REPUBLIC O F THE PHILIPPIN ES

CITY GOVERN MENT O F ZAMBOAN GA

CO LEGIO DE LA CIUDAD DE ZAMBOAN GA
Vitali Campus

TEACHERS COPY
ValED-001
(Values Education)
Self-Learning Module 2

HAZEL KIM M. CUDIA

Visiting Lecturer
COURSE DESCRIPTION:
The goal of this course is to provide student with meaningful experience and
opportunities to enhance the positive attitude and qualities of young adults to help them face the
challenge in the changing society in term of social responsibility, honesty, integrity and justice.

COURSE OBJECTIVES:

At the end of the course, the students should be able to:

1. Discuss the different types of ethical standards commonly observed in the workplace
2. Explain the social implications of each of the form of ethical standards
3. Identify the order of importance among various ethical standards.
4. Discuss ethical theories that we can use to guide our moral decisions
5. Explain the importance of maintaining business codes of ethics

COURSE OUTLINE:

Lesson 4: ETHICAL STANDARDS IN THE WORKPLACE

4.1. The Nature of Ethical Standards
4.2. Types of Ethical standards
4.3 Problems Concerning Ethical standards

Lesson 5: ETHICAL THEORIES

5.1 Utilitarianism
5.2 Categorical Imperative
5.3 Situational Ethics
5.4 The model theory of morality

Lesson 6: CODE OF ETHICS

6.1 The Nature of Ethical Codes
6.2 Professional Code of Ethics

Lesson 4: ETHICAL STANDARD IN THE WORKPLACE

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 A. OBJECTIVES:
At the end of the lesson, the students are able to:
1. Explain the nature of ethical standards
2. Differentiate ethical standard from legal standards
3. Identify the order of importance among various ethical standards
4. Explain the different types of ethical standards commonly observed in the work
placed

B. LESSON OUTLINE
4.1 The Nature of Ethical Standards
4.2. Types of Ethical standards
4.3 Problems Concerning Ethical standards

C. LESSON CONTENT:

THE NATURE OF ETHICAL STANDARDS

What makes an act “ethical” or “unethical”? Why are some acts perceived to be
appropriate and others inappropriate, even in the absence of rules or written laws characterizing
them as such? Why do people observe pakikisama, utang-na Ioob, and delicadeza in the
workplace-even if no explicit rules require their observance? What is the basis for judging
practices such as lagay and palakasan as unacceptable and unethical?
The answer to all these questions is simple: the workplace adopts and enforces ethical standards
which are generally unwritten. tacitly. observed and Which provide a basis for identifying what
behaviors or practices are considered ethical and unethical. One of the features of an ideal work
environment is the respect and adherence of workers and employers; including clients or
customers, to affair ethical standard of behavior. This chapter deals with the nature and forms of
ethical standards usually adopted in the workplace.
The largely unwritten rules of conduct of the workplace concern behaviors generally
perceived to be in adherence to customary practices such as those that manifest obedience to
authority, loyalty to the company, gratitude, or indebtedness, socially, fidelity, prudence, and
friendship. Sometimes, the observance of these rules of behavior is considered to be ethical while
violations of the same are regarded as unethical.
However, ethical standard is not necessarily the same as the common practices or tacit rules of
conduct observed by an organization. This implies that not all common practices observed
among workers or by the company are necessarily ethical. To illustrate, we know that following
instructions correctly is one thing and following instructions blindly is another. If following
instructions without question is an established norm of an organization, or asking too much is
considered to be improper. this does not mean that it is unethical or improper to inquire before
complying with an instruction or resist complying with an instruction one believes to be wrong.
Resisting a wrongful order is a matter of duty and not performing this duty is. therefore. perfectly
ethical.
To take another example, we are aware that loyalty is greatly priced in any organization.
If a situation calls for a worker to tell the truth, but in so doing he risks destroying the reputation
of his organization, how can he resolve the conflict between telling the truth and being loyal to
his organization? How ethical is his act if he chooses to divulge the truth? If the rules of conduct
are based on common consent and approval. is fidelity unethical.
Considering that the person in this case reaps the common anger of his/her coworkers and
employer? Certainly, the answers to these questions point to the fact that the basis for ethical
conduct transcends established norms of conduct of an organization.
Ethical questions concerning the actions and practices in the workplace go beyond customary
rules of behavior: it may even challenge the extent defined by the standard practices of
organization and the belief systems of workers themselves.

It Is also necessarily y to stress that ethical standards presuppose certain theories of

ethics’ (which we shall discuss later). The nature of the standard of right conduct depends

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generally on what theory of morality Is adopted by society or by the firm. For instance, for a
society or firm that cherishes Kantianism, one would observe that respect of dignity. protection
of rights and the value of individual freedom are the firm measures of what is ethical in the
workplace.

Comparing Ethical and Legal Standard

Distinctions are made between ethical and legal standards since both pertain to rules of
conduct or how a person ought to behave himself in relation to others. Both standards deal with
serious human injuries and benefits.
Ethical standard sets what actions are ethical and unethical while the legal standard sets what are
legal and illegal. Unlike legal rules which are generally written, clear and definite. ethical
standards are largely unwritten; the basis for observance is mostly tacit or implied. Though they,
are unwritten, ethical standards may be codified in a single text termed as Code of Ethics.
Ethical standards have evolved through time and been inculcated in people through the
practice of their work and through their interactions and relationships with other people in the
workplace. For some, ethical standards are unwritten and implied rules for behavior that have a
force of their own. Though ideally, they should be related to the objectives of the firm or the
business organization. ethical standards exist whether or not they are formally recognized as
such. For instance, the Filipino concepts of utang na loob, hiya, palabra dc honor. and delicadeza
are basically ' sociotechnical concepts which are very seldom explicitly expressed in the legal or
written rules of the organization, yet, they are usually observed, both by the employers and the
workers. '
It may be noted that since ethical standards deal with personal conduct and duty. and as such, are
concerned with human relations with respect to right and wrong, ethical standards provide the
foundation upon which many of our laws i.e., civil, administrative and criminal. are built
(Miranda. 2000).
Comparing ethical standards with other standards, we may observe the following differences: ‘
 Ethical standards are not laid down by authoritative bodies.

 Ethical standards override self-interests.

 Ethical standards are usually associated with emotions like guilt and shame.

In addition, ethical or moral standards also serve two social functions:

 They establish a mutually beneficial system of conduct.

 They provide acceptable justification for actions and policies

BIBLIOGRAPHY:
Agapay, Ramon B. 1991, Ethics and the Filipino. Manila: National Book Store

FORMATIVE EXAMINATION: The Origin and Nature of Ethics

ACTIVITIES OBE-Source
Explain the following sentence: LO1.3.
Expertise and
1. Ethical standards are not laid down by authorities’ bodies Lifelong
learning

2. Ethical Standard override self-interest

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 3. Ethical standard are usually associated with emotions like guilt and shame

TYPES OF ETHICAL STANDARDS

There are various types of ethical standards, but for our present purposes, we shall emphasize on
the following: ethical standard based on utility, ethical standard based on moral rights and ethical
standard based on justice.
Each of these standard rests on a particular type of moral theory; each has its ' own set of rules of
right and wrong. Other significant forms of ethical standards
have also been considered in the chapter.

Ethical Standards Based on Utility

Ethical standards based on utility evaluate policies, institutions and behaviors in terms of
the net social benefits and costs they produce. This ethical standard proceeds from the Principle
of Utility, which states that an act is good if it promotes the greatest amount of happiness to the
greatest number of people. Thus. policies or acts that promote the most! good of the greatest

4
amount Social benefit for the greatest number of people are ethical. while those that do no] are
unethical. The benefit includes any desirable goods produced by the action, like pleasure. health.
satisfaction. knowledge and happiness. The cos! of an action includes any undesirable evil
produced by an action. like pain. sickness, death, dissatisfaction, ignorance and unhappiness. In
light of this standard. we can say that the policy that requires workers to work on holidays or
during their scheduled rest without additional compensation is unethical, not for any other
reason. but because it is unfavorable to the happiness of workers who, under this circumstance,
comprise the' greatest number. Ethical standards based on utility provide three simple steps to
guide us in making important choices:

 Step One: Determine all alternative actions available to us on that occasion. This requires
effort to look for and consider all possible courses of action.
 Step Two: For each alternative action. estimate the direct and indirect benefits and costs
that the action would produce for each and every person. This step requires a complete,
honest assessment and calculation of the most likely consequences of all alternative
actions. The number of persons who may benefit or be harmed by the action must be
noted fully.

 Step Three: The alternative that will produce the greatest sum total of benefits. ' must be
chosen as the most ethically appropriate course of action.

Ethical Standards Based on Moral Rights

Ethical standards based on moral rights evaluate institutions, policies, acts or behaviors in
terms of the protection they provide for the rights and freedom of individuals. Hecke any policy
or act that respects or protects the rights of individuals is ethical. while those that violate the
same. are unethical. But what is a right? What are the rights we enjoy? How do we determine if
something is our moral right or not?
The Meaning of Rights
Rights are entitlements to something. A person has a right when the person is entitled to
act in a certain way or is entitled to have others act in a certain way towards him or her. As an
entitlement, a person can properly invoke it as due or may opt to disregard it. The term right also
indicates the existence of prohibitions or requirements on others which enable an individual to
pursue his interests. Rights are tightly correlated with duties. To have a right necessarily implies
that others have certain duties ‘toward the bearer of that right.

Types of Rights

Positive rights and Negative Rights

Rights could either direct others to refrain from committing an act or to do‘ something towards
the person bearing such right. Hence, a distinction is made between positive rights and negative
rights. Positive rights are defined in terms of the duties of others to provide the person who holds
such rights whatever the person needs to freely pursue his or her activities (for example, the right
to education and the right to work). Negative rights are defined in terms of the duties of others
not to interfere in certain activities of the person who holds such rights. Examples include the
right to privacy and the right to property.

Legal Rights and Moral Rights

Rights may either be legal or moral. Legal rights are rights which are limited to the particular
jurisdiction of a legal system from which such rights are derived. Legal rights are rights that are
formally recognized and enforced by society. Moral rights are rights Rossessed by all human
beings by virtue of their being human. In this sense. moral rights are also known as human rights.
These rights are sacred properties of man as beings naturally endowed with a sense of dignity.

5
Classes of Rights

Moral-Natural Rights
Moral-natural rights are rights of all human beings by virtue of their being human. In this sense.
moral rights are also known as human rights. These rights are not conferred State. they are
afforded by God to man as human beings.
 Moral rights are universal. Moral or human rights are rights that human beings enjoy
regardless of their nationality, creed, gender, age and color. Moral rights extend, in
theory, to every person on earth without distinctions or discriminations.
 Comparable rights of others limit moral rights . Though the moral rights of a person are
inalienable to him. the exercise of these moral rights is limited by the ' moral rights of
others. For instance, the right of a person to free speech is limited by the rights of others
against malicious and slanderous accusations.
 Moral rights simply Moral Duties. The moral rights of a person come with moral duties.
if ‘a person has certain rights which he can claim, there are, on the other hand. certain
duties and responsibilities in view 6fthese rights, which he is obliged to observe. Hence,
the right against inhumane treatment implies duty to treat others humanely and the right
to be treated fairly implies the duty to treat others fairly.
 Moral rights impose limitations. to the overwhelming power of the State. Moral rights
afford man some protection against possible abuses of the government, which has. under
its control. welI-equipped and well-funded military and police forces. Moral rights
safeguard man from abuses and misuses of political authority.

Constitutional Rights
Constitutional rights are rights which are conferred and protected by the constitution, the
fundamental law of the land. Constitutional rights are rights derived from legislation directly
from the people. As such. the State cannot alter or take them away from the individual.
Constitutional rights include, among others, the right to property. the right to just compensation,
the right to freedom of speech, self-expression. the right to self-association, the right to worship
and religious expression. Many constitutional rights are human tights. So when a human right
has been isolated. it is very likely that a constitutional provision has been violated as well.
Hence. any policy or act that denies the right of a worker to association, or that impose a
religious test as a requirement for employment, is unethical and unconstitutional because it
violates the constitutional rights of an individual.

Statutory Rights
Statutory rights are rights that are derived from legislation from the people’s
representatives. The law-giving body of the State confers statutory rights. The same body may,
by law, abolish them. These rights include the right to a minimum wage and to additional
compensation for additional work. Hence, any policy that sets a wage that is below the minimum
as provided by law, or ‘compels workers to work during their scheduled rest without additional
compensation, is unethical and illegal and violates the statutory rights of an individual.

Rights and Duties

One of the basic principles that govern the relationship of rights and duties is the
Principle of Reciprocity -our right to be treated in a particular way by others implies our duty to
treat others in the same way. This is a maxim that our Lord Jesus Christ himself has given us: Do
unto others what you want others to do unto you.
The Principle of Reciprocity applies also to the rights and duties of citizens vis' é-vis the
rights and duties of the State. If a particular citizen has the moral right to be protected and
respected by his State, then he has the moral duty to protect and
respect his State by respecting its laws and protecting its interests. On the other hand. if the State
has the right to command respect from its citizens. then the State must observe its duty to respect
its citizens by respecting their rights and dignities.

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Right to Life as Most Fundamental Moral Right
The right to life is man’s highest right. Without it, he cannot enjoy the other rights. If this
is so, then this right necessarily implies a corresponding duty to respect, preserve and protect
one’s life and that of the others.
The right to life means the right to a material existence worthy of human dignity. As
such, the right to life is man’s highest right, without which he would not enjoy his other rights
because it implies all other forms of moral rights: the right against arbitrary treatment and
inhumane punishment. the right to work and to a just remuneration. the right of privacy, freedom
of thought and belief freedom of religion. etc.

Rights and Workplace Reality

The right of an individual to be treated with dignity is an essential aspect of ethical
standard based on rights. It measures the moral goodness of an act based on how it values human
dignity regardless of whether the act promotes the greatest happiness or not. It is clear that
management policies exploitative of labor or that treat labor as mere commodity are unspeakably
immoral. A handful of moral theories highlight the inviolability and inalienability of human
rights and human dignity. One major example of these theories is the Categorical Imperative of
Immanuel Kant (discussed in the next chapter):
It is unfortunate that rights are, in reality. more violated than observed and ignored more
than recognized. It takes little effort to prove this. We only need to ask all the workers whom we
know if their wages are enough to provide them and their families with a standard of living
worthy of human dignity, if they work under safe and healthy working conditions, if they can
express their sentiments and grievances without the threat of being kicked out of their jobs, or if
they are indeed free to form or join trade unions. The reality you will find will come as no
surprise. The government should exert more effort ‘in protecting helpless workers who are
subjected to abuses and human rights viplations in the workplace every day.

Ethical Standards Based on Justice

Ethical standards based on justice evaluate institutions and behavior in terms of how equitably
they distribute benefits and burdens among the members of the group ( i.e. the firm. society.
humanity). Under this ethical standard, any policy or act is ethical If it observes fairness and
justice in distributing benefits and burdens among persons. and unethical it does not.

Kinds of Justice
Retributive Justice
This refers to the just imposition of punishment such as fines, imprisonment and even
death, upon those who do wrong. One of the major. perhaps. most important issue in retributive
justice is the morality of death penalty as the ultimate form of punishment A school of thought
supporting death penalty employs the popular principle of retributive justice called lex lalionis.
This principle states that there must be equality between punishment and crime, worst
punishment for worst crime. If a person commits murder. the punishment should be death. Pro-
death penalty advocates advance interesting reasons why death penalty is a Fitting punishment to
heinous criminals. Let us present some of these arguments briefly here:

1. Religion supports death penalty. The Bible provides a clear basis for the imposition of
death penalty. Whoever sheds the blood of man. by man shall his blood be sheds in the
image of God has God made man. (Genesis 9:6).
2. Dearly penalty values human life. Capital punishment, means an ~ acknowledgment of
man's, and foremost, the victim’s dignity. Executing a criminal because he/she has
unfairly and violently taken human life, sends the message that human life is valued by
the society.
3. Criminals forfeit their right to life. A violent criminal and a murderer should never be
allowed to get away from ultimate justice by pointing to his/her “inviolable value".
He\She has brutally. and without respect. tried to crush the values of others.

7
 4. Criminals. because of their actions, cease to become members of Immune humanity.
Every tune a man is battered. the whole body of society is beaten. Every time a map is
murdered. part of the body of society dies. Every attack on a fellowman is an attack on
humanity. and an aggressive enemy of humanity should not be able to demand an
inviolable value before the State. A violent criminal or a murderer has, therefore, passed
a holy border.
Groups opposing death penalty have their own reasons tq regard this sanction as -immoral. For
them, human dignity and the sanctity of human life should be upheld. Equally interesting
arguments are presented below:

1. Self-defense is not is not sufficient to justify the death penalty . Self-defense argues that a
person whose life and limbs are threatened by an unprovoked attack by another person,
is morally justified to use force as a means to self-preservation. It is not morally wrong,
but a moral duty to use _violence to prevent unjust aggressions. Along the same line, the
seIf-defense argument claims that society, in defending itself crimes and criminals, is
morally justified to employ death penalty as a way of preserving its well-being. The
problem 'with this argument lies in its assumption that death penalty is the best means to
protect society from heinous crimes.
2. Deterrence argument is scientifically unfounded. The deterrence argument ' claims that
death penalty effectively deters persons from committing heinous crimes. However, our
knowledge is distressingly inexact about how death penalty in general deters crimes, and
if it does, under what conditions. No clear evidence can show that death penalty is a
better deterrent than less severe penalties for heinous crimes like murder.
3. Death penalty involves the risk of executing innocent persons. Unlike in life
imprisonment, it is impossible to correct mistakes in death penalty. The risk of
‘executing innocent lives is very high, especially in societies with inefficient, un~ equal
justice systems. The executed become the unlucky victims ofprejudice and
discrimination that almost always go with being poor.
4. Death penalty defeats the purpose of punishment. Punishment rests on correcting
wrongful behavior, not on exacting vengeance (i.e., a tooth for a tooth). If a person is
executed, he/she is denied the chance for moral reform; that is, the opportunity to correct
his/her erroneous ways. Also, in death penalty, we commit that for which the criminal is
punished we murder the criminal because he/she has murdered. His/Her in humanity is
exacted with the same inhumanity. erase the inhumanity of crimes -it only tends to add
new injuries of its own to the catalogue of our inhumanity to one another.

Distributive Justice
The most basic kind of justice is distributive justice. Distributive justice concerns the fair
distribution of society’s (or any of its social institutions) benefits and burdens among its
members. But what is a fair distribution? justice, if viewed as distributive justice, involves
various open conflicting theories of how benefits and burdens are to be best distributed within
society. For our purpose, let us consider three major theories: The Egalitarian Theory of Justice,
the Capitalist Theory of Justice and the Socialist Theory of Justice.
Three Major Theories of Distributive Justice

Egalitarian Theory of Justice

This theory claims that everyone should be given equal share of society’s benefits and burdens.
Equality, under this theory, refers to both economic and political equality. Political equality
refers to equality in political rights regardless of social status

The Capitalist Theory of Justice

The Capitalist Theory of Justice claims that any benefit should be distributed according to the
contribution each individual makes to achieve the aims of his or her group (e.g., the firm,
society, and humanity). This means that the more a person contributes to his society’s pool of

8
economic goods, the more that person is entitled to take from that pool; the less an individual
contributes, the less that individual is entitled to get.

Socialist Theory of Justice

This theory claims that work burdens should be distributed according to people’s abilities, while
benefits should be distributed according to people’s needs. The Socialist Theory of Justice is
largely based on the two-great works of Karl Marx, namely, Communist Manifesto and Das
Kapital. According to Marxist theory, social justice means nothing more than the fair distribution
of wealth. Those who labor more should get more; those who labor less should get less.

Other Ethical Standard

Situation Ethics
There are ethical standards that stress the impedance of considering the situation or the morally-
significant conditions in which a moral act is performed, and not the application of moral law in
making moral judgments. This ethical standard rests on a contemporary theory of morality called
Situation Ethics, as opposed to utilitarianism and Kant’s categorical imperative. Unlike other
standards that adhere to specific and rigid principles, this ethical standard sets what is good or
evil as relative to the nature of the situation.

Ethical Standards Based on Religion or Religious Doctrines.

'There are ethical standards based on religion or religious doctrines. These standards view the
morality of an act neither on its motives or consequences, but solely on whether the act is in
accordance with the articles of faith. Thus. an act is ethical if it observes the principles held by
the Church, unethical if it does not. A good example is the ethical standard based on Protestant
ethics. The principles of thrift, discipline, hard work and individualism are the basis of Protestant
ethics.

BIBLIOGRAPHY:
Agapay, Ramon B. 1991, Ethics and the Filipino. Manila: National Book Store

9
FORMATIVE EXAMINATION:
ACTIVITIES OBE-Source
Identification: LO1.3.
____1. This ethical standard state that an act is good if it is promoted the Expertise and
greatest amount of happiness to the greatest people. Lifelong
____2. It is an entitlement to something. learning
____3. It indicates the existence of prohibition or requirements on others.
____4. The rights of all human being by virtue of their being human.
____5. These rights are limited to the particular jurisdiction o a legal system.
____6. Moral or human rights that being enjoy regardless of their
nationality.
____7. Refers to equality in distribution of income and wealth.
____8. This justice claims that any benefit should be distributed according to
the contribution.
____9. It is the morality of death penalty as the ultimate form of punishment
____10. This means giving what is due a person, or giving what persons
deserve.

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PROBLEMS CONCERNING ETHICAL STANDARDS.
Ethical standard tells about the very ordinary and every day, but it is not as binding as the
legal standard. Why is this so? There are three general reasons:
 Ethical standard is not laid down by authoritative bodies and is not imposed through the
use of force. Ethical standard, by itself, has no legal power to command adherence.
Ethical standard is laid down by reason, not by authority. It is largely imposed by human
conscience and not through force. Severe sanctions and punishments await those who
violate the legal norms. The prospect of fines, imprisonment, and even death, for
nonobservance of the law make people, whether they like it or not, obey it. On the other
hand; emotions like guilt and shame are the usual costs of violating ethical norms, things
that some people think too cheap a price for a materially comfortable life, no matter how
unethical this might be. It is clear from this that the probability that laws being obeyed
are far much greater than ethical norm being observed.
 Ethical standard rests on ethical theory, but no fixed, common or universal theory could
provide basis for a fixed, common or universal ethical standard. Ethical standard is based
on ethical theory or theories which compete with other alternative theories or systems of
conduct for recognition and authority. There is no ultimate or encompassing theory which
could stand for all ethical standards. In cases when ethical standards conflict, no common
judge may preside or decide authoritatively but the people themselves. This unfortunately
provides room for disagreements or disputes in the interpretation of what is ethical or
good, which Logically leads to disagreements on the formation of authoritative ethical or
moral judgments.
 People tend to use ethical standards as tools to justify their actions in pursuing their
various interests. It' is a common observation that some people observe different
essentially contradictory ethical standards in pursuit of then different Interests. They tend
to shift from one moral standard to another, as long as this suits their purpose for the time
being. In the world of work, some businessmen are typically accused of prostituting the
virtue of ethics by making this a cloak to their unrelenting search for wealth and profit.
Some pervert all notions of good to suit their desire for greater profits and economic
power. This is clearly a breach, rather than observance, of ethical standard. For this
reason, the common good is oftentimes disregarded for the promotion of business
interest, or more precisely, for the accumulation of more profit and wealth. The maxim
for most people when deciding what moral conviction, they ought to have, seems not for
the promotion of everyone’s good but the maximization of their own intrinsic good,
ignoring the good of others.

BIBLIOGRAPHY:
Bauzon, Priscillano T. 1994. Essential of Values Education. Manila: national Book store

11
FORMATIVE EXAMINATION: The need to Study Ethics

ACTIVITY OBE-Source
Explain the three general reasons of problems concerning ethical LO1.3. Expertise
standard: and Lifelong
Learning
1. Ethical standard is not down by authorities’ bodies and is not
imposed through the use of force.

2. Ethical standards rest on ethical theory, but no fixed, common or

universal theory could provide basis for a fixed, common or
universal ethical standard

3. People tend to use ethical standards as tools to justify their

actions in pursuing their various interests.

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E. SUMMATIVE EXAMINATION
TABLE OF SPECIFICATION
Test Item No. No. of Item
The Nature of Ethical Standards 1-15 15
Types of Ethical standards 16-25 10
Problems Concerning Ethical standards 26-50 25

Test Question Objectives

1. What do you think is the social value of formulating and Explain the nature of ethical
maintaining a high moral standard? What will happen to our standards
society if moral standards are disregarded?

2.Ca you think of other ethical standards?

Differentiate ethical standard from
3. Comparing the three theories of justice, which do you think legal standards
is the most favorable for the self-improvement of a person?
Why?

4. Make a Ven diagram by listing the difference of ethical

standards from legal standards
5. Explain the importance of the following ethical standards: Identify the order of importance
1. Moral Rights among various ethical standards
2. Justice
3. Duty
4. Obligation
5. Utility
6. Make a list of advantage and dis advantages of the three Explain the different types of
major types of ethical standards. Which among the three ethical standards commonly
ethical standards do you find the most interesting? Why? observed in the work placed

13
Lesson 5: ETHICAL THEORIES

A. LESSON OBJECTIVES:
1. Explain how ethical theories affect human condition in the workplace
2. Discuss ethical theories that we can use to guide our moral decisions
3. Compare the different ethical theories as to their strengths and weaknesses
4. Identify the practical model for decision making.

B. LESSON OUTLINE:
5.1 Utilitarianism
5.2 Categorical Imperative
5.3 Situational Ethics
5.4 The model theory of morality

C. LESSON CONTENT:

UTILITARIANISM
Utilitarianism is a theory in Ethics by which actions are judged to be right or wrong solely
according to their causal consequences.
Under the utilitarian theory of morality, an individual should seek only those things that tend to
produce “the greatest happiness of the greatest number". Moral assessment of acts. therefore.
involves the calculation of causal consequences: actions are right if they promote the greatest
happiness or pleasure to the greatest number: wrong. if they produce unhappiness or pain. The
utilitarian morality as a rational enterprise includes not solely the pursuit of happiness. but the
prevention and mitigation of unhappiness. But what are the utilitarian concepts of happiness and
unhappiness? John Stuart Mill. the most famous proponent of this theory. succinctly defined
happiness and unhappiness in his book. Utilitarianism (1893): “...by happiness. it means pleasure
and the absence of pain: by unhappiness. pain and the privation of pleasure."

Two General Forms of Pleasure

1. Physical Pleasure - are sensual indulgences or bodily gratifications that include, among
others. sexual intercourse, eating, drinking, and rest ill-regulated desires make man pursue
pleasure to the injury of health, even if man knows that health is a greater good. This kind of
pleasure is considered by the utilitarian’s as animalistic or beastly and make up the lower
forms or inferior types of pleasure. Physical pleasure appeals to people’s lower faculties and
persons desiring nothing, but physical pleasure is considered lowly and less dignified.

2. Mental Pleasure - Mental pleasure refers to intellectual. spiritual and moral pleasures.
Mental pleasures feed man ‘s noble feelings, imaginations and moral sentiments. They are 8
higher or a superior form of pleasure, more desirable and more valuable as compared to
those of mere sensation. Mental pleasures are generally more difficult to achieve, but make
man more dignified. They include, among others, the enjoyment of free will and intellect,
social recognition, feelings of self-worth and respect, and feelings of peace and security.

Utilitarian Rules of Morality

Keeping in mind the basic precept of Utilitarianism that an act is good if it produces the greatest
amount of happiness of the greatest number of people, we can now deduce specific rules of
morality that will help us determine if an act is ethical or unethical. The following are the
principles:

1. if the end of an act promotes unhappiness, even if it has intended to promote the greatest
happiness, the act can be considered morally wrong.
2. If the end of an act has promoted the greatest amount of happiness of the greatest number of
people, whatever means the act employs is morally justified.

14
 3. if an act unintentionally produces the greatest amount of happiness the act is still morally
good.

Utilitarianism and The Workplace

Though many would disagree with the major ideas of the utilitarian theory, its application
undeniably has positive ‘contributions to the workplace. One of its significant contributions is its
capability to rationalize or justify the various important demands of the workers, like the demands
for higher wages, more benefits, healthy working conditions, and fair treatment. The utilitarian
theory provides the idea that it is perfectly moral and just for the workers to make such important
demands, and for employers to satisfy these demands since that would lead to the greatest happiness
of the greatest number of people. The sheer number of common workers which is far greater than
the number of the capitalists can be a basis of moral justifications for the pursuit of their common
interests. It heightens the sensitivity and vigilance of workers to ensure that actions, decisions or
policies do not benefit only the selfish few but the many. This theory does not only work for the
workers; it equally serves the interest of the employers. The assertion of the utilitarian theory that
the interest of the many must be considered in the formulation of policies or decisions, can help
ensure that decisions and policies will be popularly supported. thus, guaranteeing their successful
implementation. Adherence to the principle that the interest of the greatest number must prevail will
also most likely promote a healthier working relationship between employer, and the workers since
it satisfies the laymen’s perception of justice and fairness.

Problems of Utilitarian Morality

The strength of the utilitarian theory as a theory of life lies in its emphasis of human welfare
as the ultimate standard of right and wrong. This is like a two-bladed sword, however. It is its
strength and at the same time, the source of its own weakness. The utilitarian theory treats
everything as conditional and subservient to utility. Violations of human rights and other unethical
acts become morally justifiable. as long as they promote the utilitarian tenet of the greatest
happiness of the greatest number of people. It is difficult to imagine discrimination or corruption as
morally good simply because it made the greatest number of persons happy.
Many correctly argue that the most serious problem of this theory is its attempt to quantify human
dignity. that is, the treatment of human beings as mere numbers especially in the utilitarian
calculation: the happiness of fifty persons justifies the denial of the happiness, or even the life of
one person.

BIBLIOGRAPHY:
Glenn, Paul J. 1941. Ethics. London: B. Herder Book Company

FORMATIVE EXAMINATION: Forms of Ethical Analysis

ACTIVITY OBE-Source
Direction: Define the following words: LO1.3. Expertise
and Lifelong
1. Physical Pleasure Learning
2. Mental Pleasure
3. Utilitarianism
4. Universalizability
5. Prima Facie
Enumeration:
List and explain the two formulation of the categorial imperative.

15
CATEGORIAL IMPERATIVE
Categorical imperative is the name given by Immanuel Kant to the unconditional and
unyielding principle of morality, a law by which reason unconditionally binds itself. The
categorical imperative, unlike hypothetical imperatives, does not rest on some interest; thus, it binds
unconditionally and morally. This theory focuses on the motive of an act and the means employed
by an act.

Two Things which Precede Moral Worth of an Act

For Immanuel Kant, the moral worth of an act proceeds from two things: the motive or
intention of the act and the nature of the means employed by the act.

The Motive or Intention of an Act

16
 A person’s action has moral value only if his motive for acting is to do what is right. The
motive to do what is right stems from a person’s goodwill. Describing the nature of goodwill. Kant
declared. nothing can possibly be conceived in the world or even out of it. which can be called good
without qualification except the Good Will. Kant explained that intelligence, temperance,
fearlessness and other qualities of man are good but cannot stand as a basis or as a Firm foundation
for moral acts since they can be used to promote evil.

The Nature of the Means Employed by the Act

The act must be respectful of human dignity, that is, it should not use or treat persons as
means. instruments or tools for other ends. Before an act can be considered morally right. it should
respect and treat human beings as ends in themselves. Thus, the Theory of Categorical Imperative
assesses moral acts solely on the basis of the nature of the motive and the means used by the act,
and not based on its consequences: 1f the motive and the means employed by the act are good, then
the act becomes good regardless of its consequences. If telling the truth, for instance, is good, then
the act of telling the truth is good ‘even when it is perceived that many will suffer from its
consequences. The same is true of unethical acts; if stealing is unethical, then the act of stealing is
always unethical, even if it is likely to result it in the happiness of many. This explains why it is
called Categorical Morality: it is a fixed, absolute or unconditional form of morality.

The Two Formulations of the Categorical Imperative Universalizability

The formula of universalizability commands: act only on maxims that you can, and at the
same time, will to become a universal law. This is not difficult to understand. It simply means that
for one’s action to be morally right, one must be willing to have everyone act in the same way.
What Kant wanted to emphasize is that we should only do those acts which can become a law; that
is, a rule of conduct for all men under the same circumstances and refrain from doing those acts
which can become law.

Respect for Persons

A major moral implication of the formula of universalizability is the reSpect for persons. It
is expressed as follows: Ac! always so as 10 (real humanity, in your own person or in that of
another ‘as an end in itself never merely as a means. For Immanuel Kant. persons are ends in
themselves; hence. they must not be used as means for other ends. What makes Kant think that
persons are ends in themselves is his belief that all human beings, regardless of their accidental
characteristics (e.g., race or nationality, social status, age, gender. etc.), equally possess inalienable
dignity and rights. Any act, insofar as they degrade human dignity and rights. necessarily violates
this formula.

Categorial Imperative and the Workplace

Some philosophers claim that Kant’s theory of morality is but an attempt to summarize the
Ten Commandments and to restate the Golden Rule: Do unto others what you want others do unto
you. Whether this claim is accurate or not, this will not change its value as a theory of life which we
could all use to guide our conduct. Kant’s Ethics reminds us about the dangers of relying too much
on our emotions when making moral judgments. It tells us to tame our passions through the proper
training of reason. It advises us to develop a strong and determined will. to be unfaltering in our
adherence to duty and observance of laws. The Categorical Imperative furnishes us with the values
that we need in the world of work. The workplace has been for a very long time in need of more
people who are honest, who love their work, have a genuine dedication to serve others, are obedient
to the laws, and always recognize and respect the dignity and rights of others, and place a higher
order of importance on the welfare of others than on the acquisition of material gain. By trying to
help man strip of his selfishness, his work or his profession becomes more meaningful and of real
value to his society and to the entire humanity.

17
Problem of Categorial Imperative
But like Utilitarian Ethics or the other models of morality, Categorical imperative as a
theory of life, also has its own problems. A major criticism is that they unrealistically set very high
standards of conduct attainable only by “angels and saints”. lt unfairly asks for moral perfection
from an imperfect man. its cold objectivity and especially its difference to human emotion detach it
from the everyday realities of human existence in the social world. Another problem usually raised
against it is the inability of the Kantian Theory to address possible situations where moral duties
come in conflict with each other. For instance, if we are asked to tell the truth, but in so doing will
endanger the life of another “what should we treat as our moral duty. to tell the truth or to save life?
Some Kantian postulates are also observed to be contrary to human experience. Because they
assume that humans have an intuition or a priori knowledge of what is good, they fail to consider
the effect of society on persons in their moral development. For example. commenting on the
Kantian postulate that there exists in man a sense of duty. or that man has innate ideas of what are
to be done and what are not to be done. Tuibeo (l995) points out:
“Experience...sh0ws that our sense of duty is a matter of training. and therefore. not a priori.
Among cannibals, for instance. the formulas of Humanity (e.g., respect for persons) and
Universality (i e. Universalizability) cannot be taken seriously. The eating of humans is what they
'want to universalize. What is meant is that our moral sense or consciousness does not arise from
our nature, but it is a product of what Marxists would love to call social existence.”
BIBLIOGRAPHY:
Mill, John Stuart. 1951. Utilitarianism, Liberty, and Representative Government. New York: E.P.
Dutton & Co., Inc

FORMATIVE EXAMINATION: The History of Work

ACTIVITY OBE-Source
Identification: LO1.3. Expertise
____1. According to him the moral worth of an act proceeds from two and Lifelong
things: Motive and the nature of the means. Learning
____2. A person’s action has a moral value only if his motive for acting
is to do what is right.
____3. The act must be respectful of human dignity, that is, it should not
use or treat person as means.
____4. Act only on maxims that you can, and at the same time, will to
become a universal law.
____5. According to him a person are ends in themselves; hence, they
must not be used as means for other ends.
Essay:
1. What is the difference between morality and gentility.

18
SITUATIONAL ETHICS
Situational Ethics is a form of a particular-case intuitionism and is opposed to Utilitarianism and
Kantianism. Situational Ethics claims that morality of action depends on the situation and not on the
application of any categorical law or principle of morality to the case. Unlike Utilitarianism that
adheres unconditionally on the Principle of Utility or the categorical Imperative on the formulas
universalizability and Humanity‘Situation Ethics treats all moral principles as conditional or as
illuminators, rather than as absolutes or directors of human conduct.
The Situationist enters into every decision-making situation fully armed with the ethical
maxims of his community and its heritage, and he treats them with respect as illuminators of his
problems (Tuibeo. 1995). But he never treats any of these ethical maxims to be unconditional and
obligatory. The decision on what maxim to observe or to dispense with in every situation lies in his
own authority. This makes some philosophers think that Situation Ethics upholds human freedom
and responsibility through its emphasis on personal choice and will in making moral decisions.
And, because it does not adhere to any pre-established code of conduct, it is not a dogmatic or rigid
philosophy of life.

Two Types of Duty

A major implication of this concept of moral acts is the view that there are two types of
duties. One is prima facie duty or conditional duty and the other is duty proper. Prof. William D.
Ross, suggests that prima facie duty is a “brief way of referring to the characteristic (quite distinct
from that of being an actual duty) which an act has, in virtue of being of a certain kind (e.g., the

19
keeping of a promise), of being an act which would be a duty proper if it were not at the same time
of another kind which is morally significant”.
Prima Facie - duties are duties that could be overridden by other duties as determined by some
morally significant circumstances in a given situation. Duty proper on the other hand, refers to
actual duty which a person, after his assessment of circumstances and finally thinking it more of a
duty in a particular situation, ought to do regardless of whether it brings the most good or not.
Prima facie duty, which has overridden other prima facie duties relative to the circumstances of the
case, becomes the actual duty or what Prof. Ross calls duty proper. Thus, all duties are essentially
prima facie duties; which of them becomes the “duty proper” depends on the consideration of all
morally significant circumstances present in the case.

Divisions of Prima Fade Duty

Prima facie duties, Prof. Ross suggests, without claiming completeness or finality for it, six general
divisions. Each of these divisions’ rests on a definite circumstance which is morally significant:

1. Some prima facie duties rest on our previous acts and seem to include two kinds, Duties of
Fidelity and Duties of Reparation. Duties of Fidelity rest on a promise, whether explicit or
implied, such as the duty of fulfilling promises and the duty not to tell lies when one enters
into a conversation. Duties of Reparation, on the other hand, rest on a previous wrongful
act, such as paying compensation for harming or wrongfully injuring others.
2. Some prima facie duties rest on some previous acts of other men. i.e. services done by
others to us. These are called Duties of Gratitude and include our duty to reward others for
their services or for their good deeds to us. Reward is not necessarily monetary. Saying
“thank you” when we are helped by others is a performance of duty.
3. Duties of Justice are prima facie duties that rest on the fact or possibility of a distribution of
pleasure or happiness not in accordance with the merit of the person concerned. In such
cases, there arises our duties to upset or prevent such distribution.
4. Duties of Beneficence are prima facie duties that rest on the mere fact that there are other
beings in the world whose conditions we can make better in respect of virtue, intelligence
and pleasure. These include our duties to love and to care for our neighbors. to help
strangers in distress, and to benefit others from our expertise and knowledge.
5. Duties of Self-improvement are prima facie duties that rest on the mere fact that we can
improve our own condition in respect of virtue or of intelligence. These are duties that we
need to do for our personal growth and development, such as our duty to educate ourselves,
to know and to seek the Good, the True and the Beautiful. and our duty to live the good and
virtuous life.
6. Duties of Nonmalevolence are prima facie duties that may be summed up as the duty not to
injure others. It is distinct from the duties of beneficence in that it is a duty of a more
stringent character. It does not only tell us not to injure others, but also not to desire
harming or injuring others.

Situation Ethics and the Workplace

Some people think that Situation Ethics has come into prominence because it is a theory of
life favorable to the sentiments of the contemporary world. And. in a world that values personal
freedom very much. the flexibility and the stress it impose on human freedom and responsibility in
making moral decisions, makes Situational Ethics more appealing. Unlike the rigidity of both
Utilitarianism and Categorical Imperative. Situation Ethics provides for some flexibility in making
moral judgment. it provides room for us to be more forbearing and considerate of others who may
sometimes fail to do what is right. and for us to be more liberal in our interpretation and application
of laws or rules of conduct. in the world of work. the strict and impersonal implementation of rules
and regulations may. at times, estrange the employer from his workers. An inconsiderate employer
will surely fail to motivate his workers to be more productive. Our good sense of human relations
will tell us that to consider some excuses once in a while may earn us our worker’s cooperation,
dedication and loyalty. Sometimes, it pays to know when to be strict in applying rules and when to
be more tolerant.

20
Problems of Situation Ethics
One of the problems of Situation Ethics is its intuitionist approach to human morality. It
assumes that there exists in us an intuitive knowledge of what should be done and what we should
not do in every case we find ourselves in. What a person honestly thinks and feels right in a
particular case is presumed, as far as that person is concerned, to be right without qualification.
And, because there is no definite principle which we can all agree to use as a basis for our moral
decision, right becomes relative and very subjective. As a result, there would be different and
conflicting conceptions of what constitutes right. What I think is right may not be true to you. I do
not have anything to compel you to think that I am right and you are wrong. And, there lies the
problem. How can we convince, for instance, a worker about the immorality of stealing if he thinks
it as a justified means of performing his duty to save his daughter’s life? Or, the moral wrongness
of lying or dishonesty if a person has overridden it for some other significant duty? Problems such
as these made some philosophers think that the risk involved in the application of this theory of life
is the justification and perpetuation of unethical acts. Without any clear and categorical principles
as bases for moral acts, our natural tendency to prioritize our personal interests will greatly distort
the accuracy of our moral decisions.

BIBLIOGRAPHY:
Bulmer, Martin. Ed. 1982. Research Ethics. London: The Macmillan Press, Ltd.

FORMATIVE EXAMINATION:
ACTIVITY OBE-Source
True or False: Read each statement below carefully. Place T on a line if LO1.3. Expertise
you think the statement is TRUE. If it is FALSE write the correct answer. and Lifelong
____1. Prima facie are duties that could be overridden by other duties. Learning
___2. Prima facie duties rest on our previous acts and seems to include
Duties of Liberty and Duties of Fidelity.
___3. Duties of Authority are duties that rest on the fact or possibility of a
distribution of pleasure and happiness.
___4. Duties of Non-Violence are duties that summed up as the duty not to
injure others.
___5. Duties of benefits are duties that rest on the mere fact that are other
beings in the world whose conditions we can make better in respect of
virtue, intelligence and pleasure
___6. These duties are rest on some previous act of other men called
Duties of Gratitude
____7. Situational Ethics is a form of a particular case intuitionism and is
opposed to utilitarianism and Kantianism.
____8. Duties of Liberty is rest on a promise.
____9. Duties of reparation are rest on wrongful act.
____10. Prof. Russ suggest the six general divisions.

21
THE MODEL THEORY OF MORALITY
Recall that in the previous chapter on Ethical Standards, we introduced a hierarchy of ethical
standards. Moral right was the first priority and utility were the least. We claimed that this hierarchy
applies in the order of significance of moral theories. hence. the priority given to Categorical
Imperative. The measurement is the recognition and protection of human rights and dignity and
there is no other theory of life that is more conducive to rights and dignity aside from Categorical
imperatives.
As we have explained in the previous chapter, respecting the moral rights of man gives
justice to his humanity. Man, without his rights, is not a complete being. Man becomes human, if
and only if, he fully enjoys his rights as a human being. His rights are his sacred possessions which
should be considered under all circumstances. To respect the dignity of man is to respect his rights.
To respect his rights expresses respect for God, his Creator. the source of his being and the true
Giver of his rights. After considering the strengths and weaknesses of the three major theories of
life. it becomes clear to us that the theory that is most favorable to the protection of the rights of
man is the Categorical Imperative. The issue that Categorical Imperative is not a priori, but learned
through our social experience is beside the point.
Regardless of whether it comes prior or after experience is not the significant issue the issue
is if it can make our social experience more meaningful, if it can help us build a better society of
man. A society that respects the dignity and rights of its members is a better society. To experience
the world in such a society of man is a better “social experience”. Categorical morality tells us why
and how we can respect and protect the rights and dignity of a human person.

Applying Categorial Imperative in Decision making

The task is to formulate a framework for making decisions that will not only include, but also
highlight, the basic tenets of the Categorical Imperative theory of morality. It is very important for
students, our future workers and employers. to be trained in becoming more sensitive and respectful
of the rights of other people. The framework should not focus solely on the of the problem but most
importantly. 0n the process of solving the problem. Respect or law and the consideration of the
legitimate policies of the Firm are important factors that should be considered when One makes a
decision. Below is the diagram illustrating the decision-making process based on the Categorical
Imperative.
 Deliberation. Deliberation means knowing or understanding the problem. Problems cannot
be solved satisfactorily if these are not properly understood. identify the cause of the
problem or why the problem occurred. Have all the relevant data collected and-considered.
Categorize data and identify gaps, inconsistencies or conflicts. Determine the extent of the

22
 problem and other problems related to it. Stay' in focus along the way. it is also important to
determine the main or real issue. What is the real issue about the problem? identify the
issues involved and try to filter them. Over consideration of peripheral or less important
issues will only lead to confusion. Stay focused: What are the issues directly related to the
problem?
 Identification. Identification means determining all possible alternatives or courses of action
available to solve the problem. After deliberating on the problem and identifying the main
issue, identify key alternatives. What are the things I can possibly do? It will help to list
down all the available options you can possibly think of.
 Evaluation. Evaluation means assessing all alternatives previously identified. Evaluate your
alternatives in light of the following’ guide questions:
a. Does the alternative act respect the rights of all persons concerned?
b. Does the alternative act observe and not violate applicable laws of the land?
c. Does the alternative act observe and not violate applicable policies of the firm?

Alternatives ‘that fail to respect moral rights and violate the basic notion of fairness should not be
pursued. regardless of its consequences. Remember that violating human rights 6r sacrificing truth
because of noble purposes, is not justifiable. Stick to the principle: The end does not justify the
means. It is important that the assessment be done objectively.
 Discrimination. Discrimination means judging or choosing from available alternatives. The
best alternative is that which respects the moral rights of others, does not violate law. nor
violate standing policies of the firm. If an alternative satisfies these requirements ‘then that
alternative is the most ethical and should be chosen over and above all other alternatives. It
is important to note that insufficient deliberation and poor evaluation can lead to poor
choices. Thorough deliberation and a good and honest evaluation will lead to good choices.
However, in cases when two alternatives are equally good, meaning, they both satisfy the
requirements. the worker should exercise his discretion and decide which he thinks is better
between two alternatives.
 Implementation. Once an ethical course of action was identified. it should be performed
regardless of its possible consequences. Stand firm and believe that you have done the right
thing.

Other Moral Theories

Authoritarian Ethics
This is an ethical system which claims that the goodness or badness of . human acts is based on
authority. It is dogmatic and blindly accepted as infallible, e.g., customs and traditions, religious
ethics and legalistic morality. Investigation is already out of the question. Principles are accepted
and practiced by people who are either too lazy to think and are cowards to think and ‘bear the costs
and consequences of thinking for themselves.

SeIf-Realization Ethics
Focuses on the fulfillment or the maximum realization of human potentials or capacities. lt
inspires training and excellence in thinking, feeling and l. acting. According to Plato, the good life
begins when man learns how to ' control his emotion with his rationality. A good life is a life of
reason. For i Aristotle. the good life is the pursuit of excellence -or the life following the “Principle
of the Golden Mean.

Pragmatism
Pragmatism states that the goodness or badness of human acts is determined by their
practicality, usefulness. feasibility and economy. It is results-oriented; thus. a modified version of
utilitarianism. This ethical theory Was popularized by William James and is also known as
American ethics. lt Claims that morality is not categorical but relative: that is. if an act works Well
then, it is good; if not, then it is bad or immoral.

Cultural Relativism

23
 Cultural relativism claims that what is good or bad depends on or is relative to the norms or
standards of a particular culture. Thus, what is good or bad to a particular culture is applicable only
for persons possessing or living in that culture. No culture must assume the ultimate measure or
standard of what is good and bad.

Communist Ethics
An ethical theory which focuses on equal distribution of goods and services and of society’s
burdens: “Each according to needs (this concerns the goods, e.g., education, foods, shelter, health,
services, etc.), each according to ability (this concerns the burden, e.g., administrative, military, and
utility works)”. It preaches universal brotherhood of man, society without class distinction: A
World without states and nationality: existence without God and religion. Communist ethics
promises the liberation of man from superstition and ignorance. The good is something that will
advance the realization of communism, and the bad will hinder the fulfillment of the communist
life.

Power Ethics
Power ethics claims that the ultimate good of man is power. Friedrich Nietzsche, the
founder of this moral movement, argues that Christian morality is the morality of the weak and of
the slave. This theory focuses on the transvaluation of morality, where the traditional bad is moral
and good. It encourages man to be a law of his own existence, to be a superman who is ever willing
to bear the burden of his existence without illusions.

Capitalist Ethics
Capitalist ethics focuses on the distribution of goods based on individual contributions to the
economic pool of society. Capitalist ethics emphasizes the importance of individual freedom and
the right to accumulate wealth, to possess, and enjoy private property. Wealth fulfills the desire of
man for the good life.

BIBLIOGRAPHY:
Nucci, Larry. 1997. Synthesis of Research on Moral Development

24
FORMATIVE EXAMINATION:
ACTIVITY OBE-Source
Define the following Moral theories: LO1.3. Expertise
1. Authoritarian Ethics and Lifelong
2. Self-Realization Learning
3. Pragmatism
4. Cultural Relativism
5. Communist Ethics
Compare and Contrast between Power ethics and Capitalist Ethics

Power Ethics Capitalist Ethics

25
E. SUMMATIVE EXAMINATION:

TABLE OF SPECIFICATION
Test Item No. No. of Items
Utilitarianism 1-10 10
Categorical Imperative 11-20 20
Situational Ethics 21-35 15
The model theory of morality 36-55 15

Test Questions Objectives

1. As a student, which among the major forms of ethical theories do you Explain how ethical
think could provide the best guide to human action? Explain why? theories affect
human condition in
2. Do you think that observing the two categorical principles of the workplace
Immanuel Kant is important? Why or why not?
3. Which among the three major ethical theories is favorable to religious Discuss ethical
morality? Explain why? theories that we can
4. In public administration, which among the three ethical theories do use to guide our
you think is seldom used as basis for policy making? Which is moral decisions
commonly used? Provide specific examples in explaining your position.
5. Compare the following ethical theories and list their weaknesses and Compare the
strength. different ethical
-Utilitarianism theories as to their
-Categorial Imperative strengths and
-Situational Ethics weaknesses
6. Identify what Juan should do using each of the three moral theories Identify the
(Utilitarianism, Categorial Imperative, and Situational ethics). Explain practical model for
your answer. decision making.

Juan Delacruz, work as a quality control engineer in KaPaBa

Engineering, has problem. His company entered into a contract with
NOKOMO Phil., Inc. to supply a product under the condition that all
parts are made in Japan. One KaPaBa’s suppliers failed to not that one
of the components has two special parts that are made in Germany,
despite the fact that the original design clearly indicates that this
requirement must be satisfied. There is no time to change the parts, and
Juan fears that not meeting the death line can result in the loss of a
major customer of his company. At the same time, he is also troubled
about the idea of cheating their customers if he proceeds with the
delivery of the product. Juan knows that the possibility is unlikely. The
special parts in questions are not visible on the surface, they are
insignificant in the operation of the product, and so small that those who
work on repairs will be unlikely to recognize them to be foreign made.
Since KaPaBa is also under contract to do needed repairs for the time
being, he can order and prepare Japanese-made parts for any
replacement that will needed soon. Thus no one will notice the problem

26
Lesson 6: CODE OF ETHICS

A. LESSON OBJECTIVES:
1. Explain the importance function of ethical codes in regulating work and
profession.
2. Discuss the code of ethics of the civil service
3. Explain the importance of maintaining business codes of ethics

B. LESSON OUTLINE:
6.1 The Nature of Ethical Codes
6.2 Professional Code of Ethics

C. LESSON CONTENT:

THE NATURE OF ETHICAL CODES

In the “world of “work. codes of ethics provide the bases for good work ethics. The codes generally
set up a system of duties and obligations. furnish a system of fight and wrong promote positive
work values, and define what comprises ethical and unethical practices in the performance of work
or the practice of any profession. These codes generally consist of a set of ethical principles
accompanied by disciplinary rules.
For every trade or business, a business code is usually adopted and expected to be the
guiding light for all its employees. For every profession. there is an enforced professional code that
all members of that profession are expected to follow in the conduct of their professional activities.
Violation of these codes usually leads to loss or public trust and confidence.
Codes of ethics governing work or professions embrace the principles of selfless service and
other basic principles of right action or exemplary and honorable norms of conduct which is in the
performance of work or in the practice of a profession. Seldom do we see ethical codes that attempt
to rationalize and make socially acceptable the excessive expression of the pursuit of profit and
other selfish interests.

BIBLIOGRAPHY:
De Leon, Hector. 1991. Textbook on the Philippine Constitution. Manila: Rex Book Store

27
FORMATIVE EXAMINATION:
ACTIVITY OBE-Source
Answer the following questions: LO1.3. Expertise
1. What is the meaning of ethical code? and Lifelong
2. What does the code of ethics provide in the bases for good work? Learning
3. What is the purpose of code of ethics?
4. What do you call the code for professional?
5. What will happen to those who violate the ethical codes?

28
PROFESSIONAL CODE OF ETHICS
Each profession subscribes to a set of ethical codes, because the practice of a profession cannot be
regulated entirely by law and legislation. Professional codes remind members of the profession of
their moral obligations to the public, to their profession, to their colleagues and to their clients.
These codes also try to guide the actions of a professional worker, where the law is inadequate.
Professional associations usually define and codify the ethics involved in the practice of their
respective professions. As such. professional code of ethics usually reflects the nature of ethics
observed by a particular profession.

Legal Codes of Ethics

The basis of legal ethics in the Western legal tradition is that every person has the right to
legal representation regardless of his or her financial condition. In the Philippines. the Code of
Ethics among the practitioners of the legal profession is embodied in the By-me of (Ira Integrated
Bar of [Ire Philippines (IBP). The following are the general objectives of the Integrated Bar (lBP
By-Laws. Sec. 2):
1. To elevate the standards of the legal profession
2. To improve the administration of justice
3. To enable the Bar to discharge its public responsibilities more effectively.
The purposes of the Integrated Bar include without being limited to those specified in the per
curiam Resolution of the Supreme Court dated January 9. 1973 ordaining the integration of the
Philippine Bart are the following:
1. Assist the administration of justice
2. Foster and maintain. on the part of its members. high ideals of integrity, learning,
professional competence. public service. and conduct
3. Safeguard the professional Interests of “5 members
4. Cultivate among “5 members a spirit of cordiality and brotherhood
5. Provide a forum for the discussion of law, Jurisprudence. law reform. pleading, practice
and procedure. and the relations of the Bar to the Bench and to the public and publish
information relating thereto
6. Encourage and foster legal education
7. Promote a continuing program of legal research In substantive and adjective and make
reports and recommendations thereon.
The avoidance of conflict of interest is traditionally held as one of the major moral expectations
from a legal practitioner. Below are some time-honored principles of the legal profession
(Encyclopedia Britannica. CD-ROM Special Edition. 2000):
1. Lawyers and judge: must not engage in practices of dubious legality.

2. When the outcome of a case is contrary to the interests of a client, the client ‘s lawyer must
not stand to profit from that outcome.
3. Judges may not be personally involved in the disputes over which they preside.
4. In helping their clients, lawyers must stay within the law. They must not knowingly aid their
clients in breaking the law.
5. The primary responsibility of lawyer toward a client may conflict with certain ethical
principles: the conflict must be resolved in tin or of the client
6. lawyer should not withdraw from the case if such may injure the client’s chances of winning
7. Client’s secrets must be protected. except where the lawyer knows that the client is engaged
in activities “likely to result in death or substantial bodily harm. A lawyer may also breach
confidence when he or she is involved in a legal controversy with a client ‘or in a defense
against legal or disciplinary charges brought against the lawyer because of the lawyers
conduct while defending the client.
8. A lawyer ‘s fee shall be reasonable.
9. Lawyers must disclose their fees to their clients “before or within a reasonable time after
commencing the representation”.

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A legal code has no legal force in itself. but It somehow affects the way the legal Profession is
practiced. But in the real world. adherence to the ideals provide by ‘legal codes is wanting among
many legal practitioners. Every person has the right. Legal representation. regardless of his or
financial condition. goes the principle upon which the honorable tradition of legal ethics is based
and the professional conduct of all lawyers IS believed to be governed. However. experience tells
us that most lawyers, including those who are addressed as public lawyer, seem to be in the service
only of the financially able. People who are too poor to pay attorney’s fees often end up being
imprisoned for life, or worse, listed in the death row. As a writer aptly observes

Medical Code of Ethics

Medical Code of Ethics includes the codes promulgated by medical associations and
generally. the Hippocratic Oath. Medical codes pay special attention to the moral issues and
problems that arise in the context of the practice of medicine. In the Philippines, the code of ethics
for the medical profession usually covers the moral duties of the physician a patient, a community.
a colleague, to the medical profession, and to the allied profession.
The following are the general principles of the Code of Medical Ethics of the Medical Profession in
the Philippines ratified by the Philippine Medical Association on May 27, I960:
1. The primary objective of the practice of medicine is service to mankind irrespective of race,
creed, or political affiliation. in its practice, reward or financial gain should be a subordinate
consideration.

2. Upon entering his profession, a physician assumes the obligation of maintaining the
honorable tradition that confers upon him the well-deserved title of “friend of men".

3. In his relation to his patients, he shall serve their interests with the greatest solicitude, giving
them always his best talent and skill.

4. In his relation to the State and community, a physician should fulfill his civic duties as a
citizen, conform to the laws, and endeavor to cooperate with the proper authorities in the
due application of medical knowledge for the promotion of the common welfare:

5. With respect to the relation of the physician to his colleagues, he should safeguard their
legitimate interests, reputation and dignity bearing always in mind the golden rule whatever
ye would that man should do unto you. do ye even so to them.

6. The ethical principles actuating and governing a clinic or a group of physicians are exactly
the same as those applicable to the individual physician. Specialization in the various fields
of medical sciences are not exempt from the application of these principles.

In the Philippines, the Code of Ethics for the medical profession is enforced by law under
The Medical Act of I959 (RA 2382, Art. III. Sec. 24 [12]). Aside from Medical Codes of Ethics
‘any physician who has been authorized to practice medicine must actually or impliedly know the
other, and the universally recognized source of moral obligation for the medical profession: the
Hippocratic Oath.
The Hippocratic Oath, considered as the greatest legacy of Hippocrates, is not really an
oath; it was. rather, an ethical code or ideal, an appeal for right conduct for the teachers of medicine
and for their students. The code is embodied in manuscripts called the Corpuz Hippocratic
(Hippocratic Collections). It stresses the importance of confidentiality and the need to treat patients
with dignity and respect. It tells of the duties of the teacher to his medical students and the duties of
the student to his teacher. The Code, most importantly, furnishes rules of conduct and pledges the
practitioner to live an exemplary personal and professional life}

The Code of Ethics of The Teaching Profession

Membership in the academic profession carries-with it special responsibilities. Like the
legal and medical professions, the teaching profession also abides by some general principles that

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serve as reminders of the variety of responsibilities teachers assume as members of the profession.
Unlike the legal and medical professions, there is no single association of teachers to enforce an.
authoritative, and universal code of ethics for the teaching profession. Individual institutions of
higher learning (i.e. the universities where the teachers individually belong) provide the assurance
the teacher will work and conduct him/herself in accordance with the standards expected of the
teachers by society. The university normally handles questions concerning propriety within its own
framework by reference to a faculty group. If the alleged offense is deemed sufficiently serious to
raise the possibility of adverse action (i.e., loss of job), the procedure should be in accordance with
the university’s policy on conduct. What you will read in this section are the general statements of
ethics in the teaching profession, based on the published draft of the Statement of Professional
Ethics by the Iowa State University.

1. As faculty members. guided by a deep conviction of the worth and dignity of the
advancement of knowledge, recognize the special responsibilities placed upon them. Their
primary responsibility to their discipline is to seek and to state the truth as they see it. To
this end, faculty members devote their energies to developing and improving their scholarly
competence. They accept the obligation to exercise critical self-discipline and judgment in
using, extending and transmitting knowledge. They practice intellectual honesty. Although
faculty members may follow subsidiary interests, these interests must never seriously
hamper or compromise their freedom of inquiry.

2. As teachers, faculty members encourage the free pursuit of learning in their students. They
hold before them the best scholarly and ethical standards of their discipline. Faculty
members demonstrate respect for students as individuals and adhere to their proper roles as
intellectual guides and counselors. Faculty members make every reasonable effort to foster
honest academic conduct and to ensure that their evaluations of students reflect each
student’s true merit. They respect the confidential nature of the relationship between
professor and student. They avoid any exploitation harassment or discriminatory treatment
of students. They acknowledge significant academic or scholarly assistance from them.
They protect their academic freedom.

3. As administrators and colleagues, faculty members have obligations that derive from
common membership in the community of scholars. Faculty members do not discriminate
against or harass colleagues. They respect and defend the free inquiry of associates. In the
exchange of criticism and ideas, faculty members show due respect for the opinions of
others. They acknowledge academic debt and strive to be objective in their professional
judgment of colleagues. Faculty members accept their share of faculty responsibilities for
the governance of their institution.

4. As members of an academic institution , faculty members seek to be effective teachers,

scholars and administrators. Although faculty members observe the. stated regulations of
the institution. provided the regulations do not contravene academic freedom, they maintain
their right to criticize and seek revision. Faculty members-give due regard to their
paramount responsibilities within their institution in determining the amount and character
of work done outside it. When considering the interruption or termination of their service,
faculty members recognize the effect of their decision upon the program of the institution
and give due notice of their intentions.
5. As members of their community, faculty members have the rights and obligations of other
citizens. Faculty members measure the urgency of these obligations in the light of their
responsibilities to their discipline, to their students, to their profession and to their
institution. When they speak or act as private persons, they avoid creating the impression of
speaking or acting for their college or university. As citizens engaged in a profession that
depends upon freedom for its health and integrity, faculty members have a particular
obligation to promote conditions of free inquiry and to further public understanding of
academic freedom.

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Social Research Code of Ethics
The trend today. especially in the academe, is the development of research-oriented professionals.
Research involves the study of things: living and nonliving, humans and nonhumans. However.
social research is a professional activity that involves human beings. only beings with inherent
rights and dignity that should be respected and protected. Without a high standard of conduct that
could regulate its search for truth. dignity of persons as subjects of research. could be violated. The
necessity of making researchers realize that their primary concern must be their responsibility to the
subject’s toothier research has. in part. contributed to the formation of social research ethics. Social
research ethics pertains to “the principled sensitivity to the rights of others”. It essentially declares
while truth is good, respect for human dignity is better. even if in the extreme case, the respect of
human dignity leaves one ignorant of human nature (Cavan, 1977).

General Principles of Research Ethics

Two general principles of research ethics are significant enough to be presented here: ~
1. The Principle of Informed Consent states that the Voluntary and informed consent of human
subjects is essential in the conduct of scientific research and that it is the responsibility of
the researcher 'to sufficiently communicate the purpose of the research to' the subjects.
2. The Principle of Personal Privacy states that the right of a person under study is for the
individual to be let-alone to control his or her personal space and information about himself
or herself.

Some social researchers occasionally employ deceptive research method that are in clear violation
of these two principles. In summary the following are some rules of conduct in social research
based on the American Sociological Association (1971).

1. Social research depends, for its success, on subject’s trust and confidence. Hence, those
methods and practices that undermine such trust and confidence must be avoided.

2. It Is expected that a researcher must not act in such a manner that the rights and integrity of
his or her subjects are violated

3. A researcher must not conceal the fact that he or she is engaged in research.

4. A researcher should explain openly the purpose of his or her research to the people being
studied.

5. A researcher should not intentionally deceive the people as to the uses to which the results
of the study will be put.

6. A researcher must respect the privacy and desires of people, never forcing anyone to
perform acts against his or her will.

7. A researcher must learn and respect cultural rules that may affect the conduct of research.

8. A researcher must be guided by truth in writing his research. inspired by the genuine desire
to contribute to the advancement of human knowledge.
In cases where a researcher is faced with a perplexing moral dilemma whether or not to apply
ethical rules, most social researchers agree that the right of subjects must always come first. Even if
ethical tenets may not fairly recognize the reality of the research situation faced by a researcher, he
must be guided consistently by the principle that the rights of the subjects override the right of
science, human personality should not be _sacrificed in the name of science (Bulmer, 1982).

BIBLIOGRAPHY:

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De Leon, Hector. 1991. Textbook on the Philippine Constitution. Manila: Rex Book Store

FORMATIVE EXAMINATION: Transformation of the Workplace

ACTIVITY OBE-Source
Identification: LO1.3. Expertise
____1. It states that the voluntary and informed consent of human subject and Lifelong
is essential in the conduct of scientific research. Learning
____2. Its state that the right of a person under study is for the individual
to be left lone to control his or her personal space and information.
____3. This code includes medical associations.
____4. A code for professional teacher.
____5. This oath considers as the greatest legacy of Hippocrates.

Enumeration:
1. What are the two general principles of research ethics:
1._______________________
2._______________________

2. Give the 5 medical profession covers the moral duties of physician:

1.____________________
2.____________________
3.____________________
4.____________________
5.____________________

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E. SUMMATIVE EXAMINATION

TABLE OF SPECIFICATION
Test Item No. No. of Items
The Nature of Ethical Codes 1-10 10
Professional Code of Ethics 11-50 40

Test Question Objectives

1. Define Professional Code of Ethics. Explain the importance
2. Why does society need to adopt and enforce professional codes of function of ethical codes
ethics? List the social benefits of developing and enforcing high in regulating work and
professional standards of conduct profession.
3. Explain the important Functions of ethical codes in every
profession.
4. Discuss the benefits which a professional worker could derived Discuss the code of
from respecting his professional code of ethics. ethics of the civil service
5. What is the principle that provide basis for the noble tradition of
legal ethics?
6. What are the basic duties of a lawyer to his client as provided by
legal code of ethics?
7. Differentiate the concept of privacy and confidentiality.
8. Discuss the important duties and responsibilities of a physician to Explain the importance
his client, to his profession and to his community? of maintaining business
9. Discuss the importance duties of a social researcher. codes of ethics
10. In general terms, comment on the significant of ethics in the

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practice of professions.

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