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LD - 1
LD - 1
LD - 1
Definition by Exclusion
Children with LD do not primarily fit into any other area of exceptionality i.e.
they are not primarily mentally retarded, emotionally disturbed, culturally
deprived, sensory handicapped.
Epidemiological Data
3.0%
National Advisory Committee on Dyslexia and related reading Disorders
(1969)- 15.0%
Kass and Myklebust (1969)- 3.0 to 5.0%
Etiology of LD
Behavioral model
Classification of LD
Perceptual-motor impairments
Emotional liability
Co-ordination problems
Disorders of attention
Impulsivity
Academic difficulties
Language deficits
Lerner (2000) recent list include the following learning and behavioral
characteristics of individuals with learning disabilities:
Disorders or attention
as phonetic renditions e.g. reading talc for talk or spelling laugh as leaf.
Alexic subgroups: deficit in both phonetic and visual reading/spelling
skills
4) Reading styles
Carbo (1992) divides children into:
Global learner / readers who learn to recognize words best through a
route)
This classification system is questioned as children need to have good
phonetic decoding skills to break the alphabetic code as well as good
orthographic skills to develop accurate and automatic word recognition.
Auditory discrimination
Sound blending
Memory skill
Sight words
COGNITION IN LD
Short-term memory
Long-term memory
Numerous studies have also shown that LD children are less skilled than
NLD peers in the use of rehearsal strategies used to store information in
the LTM (Bauer, 1977a,b, 1979; Traver et al., 1976; Torgesen and
Goldman, 1977).
Swason (1984b, 1987e) - LTM deficits may arise from failure to integrate
visual and verbal memory traces of visually presented stimuli at the time
of storage or retrieval (due to semantic memory limitations).
Some investigators suggested that LD children’s LTM is intact, but the strategies necessary
to gain access to this information are impaired.
analyzing the task and setting goals, monitoring the problem solving
process during its implementation, and reviewing or checking to
determine whether/not goals were met.
LANGUAGE DEFICITS in LD
Academic achievement:
# The word endings used for inflection and derivation may cause
special problems because of their short duration and low intensity in
running speech.
the phonological conditioning rules for the –ez and –ed variations of the
inflectional word endings (noun plurals ending in /iz/, and past tense of
regular verbs ending in /id/).
Evidence of dysnomia in LD
German (1979) reported that children (8-11 year old) with LD had
word finding difficulties with relatively low frequency words and
tasks involving open-ended questions. Her findings of a related
study showed that LD children used 3 significant word substitution
patterns.
Strongest pattern - intended word substituted by a word of less
complexity in meaning and with greater range of application. E.g.
rein-string.
Intended word was substituted by functionally descriptive word e.g.
shelf-book holder.
Weakest pattern – initially, sounds were said and discarded,
followed by accurate naming e.g. comb – ‘be, be’, comb”.
Terminological issues
The term “Dyslexia” is widely used to refer to children whose reading
problems reflect developmental language impairment.
The most appropriate label may be language learning disabled. This label
means that it is first and foremost a language disorder rather than just a
reading disorder.
ASSESSMENT OF LD
Reading rate
Reading accuracy
Word recognition
Reading comprehension
Vocabulary, and
Spelling
The Rosner test of auditory analysis (Rosner, 1975) consists 13 items, oldest
test of phonemic awareness (for grade K-5th)
The words on these lists increase in complexity and length and decrease in
frequency of occurrence in the English language.
The amount of time the child requires to orally read the passage is
documented.
developed the test of word reading efficiency and the nonword reading
efficiency test to assess fluency and accuracy in word recognition test.
Reporting: What was the boy doing here? What happened here?
Projecting: What does the boy feel? What did he say to big frog? What is
Reasoning – Why is the frog thinking that? Why does the boy feel angry?
Predicting: What will happen next? What will the big frog do now?
(Westby, 1999).
• Another way to assess narrative skills: Give a wordless picture book and
ask the child to tell you a story about the book or ask the students to tell a
story about an event in their lives or to make up a story without any
visual prompts (Westby, 1999).
1) Individuals with CAPD have normal intelligence and hearing acuity but are
unable to process auditory information effectively, due to dysfunction in
lower / higher level cortical processes.
language.
Abilities and experiences in listening, speaking and reading usually
spelling disabilities.
Phonics ability
• Child who incorrectly spells “cat” as “cad” or “sad” as “sat” will require
remedial work in basic auditory perception skills + graphemic component
of each sound.
# Bureckner and Bond (1955) suggest that the emphasis with poor spellers
should first be to learn to associate sounds of single letters and their
written symbols and then proceed to letter and phonogram
combinations.
# Many children omit entire sound units from various words because of
auditory perception difficulties (e.g. rember for “remember”). Some
others add unnecessary sound units (e.g. “booker” for “book”).
# These children will require help in building adequate visual imagery for
words and in applying phonic generalizations.
# The child who has trouble revisualizing letters in a word would make
gross errors in spelling since the child can recall very little visually about
the word.
# Sometimes, the correct order of the letters is not recalled e.g. “girl” as
“gril” or “mother” as ‘mother’ i.e. visual sequential memory deficits.
# ‘Market’ is ‘mark’ with ‘et’ at the end. ‘City’ is ‘it’ a ‘c’ at beginning and a
‘y’ at the end.
Expression of ideas
# Many children can orally express ideas but have in ability to organize
thoughts into the proper / logical form for written communication.
Inadequate vocabulary
# Some of the more frequent written syntax errors are word omission,
distorted word order; incorrect verb and pronoun usage, incorrect word
endings and lack of punctuation (Myklebust, 1967).
# Learning the parts of speech, tenses and the rules of usage is difficult for
the child with memory / conceptualization deficits.
# Present the student with 5-8 pictures of his/her hobby. Ask him to
choose one of the pictures about which he is write a paragraph of 8
sentences.
Counting
Place value
Measurements
Time telling
Size discrimination
Computational skills
Monetary value
Quantitative language