At average tower conditions Ke, = 1.683 Kic, = 0.993 Olay = 1.683/0.993 = 1.695 (( 0.950 I 0.165 } log] | — _[Lo.0291 0.0088] 15 log 1.695 ” The minimum number of theoretical trays for the separation is 12.2. This represents the total number of equilibrium contacts including reboiler and partial condenser (if any), at total reflux. Distribution of Non-Key Components One of the assumptions made in the material balance is that non-key components do not dis- tribute. This is seldom the case, although in many cases the distribution of the non-keys is minimal. The Fenske equation can be adapted to predict the non-key component distribution. ()-L ws d aX Where a = relative volatility of a non-key component (relative to the heavy key) Sq = minimum theoretical stages b = mols of non-key component in bottoms product d= mols of non-key component in distillate product CHAPTER 17 287FRACTIONATION AND ABSORPTION FUNDAMENTALS. The distillate rate for each component can be determined by a rearranged form of the overall material balance. (17.7) and the bottoms rate for each component by: f -d, (178) The primary use of this calculation is the ability to quickly check the validity or feasibility of the original material balance for a complete fractionation train before proceeding further. While not exactly perfect, the agreement between this short cut calculation and predicted product distributions from rigorous tray-to-tray is usually very good. Thus, the Fenske equation is a powerful tool for get- ting preliminary estimates of product distribution as well as the minimum number of trays. Underwood Methods for Minimum Reflux ‘An infinite number of theoretical stages is required at minimum reflux. This means that a large number of these stages are performing negligible separation of components between vapor and liquid. Characteristics of these stages are such that there is no significant change of composition from tray to tray and, as a result, no change of temperature from tray to tray. Computer tray-to-tray cafcula- tions will calculate the required reflux ratio at the desired number of theoretical stages. It is useful, however, to estimate the minimum reflux using shortcut techniques. Once the minimum reflux has been determined, the actual reflux ratio can be established based on economic criteria, ie. (L/D), = 1.05 to 1.25 (L/D)m- The Underwood method involves use of two equations.” (17.9) : (17.10) Where: 1, = relative volatility of component at average tower temperature (relative to heavy key) @ = constant f, = mols of component in feed 4, = mols of component in distillate q = total heat needed to convert one mole of feed into a saturated vapor divided by the molal latent heat of the feed for bubblepoint feed, q = 1.0 for dewpoint feed, q=0 for 2 phase feed, 0< 290 VOLUME 2: THE EQUIPMENT MODULESFRACTIONATOR DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS Example 17.9: The depropanizer considered in the previous examples is designed to operate at an actual reflux rate 10% above the minimum reflux. How many equilibrium stages will be required to make the separation, (LID) = 1.1 (L/D) = (1.1)(1.64) = 1.8 L/D-C/P), 64 (L/D)+1 8+ From Figure 17.12 (6 =S_ MS +1) = 06 From Fenske equation (Example 17.7) S,, = 12.2, so $= 32 equilibrium stages The reboiler is often equivalent to one equilibrium stage, so for this tower 31 equilibrium stages must be installed in the column prop A rigorous computer tray-to-tray simulation for the above example depropanizer gives a reflux ratio of 1.91 for 32 equilibrium stages. This compares favorably with the 1.80 value calculated from shortcut calculations, 6. Convert Theoretical Stages to Actual Trays Using Tray Efficiencies The calculations outlined above provide an estimate of the numbers of theoretical stages re- quired to achieve the desired separation. Since equilibrium is not achieved on an actual tray, the num- ber of actual trays must be greater than the number of theoretical stages. Tray efficiencies can be defined several ways; Murphree plate efficiency, overall efficiency, etc. For planning and feasibility calculations, the overall tray efficiency is typically used. number of theoretical stages ——— <=e= (17.14) number of actual trays TABLE 17.1 Typical Fractionator Parameters * Reflux ratio relative to Operating | Number of | Reflux Tray distillate product, molmol | Pressure, psig | Actual Trays | Ratio | Efficiency, % Demethanizer 200-400 18-26 Top Feed 45-60 Deethanizer 375-450 25-35 0.9-2.0 50-70 Depropanizer 240-270 30-40 18:35 80-90 Debutanizer 70-90 25-35 1245 85.95 Butane Splitter 80-100 60-80 6.0-14.0 90-110 oo : Top 67 Rich Oil Fractionator (Still) 130-160 20-30 1.7520 | aoe 50 i Top 25-40 Rich Oil Deethanizer or Demethanizer 200-400 40 - banca a0 Condensate Stabili a 100-400 | 16-24 Top Feed | 40-60 CHAPTER 17 291FRACTIONATION AND ABSORPTION FUNDAMENTALS. Many factors affect tray efficiency: 1. Relative vapor and liquid loading of the tray 2. Physical characteristics of liquid (foaming, viscosity, surface tension, etc.) 3. Characteristics of the tray 4, Mechanical design and installation of the tray 5. Thermodynamic properties used to determine the number of theoretical trays. As a result of these effects, there is no good prior method of estimating tray efficiencies for un- usual or different separations. For known separations (depropanizers, debutanizers, etc.), FRI data and/or operating experience is probably the best way to estimate efficiency. Table 17.1 provides esti- mates of tray efficiencies for NGL Fractionators. ‘The next best altemative is the O'Connell correla- tion” (Figure 17.13). While fairly old and based on a relatively small sample of data, this correla- tion gives reasonable results, r 03 05 1.0 3 5 10 20 30 50 100 | Efficiency, % Ss piesa 12 Veoosty of Food conpeice = H= Hon Law Constr Sytem (aoa | p= Density of Solvent, Ib? qT } I= Egon Cont of Conpnent Abort | | [ | teres tH | | +-1-f ister er Core LoL tii tit | i titi Tt Tt | ~—" g tte Vly of Koy Carports be HH | i EHH i= Viscosty of Solvent, centipoise M-= Molecular Weight of Spent ot 03 05 1.0 3 5 10 30°60 100-300 500 1000 Hw/P or KMu/p Figure 17.13 Correlation for Overall Efficiency of Absorbers and Fractionators. Example 17.10: Estimate the tray efficiency of the example depropanizer and the number of | trays required. b= 0.088 ep 0 = 1.695 op = (1.695)(0.088) = 0.15 From Figure 17.13, E = 80% 32 theor. stages —1 reboiler 08 = 39 actual trays Number of actual trays = 292 VOLUME 2: THE EQUIPMENT MODULESFRACTIONATOR DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS Be cautious when estimating tray efficiencies. Consider the advice of supplier and operating company experts. Don't ignore foaming problems, etc., that may make your system unusual, and if in doubt, guess low. If packing is used rather than trays, the conversion from theoretical stages to packing height in- volves the determination of an HETP (Height Equivalent to a Theoretical Plate) or an HTU (Height of a Transfer Unit). 7. Determine Optimum Feed Tray Location Selection of the proper feed tray location is extremely important in order to optimize the opera- tion of the fractionator. Placing the feed tray too high in the tower can result in excessive reflux to mect distillate product specification. Too low and excessive reboiler heat may be required to meet bot- tom product specification. Improper feed plate location is usually manifested by a sharp discontinuity in the temperature profile. Multiple feed nozzles and or a feed preheater are typically used to provide flexibility to adjust to changing feed conditions. Unfortunately, predicting the optimum feed plate location in the design phase is not easy, par- ticularly if a shortcut calculation is used. Virtually all of the shortcut calculation methods of estimating feed plate location are based on the assumption of total reflux. A convenient empirical correlation is”? Equation 17.15. 2 ean ==) (17.15) Dxix, J Xixy N= no. theoretical stages in rectifying section M = no. theoretical stages in stripping section B D Where: = bottoms rate, mols = distillate rate, mols Xyx, = composition of heavy key in the feed Xixy = composition of light key in the feed + Xiky = composition of light key in the bottoms Xuxy = composition of heavy key in the distillate Example 17.11: Estimate the optimum feed tray location for the example depropanizer. For Case I of the example depropanizer: N)_ (479.4)(0.46) )/ 0.0088 log ( ‘) i} wl (Sree ost | log () = 0.0848 N/M= 0822 N+M=32 N=14,M=18 Optimum feed tray is about tray 14. CHAPTER 17 293FRACTIONATION AND ABSORPTION FUNDAMENTALS. From Example 17.11, approximately 18 equilibrium stages will be required below the feed tray (including reboiler) and 14 equilibrium stages above. | A tray-to-tray computer simulation may also be used to lo- fe | — ©) | cate the optimum feed tray. Several feed tray locations are simu- ea) lated and the one yielding the lowest reflux ratio (reboiler duty) is 13 1910 the optimum location. For the example depropanizer, the optimum 14 19 feed tray is tray 13 or 14. The results of the simulation are tabu- _ 1s 1,928 lated at left. 8. Colculate the Condenser and Reboiler Duties Energy is required to effect the separation of components in a distillation column. High tem- perature heat enters the distillation at the reboiler and low temperature heat is withdrawn at the con- denser. The amount of energy required depends on several factors: difficulty of the separation (relative volatility, product specifications), feed condition and feed rate. ‘The overall energy balance around the fractionator is Qp +Q, =hpD +hpB—hgF (17.16) reboiler heat load condenser heat load enthalpy of distillate product enthalpy of bottoms enthalpy of feed D,B,F = rate of flow of distillate, bottom and feed streams, respectively Where: This equation has two unknowns, Q. and Qp. All values of “h” are in energy/mass or mol; “Q” is in energy/time. D, B and F are in mols or mass/time. The energy balance for the condenser is: : Qe=E (by, -hy) +D(hy —hy) (7.17) Where: hy = enthalpy of reflux stream enthalpy of vapor from top tray For a total condenser, Equation 17.17 simplifies to Q = Vi (hp -hy) (17.18) Where: V, = top tray vapor rate = L + D Reflux ratio is often used as a dimensionless measure of the energy required to make the sepa- ration. An increase in the reflux ratio increases Vj, which in tum, increases Q.. Increases in con- denser duty, Q. increase the reboiler heat input, Qg, and this heat directly affects operating costs since is usually supplied by heaters or boilers. In some facilities, reboiler heat is supplied by high temperature gas, e.g. compressor discharge, waste heat from gas turbine exhaust, by condensing steam from steam turbine exhaust. In these cases 294 VOLUME 2: THE EQUIPMENT MODULESFRACTIONATOR CONTROL the cost of reboiler energy may be low or zero. This fact should be incorporated in the economic anal- ysis used in the trays vs. reflux decision in step 5. In many fractionation applications the feed stream is preheated by heat exchange with the bot- toms product. This reduces the reboiler duty requirement. ‘There are many implications of the energy balance equations. If the condenser duty changes, the reboiler duty must change accordingly if the bottom product is to remain on specification. Further, there is a unique condenser and reboiler duty for a given feed rate and product specification. Example 17.12: Calvulate the condenser and reboiler duties for the example depropanizer. From the column material balance and SRK EOS, the following numbers apply. + F= 1000 kmol/h [2205 Ibmol/hr] D =479.4 kmol/h [1057 Ibmol/hr] B = 520.6 kmol/h [1148 Ibmol/hr] L = (1.83) (479.4) = 862.9 kmol/h [1902.7 IbmoV/hr] hy = 117.93 ki/kg [50.70 Btu/lbm] MW, = 57.56 hp = 41.52 kivkg [17.85 Btw/lbm] — MWp = 44.21 (also MW of reflux L and top tray vapor Vi) hp = 256.56 ki/kg [110.30 Btu/lbm] MWg = 69.86 hy = 331.59 kJ/kg [142.56 Btu/lbm] = Vithp -hy) = (479.4 + 862.9)(44.21)(41.52-331.59) 17.2108 kJ/h = —4782 KW [-16.3x10° Btu/hr] Qp = hpD + hpB -hpF -Q. = (41.52)(479.4)(44.21) + (256.56)(520.6)(69.86) —(117.93)(1000)(57.56) -(-17.2x10°) = 20.62 108 ki/h =5728 kW [19.5X10° Btu/hr] 9. Estimate the Tower Diameter This topic will be covered in a later section “Tower Mechanical Design.” FRACTIONATOR CONTROL The fractionator operates by using a controlled temperature gradient from top to bottom. The composition of the distillate product is fixed by its bubblepoint or dewpoint. The bottom product com- position is controlled by its bubblepoint. The fractionator always must operate so that the material and energy balances around it are sat- isfied on a steady-state basis. Any momentary upsets will be reflected by internal unstable operation which causes “upsets.” Furthermore, it is a “sluggish” device. Liquid “hold-up time” is fairly large since flowrates are relatively low compared to its fluid inventory. Therefore, an inherent time lag oc- curs when controlling at the tower extremities. CHAPTER 17 295,FRACTIONATION AND ABSORPTION FUNDAMENTALS The fractionator must process the particular feed inlet rate, temperature and composition that comes to it at a given moment. Feed rate is set by the upstream extraction process and/or product de- mand. Feed rate is controlled on a short-term basis to avoid temporary fluctuations in flow. This is usually accomplished by use of a fractionator feed surge tank. Feed composition is set by the upstream process and is not normally a controlled variable. Feed temperature may be controlled if a feed heat exchanger is installed. A demethanizer and/or deethanizer normally is used to remove noncondensables that are pro- hibited in the saleable bottom product, e.g. NGL. The problem is to keep these noncondensables from passing out the bottom (fairly easy) with only minimum loss of saleble products out the top (more dif- ficult). ‘The distillate composition can only be controlled if the tower is refluxed. Usually, a depropanizer and/or debutanizer produces a commercial distillate and bottoms prod- uct that must meet certain spevifications. At this point no noncondensables should be in the system. In the usual situation the propane, butane or LPG mix are less valuable per unit volume than the heavi- est product (natural gasoline, condensate, etc.). Two rules are generally followed in fractionator control: 1. The lesser of the two streams should be manipulated (control wise) to obtain the greatest sensitivity in product quality. 2. Separation parameters should be manipulated to control the purity of the purest product; the material balance should be manipulated to control the quality of the less pure product. Older control systems attempt to accomplish these functions by the use of pressure, temper- ature (compositions), level and flow controls on each stream independently. However, these streams are not really independent and the control system must address the interaction between them. A simple analog system may be used to accomplish this, but modern systems “marry” all of these to a computer which has been properly programmed. All streams being sensed feed their in- formation into this computer or programmable logic controller which runs through a dynamic sim- ulation and then tells the controls what to do. ‘A computer does not solve the control problem. It can only react within the limits imposed on it by its creator. It also represents an expensive control system. Many installations simply cannot jus- tify the cost. In others, this degree of sophistication simply is not needed. The difficult decision is finding that proper system that minimizes operating costs and maximizes revenue while meeting prod- uct specifications. As a guide in this endeavor, a series of control systems will be shown. These systems should be viewed as examples to illustrate the principles involved, not as firm recommendations. Feed Surge Control Regardless of the upstream process used to extract liquids, both flowrate and composition will vary to the first fractionator. A combination surge drum and vessel to flash-off a portion of the meth- ane and ethane might be used ahead of this fractionator, The level must be allowed to fluctuate in this vessel to maintain a relatively stable flow to the fractionator. One simple approach is to use a liquid level control with a long displacement type float. By using proportional control with a wide propor- tional band (100-200%), large level fluctuations will dampen out rate changes. It is imperative that the feed surge drum have a minimum retention time of 10-15 minutes. 296 VOLUME 2: THE EQUIPMENT MODULES:FRACTIONATOR CONTROL Diagrams (1) to (3) show several possible arrangements. The pump could be eliminated in the three arrangements if the tank is at a high enough pressure, If the tank is large, (1) could be used. A level indicator with level alarms would be required on the tank to guard against low and high levels. Method (2) shown would use the wide proportional band (and maybe a long displacer) with or without the pump. Method (3) is frequently used when feed fluctuations are frequent and/or the pressure on the accumulator is not constant. The level controller (LC) resets the flow recording controller (FRC). This is a cascade control system. @ (3) Column Pressure Control Regardless of the column control system, it must contain some provision for pressure control. Column pressure can be controlled by manipulating the material balance (rate of distillate product) or by manipulating the condensing temperature (bubble/dewpoint pressure of distillate). Diagrams 4-7 show several arrangements. Diagram (4) shows a simple back pressure control on the vapor from the partial condenser. In this case, only enough liquid is condensed to provide reflux. The pressure tap could be on the tower, as shown, or on the reflux accumulator. A proportional plus integral (P+1) controller might be used, al- though a proportional controller with a narrow proportional might be adequate since the offset would be small. Diagram (5) shows a system for a total condenser that has proven suitable for a narrow boiling range product. The disadvantage is that a large control valve must be placed in the overhead line and r CHAPTER 17 27FRACTIONATION AND ABSORPTION FUNDAMENTALS the tower pressure is higher than the condenser pressure making separation more difficult. It also in- creases the required head (AP) of the reflux pump. Diagram (6) shows a flooded condenser system for a total condenser. In this system the accu- mulator runs completely full of liquid and pressure is controlled by manipulating the level (hence the heat transfer area) in the condenser. This method is often used in depropanizers and debutanizers with water-cooled condensers. Flooded condensers will almost always result in subcooled reflux. Diagram (7) is an example of one type of hot vapor bypass to control tower pressure. The condenser is partially flooded and tower pressure is controlled by adjusting the level in the condenser. The vapor bypass equalizes the pressure between the accumulator and the tower. The temperature of the condensed product in the accu- ] mulator can also be controlled by controlling the cooling me- 7 dium. This is shown schematically in Diagram (8). This a method is not recommended if the cooling medium is water as | = it can cause fouling and scaling in the condenser due to low Q water flowrates. If the cooling medium is air, louvres or vari- © able pitch for blades can be used to control air flow. Induced ® = draft coolers are preferred in this service because the tube bundle is not exposed to the weather, e.g. rain, snow, etc. Most pressure control systems are based on manipulating the cooling rate at the condenser. If the condenser is allowed to operate without restriction, the column pressure will be as low as possible given the cooling medium and operating conditions. This is called “floating pressure control” and has the benefit of reducing the difficulty of separation, as relative volatilities tend to increase with decreas- ing pressure for most hydrocarbon separations. Reference 17.8 quotes energy savings of 1% for every 1°F reduction in condenser temperature for a separation of iCs/nCs. Reference 17.10 presents one scheme for a floating pressure control system. The rate of reflux is manipulated by a flow controller, cascaded with a temperature or composi- tion controller on the distillate product. It may also be set manually by the operator. In feed-forward systems it is sometimes ratioed to the feed rate. Column Control There are a number of ways to instrument a fractionation tower, but the ultimate objectives are 1. Meet the product specifications for the distillate and bottoms products 2. Optimize profitability by minimizing operating costs and maximizing the yield of the most profitable product In addition the above objectives must be satisfied with a viable, cost effective and safe control system. To the casual observer, fractionation control appears quite complex but if we ignore feed rate and feed condition, there are only five “knobs to twist” on a fractionation column. 1, Distillate rate Bottoms rate Heat input (reboiler) Heat removal (condenser) Reflux rate veer 298 VOLUME 2: THE EQUIPMENT MODULES