Ó

Aircraft Instruments—
Types and Cockpit
Layout 2

2.1 Introduction

An aircraft is a very complex machine, which has to be monitored and controlled, either manually
by the pilot(s) or by the dedicated flight control computers. In the latter case, however, pilot(s)
will have the final authority to fly the aircraft. The modern aircraft has a large number of trans-
ducers which convert physical parameters such as airspeed, altitude, attitude, temperatures, engine
parameters, etc., and present them to the pilot in the most convenient way for him to see, compre-
hend and act to fly the aircraft in a safe and purposeful manner. In the early days, a scarf around
the pilot’s neck provided vital data on the attitude (pitch, roll and yaw) of the aircraft, angle of
attack, side slip, etc.
Arrangement of instruments in the cockpit is such that pilot very naturally sees effortlessly most
vital and flight-critical data, namely, airspeed, altitude, attitude and vertical speed. Such data are
presented to the pilot just below the wind shield in the main instrument panel which is discussed
in more detail later in this chapter. It is also very important, that he comprehends the data he sees
with minimum mental effort. Therefore, it is necessary to arrange the instruments, taking into
account the importance of the data as well as their location, and the format of the displays. This
becomes the more important in military fighter aircraft capable of flying at low altitudes and high
speeds.
This deals with broad overview of aircraft instruments—their type and location and cockpit lay-
outs of modern aircraft.
 AIRCRAFT INSTRUMENTS—TYPES AND COCKPIT LAYOUT 11

ASI GH VSI
Vertical
Air Speed Gyro Horizon Speed
Indicator Indicator

ALTI DI TBI
Turn
Altitude Direction
and Bank
Indicator Indicator
Indicator

Fig. 2.2 Basic six grouping of aircraft instruments in earlier aircraft–now outdated.

panel”—meaning pilots do not rely on outside cues which could be misleading; instead, they are
trained to rely always on aircraft instruments, keeping blind eye to the view outside.
In basic-six instruments, Gyro Horizon, which shows the aircraft’s attitude (displaying pitch, roll
and yaw motions of aircraft) occupies the central top position. By far this is the most important
aircraft instrument which is relied upon by the pilots. The attitude of the aircraft, in turn depends
on the air speed and aircraft’s vertical speed, hence they are positioned on the two sides of the
Gyro Horizon as shown in Figure 2.2.
Another important instrument is the Direction Indicator (DI) which gives to the pilot, in which
direction, the aircraft is heading. Directional changes are achieved by rolling (banking) and yaw-
ing (turning) the aircraft. Hence very naturally, a Turn and Bank Indicator is positioned at the
right side of DI. To the left of DI is situated the Altitude Indicator (ALTI) giving information of
flight level, usually in flight level units of 100 feet; for example a flight level of 300 represents an
altitude of 30,000 feet.
Another grouping of instruments is known as “basic T”, which is of more recent origin than the
“basic six”, and is shown in Figure 2.3. This is the present standard even in modern aircraft of
recent origin. In larger civil transport aircraft both pilot and co-pilot have independently, such
identical display elements.
After reviewing modern instruments, requirements of newer generation of aircraft, and pilot
feedbacks, designers arrived at this “basic T” grouping of most important flight instruments
required for safely flying the aircraft, without much effort and eye scan by the pilots. Most
important indicators are: Air Speed Indicator (ASI), Attitude Director Indicator (ADI) and Alti-
tude Indicator—ALTI, which from the horizontal bar of T. Horizontal Situation Indicator (HSI)
is at the centre and makes up the vertical bar of T, as shown in Figure 2.3. HSI gives direc-
tional information to the pilots. On the right side of HSI is located a Vertical Speed Indicator
(VSI), which gives rate of climb or descent of the aircraft—not really so flight critical. A Radio
 12 AIRCRAFT INSTRUMENTATION AND SYSTEMS

ASI ADI ALTI

Air Speed Attitude
Altitude
Indicator Direction
Indicator
Indicator

RMI HSI VSI

Radio Horizontal Vertical
Magnetic Situation Speed
Indicator Indicator Indicator

Fig. 2.3 Basic T arrangement of aircraft instruments.

Magnetic Indicator (RMI) is located on the left side of HSI, and gives: (i) magnetic heading
derived from flux gates which detect the direction of the aircraft with reference to earth’s mag-
netic field and (ii) bearings to two radio stations, located on ground, hence the joint name Radio
and Magnetic Indicator—or Radio Magnetic Indicator. In some designs, RMI position is filled
up by a TBI—the Turn and Bank Indicator or by another instrument of recent origin called as
Turn coordinator (TC).
In aircraft manufactured after 1980, more sophisticated, all Electronic Flight Instruments Systems
(EFIS) replace individual ADI and HSI. Present day aircraft (2009) use just one AMLCD colour
monitor for each of the pilot and co-pilot, located directly in front of them. A third shared colour
monitor displays all Engine Indicators and Crew Alert System (EICAS). Such monitors replace a
large number of cluster of instruments, which makes pilot invest considerable effort and eye scan
movements to see, understand, analyse and take consequential steps for safe and desired flight of
the aircraft. All the computer-generated dial instruments follow the “basic T” configuration. The
on-board computers automatically decide and select as to which instruments need to be presented
to the pilot on a “need-to-know” basis, depending on the phase of the flight. There are various
well-identified phases of flight such as ground taxiing from departure point, take off, climb, cruise,
descent and ground taxiing to arrival terminal.
Pilot(s) should at all times be able to easily read and interpret the data presented to him by aircraft
instruments in order to either maintain the aircraft in a steady and stable condition of flight or
changing conditions of flight through manoeuvres. Aircraft instruments and display systems play
an extremely important role in assisting the pilot to fly the aircraft safely and in a desired attitude.
We now consider the aircraft display systems. Figure 2.4 shows the classification of displays along
with some examples.
The qualitative and quantitative displays are further described.
 Classification of Aircraft Instruments

QUALITATIVE DISPLAYS QUANTITATIVE DISPLAYS

> Represents data as a symbol/moving bar/ > Represents quantitatively in numbers
command bar/horizon bar, etc. For example, dial reading on ALTI
> Examples: Electronic Attitude Director will give aircraft’s altitude in feet
Indicator (EADI) as shown below: > Some examples are

ALT DME
Circular scales Linear scales
F
ASI EGT of
o 4 Engines
LOC RA

> Other qualitative displays include: FQI

1) Flight Director (FD) RPM of
2) Attitude Director Indicator (ADI) 4 Engines
3) Horizontal Situation Indicator (HSI)
4) Electronic Horizontal Situation Indicator (EHSI)
5) Head Up Display (HUD) VSI
6) Flight control surface positions as shown below

LEFT RIGHT
UP UP
ALTI
DN DN
AIRCRAFT INSTRUMENTS—TYPES AND COCKPIT LAYOUT

ELEVATOR
Colour codes in circular displays
Red – Max limit
L SPOILER R
Yellow – Cautionary
UPPER
Green – Normal
LOWER Red arc – Prohibited range
RUDDER
13

Fig. 2.4 Classification of aircraft instruments.

 14 AIRCRAFT INSTRUMENTATION AND SYSTEMS

2.3 Aircraft Display Types

Aircraft displays form an important link between the pilots and the aircraft (man–machine loop).
Some of the more important requirements of the display system are:
1. They must be easy to interpret.
2. The display should be unambiguous.
3. They must follow natural sense of pilots.
4. Reliability should be very high.
5. Pilot effort should be minimum to read and absorb data content.
6. Accuracy of indication should be high.
7. Adequate sensitivity is required to sense small deviations.
8. Repeatability should be high to reduce repeated calibration efforts.
There are broadly two types of display:
1. Quantitative display, and
2. Qualitative display.

2.3.1 Quantitative Displays

In this type of displays, the data is displayed quantitatively as numbers either using a pointer-scale
instrument or using an alphanumeric LED/LCD type numeric displays. Examples of quantitative
displays are: air speed indicator, altitude indicator, vertical speed indicator, etc. All of them pro-
vide numeric display of concerned parameters. Some examples of quantitative displays are shown
in Figure 2.5.
The circular scales are good for ASI, ALTI, engine oil pressure and temperature, etc. Sometimes
clustered straight scale as in Figure 2.5(b) is ideal, for example, to indicate exhaust gas tempera-
tures (EGT) of a 4-engined large transport aircraft. A quick glance shows how the temperatures
vary in comparison with each other and to know if any particular engine is malfunctioning and its
EGT is wildly straying off the normal value.
In circular scales the range can be extended by having a dynamic counter as in Figure 2.5(d) for
an altimeter. One full rotation of pointer advances the counter main scale by one. For example,
the reading shown is 34,400 feet above sea level, and after the main pointer increases to full scale
of 10, the main counter reaches 35,000 feet. In addition, there is a static counter at the bottom of
the circular scale. The static counter is used to adjust the atmospheric barometer pressure to the
appropriate ambient pressure value by using the BARO knob located at the bottom left of the
instrument. More on altimeter will be covered in subsequent chapters. Such BARO corrections are
required frequently as will be explained later.
The high range can also be accomplished by having another smaller circular scale and pointer
as shown in Figure 2.6. The full range, here is split into two concentric scales; the inner scale is
an extension of outer scale. A common aircraft instrument using this type of instrument is the
engine speed indicator—the large outer scale has a multiplication factor of ×100 rpm, while the
 16 AIRCRAFT INSTRUMENTATION AND SYSTEMS

0
9 1

2
8
Inner high range scale
× 1000 3
7
RPM
6 × 100 4
5

Fig. 2.6 Concentric scale, in RPMI.

inner scale has a ×1000 rpm. These instruments are however replaced by modern digital, unam-
biguous indicators, where RPM value is digitally displayed with no room for confusion.

Linear and Non-Linear Scales

Some physical parameters are non-linear and therefore direct linkage results in a non-linear scale.
For example, air speed measures a differential pressure q = ( pt − ps), where pt is the total pilot
pressure and ps is the static pressure and q = ½ ρv 2, where ρ is atmospheric density and v is
air speed which is being measured. The capsule responds to the pressure only. Figure 2.7 shows
capsule deflection vs. air speed, which of course follows square law. Capsule deflection is propor-
tional to the pressure and pressure in turn depends on square of air speed. Observe that for same
speed change Δv, deflection δ2 is much larger, at high end of scale.
If the capsule deflection is directly magnified and linked to pointer, the display will be non-linear
as indicated in Figure 2.7(b). It will be crowded at the low end of scale and gets expanded at
higher speeds. Sometimes this non-linear displays are useful—because the readings are expanded

Δv 200
200
Air speed δ2 100 knots
100 knots
knots* 300
50
*knot is a 300 0
0 400
measure of δ1
speed
δ, capsule deflection
(1 knot = 1.18 mph
= 1.82 kmph) (a) Air speed vs q (b) Direct magnification (c) Non-linear magnification
or capsule deflection (non-linear markings) to compensate the square law
dependence of pressure
(linear markings)
Fig. 2.7 Non-linear scale displays.
 AIRCRAFT INSTRUMENTS—TYPES AND COCKPIT LAYOUT 17

in the range of interest (i.e. between 200–300 knots) to the pilot. However, the non-linearity can
be compensated by using non-linear magnification to compensate for parameter non-linearity. If
this is done, the display will be linear as shown in Figure 2.7(c).
Sometimes logarithmic scale is preferred to open up at low end and to get crowded at near full
scale, as in vertical speed indicator. (More information will be presented in later chapters.) A typi-
cal VSI instrument is shown in Figure 2.8. Scale is opened up at low end, which is often of
importance. Such representation provides improved readability near level flight, i.e. near zero rate
of climb.
Note: In an aircraft the units are funny and use of knots for speed, feet for altitude and feet per
minute for rate of climb, because the pilots are used to them.

Mounting holes
2
1 3
UP 4
RATE OF
CLIMB
0
Provides better FEET PER MINUTE
readability, near
1 DN
level flight
2 3 4

Fig. 2.8 Vertical speed indicator—logarithmic scale.

2.3.2 Display Colour and Markings

Pilots should be able to easily interpret, comprehend and be alerted about certain parameters
exceeding maximum limits. In order to achieve this, there are coloured arcs, radial lines and sec-
tors, in order to highlight the limits of operation. A pilot can also set “bugs” which may be manu-
ally moved around to fix desired limits of performance, he has chosen by experience or aircraft
manufacturer.
The markings use the following standard colour conventions:

Markings Purpose
Red markings on scale Maximum and minimum limits
Yellow arc Take-off/precautionary sectors
Green arc Safe and normal operational zone
Red arc Prohibited zone
 AIRCRAFT INSTRUMENTS—TYPES AND COCKPIT LAYOUT 19

be evident in subsequent chapters. Both qualitative and quantitative indications are made available
on a single multi-coloured electronic display.
Most aircraft are equipped with a standard set of instruments, which informs the pilot about the
attitude (pitch, roll and yaw) air speed and altitude, of the aircraft. Many aircraft will have these
basic flight instruments:
1. Altimeter: giving the aircraft’s height above some reference level by measuring the local
air pressure. The altimeter has a provision to adjust to local barometric pressure which
must be correctly set to obtain accurate altitude data, (BARO adjustment). This adjustment
is mandatory after a certain prescribed altitude by all aircraft so that they are all properly
separated vertically during cruise.
2. Attitude Indicator: shows the pitch, and roll and angles relative to the horizon. This is
also known as the artificial horizon. By reading this instrument, pilot will be able to know
whether the wings are level and if the aircraft nose is pointing above or below the horizon.
This is a primary instrument for instrument flight and is very useful in poor visibility condi-
tions. In modern aircraft EADI replaces this altitude indicator.
3. Air Speed Indicator (ASI): This instrument displays the aircraft’s speed in knots: (1 knot =
1.18 mph = 1.85 kmph) relative to the surrounding air. The indicated speed should be
corrected for air density (which varies with altitude, temperature, and humidity) in order
to get the True Air Speed—TAS, and further corrected for wind conditions to obtain the
ground speed.
4. Magnetic Compass: The magnetic compass is used to indicate the aircraft’s heading rela-
tive to the earth’s magnetic north, to know which direction the aircraft is flying with respect
to the magnetic north. While the compass shows reliable readings in steady and level flight,
it gives faulty indications when turning, climbing, descending or accelerating. This faulty
indication can be compensated by using the gyro-stabilised heading indicator. For naviga-
tional purposes, it is necessary to correct the magnetic direction to obtain direction with
respect to true geographic north (which points to the earth’s axis of rotation). Note that
magnetic north is wandering and slightly to the left of geographic North. Magnetic compass
acts as a standby unit when other direction indicators malfunction.
5. Heading Indicator: (also known as Directional Gyro-DG). It is based on the gyro stabil-
ity and precession, and is therefore subject to drift errors, which must be periodically cor-
rected by calibrating it with respect to the magnetic compass. In modern aircraft, the DG
is replaced by a Horizontal Situation Indicator (HSI), which provides the same heading
information, but also helps in navigation.
6. Turn and Bank Indicator (TBI): The TBI is a gyroscopic instrument, displaying the direc-
tion and the rate of turn, (in degrees per minute). Internally mounted inclinometer shows
the turn quality, i.e. whether turn is properly coordinated (i.e. no slip out or skid in) as
opposed to an uncoordinated turn. This instrument has become a turn coordinator in newer
aircraft, which are manufactured after 1970.
7. Turn Coordinator: typically displays the rate and direction of roll while the aircraft is rolling;
displays rate and direction of turn, while the aircraft is not rolling. Internally housed incli-
nometer also displays the turn quality. The turn coordinator has replaced the good old TBI
in modern aircraft, and shows the rate of turn, but it does not indicate pitch information.
 20 AIRCRAFT INSTRUMENTATION AND SYSTEMS

8. Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI): Displays the rate of climb or descent, usually in feet per
minute. Vertical speed is indicated by sensing the changing air pressure during ascent or
descent.

2.4 Instrument Grouping—Basic T Grouping

As previously mentioned modern aircraft have four of the flight instruments arranged as a T—
called the basic T as shown in Figure 2.11. Instruments are located as described below. The ADI
is in the top centre, ASI is to the left, ALTI is at the right, HSI is situated right below ADI in
the bottom row. The turn coordinator or RMI is positioned to the left of HSI. VSI is located to

Magnetic compass (below wind shield)

T grouping of
4 primary
flight instruments
PFD
AIR SPEED ATTITUDE
ALTIMETER
INDICATOR DIRECTOR
(ALTI)
(ASI) INDICATOR
(ADI)

TURN
COORDINATOR (ND)
VERTICAL
OR HORIZONTAL
SPEED
RADIO SITUATION
INDICATOR
MAGNETIC INDICATOR
(VSI)
INDICATOR (HSI)

Navigation display (ND)

Fig. 2.11 Basic T configuration of Main Instrument Panel (MIP).

the right of HSI. The magnetic compass will be located above the instrument panel, often on the
windscreen centre post.
In some cases, the position taken by the Turn Coordinator is replaced by the Radio Magnetic
Indicator—RMI which incorporates magnetic compass plus the bearing of the aircraft with respect
to ground stations of radio navigation systems such as: VOR (Very high frequency Omni Range)
and Automatic Direction Finder (ADF). In the newer aircraft with glass cockpit instruments also,
the basic T grouping is generally followed. Brief details of glass cockpit is given below.
 22

Wind shield EADI EHSI Magnetic compass Overhead panel Wind shield

Fuel indicators

Engine Indicator & Crew

Alter System (ELCAS)

Computer monitor
display

Rudder pedal
Computer MFD
MFD
keybord Side stick
1 2 34
Foot rest

Pilot Seat Co-pilot Seat Engine thrust lever

AIRCRAFT INSTRUMENTATION AND SYSTEMS

Flight Management
System (FMS)

Fig. 2.13 All-glass cockpit of a modern aircraft.

 AIRCRAFT INSTRUMENTS—TYPES AND COCKPIT LAYOUT 23

Early glass cockpits, as in Macdonald Douglas’ MD80/90, Boeing’s 737, 757 and 767, Airbus’s
A-300 and A-310, used EFIS for displaying attitude and navigational parameters only, and they
continued to use mechanical gauges for air speed, altitude and vertical speed. Modern glass cockpits
have now replaced totally all the mechanical gauges and warning systems, which were present in
previous generation aircraft. Modern glass cockpit aircraft are: Boeing 737NG, 747-600, 767-
400, 777 and 787; Airbus A-320, A-330 and the very new largest transport aircraft—A-380.
Future cockpit displays constitute a true departure from all of the above displays. They can cus-
tomise the cockpits to various end users, to a greater extent than previous generations, for example
they deploy a track ball, thumb pad or joystick as a pilot input device in a computer-like environ-
ment. Greater situational awareness, and man–machine interface are now emphasised. Figure 2.13
shows the all-glass cockpit of a modern aircraft. Note that 5 in-line display units are used to
present flight data to both pilot (left seat) and co-pilot. Also included in line is a Fuel Quantity
Indicator (FQI) and control surface position indicators. The flight data includes basic T grouping,
generally. However, one of the displays shows EADI data and another LRU (Line Replaceable
Unit) presents EHSI data. The central display shows EICAS data, viewable by both pilots. Some-
times, instead of using two separate displays for EADI and EHSI, a single LRU is used to display
both EADI and EHSI data. It is noteworthy that all display units are similar and can be plugged
in any of the 5 positions. This greatly simplifies maintenance and reduces spare part counts.
We now proceed to discuss the broad functionalities of some newer aircraft instruments.

2.5.1 Attitude Director Indicator (ADI)

ADI is a Primary Flight Display (PFD), displaying all information critical to flight. Earlier, the
Flight Director (FD) or Artificial Horizon (AH) or Gyro Horizon was used in an aircraft to indi-
cate to the pilot about the orientation of the aircraft relative to earth. It indicates pitch (nose up/
down) and roll (wings not level) of the aircraft and constitutes the most important instrument for
flight in the so called IMC* (Instrument Meteorological Conditions). Attitude indicators also have
significant role in VMC,* Visual Meteorological Conditions. Figure 2.14 shows a typical attitude
indicator (gyro horizon).
The pilot actions will be made in the natural sense so that there is no confusion or ambiguity to
manoeuvre the aircraft. For example, if the pilot desires a level flight he rotates the control wheel
clockwise as shown in Figure 2.14(b) to make the aircraft fly straight and level (Figure 2.14(c)).

2.5.2 Electronic Attitude Director Indicator

An improvement was made in EADI (Electronic Attitude Director Indicator), which in addition
to displaying the attitude, issues commands using movable command bars. This is shown in the

* IMC and VMC are types of air navigation, that enables pilots to land an aircraft. IMC conditions refer to
landing the aircraft under poor visibility. VMC refers to visual conditions permitting a visual landing, i.e. the
pilots can visually see the runway.
 AIRCRAFT INSTRUMENTS—TYPES AND COCKPIT LAYOUT 25

Stabilised bank
pointer
Roll scale
20 Pitch scale
Horizon bar 10

Command bars
10
20
Fixed aircraft
symbol (c) Nose up command.
A/C must fly with nose up
(a) A/C flying straight and level (b) A/C flying nose up to satisfy the command

(d) Fly left command. (e) Fly right command. (f) Commands have been
Fly the a/c to left to Fly the aircraft to right satisfied
satisfy command bar to satisfy command bar

Fig. 2.16 Different command bar settings to be obeyed.

Note the following:

1. ADI is basically similar to Attitude Director (or gyro horizon).
2. Horizon bar is driven by servo motors driven by remotely located gyroscopes. The sense of
movement is natural to the pilot.
3. Aircraft symbol and the bank pointer are fixed to the aircraft. (See Figure 2.16(a))
4. Both horizon bar and roll pointer are gyro stabilised and provide a spatial reference to the
changing aircraft attitude.
5. Command bar displays are preset by pilot in the Mode Select Panel and enables him to fly
the aircraft in a predetermined fashion, by matching the aircraft symbol coincide with com-
mand bars. These bars are particularly useful during take-off and landing phases of flight.
They ensure flight safety.
6. The scale at left of EADI of Figure 2.15 refers to glide slope of ILS (Instrument Landing
System) and indicates to the pilot whether he is flying above or below “glide slope” beam,
which directs him to fly right into the runway during landing. Similarly, the scale at the bot-
tom relates to localiser beam, for lateral alignment of the aircraft, to fly the aircraft aligned
to the centre of the runway. ILS ensures flight safety under poor visibility conditions.

2.5.3 Horizontal Situation Indicator (HSI)

The HSI is primarily a Navigation Display (ND), and it is an aircraft instrument located in Main
Instrument Panel (MIP), just below the ADI (Attitude Director Indicator). (See Figure 2.11),
 26 AIRCRAFT INSTRUMENTATION AND SYSTEMS

replacing the conventional DG (directional gyro). In the electronic flight instrumentation system,
it is known as EHSI (Electronic Horizontal Situation Indicator). HSI provides the plan view (map
view) of aircraft motion which is important to navigate to the desired airport. Thus, HSI provides
a basic horizontal view of the aircraft’s navigation around the earth. It provides an excellent pic-
ture for precise navigation. EHSI displays: (i) magnetic heading, (ii) bearing and distance to navi-
gation aid (VOR or ADF) and (iii) CDI (course deviation indicator).
An HSI is a combination of two familiar cockpit instruments: the directional gyro (DG) with a
heading memory bug and (ii) a VOR (VHF Omni directional Receiver) / ILS (Instrument Landing
System) indicator. EHSI reduces pilot’s effort—otherwise the pilot has to eye scan many instru-
ments individually.
Figure 2.17 shows the EHSI, which incorporates the following:

Distance Lubber line (reference line)

378 069
Selected
MILES COURSE course counter
Heading select bug
E
6 12 Course deviation indicator (CDI)
TO/FROM arrow
and scale (small circles)
Glide slope pointer and scale 3 15 Aircraft symbol
Lateral deviation
S
N

Compass card bar and scale

33 21
Reciprocal course
Heading select knob 30W 24
Course select knob
HDG COURSE

Fig. 2.17 Electronic horizontal situation indicator.

1. Glide slope needle for guiding the aircraft into the airport runway, in a vertical direction.
2. Aircraft Symbol .
3. Course Deviation Indicator (CDI) is shown relative to airplane symbol, in azimuth (plan)
direction.
4. Interlinked to autopilot to hold altitude and while approaching follow glide slope all the
way to decision height (DH) and beyond.
5. Course deviation indicator (CDI) and scale.
6. Compass card operated by DG (directional gyro) and a lubber reference line.
7. Heading select memory bug to aid the pilot to navigate to destination.
Combining the DG and NAV indicator into a single instrument, reduces the pilot workload by pro-
viding the following vital information:
• heading—which direction the aircraft is going,
• course reference, which direction the aircraft has to go,
• course deviation,
• glide slope information; while landing.
 28 AIRCRAFT INSTRUMENTATION AND SYSTEMS

resolved. Modern aircraft use Twisted Active Matrix Liquid Crystal Displays (TAMLCD), which
replaces earlier CRT displays.

2.6.2 Multi Function Display (MFD)

MFD is primarily a Navigation Display (ND) unit. It combines, however, weather data super-
imposed on the map.

2.6.3 Engine Indications and Crew Alert

Systems (EICAS)

EICAS shows information regarding the aircraft’s systems such as fuel, electrical, engines, etc.
EICAS also alerts pilots of unusual or hazardous situations like low engine lubricating oil pres-
sure, engine overheat, autopilot malfunction, loss of emergency/utility power, etc.

2.6.4 Mode Control Panels

Pilots can select display range and mode as well he can enter data, using the control panel. For
example, command bars mentioned earlier are set using knobs in Mode Control Panels.

2.6.5 Display Data Processors

The visual display of an EFIS is made possible through the SGU (Symbol Generator Unit), which
gets data from the pilot, sensors and format selected. SGU is also called display processor, or dis-
play electronics unit.
Advantages of EFIS are:
1. The same display can be made to function as PFD, ND, offering versatility.
2. Software upgradable to latest versions without changing hardware.
3. Should one of the display fail, the other can take over and thus act as a redundant system.
4. Any LRU can be plugged in any one of the five slots (see Figures 2.13a and b).
EFIS has become a standard equipment for all modern aircraft like aircraft from Boeing (B-767,
B-777 and future 787) and Airbus (A-320, A-330, and the more recent A-380).
With the advent of low-cost computers, liquid crystal colour displays and inexpensive NAV-
sensor’s—Fibre optic gyros, GPS and AHRS; EFIS can be adapted to even low-cost general avia-
tion aircraft, which was unthinkable a few years ago.
Figure 2.18 is the cockpit of A-330, a large civil transport aircraft and Figure 2.19 is the cockpit
of the A-330, which is the largest commercial transport plane today.
Once again it should be reiterated, all of the above information in chapter 2 is to provide a broad
overview and requires considerable knowledge to fully understand. Revisit this chapter after cov-
ering the full textbook.